semantically identical. Syntactically they remember prepositions, in which both the syntactic and the and syntactic the both more distinct. relatively kept features are which semantic in prepositions, remember they Syntactically identical. semantically but distinct, syntactically are that elements of fusions words, portmanteau are Particles language. English preposition or adverb between distinguish to sometimes rules. grammar English ofthe acquisition the theoretical verbdifficult orjust to ease the following is is ‘particle’ term it The as 180) linguists 1972: some (Sroka, by syntactic.” preferred formal other, the factors in of lexical, mainly choice semantic, the is in differ They category. this of feature and the the particle between the unity determining thefactor main “In one case, unity. that determining essential the is which and particle the 1951: 223) (Webster purpose.” forthe three two, same orfourwords than to combine verb, grammar of branch perplexing most the constitutes words of combinations or auxiliaries of use the because true also is this of reverse the However, by Lederer: given examples the in as cases, such in to referred usually are Phrasal . different in expressed with formed verbs phrasal with Examples constructions. verb phrasal the understand us help might which correspondences find to difficultmore isit structure, deep the enter we when significant; the with analogue is signifier the and transparent is meaning up Prepositions and particles cause more difficulty to many foreign students than any other aspect of the of aspect other any than students foreign many to difficulty more cause particles and Prepositions units semantic are verbs Phrasal units andLexical semantic complicated. so not are vocabulary and grammar its because learn to easy is English that say They is meaning way the and tongue mother their about wonder linguists American and British Many Introduction their when verbs, phrasal of layer surface first the in found be to is iconicity that demonstrate to trying is paper The THE BOUNDARIES OF ICONICITY IN FORMED FORMED WITH VERBSPHRASAL ICONICITY ENGLISH INBOUNDARIES OF THE and and countries that purport to speak English? purportspeak that to countries and morning the in by come “I’ll and allowed” coaches football I when but it, start I watch, down “I lucked out.”To “I “If will be supplied. be supplied. will uplift

is the same as as same the is luck out luck wind up wind Petru Maior University of of Targu Mures, Romania MaiorUniversity Petru lift up lift

sounds as if you’re out of luck. Don’t you mean I youmean I of as out luck.Don’t sounds ifyou’re this essay, I shall end it? How can expressions like “I’m mad about my flat”, “No flat”, my about mad “I’m like expressions can How it? end shall I essay, this . . , why are are why , What they have in common is a sort of unity between the verb and verb the between unity of sort a is common in have they What , “it being much easier to learn to change the termination of the of termination the change to learn to easier much being “it , Tatiana Tatiana upset DOWN IATCU, Assoc. Prof.Assoc.IATCU, Abstract and and set up set opposite in meaning? Why is that when I I when that is Why meaning? in opposite knock you you up ” convey such different messages in two in messages different such convey ” lucked in lucked ?” (1989:22) ?” UP wind up wind AND

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Page5 modifier (y) + verb head (z). The meaning is always ‘to zy’ (where y is an adverbial particle), e.., particle), adverbial an is y (where zy’ ‘to always uphold outstretch, underprop, overstep, downgrade, is meaning particle The by (z). formed head are verb verbs + compound (y) modifier example, For made. been have different quite attempts with Anyway, words other meanings. form to together words three or two combine to rules or phonemes, of then and sentences, into out words to make rules having of sure a way in words be can we paragraphs, good in sentences combine to norms combine to rules make can we If increases. greatly contexts into new create sentences to speaker of individual any combination of freedom the the and ceases, In rules syntactic compulsory constrained. of action the less utterances, is speaker the words, with sentences forming (good) a up put up, monkey 477-8) shutters.(Courtney 1994: put upthe show, someone’s put up!, hands your put fists/guard, one’s up put up, feet put one’s banns, the up put up, back/hackles someone’s put phrases: following the in meanings idiomatic also has It time’. a for especially use, of out (something) take to place’, safe a in away (something) put ‘to use old plan’, secret a as (something) arrange ‘to informally place’, hiding its leave bird) or animal, (an make ‘to court’, in examined be to prisoner) (a call ‘to tin’, or bottle special a in fruit) as such (food preserve ‘to position’, or job a for (someone) suggest to elected’, be to ask election; for (oneself) offer ‘to (something)’, for shelter provide ‘to (someone)’, for lodging and food find ‘to sale’, for (something) offer ‘to )’, to parcel)’, a or food an in position (a state ‘to (opposition)’, offer as ‘to advance, in usually something) for needed (money such provide (goods pack to cost’, a raise increase, ‘to meanings metaphorical sixteen and place’ public a in notice) a as such (something show ‘to and build’ ‘to air’, the in as position, higher a take can we example an As role. major a plays metaphor the where homonyms, of conflict of kind a on put be can deficiency this verb; phrasal a be cannot on as such verbs, the of meaning the in embedded become and nature prepositional or adverbial their dictionary, perceived, easily prepositions, with verbs from graded, be also can members its Moreover, verbs. English of category special this to concept’ ‘fuzzy of term the apply can we view of point this From verb. the of meaning the knowing just verb complex a of meaning the identify we can Nor clue. a you give to know, I as far as concept, grammar or rule no being there practice, , to stand by stand to Nora Tomoşoiu (1976) classifies these combinations according to semantic criteria: semantic to according combinations these TomoşoiuNora (1976)classifies In coinage. word of situations certain to limited thus is words into phonemes combine to Freedom combination the thus and verb the to next stay cannot and adjuncts predicative are adverbs Some constant after only determined be can adverb or noun, verb, certain a after choice Their look forward to. to. forward look , to dowithout look for, look to verbs fully idiomatic whose meaning is unveiled only when looking up in the in up looking when only unveiled is meaning whose idiomatic fully verbs to Certain verbs are followed by adverbs and prepositions that idiomatically lose idiomatically that prepositions and adverbs by followed are verbs Certain , to give up to look at look , to hold out to , verbs with adverbs or prepositions, whose meaning can be can meaning whose prepositions, or adverbs with verbs , to put up put to . (Allerton 1975: 79-135) 1975: . (Allerton , to lay up to with three literal meanings ‘to raise (something) to (something) raise ‘to meanings literal three with , to tryout to . to turn to

Page5 structure is related to the surface structure by certain mental operations – in modern terminology, by terminology, modern in characterises that – rules of system a contain operations must language a of mental grammar The transformations. grammatical certain by structure surface the to related deep The is semantics. generative structure of exact, be to or, meaning, the of but word the of matter a not is it that say Chomsky of Followers sentence. basic the of deletions and additions, rearrangements, combinations, a rather or copy, 1992: 44) organism. the(Burgess human into built already mechanism” “grammar ofthe model, a be would grammar This language. that of sentences acceptable the all producing for needed procedures operational of corpus full the is language certain a of grammar complete a grammarian, we of have we formation why us tell the can Nobody about nouns. for example, written for words, been have rules no far So rules. the have we of when this set do a can acquire We to rules. but vocabulary memorise to not is language a learn To generated. is language which close. very is two the between connection semantic the when even meaning, changes another by expression one of replacement and are elements Two meaning. figurative a have combinations: ofthe verb-particle forthe formation responsible compounds while concrete are combinations particle light up a cigarette a up light y ; and then we should change her formula and write and her formula and thenchange should we ; y mas o rnfrain, te prs-tutr rma a e epne o cvr all cover to expanded be can grammar -structure the transformations, of means By how illustrating examples of number great a up turned has opacity referential of investigation The andverbs phrasal structure deep structure, Meaning, surface write cannot we But 2. 1. verb- that fact the by given is meanings figurative the and concrete the between difference The 3) 2) 1) ofthe combination xy = meaning ofparticley = meaning ofverb x = meaning xy = x, semantically insignificant particle ( particle insignificant x,semantically xy = x;y) (≠ ≠ y,idiom x+ xy ≠ ( y; free x+ combination xy = the semantic modifications. modifications. semantic the ofstress; change the [1] [3] [2] I All you need is a little food and water to food andwater need alittle is you All house is My get

a letter each day. aletter Linguistic competence is achieved when a speaker has mastered the set of rules by rules of set the mastered has speaker a when achieved is competence Linguistic and not not and xy after an equal sign as the new meaning is completely different from both both from different completely is meaning new the as sign equal an after by light it on it light the church. eat up eat (get = x) (get = , and why we we why and , (by= y) = a. preposition.; > normal; adverb > phrasal verb) phrasal adverb normal; > > preposition.; = a. check up check put it out it put z . get by – dialectal or stylistic differences) orstylistic –dialectal and not not and in the next few days. next in the childhood put it off it put , , boldness . To the transformational the To . , and and , (get by = z) by= (get cowardice ; why ; x

Page5 kick the bucket the kick words (e.g., ofgrammatical sequence a normal as to –itsomedegree functions function one like not does oftheir synonyms. instead one-word more verbs often phrasal use speakers English native available. is item single no which for concepts with than words single by coded concepts with operate to easier is it that in experience of categorisation linguistic the by conditioned thus is thinking examples: the following to be applied can same interpretations The university. English) or (British city a capital as such place important an from away south or travel ‘to meaning, another of meaning surface the as with phrasal verb formed usa forexample, Let take “signs”. ofgrammatical code this using words into ideas complex condense to possible it makes and key or cipher a provides grammar of study the for which code, a like or of signs, system a like operate to seem they contrary, theOn for. stand not is enough. language knowledge ofthe only the surface form fromand remote the be may structure deep the sometimes but understands, and speaks he when use to put are they language; the of knowledge his constitute They language. a learned has person the by mastered been have that rules the are meaning, and sound of surface representations to to structures surface them and deep relate relating rules that the and rules structures transformational with real along are structures, deep grammar These transformational-generative structures. in mental postulated sort the of structures deep that the hypothesis in role important the support then, very facts, Such sentences. a interpreting and producing play in used and are and processes exist grammatical abstract, quite often are which structures, Deep structure. surface a to related is structure deep this how showing rules contains and structure, deep a sentence each for generates and not only, ofEnglish, grammar The surfacestructure. indicated bythe way not is that some in ambiguous are that sentences numerous example, for are, There sentence. the of meaning the of itself in infinite an means. offinite infinite use making the speaker and surface structures, deep ofpaired domain is there thus and them, between relation transformational the and structures surface and deep Idioms involve of a special kind. Although an idiom is semantically like ait single like word, semantically Although is an idiom kind. ofa special collocation Idioms involve andverbs phrasal Idioms, euphemisms Our ideas. abstract of realm the in important particularly are labels verbal that says (1971) Langaker floor ground the on down getting as foreigner a by understood or to mean could this literally, Taken they ideas the directly represent not do they common: in thing one have symbols grammatical All indication little very gives generally structure surface the that fact the by posed is problem major One ). [6] [5] [4] Peter broke down and was unable to work for ayear for to work unable andwas down broke Peter down? cake this dry to some wash tea you Have last examinations my finished tillI’ve down come I can’t come down come is ‘to move to a lower level’. Analysing its deep structure we get we structure deep its Analysing level’. lower a to move ‘to is

. (Courtney 1994: 47) . (Courtney 1994: . (Courtney 1994: 91-2) . (Courtney 1994: down :

Nevertheless, the Nevertheless,

Page5 the language, as the stock is constantly being increased. They are highly used in colloquial English, and English, colloquial in used highly are They increased. being constantly is stock the as language, the words. ofgrammatical sequence a normal as some degree, It functions, to one. like function not does it word, single a like semantically is idiom an Although kind. widely special a of collocation been has verbs compound these of ‘ as denomination accepted the why is That opaque. become meanings ultimate their Thus, meanings. full their lose particles and verbs both where some and grasped eventually one- of verb, e.g., word meanings rough the smoothing in succeeded have verbs phrasal Some place. taken has meaning of change a Thus, question. in thing the for expressions possible the of one simply now is it because longer, any euphemism a as work to ceases it time, some for used been has euphemism a such When died. he that meant we when away’ ‘passed somebody that say we when as one, direct blunt the for expression or word causative a essentially idiom, constructional the such byverbs overtly sortexpressed as ofthe inchoative of meaning the by determined is phrase verbal the of the not not structure argument is the result, a it As is constituent. manner phrase, a in embedded verbal is meaning that its rather the head; semantic of structure head syntactic the conceptual is verb and the Although syntactic verb. head the a by determined sometimes is verb phrasal idiomatic constructional A D-Structure. than rather S-Structure at place takes patterning lexical that fact the from comes structures, (1997: ‘straw’”. 163-5) has to dowith nothing which of kind -particular ‘strawberry’ is example An meaning. wrong the but category syntactic right the of word phonological a be may part “some where classifies) he that three of (out compounds of class third the in fall Idioms forms.” lexical multiple by expressed single a involves idiom an lemmas; multiple ofidiomaticity: even degrees are There These combinations (verb + particle) are a distinctive feature of English: they form an active part of part active an form they English: of feature distinctive a are particle) + (verb combinations These Conclusion some predictable, fully are meanings whose structures some are there far so seen have we As expressing form lexical single a involves inflectional “Irregular that says Jackendoff c) b) a) idiomatic. are combinations all Not verb. phrasal the is English in idiom of type common very A Euphemism is the habit of avoiding an unpleasant or taboo reference by substituting some indirect some substituting by reference taboo or unpleasant an avoiding of habit the is Euphemism changed rigid have them of some that and structure, syntactic in rigid are idioms many that fact The make up make up make can one phrasal’ put down put make up make one’s face, (verbs + prepositions; verbs + adverbs + prepositions). + adverbs prepositions; + verbs + (verbs face, one’s fire; a and I would call only the last category ‘phrasal verbs’. Their idiomaticity involves a involves idiomaticity Their verbs’. ‘phrasal category last the only call would I and forkillingan animal. a story; a put and make. berry -

Page5 ese,Na 15)(1951) Noah Webster, (1976) Nora Tomoşoiu, (1972) A. Kazimierz Sroka, (1989) R. Lederer, (in Thought”(1971) W. and “Language Ronald Langacker, R. (1997) Jackendoff, Courtney, (1992) A. Burgess, (1982)J. D. Allerton References used. they are which in context the from lexemes unfamiliar isolated of sense the deduce could reader foreign a and ordination, writing. ofthetraditional language devices implyingall other, each to relation logical a in used are connectives and verbs neighbouring context broader the in and adverbs, by reinforced is modificant the applied, normally are and circumstances participants, for rules the and example for lexically, or literally first of thought are which constituents the of meanings the by given is difficulty Another . noun a by separated be may particle and verb the whether and position, intonation,depend on this and adverb, or an preposition a either be may particle the that fact the from arises difficulty This meanings. different quite have can they order, the change you if contrary, the On flexible. first reasons: always not is require they order word the two Secondly, context. in used then and memorized items, vocabulary least at for student, foreign are the they for Unfortunately, difficult beginning. very extremely the from course, language any in included be should therefore down Reprints Babeş-Bolyai Universitatea Publishers pp. 58-63) Inc., Harcourt Jovanovich, (eds.). Brace New York: Inc.Co., The basic characteristics of transparent style are therefore mutual semantic reinforcement and co- and reinforcement semantic mutual therefore are style transparent of characteristics basic The verbs phrasal of case the In context. its by elucidated is word the of meaning the style transparent In as deictic entities and not empty of meaning. empty andofmeaning. not deictic entities as Rosemary (1994) Crazy English. The Ultimate Joy Ride Through Our Through JoyRide language. The English.Ultimate Crazy A Mouthful of Air. Language, Languages...Especially English Languages...Especially Language, Air. of Mouthful A and the English Verband English theValency The Architecture of the Language Faculty. Language of the Architecture The Dissertations on the English the on Dissertations tutr eblr c atcl n lma engleza. limba in particula cu verbelor Structura The of English Phrasal Verbs Phrasal English of Syntax The Dictionary ofVerbs Phrasal Dictionary . London. New York: Academic York:Academic Press . London. New Reading About Language About Reading . England: Longman UK Ltd. Group . England: Cambridge Mass., London: The MITPress London: The Mass.,Cambridge . Gainesville, Florida: Scholars, Facsimiles and Facsimiles Scholars, Florida: Gainesville, . . The Hague, Paris: Mouton & Co. N. V., N. Co. & Mouton Paris: Hague, The . ea d otrt doctorat. de Teza New York: Pocket BooksNewYork: Pocket . New York: William Morrow and Morrow William York: New . ly, they should be learned as learned be should they ly, Charlton & Robert M. Gorrell M. Charlton & Robert Cluj-Napoca: up

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