A CROSS CULTURAL STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

CLOTHING PREFERENCES AND THE WEARING OF SCHOOL

UNIFORMS BY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN

TAIWAN, CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES

by

AILEEN TZU-CHEE LIANG, B.A.

A THESIS IN CLOTHING AND TEXTILES

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN HOME ECONOMICS

Approved

Accepted

August, 1972 1^3—

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am deeply indebted to Dr. Norma Walker, who encouraged me and who with patience gave me valuable guidance throughout the preparation of this thesis. I am also grateful to Dr. Delilah M. Roch for her helpful assistance. I also wish to thank the school administrators of Taiwan and the United States who kindly allowed the study to be made in their schools.

11 f TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ii

LIST OF TABLES v Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem 4 Objectives 5 Hypotheses 5 Definition of Terms 6 Scope and Limitations of Study 6

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 8 Clothing Selection and Motivation 9 Cross-cultural Studies of Clothing Customs 12 Teenagers' Clothing 15 Sociological Aspects of Clothing 17 Uniforms 18 III. PROCEDURES 20 Selection of Samples 20 Development and Administration of the Questionnaire 21 Pre-test 22

The Analysis of Data 23

IV. FINDINGS 25 Description of Samples 25 Students' Attitude Toward Uniform 28

• • • 111 IV

Shopping Practices 34 Clothing Background 42

Clothing Style Preferences 47 Findings Related to Objectives and Hypotheses 49 V. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION 52 Application of the Findings 54 Recommendations for Further Study .... 55 LIST OF REFERENCES 57 APPENDIX 61 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Reversed Levels of Socioeconomic Classes as Measured by McQuire-White Index 24 2. Distribution of Students from Taiwan and the United States by Grade Level 25 3. Distribution of Students from Taiwan and the United States by Age Level 26 4. Distribution of Students from Taiwan and the United States by Socioeconomic Level 27 5. Distribution of Students from Taiwan and the United States by Education of Father 28

6. Frequency of Liking to Wear a Uniform by Students from Taiwan and the United States 29

7. Frequency of Preference for Wearing Different Dress to School by Students from Taiwan and the United States 29 8. Frequency of Having Worn Uniform Before by Students from Taiwan and the United States 30 9. Frequency of Liking Current Uniform Style by Students from Taiwan and the United States 32 10. Frequency of Liking the Color of the Uniform by Students from Taiwan and the United States 32

11. Liking Current Uniform Style Related to Liking Uniform Color for Students from Taiwan and the United States 33 12. Frequency of Wearing Uniform with Pride by Students from Taiwan and the United States 33

V VI

Table Page

13. Distribution of Individuals Who Shop for Clothing for Students in Taiwan and the United States 34

14. Distribution of Individuals Who Select Clothing for Students in Taiwan and the United States 35

15. Frequency of Shopping for Clothing by Students from Taiwan and the United States 36

16. Levels of Importance of Selected Com­ ponents of Clothing Were Considered by Students from Taiwan and the United States When Shopping for Clothing 37 17. Rank Order of Selected Components of Clothing by Students from Taiwan and the United States 40 18. Frequency of Shopping for Clothing by Students from Taiwan and the United States Related to Interest in Fashion, Importance of Price and Ease of Care .... 42 19. Relationships Among Sources of Fashion and Selected Descriptive Information for Students from Taiwan and the United States 45 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Clothing is but one of the many components that comprise the total culture of a group of people; yet, it is one of the most visual expressions of the habits, man­ ners, thoughts, ideals, techniques, and traditional back­ grounds that characterize a society as a whole. Culture itself is never completely static or uniform. Each age, each generation, and each year bring some modification of custom and accompanying-clothing habits; therefore, it is evident that the concrete factors associated with clothing behavior emanate from the culture and reflect a social inheritance of antecedent dress styles, customs, morals, and religion. Clothing, as it changes with the mood of the de­ signer and with the different areas of a country, also reveals much about the historical frame of reference or background of the people. A review of past and present apparel designs shows detail taken from historical sources or motifs, plus the revival of garments from previous aras The modern mode of dress is not all new; each article may represent something old but with a new adaptation. Cham­ bers (1961:24) defines fashion as being "the accepted prevailing style of any given time." Since the rapid 1 development of mass communication, production, and trans­ portation, people easily recognize and purchase clothing of current fashion. After changes in current fashion are thoroughly assimilated, the designers get together and initiate further new trends. This has been the reason for some of the rapid fashion changes in recent years.

Adolescence is a very self-conscious stage. Ado­ lescent girls worry constantly about their appearance. iTiey believe that they are too tall, too thin, too fat, or too flat-chested. Mostly they are concerned with whether or not their clothing will be accepted by or will conform to that of the peer group. The teenager's wardrobe con­ tains a variety of clothing items but depends mostly upon the purposes, activities, or occasions for which clothing is needed. If a girl has less of one type of garment, then she tends to compensate by having more of another. Teenage girls generally are more concerned about the fash­ ion of a garment than about its durability or quality. Tate and Glisson (1961:283-4) stated that before 1943 teenagers had to select clothing from that designed for children, and when the children's sizes became too small, they had to select from garments designed for the small adult. Later, clothing manufacturers discovered the needs of teenagers and started to design for them. Today the market for teenagers has become the best-seller among all departments. The field of fashion now concentrates authority in society. However, while the wearing of a uniform contributes to one's identity, still it nonethe­ less decreases one's opportunity to indicate social status and to express individuality.

Statement of the Problem This study was designed to investigate the compari­ son between clothing preferences of female senior high school students from Taiwan, China and the United States who wear school uniforms. Since clothes affect behavior, it is believed to be possible, by understanding the cloth­ ing selections of teenagers, to gain some insights into their ways of thinking and behaving. Further, since clothing also reflects the social, economic, and cultural backgrounds, plus historical events, of every country, a comparison of attitudes toward clothing or uniforms be­ tween teenage girls from the United States and Taiwan may reveal some differences between these two cultures. Although a uniform can be used as a symbol of a group or institution, certain questions arise: 1. Is wearing a uniform necessary for a high school girl?

2. What is the student's attitude toward wearing a uniform?

3. What clothing preferences exist among the students of these two cultures? 4. Does the Occidental fashion trend accepted by

teenage girls extend to girls of the Orient?

Objectives

1. To determine and compare the attitudes of students in the United States and Taiwan toward the wearing of a uniform.

2. To determine and compare the preferences of students for new fashions. 3. To determine the clothing and style pref­ erences of Taiwan students. L 4. To determine the clothing and style pref­ ^ erences of students from the United States. 5. To compare the color preferences of students from Taiwan and the United States. 6. To compare the clothing preferences in dif­ ferent geographical areas within the country (south as compared to north). 7. To compare fabric design preferences among teenage girls in Taiwan and the United States. 8. To determine if socioeconomic status is re­ lated to the clothing preferences of students in these two countries.

Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference between

clothing preferences of selected female senior high school students enrolled in parochial schools in the United States and Taiwan, China. 2. There is no significant relationship between clothing preferences and socioeconomic status of selected female senior high school students enrolled in parochial schools in the United States and Taiwan.

Definition of Terms 1. Uniform: "Dress of particular style worn by all members of a group giving a distinctive appearance, as school uniform. ..." (Picken, 1957:362) 2. Socioeconomic status: a measure by McQuire and White, "A Means of Evaluating Socio­ economic Status" was adopted. Status is deter­ mined by education, occupation, source of in­ come, and religious affiliation. According to predetermined level of importance, each is assigned a different weight (see Appendix C). 3. Clothing preferences: includes the style or lines, fabric design, and color of clothing preferred by people.

Scope and Limitations of Study

Samples of Chinese senior high school students are from the Taiwan province of the Republic of China. To compare the clothing preferences of uniformed and non- uniformed students from both countries was the original intent, but in Taiwan, there were no seniors who did not wear school uniforms. Therefore the comparison was limited to students who wore uniforms both in Taiwan and in the United States.

Because of differences in culture and geography within these two countries, samples were selected from a conservative area and a prosperous area in both coun­ tries. The locations are the north and south of Taiwan; and the Midwest as reflected in Ohio and the Southwest as reflected in Texas for the United States. The level for statistical acceptance in the study was 0.05 as sig­ nificant; 0.01 as highly significant; and 0.001 as very highly significant. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

From man's earliest history, the problems of food, clothing, and shelter have occupied a paramount place in daily living. Here, however, we shall be concerned with the subject of clothing. Horn (1968:18) stated in her book: "... The psychoanalyst sees clothing as a mani­ festation of suppressed desires; the historian sees it as a record of past events; the economist sees it in terms of consumer demand and business cycles; the antropologist regards it as a pattern of culture; the physiologist sees it from the standpoint of health; while the sociologist views it in relation to the collective life. ..." Pucci in his foreword to Contini's book. Fashion - From Ancient Egypt to the Present Day (1965:ii) stated that in the past, only women and men of great wealth and high status could afford to indulge an interest in clothing. Today, however, the developments of mass production and mass communication have enabled women of all income levels to be aware of the newest fashion trends. Magazines, news­ papers, window displays, television, and movies all report or display these trends not only within a particular coun­ try but also around the world.

MacKay (1967:3-4) defined culture as "something

that man has created for himself (clothes are man-made

8 and are an integral part of culture). . . ." Dress has been considered from many viewpoints, but mainly as a mirror to reflect individual personality and the cultural factor in examining some of the differences between two cultures.

Clothing Selection and Motivation There are many theories about the origins of cloth­ ing, though Kefgen and Touche-Specht (1971:23) categorized the basic reasons for wearing clothes as ones of protec­ tion, modesty, and decoration. Langner (1959:2) noted that "man from earliest times has worn clothes to overcome his feelings of inferiority and to achieve a conviction of his superiority to the rest of creation . . . and to win ad­ miration and assure himself that he belongs." Langner alsc believes that a sense of modesty grew out of the invention of clothes because an individual felt immodest if he were not wearing clothes. For example, many primitive people who are accustomed to nakedness usually have no sense of shame about it (p. 72) .

Covering the body for protection against the weather

is another theory for the use of clothing. Horn (1968:7) pointed out that women's sheer hosiery does not give much warmth to the legs in winter nor do the collars of men's

shirts contribute much to their comfort in summer; but,

since man uses clothing for various kinds of physical 10 protection, he is willing to endure a certain degree of discomfort when fashion demands it. According to LeBaron's, "... once clothing became accepted as a protection for the body, it began gradually to add the element of decora­ tion or adornment to enhance the appearance of the indi­ vidual. Protection and modesty became accepted norms in some advanced societies where aesthetics became a newly important value" (1963) editor's introduction to McJimsey's article). In contrast, McJimsey (1963:3) stated that the motives for the acceptance of changing fashion are "the desire to attract the opposite sex, the conflict of youth with convention, the desire to conform, a lack of a more serious interest, and just plain boredom with things as they are."

Groups of people in each specific culture dominate the choice of their own types of clothing. Weather, geog­ raphy, and period in time all influence the cultural choice of clothing. Because of the varying environments and the natural elements that have to be coped with, people tend to adopt whatever kind of costume best serves the demands of the culture and its multiple elements. In a highly technical society, Kefgen and Touche-Specht (1971:27) noted that fashion is related to industrialization, but in a non-technical civilization, styles remain more static. They compared American fashion concerns with those of India. In America, the most industrialized society in the world. 11 fashion has always changed with invention and technological improvements; but in India, the Sari for women and the Doti for men have been worn for several centuries. While it is true that several subtle changes in the fabric and draping of the Sari can be found, still fashion is not a dominant factor in the Indian economy (p. 28).

Many factors enter into the selection of clothing such as, the policies and ideals of the society, women's attitudes and the degree of their emancipation, the size of the community in which an individual lives, local cus­ toms, and especially the economic status of the person and the community. Individual taste, however, is the ultimate test of whether one is dressed "correctly" or suitably for an occasion. Morton (1956:39) defined taste as that which "bridges the gap between art and fashion." She contended that no one is born with good taste, nor are the standards of good taste universal. Rather, good taste determines how one views things aesthetically. In clothing taste, the scope of our education and cultural experience com­ bine to direct our selection and combination of clothing and accessories.

In Evans' (1964:56) study of motivations in cloth­ ing selection and wearing, the author notes that 50 percent of the 159 girls and boys she studied selected their cloth­ ing in order to gain recognition from others and 38 percent in order to have clothing similar to that of their friends 12 and therefore approved by those friends. In comparing the predominantly motivational forces which determine cloth­ ing and purchasing behavior, she found that the wearing of clothing served a purpose different from that expressed in purchasing the clothing. Thus, the primary motive for wearing clothes involved dependence on others, while the purchasing motive was an independent one.

A study completed by Bullock (1970) found that most of the rural girls who were her respondents made their own clothes or bought them in a department store. Most in­ fluential in helping them determine their decisions were magazines, newspapers, and advertisements. Their selec­ tions, in order of importance, were based on becomingness, fit of garment, price, and finally style. Students from low income groups preferred quantity over quality. Stu­ dents were aware that appearance was important to their general success in life. Most graded themselves average to above-average in appearance, and more were active in school organizations from rural areas than from urban areas.

Cross-cultural Studies of Clothing Customs

As we learn more about the cultures of other coun­ tries, we discover more about the role of clothing and how revealing a study of costume may be. Brameld (1959:20) states that "Culture is a concept designed to explain the total environment made by and for man." Every culture has 13 its own beliefs, customs, and attitudes which in time be­ come the codes, doctrines, or philosophies of that society.

Anspach's (1968:268) research on the fashion con­ sciousness of Thai women resulted in a study of the ac­ ceptance of western fashions, they chose to remain with their own cultural dress. Many choices of colors in mate­ rials were used to enhance the beauty of their olive com­ plexions. Bright pink was the favorite color. Lower clas­ ses were strongly influenced by the clothing worn by ce­ lebrities; however, middle classes also were found to ap­ preciate high fashion styles. Environment also caused the Thai women to seek comfort and coolness in their clothing. Anspach concluded, "The flow of fashion may become a use­ ful research device in its role as a mirror reflecting what is retained and what is discarded in transitional cultures undergoing modernization" (p. 271). Derr (1961:56-58) selected Anglo and Negro senior high school girls to determine the factors which were in­ fluencing their clothing. She found that there was no significant relationship between the cultural groups and design selection. Anglo girls were conservative and Negro girls preferred vivid colors. Both groups emphasized church and school activities, but only the Negro group expressed a need for clothing for these activities. Major factors which influenced their clothing selection were friends, magazines, department stores, and movies. Derr 14 found no significant difference between social classes and the amount of home sewing.

Birol (1967:45-50) has compared clothing worn by women students in the American school, Roberts College, Istanbul, Turkey, and that worn by students in the Univer­ sity of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island. One hundred and twenty-two students participated in this study, 62 were from the University of Rhode Island, and 60 from Roberts College. He found that sociological and economic differ­ ences were significant factors in the choices of clothing between students at the two colleges. The majority of students at the University of Rhode Island desired to dress like other students because of the need to conform to current styles and fashion. In Roberts College, most of the students did not wish to dress alike because they preferred to express their individuality.

MacKay (1967:123) in a study of clothing behavior in relation to selected cultural differences between Ameri­ cans and Puerto Ricans, found a very large number of sig­ nificant differences in clothing behavior (p. 125). Her hypothesis that American College women used more casual clothes than Puerto Rican College women was confirmed by her findings.

All of the foregoing studies contain strong evi­ dence that a tie exists between clothing and certain cul­ tural factors. Each study has approached the problem from 15

a slightly different aspect, but the general conclusions have been similar.

Teenagers' Clothing Teenagers are classified as "high clothing spend­ ers" by Dickens and Ferguson (1962:3-32), who studied the kinds, amounts, and uses of clothing worn by teenage Negro and white girls. Ninety-four percent of the teens thought that they dressed similarly. However, only 10 percent of the girls believed that they knew a lot about clothes, and all said that they relied on friends for advice. The ma­ jority of girls in both groups said they made their own purchasing decisions. The girls chose age sixteen as being old enough to enable them to choose their own clothes while shopping. The color, fit, and becomingness were voted the most im­ portant factors in selection. Again, color was the more important factor to the Negro girls. Both groups pre­ ferred sweaters and skirts. Skirts and blouses were fav­ ored more than dresses for school. Dresses were reserved for Sunday School or parties. Social approval was of such importance to some teenagers that their selection of clothing was determined by its conformity to what the peer group wore. Angelino and Shedd (1956:799) concluded that "the conflicts between girls and their parents are often due to differences in 16 opinion regarding their ideas about personal appearances, habits and manners more than any other matter."

The subject of dress is an important subject in the school situation. Kefgen and Touche-Specht (1971: 354) have stated that students feel and act better when they are neatly dressed. Therefore, some school adminis­ trators have established codes setting standards in dress for the students, with the expectation of better behavior from the students. A study by Wass and Eicher (1964:210- 3) on clothing as related to role behavior stated that those students who were better and properly dressed also had better behavior. The girls in the study believed that the better dressed they were, the more feminine and con­ fident they were. It was concluded that clothing does affect the behavior of teenagers.

Another investigation, by Hendricks and Kelly (1968:171), studied the possible correlation of appearance and popularity. The results showed that appearance af­ fected personality, the best-dressed girl was also the most popular, and the first item in appraising a new stu­ dent was dress behavior.

Tate and Glisson (1961:283-4) have stated that all teenagers generally select their own clothing although shopping was sometimes done with one's mother, friends, or parents, especially when help was needed in purchasing the more expensive items such as coats and suits. There 17 is usually not much planning involved before buying. An item is purchased for a special occasion or because one sees an item one particularly likes. Teenagers are not inclined to shop for the best buy, but will usually buy on the first shopping trip. They are not interested in the construction of a garment and are probably unaware that such a factor exists. Many people never realize the importance of fabric, cut, and construction in the total appearance of a garment.

Sociological Aspects of Clothing Most individuals belong to a specific social group and generally try to dress in conformity with the others in this group. Clothing indicates the social status of a person and is related to his or her function in a social grouping. Dickens (1944:349) pointed out that the size of wardrobe is related to one's social participation.

Warden's (1957:234) study of social and economic factors related to clothing interest, knowledge, goals, and satisfactions in dress, concluded that girls with a keen interest in clothing were also more aware of fashion trends. Nonsorority girls majoring in Liberal Arts showed the most interest. Listed in order as sources of approval in dress were boys, family, and girls.

Boswell (1958) found that an interest in clothes among high school girls had significance according to age. 18 the number of children in the family, and the education and occupation of the parents. She also found that an interest in clothing increased with age. It also ranked higher if the number of siblings was five or more, or if the father's occupation or education indices were low. Barber and Lobel (1952:124-31) made a study of fashion as it related to the American social structure. They used data collected from women's magazines and examined the function and meaning of fashion in relation to class structure, age, sex, and economic system. They found that the definition of fashion and examples varied according to the economic level of the groups for which the magazine was designed. Generally, however, fashion was of interest to all. Clothes seemed to have three functions: utilitarian, aesthetic, and symbolic of the wearer's social role. In addition. Barber and Lobel em­ phasized the symbiotic function of dress as a measure of social role. The authors state, "Pretty clothes for the teenage girl in American society are defined by her social role, especially by her presumed sexual innocence" (p. 125). They also define fashion as "styles of cut, color, sil­ houette, etc. that are socially prescribed and accepted as appropriate for certain roles, and especially with recurring changes" (p. 126).

Uniforms

^V^ Th(^ j,dea of wearing uniforms introduced a system^ 19 of identification among mankind. Langner (1958:137) states

^gtt a uniform indicates one's statua and occupation, and J consequently through its use reveals one's power or author­ ity, or lack of iff. He further states that "by wearing the uniform of a particular group, a man shows that he has given up_his right to act freely as an individual, but must act in accordance and under the limitations of the rules of hisparticular group" (p. 132). Langner affirms that a uniform determines the role and status of unknown people and also reflects the thoughts, social conditions, moral- ity, religion, economics, and personality of a culture. ". . . the uniform was invented as a means to indicate the relationship of an individual to a group." He continues. "It denoted uniformity but there was also a need to dis­ tinguish the supexiority of one or more persons in uniform over the others" (p. 131).

-res? kS ^p^th (1952:46)*^with her own six children in^uiji- form debated the affirmative for wearing uniforms in paro- chial schools. In answer to the question of losing indi­ viduality by wearing a uniform, she argues that "even' members of the same family dressed in^^identical outfits are no more alike than night and day." She gave the^ example that Cavells and Nightingales, MacArthurs and Eisenhowers all emerged from the ranks of the uniformed. CHAPTER III

PROCEDURES

In order to gather data needed for testing the hypotheses and meeting the objectives of this study, the following procedures were employed.

Selection of Samples Since this study was concerned with the attitudes and behavior of senior students in two countries where uniforms were worn, major effort was centered around find­ ing American students who wore school uniforms. After advice from friends and a review of the Readers' Guide, the author listed five American high schools where uni­ forms were worn at the time the Guide was printed. Let­ ters were sent to these schools requesting permission to administer the questionnaire. Among the schools contacted two schools of the five no longer required the wearing of uniforms, one school did not reply, two acknowledged the request with full cooperation. The cooperating schools were located in Ohio and Texas. Since both were parochial schools, the author at­ tempted to look for similar schools in Taiwan. Two church schools were selected for the study, one was in north Taiwan and one in south Taiwan. From 30 to 35 female stu­ dents aged 15 to 18 from each school were requested to

20 21 participate in the study.

Development and Administration of the Questionnaire Due to the great distance between the four schools, self-explanatory questionnaires were designed for mailing. The questionnaires were divided into sections as follows:

1. Personal Data 2. Family Background 3. General Information 4. Individual Preferences / The first section indicated the location of the student's hometown, school, age and classification. The second part dealt with family background, age of parents, their education, cultural background, source of income, religion and occupation. In this section, McQuire and White's (1955) "A Means of Evaluating Socio­ economic Status" was included to determine the socio­ economic status of the participants. McQuire and White used four ratings in their evaluation of socioeconomic status: (a) education, (b) occupation, (c) income source, and (d) religion. Since religious beliefs in Taiwan dif­ fer from those in the United States, the author applied a mid-point rating for this characteristic. In Taiwan, religious beliefs do not reflect any class differentia­ tion, and all Chinese do not have definite religious be­ liefs; rather, they worship their ancestors annually or 22 at certain periods of time. In the McQuire and White scale, religious affiliation is not weighted as are the other scores.

The third section in the questionnaire was gen­ eral information about clothing background, sewing or shopping practices. Also included were fashion prefer­ ences, sources of fashion information, and attitudes con­ cerning uniforms.

The fourth section dealt with individual pref­ erences. This section was designed to indicate the pref­ erences in style and line of clothing, in color and fabric design, and in the choice of garment to fit the occasion.

Pre-test

After completion of the questionnaire, a pre-test was administered to volunteers from first semester college students who were majoring in Clothing and Textiles at

Texas Tech University. The purpose of this pre-test was to determine if the questionnaire was easily understood, to elicit comments and suggestions, and to observe the amount of time required to complete the questionnaire.

The average time required was approximately twenty minutes. The completed questionnaires were read carefully and an effort made to determine that each item on the questionnaire was clear and concise. Several of the vol­ unteer students made suggestions which were incorporated in the final form. 23

The author then translated the questionnaire into Chinese for similar testing among a sampling of students in Taiwan. To clarify the Chinese version of the ques­ tionnaire, five Chinese graduate students at Texas Tech University were invited to edit it. The refined copy was then sent to Taiwan where it was printed in Chinese and mailed to the participating schools.

Both the English and Chinese questionnaires con­ tained directions for their administration. They were distributed during class time and returned by the teachers to the author at a specified time.

The Analysis of Data After all of the questionnaires were returned, ranks were assigned for each variable and items were coded. A simple correlation matrix was generated by electronic computer applying Pearson's r. Further tests for signifi­ cant differences using t-test and analysis of variance were also applied. The scores on calculating socioeconomic status (utilizing McQuire and White) were reversed accord­ ing to the code number. In this manner, the higher the score a person had, the higher the rank. See Table 1 for reversed rankings. 24

TABLE 1

REVERSED LEVELS OF SOCIOECONOMIC CLASSES AS MEASURED BY MCQUIRE-WHITE INDEX

Index Score Social Class Prediction Rank of Class

12-29 Lower-lower class 1

30-44 Upper-lower class 2

45-58 Lower Middle class 3 59-73 Upper-middle class 4 74-84 Upper class 5

A table was set up to tabulate clothing preference? for different occasions and fabric design for different types of clothing. The most dressy to the least dressy are represented by number 8 to 1. The same system for ranking was applied to fabric design (see Appendix D). For testing the first hypothesis, the difference between clothing preferences of the two countries, an analysis of variance for one-way design was applied. For clothing preferences, all scores were added and compari­ sons of the scores of students of Taiwan and the United States were made by computer. For the second hypothesis, the relationship between clothing preferences and socio­ economic status, two way design was desired; however, since the sample size was not large enough, Pearson's coefficient of correlation was used. CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

The Description of Samples One hundred and nineteen students from the United States and Taiwan participated in this study. Sixty-eight students were from Taiwan and fifty-one from the United States. Distribution was as follows: Group I - 32 students from south Taiwan.

Group II - 36 students from north Taiwan. Group III - 29 students from Ohio, USA. Group IV - 22 students from Texas, USA. The four groups represented parochial schools in Taiwan and the United States. The grades of the students ranged from 10th through 12th. The distribution of stu­ dents' grade levels is found in Table 2.

TABLE 2 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES BY GRADE LEVEL

Taiwan U.S.

south north Ohio Texas Total 1 Grade No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

12 32 100 15 41.6 — 3 13.5 50 42-

11 — — 14 39 29 100 18 82 61 51.3

10 — — 7 19.4 — — 1 4.5 8 6.7

Total 1 32 100 36 100 29 100 22 100 119 100 25 26

The ages of students varied from 16 to 20, but most were 17 and 18 years old. The distribution is found in Table 3. The average age for south Taiwan was 18.2; north Taiwan, 17.8; Ohio, 17.0; Texas, 17.3

TABLE 3 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES BY AGE LEVEL

Taiwan U. £> . Total

south north Oh io Texas

Age No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

20 ^_ __ 3 8 3 2.E

19 11 34.3 5 14 16 13.4

18 18 56.3 14 39 3 10.6 8 36.5 43 36.1

17 3 9.4 10 27.8 25 86 12 54.5 50 42

16 — — 4 11.2 1 3.4 2 9 7 6

Total 32 100 36 100 29 100 22 100 119 100

The findings on socioeconomic status showed differ­ ences between the two countries. All of the students in the

United States groups fell on levels 3, 4, and 5; while all of the students in the Taiwan groups fell on levels 2, 3, and 4 (see Table 4). The reason for the difference was not because of the economic aspects of living, but rather be­ cause of the difference in the number of years of education 27

of the two groups. Scores as determined by McQuire-White were reversed so that a high score indicates a high socio­ economic level and a low score indicates a low level (see Table 5) .

TABLE 4 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES BY SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL

Taiwan U. S. Total south north Ohio Texas

Rank No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 5 9 31 5 22.7 14 12 4 8 25 9 25 18 62 15 68.1 50 42 3 18 56.3 15 41.6 2 7 2 9 37 31 2 5 15.6 12 33.3 17 14.2 1 1 3.1 1 0.8 Total 32 100 36 99.9 29 100 22 99.8 119 ICC 28

TABLE 5 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES BY EDUCATION OF FATHER

Taiwan U. S • Total south north Ohio Texas

Ed. Le\ . No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 7 13 44.8 5 22.7 18 15.1 6 10 31.2 7 19.4 14 48.2 12 54.5 43 36.1

5 1 3.1 — — 1 3.4 4 18.1 6 5

4 8 25 14 39 1 3.4 — — 23 19.3

3 6 18.7 5 14 — — 1 4.5 12 10

2 2 6.2 — — — — — — 2 1.7

1 5 16 10 27.8 —— — — —— ~— 15 12.6

Total 32 100.2 36 100.2 29 99.8 22 99.8 119 99.8

Students' Attitude Toward Uniform

Less than half of the Taiwan students {41%) liked to wear a uniform to school every day, more than half (51.5%) did not like to wear a uniform, and 1.5% gave no response.

Among the groups of United States students, 38 (74.5%) out of 51 liked to wear a uniform and only 12 (23.5%) did not like to wear a school uniform; and 2% gave no answer. When asked about wearing a garment to school other than a uni­ form, over 76 percent of American students replied in the negative, whereas more students answered "yes" (55.9%) than

"no" (42.6%) in the groups in Taiwan, thus indicating a 29 predominant desire by Taiwan students to wear dress other than a uniform for school (see Tables 6 and 7).

TABLE 6 FREQUENCY OF LIKING TO WEAR A UNIFORM BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan U. S. Total south north Ohio Texas

Resp. No. % No % No. % No. % No. % Yes 18 56.3 14 38.9 20 69 18 82 70 58.8 No 13 40.6 22 61.1 9 31 3 13.5 47 39.5 No Ans . 1 3.1 1 4.5 2 1.7 Total 32 100 36 100 29 100 22 100 119 100

TABLE 7 FREQUENCY OF PREFERENCE FOR WEARING DIFFERENT DRESS TO SCHOOL BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan u. s. Total south north Ohio Texas

Resp. No. % No, % No. % No. % No. % Yes 15 46.8 23 64 4 13.8 7 31.8 49 41.1

No 16 50 13 36.1 25 86 14 63 68 57.1

No Ans . 1 3.1 — ^ —— __ __ 1 4.5 2 1.7

Total 32 99.9 36 100.1 29 99.8 22 99.3 119 99.9 30

In Taiwan, 89% of the students, as compared to 39.6% of the students from the United States, had worn a uniform before, so it was conceivable that they might tire of it and like to wear different dress to school (see Table 8).

TABLE 8 FREQUENCY OF HAVING WORN UNIFORM BEFORE BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan U. S. Total south north Ohio Texas

Resp. No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Yes 28 87.5 33 91.7 12 41.5 8 36.5 81 68 No 4 12.5 2 5.5 17 58.6 14 63 37 31

No Ans. — — 1 2.8 1 0.8

Total 32 100 36 100 29 100.1 22 99.5 119 99.8

In response to a check list of color and design

pertaining to school uniforms the following descriptions

were obtained:

South Taiwan — In summer, light blue dress with belted

waist and short sleeves. In winter, the

same style in navy blue with long sleeves,

The identification number was embroidered

above the front chest pocket. 31

North Taiwan — In summer, white short-sleeved blouse with

black pleated skirt. In winter, white long-sleeved blouse with black pants. Ohio Group — In summer, white blouse with green pleated

jumper. In winter, white sweater with dark green pleated jumper. Texas Group — In summer, white short-sleeved blouse with

navy blue pleated skirt. In winter, white blouse with navy blue pleated skirt. All of the students have a V-shaped tie hang­ ing from the neckline to identify the class. Responses to questions regarding current uniform styles and colors indicated that a liking for the uniform style was related to a liking for the uniform color in all four groups. Levels of significance were higher for the students from the United States than for the Chinese (see Tables 9, 10, and 11). 32

TABLE 9 FREQUENCY OF LIKING CURRENT UNIFORM STYLE BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan U. S. Total

south north Oh io Texas

Resp. No. o/ % No. % No. % No. % No. Very much 28 87.5 8 22.2 4 14 40 ^^.6 Some­ what 17 58.5 12 54.5 29 P4.^ Very little 4 12.5 28 77.8 5 17 6 27.2 43 ?6.1 Not at all 3 10.5 4 18.1 7 6 Total 32 100 36 100 29 100 22 99.8 119 100

TABLE 10 FREQUENCY OF LIKING COLOR OF UNIFORM BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan U. S. Total

south north Ohio Texas

Resp. No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Yes 20 62.5 12 33.3 22 75.9 16 73.6 70 58.8

No 11 34.3 24 66.7 7 24.1 6 27.2 48 40.3 No Ans. 1 3.1 1 0.8

Total 32 99.9 36 100 29 100 22 100.8 119 99.9 33

TABLE 11 LIKING CURRENT UNIFORM STYLE RELATED TO LIKING UNIFORM COLOR FOR STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Liking Current Uniform Style

Taiwan U.S. Liking the Color south north Ohio Texas of Uniform 0.41* 0.47** 0.69*** 0.55**

*p <0.05 **p <0.01 ***p <0.001

None of the students from Ohio expressed a feeling of pride for their uniforms, although some of the students liked the styles and colors (see Table 12).

TABLE 12 FREQUENCY OF WEARING UNIFORM WITH PRIDE BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan U. S. Total

south north Ohio Texas

Resp. No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

Yes 20 62.5 16 44.5 — —. — 9 41 45 37.8

No 10 31.2 20 55.6 29 100 13 59.1 72 60.5 No Ans. 2 6.2 2 1.7 Total 32 99.9 36 100.1 29 100 22 100.1 119 100 34

Shopping Practices It was found that a big difference between these two countries lay in shopping practices. When shopping for clothing, 75 to 78 percent of the Taiwan respondents depended upon their mothers, but in the groups from the United States only two in each depended upon their mothers. A few from Texas shopped with friends as well as mother. Most of the students from the United States selected cloth­ ing by themselves (see Tables 13 and 14) .

TABLE 13 DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUALS WHO SHOP FOR CLOTHING FOR STUDENTS IN TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan U. S. Total

south north Ohio Texas Indi­ No. vidual °/o No. % No. °/ No. % No. % Self 3 9.4 5 14 27 93.1 17 78.1 52 43.7 Mother 24 75 28 77.8 2 7 2 9 56 47 Close Rela­ — — 2 5.5 — — 1 4.5 3 2.5 tives Self & Friends 5 15.6 1 2.8 — — 2 9 8 6.7 or Mother

Total 32 100 36 100.1 29 100.1 22 100.6 119 99.9 35

TABLE 14 DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUALS WHO SELECT CLOTHING FOR STUDENTS IN TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan U. S Total south no rth Ohio Texas Indi­ vidual No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Self 7 21.8 6 16.7 27 93.1 14 63 54 45.3

Mother 12 37.5 12 33.3 — — 1 4.5 25 21 Close Rela­ 2 6.2 1 2.8 — — 1 4.5 4 3.4 tives Self & Friends or 11 34.3 17 47.2 2 7 6 27.2 36 30.2 Mother Total 32 99.8 36 100 29 100.1 22 99.2 119 99.9

As to frequency of shopping, the majority of

Chinese students shopped every two or three months with

some every six months. None of the students from the

United States shopped less than once a year. In general,

students from the United States shopped more frequently

than did the Chinese students. 36

TABLE 15 FREQUENCY OF SHOPPING FOR CLOTHING BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan U. S. Total south north Ohio Texas

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Every week 1 3.1 — — 5 17.2 3 13.5 9 7.5 or two Once a month 1 3.1 1 2.8 10 34.5 9 41 21 17.7 Every two or three 5 15.6 17 47.2 8 27.6 7 31.8 37 31.1 months Every six 9 28.1 11 30.6 6 20.7 3 13.5 29 24.3 months Once a year 5 15.6 6 16.7 11 9.2 Less than 7 21.8 1 2.8 8 6.7 once a year No ans. 4 12.5 4 3.4

Total 32 99.8 36 100.1 29 100 22 99.8 119 99.9

When asked what they considered first in shopping for clothing, 33 out of 68 students from Taiwan stressed design. Only 9 of the 51 students from the United States picked design as their first consideration. On becoming­ ness, however, 23 students from the United States (45%) thought it most important, but only four of the Chinese students placed this first, as indicated in Table 16. 37

TABLE 16 LEVELS OF IMPORTANCE OF SELECTED COMPONENTS OF CLOTHING CONSIDERED BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES WHEN SHOPPING FOR CLOTHING

Taiwan U. S. Total south north Ohio Texas

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % A. DESIGN

First 18 56.3 15 41.6 3 10.6 6 27.2 42 35.3 Second 4 12.5 9 25 4 13.8 3 13.5 20 16.8 Third 5 15.6 6 16.7 8 27.6 6 27.2 25 21 Fourth 1 3.1 4 11.2 6 20.7 3 13.5 14 12 Fifth 3 9.4 1 2.8 1 3.4 2 9 7 6

Sixth — 1 2.8 3 10.6 1 4.5 5 4.2

No Ans. 1 3.1 — — 4 13.8 1 4.5 6 5 Total 32 100 36 100.1 29 100.5 22 99.4 119 100.3

B. FIT

First 4 12.5 8 22.2 8 27.6 4 18.1 24 20.1

Second 13 40.6 17 47.2 10 34.5 7 31.8 47 39.5

Third 6 18.7 7 19.4 5 17.2 2 9 20 16.8 Fourth 8 25 2 5.5 1 3.4 6 27.2 17 14.2

Fifth —— 1 2.8 2 7 — — 3 2.5

Sixth —— 1 2.8 1 3.4 1 4.5 3 2.5

No Ans. 1 3.1 —— —— 2 7 2 9 5 4.2

Total 32 99.9 36 99.9 29 100.1 22 99.6 119 99.8 38

TABLE 16—(Continued)

Taiwan U. s. Total

south north Ohio Texas

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

C. FABRIC

First 5 15.6 6 16.7 —— __- 1 4.5 12 10

Second 4 12.5 2 5.5 — —_ 2 9.0 8 6.7 Third 3 9.4 7 19.4 1 3.4 3 13.5 14 12.0

Fourth 8 25.0 13 36.1 12 41.5 3 13.5 36 30.2 Fifth 8 25.0 6 16.7 8 27.6 7 31.8 29 24.3 Sixth 2 6.2 2 5.5 5 17.2 4 18.1 13 10.9

No Ans. 2 6.2 — — 3 10.6 2 9.0 7 6.0

Total 32 99.9 36 99.9 29 100.3 22 99.4 119 100.1 D. BECOM­ INGNESS First 1 3.1 3 8.3 15 51.7 8 36.5 27 22.6

Second 2 6.2 3 8.3 6 20.7 4 18.1 15 12.6

Third 11 34.3 11 30.6 4 3.8 3 13.5 29 24.3

Fourth 10 31.2 13 36.1 1 3.4 2 9.0 26 21.8

Fi fth 3 9.4 6 16.7 1 3.4 2 9.0 12 10 Sixth 3 9.4 1 4.5 4 3.4

No Ans. 2 6.2 — — 2 7.0 2 9.0 6 5

Total 32 99.8 36 100 29 100 22 99.6 119 99.7 39

TABLE 16—(Continued)

Taiwan U. s. Total

south north Ohio Texas

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

E. PRICE First 4 12.5 3 8.3 2 7.0 2 9.0 11 9.2

Second 6 18.7 5 14.0 6 20.7 3 13.5 20 16.8 Third 5 15.6 4 11.2 6 20.7 5 22.7 20 16.8

Fourth 1 3.1 3 8.3 4 13.8 5 22.7 13 10.9

Fifth 9 28.1 12 33.3 5 17.2 2 9.0 28 23.5 Sixth 5 15.6 9 25.0 3 10.6 3 13.5 20 16.8

No Ans. 2 6.2 — — 3 10.6 2 9.0 7 6.0

Total 32 99.8 36 100.1 29 100.6 22 99.4 119 100

F. EASE OF CARE

First — 2 5.5 1 3.4 — — 3 2.5

Second 1 3.1 — — 1 3.4 1 4.5 3 2.5

Third — 1 2.8 2 7 1 4.5 4 3.4

Fourth 2 6.2 1 2.8 2 7 2 9 7 6

Fifth 7 21.8 10 27.8 9 31 7 31.8 33 25.1 Sixth 20 62.5 22 61.1 11 37.9 9 41 62 52

No Ans. 2 6.2 — —— 3 10.6 2 9 7 6

Total 32 99.8 36 100 29 100.3 22 99.8 119 97.5 40 The only clear cut majorities in the rankings of selected components of clothing were for (1) design which was ranked first by 56.3% of the students from south Tai­ wan, (2) ease of care which was ranked sixth by 62.5% of students from south Taiwan, and 61.1% of students from north Taiwan, and (3) becomingness which was ranked first by 51.7% of the students from Ohio in the United States, Rankings of other components were scattered as to levels of importance; thus they appeared to be subject to indi­ vidual preference rather than group consensus (see Table 17).

TABLE 17 RANK ORDER OF SELECTED COMPONENT OF CLOTHING BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES

Taiwan

south north Rank Rank Order No- % Order No. %

A. Design 1 18 56.3 1 15 41.6

B. Fit 2 13 40.6 2 17 47.2

C. Fabric 3.5 16 50.0 4 13 36.1 D. Becomingness 3 11 34.3 4 13 36.1

E. Price 5 9 28.1 5 12 33.3

F. Ease of Care 6 20 62.5 6 22 61.1 41

TABLE 17—(Continued)

U. S.

south north Rank Rank Order No. Order No. %

A. Design 3 8 27.6 1 6 27.2 B. Fit 2 10 34.5 2 7 31.8 C. Fabric 4 12 41.5 5 7 31.8

D. Becomingne s s 1 15 51.7 1 8 36.5 E. Price 2.5 12 41.4 3.5 10 45.4 F. Ease of Care 6 11 37.9 6 9 41.0

Several significant relationships were found be­ tween frequency of shopping and individual interests and the considered levels of importance of price and ease of care. The only similarity between groups was for the stu­ dents from north Taiwan and Ohio, for which the respective frequency of shopping and importance of price were highly significantly related (p<0.01) and very highly signifi­ cantly related (p<0.001) respectively as reported in

Table 18. 42

TABLE 18 FREQUENCY OF SHOPPING FOR CLOTHING BY STUDENTS FROM TAIWAN AND THE UNITED STATES RELATED TO INTEREST IN FASHION, IMPORTANCE OF PRICE AND EASE OF CARE

Frequency of Shopping Taiwan U. S. south north Ohio Texas Level of Interest — — in Fashion 0.35* Importance of Price 0.48** 0.56*** Importance of Ease of Care — — 0.64***

* p <0.05 ** p <0.01 *** p<0.001

Clothing Background

Most of the students in this study possessed little hand-me-down clothing. In the Ohio group, there was a sig­ nificant relationship between the percentage of hand-me- down clothing and the number of sisters (r = 0.43; p<0.05)

This might be expected if the sisters were older than the respondents.

Having relatives abroad and fashion information from abroad were found to be related for all four groups.

Having relatives abroad seemed to influence the fashion information for students from Taiwan as well as the Texas 43

students, but no significant relationship was found for the Ohio students. For the students from south Taiwan, having acces­ sories or clothing from abroad was related to students' wearing a uniform with pride. Fashion information from abroad was found to be related to fashion information from movie stars. Having relatives from abroad was highly sig­ nificantly related (r = 0.44; p<0.01) to the level of interest in fashion for the second group from north Taiwan. It was found also that having relatives from abroad, having accessories or clothing from abroad, having fashion infor­ mation from abroad, and the level of interest in fashion, were all significantly related to socioeconomic status for students from north Taiwan. For the Ohio students, fashion information from abroad was found to be related to liking to wear a uniform to school and also to socioeconomic status. The degree to which the Ohio respondents liked to sew, the percentage of sewing for self and for others of the family, whether or not the mother sewed, and the importance of becoming­ ness when shopping, were related to having clothing from abroad. For the students from Texas, having clothing or accessories from abroad was found to be related to the percentage of sewing for self (r = 0.45; p<0.01), percent­ age of sewing for others of the family (r = 0.42; p<0.01), fashion information from father (r = 0.42; p^O.Ol), and 44 the number of brothers (r = 0.46; p^O.Ol). See Table 19 on page 45.

In checking clothing background, it was found that in all four groups there was a very highly significant re­ lation (p<0.001) between the number of clothing courses taken and the rated effectiveness of such courses. In all groups, the clothing courses taken had a highly signifi­ cant relation to how much was believed to have been gained after these courses had been completed. The levels of probability were r = 0.75 for south Taiwan, r = 0.53 for north Taiwan, r = 0.62 for Ohio, and r = 0.77 for Texas students, all of which were significant at the 0.01 level. In the Taiwan groups, 54 students out of 68 (79%) were above "some interest" in fashion. About 70% of stu­ dents in the United States were above the level of "some interest." From this comparison, we can conclude that there is not much difference in interest in fashion be­ tween these two cultures.

In all four groups of students from Taiwan and the United States, more than half liked to sew "somewhat" or "very little." More students from the United States than Taiwan sewed for either themselves or others of the family. In the Ohio group, it was found that the level of liking to sew was related to the number of clothing courses that had been taken (r = 0.62; p <0.001), to the percentage of sewing for oneself (r = 0.69; p<;^0.001), to percentage of 45

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•- « rr d o o n « d •< telatlve c « d fro a Abroa d & n « d trt « V u h. O K • 19 1 ^ 1 • ^ a B w O « • e « C • e c « g ha « ^ c o i-« c «« M c • e O 1 O M *4 a o > o — 13 0 C -* -i c *^ o C ^ w O « fl o c c o ^ o -J 7: O M Ua MOW w o .c * *t C o ** •< .-4 « M — •» -* o *4 ka «« O 3 ** t o -C 11 M *- ^ 3 ll •» • J: o u o .^ J l3 «« w O * M h. O l« «« .^ > *.* M « U •« :: s c « O ^ •-• i« D k> « c — « C i< O "J a o IJ < w • J ^ -K TW >• 1 ^ ^ ^ 1?. 46 sewing for others of the family (r = 0.69; p<0.001), and to age (r = 0.37; p<0.05). In the Texas group, liking to sew was found related to the level of interest in fashion (r = 0.44; p<0.05), and percentage of sewing for oneself (r = 0.52; p^0.05) . The percentage in Taiwan of those liking to have a dressmaker sew for them was higher than for students of the United States. The latter indicated a higher percent­ age liking to buy ready-to-wear. This would indicate that production of ready-to-wear clothing has developed in the United States to the extent that most people have come to depend upon it as a major source for their wardrobe, whereas most of the clothing in Taiwan is custom-made rather than mass produced. Most of the mothers of the students from the United States did not sew for their daughters, but half of the students from Ohio reported that their mothers had taught them to sew; however less than half of the mothers of the Texas respondents had done so. More than half of the stu­ dents ' mothers from both south and north Taiwan had taught their daughters sewing and also continued to sew for them. The two groups in Taiwan used fashion magazines as their primary source of fashion information. The primary fashion source for the Ohio group was friends and class­ mates; the students of the Texas group, listed both fash­ ion magazines as well as friends and classmates. 47

Clothing Style Preferences Inquiries about preferred current fashion styles indicated the following:

Group south Taiwan—12 students out of 32 (37.5%)

liked Mini style best. Group north Taiwan—11 students out of 36 (30.4%)

liked Mini style best. Group Ohio 22 students out of 29 (76%)

favored blue jeans. Group Texas Liked equally the Midi, the pants suits, and the blue jeans. In summary, the Chinese students still liked the Mini style, while students of the United States preferred the Midi or blue jeans. For line and style preferences, there was almost equal division of preferences for front and back dress opening for students from Taiwan as well as the United States. The Chinese students liked the flared skirt most frequently. The group from Ohio liked straight skirts most frequently, and the students from Texas preferred pleated or flared skirts most frequently. All of the four groups preferred long sleeves, and the skirt length above the knees most frequently. Students from Taiwan preferred a fitted waistline more than any other style, as did group from Ohio. Group from Texas liked high or fitted waist lines almost equally. More of students of Taiwan preferred 48 neckline with a collar than did the students from the United States who preferred equally the collar and the collarless.

In color preferences, Chinese students mostly preferred light blue and yellow, while more students from the United States preferred navy blue. When asked about the most becoming colors in their wardrobes, 10 students out of the 68 Chinese students gave no response, but the greatest percentage believed light blue to be their most becoming color. Five of the students out of the 29 from Ohio gave no answer. But light and navy blue were indi­ cated as their favorite colors. The author found that the colors they preferred and the colors they considered the most becoming were those they had in their wardrobes; however, 13 (36.1%) of the students from north Taiwan listed choices differing from the colors they had in their wardrobes for the colors they preferred. In clothing preferences, where the higher score represented the more dressy clothing, it was found that Chinese students liked a more dressy look than did the students from the United States. The maximum score for all of the six occasions was 48, the minimum was 6. Most of the Chinese ranged from 25 to 35, but the students from the United States ranged from 10 to 20. In response to fabric design, the lower the scores, the less they liked printed fabric. The maximum score was 56 and the minimum 49 score was 8. The mean score for the Chinese groups was 16.35, and 12.76 for the students of the United States. This means that the Chinese students liked having more print fabric in their clothing than did the United States' students. These two cultures were found significantly different in their preferences for fabric design (F = 7.08; p <^0.01) when analysis of variance was applied.

In comparing the clothing preferences between Ohio and Texas, it was found that there is significant differ­ ence between these two groups, F = 6.79; p<^0.05. But between the Chinese south and north groups, no difference was found.

Findings Related to Objectives and Hypotheses

To conclude the results of all the investigation^ the objectives were found as follows:

1. More students from the United States preferred to

wear a uniform to school instead of different dresses

while Chinese students mostly preferred to wear dif­

ferent dresses.

2. Students from Taiwan and the United States all have

some interest in fashion, but students from the

United States accepted new fashion more readily.

3. Students from Taiwan like a more dressy look and more

print fabric for their clothing. They liked equally

front and back openings for dresses, flared skirts. 50

long sleeves, skirts of above-knees length, and mostly liked fitted waistlines and necklines with collar. 4. Students from the United States liked to wear more casual garments like blue jeans. Students from Ohio liked straight skirts and fitted waistlines while Texas students liked pleated or flared skirts and high or fitted waistlines. All of them preferred equally collar and collarless. 5. Most students from Taiwan liked light blue and yellow, while more students from the United States liked navy blue. 6. In clothing preferences, there was no significant dif­ ference found between south and north Taiwan. But there was a significant difference between Ohio and Texas (F = 6.79) for clothing preferences. 7. Chinese students preferred more printed fabric for their clothing than did students from the United States. 8. For both students from Taiwan and the United States, there was no relationship found between clothing pref­ erences and socioeconomic status.

Hypothesis: I. There is no significant difference between clothing

preferences of selected female senior high school stu­ dents enrolled in parochial schools in the United States and Taiwan. 51

II. There is no significant relationship between cloth­

ing preferences and socioeconomic status of selected

female senior high school students enrolled in paro­

chial schools in the United States and Taiwan.

Data related to hypothesis I were tested by one way analysis of variance. The F-ratio was 77.89 which is very highly significant that it is not listed in any of the statistical tables available. Thus hypothesis I was rejected.

Data related to the second hypothesis were tested by Pearson's r for significant relationships. Although some significant relationships were found between socio­ economic levels and sources of fashion and fashion infor­ mation, no significant relationships were found between socioeconomic levels and preferences for clothing. Thus hypothesis II was accepted. CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION

Sixty-eight female students from Taiwan and fifty- one female students from the United States participated in the study, thirty-two students comprised the first group from south Taiwan, and thirty-six students made up the second group from north Taiwan. The third group was com­ prised of 29 students from Ohio; and the fourth contained 22 students from Texas, in the United States. All were enrolled in parochial senior high schools, in grades 10 through 12, and ranged in age from 16 through 20. More of the United States students preferred to wear uniforms instead of different dresses to school. More Chinese than United States students had worn uniforms be­ fore. Most of the United States students did not express a feeling of pride for their uniforms, although they liked their current styles and colors. Students from the United States seemed to be more independent in acquiring their wardrobes, while students of Taiwan had to depend upon their mothers to shop and help select clothing for them. Students from the United States shopped more frequently than did the Chinese. In shopping, the Chinese gave more consideration to design while students from the United States considered becom­ ingness of first importance.

52 53

Within the groups from Taiwan, it was found that, if they had relatives from abroad, they obtained clothing or accessories from abroad. The students of the United States who had relatives abroad did not receive fashion information from abroad. in all four groups, the number of clothing courses taken in school was related to the knowledge of sewing.

Both the United States and Chinese students had some interest in fashion. Chinese students still liked to have a dressmaker to sew for them, while the United States students preferred to buy ready-to-wear clothing. Students from Taiwan used fashion magazines as their chief source of fashion information. Students from Ohio used friends and classmates for such information, but students from Texas liked fashion magazines in addition to these sources. Students from the United States accepted new fash­ ions more readily, while Chinese students still preferred Mini attire. Chinese students preferred more dressy cloth­ ing than the students of the United States. A very highly significant difference (p ^.001) of clothing preference (F = 77.89) was found between the two countries, as well as in the choice of fabric design, F = 7.08. A relation between socioeconomic status and clothing preferences was not supported, although the levels in China were lower than in the United States, as might have been expected. The 54

comparison of clothing preferences between north and south Taiwan showed no significant differences, but there was a very highly significant difference in the United States between Ohio and Texas.

Application of the Findings It can be seen from this study that the school uniform is not the favorite clothing of Chinese students, however their school systems require that it be worn. Such a compulsory factor might affect their choice of clothing. The required uni-color and uni-style of cloth­ ing for students in the same school possibly makes them long for variation, dressier clothing, and more print fabric design. Because students from the United States have the choice of attending a school which does or does not require the wearing of a uniform, they are more en­ thusiastic about the uniform. The great freedom of society in the United States tends to cause the teenagers' cloth­ ing selection to be more casual and comfortable than that of the Chinese students whose dress is more conservative. If the school uniform continues to be required in the school systems of Taiwan, an improvement might be effected. Keeping the color constant, the style of the uniform might be varied as is done with America's professional uniforms. Also the school uniform could be updated after a given period of time. From the line and style of clothing 55

preferences indicated in this study, producers might con­ cern themselves with the design preference of Oriental teenagers as a bridge to mass-production and the creation of a teenage market in Taiwan.

Both Occidental and Oriental teenagers are com­ monly interested in fashion, and teachers should be able to provide fashion information. While Western culture dictates fashion style and Oriental students tend to ac­ cept it, the latter have to concern themselves with the reaction of their society and somewhat conform to it. Because the clothing of Oriental teenagers is carefully restricted by their parents and teachers, it is necessary that they also have an understanding of fashion. A knowl­ edge of fashion is an important part of a school program for teenagers in both Taiwan and the United States, for it helps students and school authorities reach an agree­ ment on an acceptable yet fashion wise dress code.

Recommendations for Further Study

1. Sources of fashion designs for teenagers in

Taiwan, since mass production is not developed as well in

Taiwan as in the United States.

2. Designs for school uniforms which would have more appeal to teenagers in all cultures.

3. Sensitivity to color within cultures, and the ways in which differences are related to cultures. 56

4. Reasons why socioeconomic status does not seem to have relation to clothing preferences of teenagers. LIST OF REFERENCES

1. Angelino, H., Barnes, L., and Shedd, C. "Attitudes of Mothers and Adolescent Daughters Concerning Cloth­ ing and Grooming," Journal of Home Economics, 48:10 (December, 1956) , 79^"! '

2. Anspach, Karlyne. The Why of Fashion. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1967.

3. Anspach, K. "Fashion Consciousness of Thai Woman," Journal of Home Economic, 60:4 (April, 1968), 268. 4. Barber, Bernard, and Lobel, Lyle S. "'Fashion' in Woman's Clothes and the American Social System," Social Factors, XXXI (December, 1952), 124-31.

5. Birol, Nuray U. "Comparison of Campus Clothing Worn by Women Students in the American Robert College, Istanburly and the University of Rhode Island." Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Rhode Island, 1967.

6. Boswell, Mary Middleton. "Background Variables Af­ fecting the Clothing Interests of High School Girls in Metropolitan Group." Unpublished Master's Thesis, North Texas State College, 1958.

7. Bullock, Marilyn Josey. "Fashion Awareness of Students in Selected Rural and Urban Areas." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Texas Tech University, 1970.

8. Chambers, Helen G., and Moulton, Verna. Clothing Selection. Chicago, Philadelphia, New York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1961, p. 24.

9. Dickens, D. "Social Participation as a Criterion for Determining Scientific Minimum Standards in Clothing," Rural Sociology, 9:9 (September, 1944), 341-49.

10. Dickens, D., and Ferguson V. "Practices and Prefer­ ences of Teen-Age Girls in the Selection of Blouses, Skirts, Dresses, and Sweaters," Mississippi State College Agricultural Experimental State Bulletin, No. 636 (February, 1962), 3-32.

57 58

11. Derr, Maynette. "A Comparative Study of Some Social Cultural Factors Involved in the Selection of the Wardrobes of Senior Girls in High Schools, Lubbock, Texas." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Texas Tech University, 1961.

12. Ebeling, Harriet Maloa. "Some Aspects of the Personal and Social Function of Clothing for the Older Woman." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1960.

13. Evans, S. Evelyn. "Motivations Underlying Clothing Selection and Wearing," Journal of Home Economics, 56:10 (December, 1964), 739-43.

14. Harris, Mary Nan. "Attitude Toward and Ownership of Western Dress Associated with Selected Background and National Status Factors Among a Specifical Group of Indian and Chinese Women." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1962.

15. Hartman, George W. "Clothing and Personal Problem and Social Issue," Journal of Home Economics, 41:6 (June, 1949), 295-8.

16. Hendricks, S. and Kelly, E. "Senior Girls' Appearance and Social Acceptance," Journal of Home Economics, 60:3 (March, 1968), 167-71.

17. Horn, Marilyn J. The Second Skin. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1968. 18. Kefgen, Mary, and Touche-Specht, Phyllis. Individual­ ity in Clothing Selection and Personal Appearance. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1971.

19. Langner, Lawrence. The Importance of Wearing Clothes. New York: Hastings House, 1959.

20. McGuire, C & White, G. D. "The Measurement of Social Status." Research Paper in Human Development No. 3. (Revised, Department of Education Psychology, the University of Texas, 1955.)

21. McJimsey, Harriet T. Art in Clothing Selection. New York and Evanston: Harper and Row Publishers, 1963. 59

22. MacKay, Carolyn C. C. "Clothing Behavior in the Relation to Selected Cultural Differences: A Cross Cultural Study." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1967.

23. McLnnis, JacQuelyn Hobbs. "Relationship Between Color Choice and Selected Preferences of the Indi­ vidual," Journal of Home Economics. 56:3 (March, 1964) , 18FT: ~ —

24. Morton, G. M. "Psychology of Dress," Journal of Home Economics, 18:10 (December, 1926), 584-6. 25. Morton, G. M. The Arts of Costume Personal Appear­ ance. Revised by Carolyn Ruby, Bess Steele, and Mary Grethric. New York: Wiley, 1955, p. 39. 26. Picken, Mary. The Fashion Dictionary. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1957, p. 362. 27. Roach, Mary E. and Eicher, J. Dress Adornment and the Social's Order. New York: John Wiley and Sons., Inc., 1965.

28. Rosencranze, M. L. "Clothing Symbolism," Journal of Home Economics, 54: (January, 1962), 18-22.

29. Ryan, Mary Shaw. Clothing: A Study of Human Rehavior. New York: Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1966. 30. Shipley, Suzanne. "A Comparative Study of Older Woman's Preferences in Clothing and the Selection Provided in the Retail Market." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1961. 31. Silverman, S. S. Clothing and Appearance—Their Psychological Implications for Teen-Ager Girls. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1945. 32. Smith, Mary Case. "Uniform? Yes!" The Catholic World, 175:4 (April, 1952), 42-46.

33. Tate, Mildred T., and Oris Glisson. Family Clothing. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1961, p. 283-4.

34. Tousignant, R. Patricia. "Fashion Acceptance by Selected College Students." Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Rhode Island, 1959. 60

35. Warden, Jessie A. "Some Factors Affecting the Satis­ faction and Dissatisfaction with Clothing of Women Students in the College of Education and College of the Liberal Arts," Journal of Home Economics, 49:3 (March, 1957), 233-4. 36. Wass, B. and Eicher, Joanne B. "Clothing As Related to Role Behavior," Michigan Quarterly Bulletin, 47, No. 2, 1964, 206-13. ^ ' ^ APPENDIX

A. Questionnaire B. Letter

C. A Means of Evaluating Socioeconomic Status D. Order of Clothing Selection for Code Number Order of Code Number for Fabric Design

61 62

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

PLEASE CHECK ONLY ONE ANSWER FOR EACH QUESTION. CHOOSE THE BEST ANSWER FOR YOU. THERE ARE NO RIGHT OR WRONG ANSWERS. PLEASE BE SURE YOU ANSWER EVERY QUESTION.

A. Personal Data: 1. Home town location (which part of the United States or Taiwan) 1. North /x 2. South 3. West 4. Southwest 5. Northeast 6. East ~1. Other (Specify) 2. School location (which part of the United States or Taiwan) ^1. North < 2. South 3. West 4. Southwest 5. Northeast 6. East ~7 Other (Specify) 3. Grade classification: Elementary 12345678 High School 9 10 11 12 College 12 3 4

4. Birth date: ^ Month ij_ Year 5. Birth place: ' - (City) _Ti (State)

B. Family Background: 63

6. Cultural Background:

Father Mother a. Chinese b. Other Orientals c. English d. American X e. Mexican f. Spanish g. Other (Specify) Ages of Father ^ of Mother ri-. 8. Parents education: Circle highest number of years completed. Father Mother Elementary 123456 123456 High School 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 College 1234' l)234 Graduate School 1234 1234

9. Highest educational degree held by your father '..:^:V. -• '- your mother

10. Occupation and position: Description of his (her) job a. Father 4,^v l\aT\^ft') b. Mother VXlVil^Al^'^

11. Source of principle income: (Check only one please)

a. Inherited savings and investments _b. Earned wealth c. Profits, fees, royalties ~d. Salary, Commissions, regular income paid ~e. Wages on hourly basis, piece-work _f. Public relief or charity _g. Other (Specify) . . •

12. Religious preferences:

(n\OO0^\O, ^a. father ^^ ^^ b. mother ^^ ^) c. self 64

13. How many brothers and sisters do you have in your family:

^a. brothers \ b. sisters 14. Do you have relatives or close friends who stay abroad now? 1 a. Yes b. No If yes, where? ApiTL^X . \h(\l^rC^. Do they ever send clothes or accessories or fashion magazines to you from the place where they are?

^c. Very often _d. Sometimes e. Seldom 'f. Not al all Did you get information about fashion from them or things they sent to you? g. Yes h. No

15. DDoo you have clothing which are hand-me-down oDrr made-over? _a. 76% or more _b. 51-75% _c. 26-50% _d. 1-25% e. none

C. General Information: 16. How many clothing courses have you taken before this semester (4-H; Singer; or other organized class) a. Four or more _b. Three _c. Two _d. One e. None 65

17. Do you believe you know more about clothing because of having taken these clothing courses? ^a. very much . ^b. some _c. very little d. not at all

18. Has your mother or close relative taught you sewing?

A a. Yes b. No

19. How many art courses have you taken at school or elsewhere before this semester? ^a. Four or more _b. Three _c. Two _d. One e. None 20. What is the level of your interest in fashionable clothing? ^a. high interest ' b. some interest _c. very little d. not at all 21. How much do you like to sew for yourself? ^a. very much b. somewhat *' c. very little d. not at all 22. How much do you sew for yourself?

^a. 76-100% b. 51-75% c. 26-50% "d. 1-25% e. None 66

23. How much of the total family clothing other than your own do you sew?

Si, 76% or over b. 51-75% _c. 26-50% _d. 1-25% e. None

24. Do you prefer to have a dress-maker sew for you? ^a. very much b. somewha t _c. very little d. not at all

25. Would you prefer to buy ready-to-wear from the stores?

^a. very much _b. somewhat _c. very little d. not at all 26. Does your mother sew for you? ^a. Yes , b. No 27. Who shops for your wardrobe?

a. self b. mother c. friends d. close relatives e. other (specify)

28. Who selects most of the clothing for your wardrobe?

a. self b. mother c. friends d. close relatives e. self and friends or mother f. other (specify) 67

29 How often do you shop for your clothing?

every week or two P- once a month c. every two or three months A- every six months _e. once a year f. less than once a year

Into which of the following categories do your expenditures for clothing fall?

a. large amount ~b. average amount c. little d. none

30 Check the reasons which are most important to you when you buy a dress: (Rank the importance of each of the following five factors from 1 to 6, giving 1^ to the most important, 2 to the second, etc. until all have been rated.)

'^L a. design _b. fit _c. fabric

'•J _d. becomingness _e. price f. ease of care 31 Upon which of the following sources do you depend for your fashion information: Very Much Some Little None

Mother \_ ^ Father !i5J V Relatives Nf Dress shops TV stars » Movie stars Fashion magazines Friends, classmates 68

32. Which of the fashions of the current styles do you prefer most? (Check only ONE please.) ^a. Midi b. Maxi ^c. Mini ^d. Pants suits e. Jeans _f. Hot pants ^- Never heard of above at all 33. Do you like to wear the uniform to go to school? ^a. Yes V b. No

34. Do you prefer to wear a different dress to school other than a uniform? y. a. Yes b. No

35. If you have to wear a uniform to school, how do you like the current style of your uniform? a. very much _b. somewhat _c. very little d. not at all 36. What is your school uniform style during the summer time? (Check items that apply.) ^a. blouse b. sweater ^c. skirt ^d. pants e. dress _f. other (Specify)

37. What is your uniform style during winter time? (Check items that apply.)

a. blouse _b. sweater _c. skirt _d. pants _e. dress _f. other (Specify) 69

38. What are the colors of your uniform? (Check all the colors of your uniform.) ^a. red b. pink _c. yellow _d. green _e. beige _f. white _g. gray _h. navy _i. black J. light blue _k. brown 1. violet 39. Have you ever worn a uniform before attending this school? a. Yes b. No 40. Do you like the color of your current uniform?

^a. Yes b. No 41. Does the uniform of your school give you a feeling of pride?

a. Yes b. No

D. Individual Preference: 42. Under each style of clothing, please check the style you prefer most: (Check only ONE for each category.)

1. Dress opening:

\' a. open in back b. open in front ^c. open at side d. open to hem line in front 2. Skirts: ^a. pleated b. gathered 70 _c. flared _d. gored _e. straight 3. Sleeves:

_a. long _b. three quarter _c. short d. sleeveless 4. Skirt length:

a. to the knees _b. just below the knees _c. mid-calf _d. above the knees e. to the ankles 5. Waist line of dress:

^a. high waist line V b. low waist line _c. fit on waist line d. no waist line Neckline:

'-:) a. neckline with collar / b. collarless

PLEASE ANSWER EITHER ONE OF THE NEXT TWO QUESTIONS If you like a collar in your dress, check the type you like best: a. flat collar (Peter Pan) _b. roll collar _c. Chinese collar (Mandarin) _d. ruffle collar e. shawl collar If you like collarless styles, which type do you prefer best:

^a. high round _b. medium round _c. V shaped ' d. U shaped _e. square _f. draped 71 Specific color preference: Select the color which you prefer most, Check only one, please. a. red b. pink c. yellow d. green e. beige f. white q. gray V h. navy 1. black i. light blue k. brown 1. violet

8 Which of the above colors is most becoming to you? iiJj. m, 43. Check your preferences for clothing for each of the following occasions: Check only one outfit which you prefer most for each occasion.

Formal School Party Informal Movie Shopping Picnic Blouse skirt X Sweater skirt Trousers with top Pants suits Dress K Blue Jean ^ with top -^ ^ Suit Dress with matching -jacket tfhkw.

72

44. Design on the fabric or clothing: Check only one for the design you prefer most for each item.

Solid Small Large Polka Color Pring Print Plaid Stripe Dots Geometric

Blouse >< Skirt K Sweater K Trousers Pants suits

Dress \ Blue Jeans V Jackets

45. Did you have any difficulty in understanding the terminology of the above questions?

a. Yes b. No

46 Thank you for your cooperation •Ja»daudM

73

APPENDIX B

P.O. Box 4438 Lubbock, Texas 79409 December 1, 1971

Dear Sir:

I am taking the liberty of writing to you concern­ ing a project upon which I am engaged at the present time But first, let me introduce myself. I am Aileen Tzu-Chee Luong, a graduate student at Texas Tech University major­ ing in Clothing and Textiles. To fulfill the requirement of securing a Masters Degree, I have proposed a thesis on "A Cross-cultural Study of the Relationship Between Cloth­ ing Preferences and the Wearing of School Uniforms by Senior High School Students in Taiwan, China and the United States."

Since I lived in Taiwan until two years ago, I be­ lieve that I have a fair knowledge of the high school stu­ dents on the island. I would like to do a study of the comparison of clothing preferences between the girls wear­ ing school uniforms in Taiwan and their contemporaries in America. I have learned that your students wear school uniforms, and hence would conform to the scope of the samples in my research. I have prepared a questionnaire which takes about 20 minutes to complete. I am wondering if you would be kind enough to secure 30-35 girls between the ages of 15- 18 to help me find the answers to these questions? I would most certainly appreciate your assistance in making it possible for me to gather this material for my thesis. Should you find it possible, I will immediately forward the questionnaires upon hearing from you.

In order to complete my thesis in time, I would appreciate having your answer before February 15, 1972. In the hope of hearing from you soon and in appreciation for your kind consideration, I am. Yours sincerely.

Aileen Tzu-Chee Liang 74

APPENDIX C

A MEANS OF EVALUATING SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

TABLE III INDEX OF VALUE ORIENTATIONS

E. Education Rate 1 to 7 on ED Scale Weight—x 4 R. Religious Affiliation Rate 1 to 7 on RA Scale Weight--X 1 O. Occupation Rate 1 to 7 on OC Scale Weight--X 4 S. Source of Income Rate 1 to 7 on SI Scale Weight—x 3

TABLE IV GENERAL CONVERSION TABLE FOR STATUS INDICES

Index Relative Social Break Points Life Score Status Class and Intervals Style* Level Prediction of Indeterminancy 12 A+ (UC) 13-17 A Upper-class 12-22 Super- 18-22 A- ordinate 23-27 B+ (UM) 28-32 B Upper-Middle 25-33 Dominant 33-37 B- UM (34-37) 38-41 C-f (LM) 42-46 C Lower-Middle 38-50 Dominant 47-51 C- LM (51-53) 52-56 D+ (UL) 57-61 D Upper-Lower 54-62 Alternate 62-66 (63-66) 67-71 E+ (LL) 72-75 E Lower-Lower 67-84 Deviant 76-84 E- APPENDIX D

Order of Clothing Selection for Code Number Blue Jeans with Top 1 Trousers with Top 2 Sweater and Skirt 3

Blouse and Skirt 4 Pants Suit 5 Suit 6

Dress 7

Dress with Matching Jacket 8

Order of Code Number for Fabric Design

Solid Color 1

Small Print 2

Polka Dots 3

Stripe 4

Plaid 5

Geometric 6

Large Print 7

I TTir —'