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Moving beyond the normative-geopolitical ambiguity of the EU's imperial politics in the neighbourhood: the case of Pänke, Julian

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Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation: Pänke, J. (2014). Moving beyond the normative-geopolitical ambiguity of the EU's imperial politics in the neighbourhood: the case of Lebanon. (IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 4). Berlin: Institut für Europäische Politik e.V. (IEP). https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-393871

Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Dieser Text wird unter einer CC BY-NC-ND Lizenz This document is made available under a CC BY-NC-ND Licence (Namensnennung-Nicht-kommerziell-Keine Bearbeitung) zur (Attribution-Non Comercial-NoDerivatives). For more Information Verfügung gestellt. Nähere Auskünfte zu den CC-Lizenzen finden see: Sie hier: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/deed.de MOVING BEYOND THE NORMATIVE-GEOPOLITICAL AMBIGUITY OF THE EU’S IMPERIAL POLITICS IN THE NEIGBOURHOOD: THE CASE OF LEBANON Julian Pänke

IEP Policy Paper on Eastern Europe and Central Asia

No. 4 published 21 May 2014

The EU’s policy towards Eastern Europe and Central Asia Dialog Europa Otto Wolff - Stiftung – A key role for Germany 2 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia Published inMay2014 Layout: FabianHinz/SebastianvonStosch,IEP Executive Editor:Dr. KatrinBöttger, DeputyDirector, IEP Publisher: Prof.Dr. MathiasJopp,Director, IEP Editorial team author. CopyrightofthispaperseriesisheldbytheInstitutfürEuropäische Politik. its activities. supports Thispaper, likeallpublicationsinthisseries,represents onlytheviewofits The Institut für Europäische Politik (IEP) is astrategic partner of the ,which supported bytheOtto Wolff-Foundation. and the role of Germany therein, is led by the deputy director of IEP, Dr. Katrin Böttger and financially project, which aims at analysing the EU’s relations with its East European and Central Asian partners Central and EU’sEurope – “The Eastern Asia project towards policy AGermany”. This for role key IEP Policy Papers onEastern Europe and Central Asia About theseries promotion ofthepracticalapplicationitsresearchfindings.|www task include scientific analyses of problems surrounding European politics and integration, as well as IEP works at the interface of academia, politics, administration, and civic education. In doing so, IEP’s European of and Europeanpolicy. field the in active been has Germany’s foreign (IEP) of on one institutes is research organisation. It leading non-profit a as integration Politik Europäische für Institut the 1959, Since About IEP Frankfurt/Oder. CurrentlyherealizesaDAAD-fundedresearchprojectonEUpoliticsinLebanon. science at FreieUniversität Berlin andobtained his PhDfromtheEuropeanUniversity Viadrina in Previously, heworkedattheLebanese American University inBeirut. He studiedhistoryandpolitical His mainfocusistheEuropeanNeighbourhoodPolicyinitsEasternandSouthernDimension. Julian PänkeisResearch Associate atInstitutfürEuropäischePolitikandGermanOrient-Institute. About theauthor are published in the framework of the research .iep-berlin.de Dialog Europa Otto Wolff -Stiftung IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 3 9 5 6 12 17

fig leaf’ – a ‘normative Table of Contents of Table EU-Lebanese Relations since 2011: Increased impact due to more realism on more realism on due to Increased impact EU-Lebanese Relations since 2011: recommendations Conclusion and imperial politics The EU’s 4. the ground 5. 1. Introduction 2. 3. ENP Relations until 2011: EU-Lebanese 4 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia with thevaluesystemofEU(intermsnorms). peripheries (in terms of power)and a sustainable transformation of the neighbourhood converging geopolitical ambiguity, demanding at thesametime a geopolitically motivated stabilization of the underestimated actor intheLevant. This isthecasemainly because theENP suffers fromitsnormative- an remains still Union the successes, its Despite issues. security addressing M” “three beyond and Lebanon, especially in light of the “three M-approach” introduced by the revised ENP of Spring 2011 policies resemble geopolitical concepts. The third chapter examines the current role of the EU in civilization’of ‘standards century 19th with stabilization the whereas states; European by developed analyzes contents of thebilateral agenda,asformulated in the Action Plan,whichcanbecompared Near East. The first chapter of the paper conceptualizes the EU’s imperial politics. The second section argues that operates in legacies of imperial rule in its efforts to stabilize and transform the geopolitical ambiguity in itsexternal relations is causedbytheimperial nature of theEU. This paper documents. EU in reflected discourses normative prevalent by obscured was normative- particular A influence, and demonstrated a greater capacity to play to its political strengths. An increasing realism for claims its in assertive more – ambitions its in realistic more became EU the years, last the Over stability. of imperative enduring an fortified – in war brutal the coat-tails its on and 2011– of Uprisings The 2007. Arab in published Plan first Action the and signed was Association Agreement an year same The Lebanon. in commitment political its intensified Union European the 2005, Since Abstract IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 5 on

, FAZ, , FAZ, Action , in: Frederiga Bindi , in: Frederiga The West and the Rest The West The European Neighborhood Policy: Policy: Neighborhood The European . 5 and assuming the “normative project of project “normative the assuming and 4 . The EU’s obsession with convergence Geopolitical mindset and imperial mission mindset and imperial Geopolitical The imperial nature of the EU is based The imperial (ed.), The Foreign Policy of the European Union: Assessing Union: European of the The Foreign Policy (ed.), DC: Brookings, 99-119, Washington Role in World, the Europe’s 102. Winkler, of the German historian Heinrich-August formulation A Steinkamp (2013) Volker cited in: 07.10.2013, 7. Tom Casier (2010) Casier Tom the Region toward Policy Assessing the EU’s 5 and along other lines divided regions, prevalent regions, divided along other lines and geopolitical a Second, periphery. European the in mindset – based on an asymmetrical distribution of power – emphasizing as civilizing a Third, peripheries. the of stabilization core objective the aiming at the mission of European norm diffusion, by environment “external favorable of a creation socializing third countries to one’s way of doing things” West” the as external elements of an Empire cause the ambivalence within the EU’s external behavior, and of stability caught between the principles convergence. The first resembling the imperative possession- of a conventional, and goal-oriented the second serving as internal foreign policy, in absence of a narrow legitimacy national identity and – given imperial success – socialization of 4 and values but prioritizing short and mid-term short and prioritizing but values and long-term over an ambitious objectives stability reform agenda as reflected inPlan the ENP of and perception hinders the implementation an efficient neighbourhooddesigned to policy promote originally the imperial link between The causal interests. the EU’s own strategic nature and a superficial dominance ofnormative agendas of ENP the bilateral programming in of becoming aware highlights the importance geopolitical- the overcome To nature. of that of re-balancing conscious a ambiguity, normative short and mid- both components in favor of realist arising in measures in response to challenges term the neighbourhood is necessary. system of First, a certain elements. essential three zones of various levels Overlapping governance: and its neighborhood. Europe in of integration Such flexible means confessionally, of governanceethnically, in particularly merits have their , The European The European This self- 1 , European Journal of , European the Commission the Commission , in: Peter Seeberg (ed.), Seeberg Peter , in: Recasting the Barcelona Barcelona the Recasting Below the radar, ENP ENP radar, the Below 2 Neighbourhood at the Crossroads: Crossroads: the at Neighbourhood Hartmut Behr (2007) , Oxford: Oxford UP; Alan Posener Europe as Empire: The Nature of the of The Nature as Empire: Europe , but never gained ground in standard , but never gained ground in standard 3 Zielonka (2006) Zielonka Imperium der Zukunft. Warum Europa Weltmacht werden werden Weltmacht Europa Imperium der Zukunft. Warum , München: Pantheon; Introduction March 27 Communication March EU politics in Lebanon since 2011, after 2011, in Lebanon since EU politics Viewed from a Historical Perspective a Historical from Viewed International Relations, 13(2), 239-262. Process: Europe and the Middle East Middle and the Europe Process: Odense: Foreign Policy and Security, EU and the Mediterranean. University Press of Southern Denmark, 38–58, 54 f. Jan See Union European Enlarged (2007) muss Politics Accession EU Rule? Imperial Legacies of the Union in Joint Communication JOIN(2014) 12 final, Brussels, 27.03.2014. Brussels, final, 12 JOIN(2014) Communication Joint Cp. Roland Dannreuther (2007) European Commission (2014) Commission European in 2013 Policy Neighbourhood of the European Implementation 3 2 1 present EU politics in the neighbourhood as well present EU politics countries partner of the on side hesitation as the of ENP. the beginning of the war guided by norms relations advantages of external in Syria, reflect the imperial nature of the EU. The imperial paradigm imperial The EU. the of nature imperial couple a already debates EU into was introduced of years ago the However, relations literature. international of some imbalances concept is useful in explaining safeguarded its main strategic interest in stability in interest strategic main its safeguarded realism in its ambitions An increasing quite well. discourses was obscured by persisting normative reflected e.g. in Union’sthe ambiguity This normative-geopolitical packages. annual evaluation of the EU’s external relations is caused by the fundamental doubts about the arrangement of ENP of ENP doubts about the arrangement fundamental that in the last years the This paper argues hitherto. its claims for Union has become more assertive in influence, and demonstrated a greater capacity to strengths. political its to play to reflect on how the policy and to the very diverse contexts can better respond its instruments and how some components countries, in partner adjusted, including through the may need to be use of additional policy instruments.” critical assessment and current analyses reflect Russia in the Eastern Neighbourhood, potential Neighbourhood, Eastern the Russia in the European Neighbourhood reform ideas of Policy (ENP) the top of the agenda. In are on its the “EU should continue acknowledges, that 1. Since the eruption of an open power conflict with 6 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 6 3) and dialogue); national reform, electoral and its political institutions (e.g. role of Hezbollah, state Lebanese the strengthening 2) Syria); the smuggling of goodsandweapons to/from sovereignty (e.g. bordermanagement to avoid rather realist agenda: 1) consolidation of Lebanese principle of stability. agreed The main objectives reflect a ‘mutually’ the reform agenda,whichincreasingly prioritized the on forward moving in the overall political situation forthe impasse from thestartin2005,progressreportsblamed theory fell on fertile ground. On the other hand, in standards countries’ partner and European of ambitious norm agenda targeting a harmonization neighbourhood. Thus, onthe one handthe democratic and pluralistic country intheSouthern Lebanon appears,besidesIsrael,asthemost be shown well in the case study of Lebanon. neighbourhood. dilemma the EUcurrentlyfacesinitsSouthern a declining image. vehemently. Recent public opinion polls indicate accused of adopting double standards much more being of danger in is leaf’ fig ‘normative a behind of theEUaside,aUnionacting moreconventional suspicious. Problems of adopting the norm corset target countriesofENP becamegrowingly considerations of stability increasingly surfaced, principle became more dominant. As finally of track the resembling ‘us’. along came neighbours reports whichevaluate annually howfarthe progress publishing – monitoring benchmarking, sticks toitsstrategyofnormative programming, foreign policy tool of accession politics, the EU blinded byitsmostsuccessful In otherwords, policy and maintained its inner logic of accession relations: ENP wasdesignedasaspin-off ofEnlargement external Union’s the of evolution the stability principle, which can be explained by foreign policy, convergence usuallytrumpsthe elites in neighbouring countries. In European while-views-of-china-improve.html releases-2012/186-views-of-europe-slide-sharply-in-global-poll- Views of China Improve GlobeScan, Despite EU rhetoric, the realist stability Dynamics of the imperial nature of ENP can Views of Europe Slide Sharply in Global Poll, While 6 This constitutesanimperial

http://www.globescan.com/84-press- (lastaccess:06.01.2014) .

more stability oriented security agendatoadvocate mobility ( M-approach” “three the of light of theEUinLebanonsince2011, especially in imperialism. The thirdpartexamines the role geopolitical projecting during the era of states; European whereas thestabilization policies resemble by developed civilization’ of can becompared with19thcentury‘standards 2011, asformulated in the section second analyzes contents ofthebilateral agenda until The politics. imperial EU’s the EU inLebanonremainsunderestimated. the results ontheENP reformagendaspelledoutby progress reportssince2008arebasedonthe the country. Despite this shift in priorities, annual thenthe and since containment of spillovers of the Syrian war into Israel with cease-fire the of until 2011 thiscomprised foremost the adherence stabilization of Lebanon in its neighborhood, 8 7 of normstotherestworld. projecting its own understanding ‘civilian power’, as or norms, universal diffuses that one power’, school observes the EU either as ‘normative highlighting conceptsofsoftpower. The inclusive (democracy, rule of law, human rights) and the relevance of common norms andvalues collide Union inglobal politics two schoolsofthought When addressing the actorness of the European 2. by acknowledging theimperialnatureofUnion. relations external Europe’s in honesty more 24; n nraie oe’ e eg In anr (2002) Manners Ian e.g. see Normative powerEurope: acontradiction in terms? power’ ‘normative on 32-47; Tomorrow: Sixteen Europeans Look Ahead, London:Fontana, Duchêne François e.g. (1972) see power’ ‘civilian on 287; 286–303, and the Mediterranean Federica Bicchi (2006) Baden-Baden: Nomos. internationaler Akteur (Hrsg.) Schlotter (2007) Peter Jopp/ Mathias well as See f. 41 37-62, The EuropeanUnionasaGlobal Actor, London: Routledge, the identity and roles oftheEU CharlotteBretherton/John Vogler (2006) The first chapter of the paper conceptualizes the paper of chapter first The Action Plan The EU’s imperialpolitics 7 : Inclusivediscoursesfocusingon Europe’s RoleinWorld Peace ) introducedbytherevisedENP and a Kollektive Außenpolitik – DieEuropäische Unionals . As a consequence the role of the , IEP-ReiheEuropäischeSchriften,Bd.86, , Journal of European Public Policy, 12(2), Our size fits all: Normative power Europe , in:Bretherton/ Vogler (eds.), Action Plan , in:R.Mayne(ed.),Europe 8 Opposedtothem, money, markets, Nature oftheBeast: Journalof , which IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 7 The Empires perceive For the

13 ). Vertiefung durch durch Vertiefung , Berlin: Rowohlt, Rowohlt, , Berlin: , Berlin: Rowohlt, 9. , Berlin: Rowohlt, behavior , in: Astrid B. Boening/ Jan- , in: ; 2) opt-out clauses , Brussels: Centre for European 14 Differentiated Integration in the in Integration Differentiated Imperien. Die Logik der Weltherrschaft – der Weltherrschaft Die Logik Imperien. 16 . The Empire Strikes Back: 1989, 2011 Strikes Back: 1989, 2011 The Empire Imperien. Die Logik der Weltherrschaft Imperien. Die Logik der Weltherrschaft In bilateral arrangements In bilateral Claus Giering (1997) 17

; or 3) transition periods within periods transition 3) or ; 15 , Integration, 20(2), 72-83. , London: Routledge, 16. Julian Pänke (2013) In March 2011 this procedure was introduced for European for this procedure was introduced In March 2011 Imperial power rests on a series of concentric Imperial EU – From the inside looking out EU – From Policy Studies (CEPS); aktuellen in der – Flexibilisierungskonzepte Differenzierung Reformdebatte Herfried Münkler (2005) Cp. Staaten vom Alten Rom bis zu den Vereinigten Herfried Münkler (2005) Staaten Vereinigten Rom bis zu den Alten – vom cp. 17; Policy Neighbourhood and Europe’s Aukje van Loon (eds.), Global Power Europe Frederik Kremer/ (Vol. 2): Policies, Actions and Influence of theRelations, EU’s Berlin: External Springer, Adam 111-129; Watson (1992) Historical Comparative A Society: International of Evolution Analysis divorce law and patents. The Schengen area comprises 26 members, of which three of are non-members Switzerland) Norway, (Iceland, countries the EU – the UK and Ireland opted-out. The Euro zone currently has 18 members with Denmark and the UK opting out and as Euro using the as non-members and Montenegro national currency. (ed.) (2014) Steven Blockmans

17 share of their wealth into the development of development the into wealth of their share territories. adjacent thus are established, various degrees of integration the edges in not clearly on rule frazzles imperial that imply “This does not areas. border demarked borders are non-existent, rather actors 13 14 15 16 bilateral frameworks. Empires usually represent usually Empires frameworks. bilateral the to centre the from integration in reduction a to corresponding circles, concentric as periphery, body of law to the common adherence decreasing part in the to take possibilities and diminishing centre. process of the making decision EU, imperial fluidity was further strengthened by differentiated integration – capable of integrating 1) enhanced It includes: non-EU members. to allows a group of states which cooperation, other without any area in integration advance involved being members and the UK in the Euro zone (e.g. for Denmark or Schengen area) movement for free (e.g. accession treaties the new for the market single of labour within the member states of 2004) of the bindings legal abating on based circles periphery towards the core ( logic of appeasing their follow a geopolitical regions by investing a considerable peripheral

http:// The EU in behavior resulting in resulting The imperial

Power over the sea: 10 Nature of the Beast: Nature . Such flexible Empires and the Modern and the Empires 12 Reading the EU as Reading the EU as ‘Normative’ power Europe: power Europe: ‘Normative’

, external 9 . , in: Bretherton/ Vogler, The , in: Vogler, Bretherton/ is established on vertical (last access: 10.04.2014). structure 392. Geopolitics, 17(3), 502-525. 11 . Structural policy and Multi-level governance Structural policy and Multi-level structure , Journal of European Public Policy, 13(1), 217– , Journal of European Public Policy, mission , in: Alan Cafruny/ Glenda Rosenthal (eds.), The State The (eds.), Rosenthal Glenda Alan Cafruny/ , in: , Mediterranean Politics, 14(3), 323–342; for the East: Imperial politics resemble a structure of a structure resemble politics Imperial The imperial of the European Community: The Maastricht Debate and Beyond, The Maastricht of the European Community: Boulder (CO), 391-411, A popular A definition of “Empire” providedWikipedia, by en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire Cp. Jan Zielonka’s (2012) Jan Zielonka mission, in: and ideas on imperial International System, structures, behavior Gary Marks (1993) EC in the A realist critique realist A 234; for the South: Stefano Costalli (2009) Euro-Mediterranean to realism neoclassical of relevance The relations Andrey Devyatkov (2014) Andrey Makarychev/ Has Normative Power become Geopolitical? Eastern Europe: PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo No. 310, February. Common Market Studies, 40(2), 235-258. (2006) Vogler Charlotte Bretherton/ John of the EU and roles the identity European Union as a Global Actor, London: Routledge, 37-62, (2006) Hyde-Price Adrian e.g. see 38;

10 11 12 between the imperial core and the regions in between the imperial 9 overarching policy networks and networks policy overarching nested governments among “negotiations constant at several grades of autonomy allow different arrangements territorial tiers” negotiations and constant for its members civilizing governance, multi-dimensional and horizontal leading to a ‘variable and regional, national, supranational, arranged geometry’ of vertically in horizontally enmeshed authorities, local (…) as a coercive, hegemonic empire of indirect empire hegemonic coercive, (…) as a conquest and control with power.” rests on three nature of the Union essentially political elements: mindset and a sense of based on a geopolitical domination based on asymmetrical distribution distribution based on asymmetrical domination is a Furthermore, “an empire of power. and group of states extensive geographically An imperial (…) groups) united. peoples (ethnic maintained and established is structure political practices like subsidies, health standards etc. standards subsidies, health like practices These accounts converge around “relatively fixed geographical and cultural boundaries” as what is to be considered European” both approaches. empire allows combining Bretherton and Vogler conceptualize the more the conceptualize Vogler and Bretherton on protectionism, discourses based exclusive realist a ‘Fortress Europe’ build upon exclusionary 8 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia hy ersn gae o pwr n influence.” and power of grades represent they do notseparateequalpolitical entities, instead somewhat open to manipulation. As such, borders and variable be to significance and location their 21 20 19 18 which and ‘objective’ apparently as function proclaiming “ of geography’ ‘critical and internal politics, in line with constructivism staying ontrackoftheexternaldimension appeared somewhat trapped in Enlargement, ground oflegitimacy. As aresultENP after2003 principle of convergence sustained essential between 1993and2004the accession process of Central and Eastern European elites in the unification of Europe’ and successful socialization the of project West”“normative case oftheEUthismissionisrepresentedby an instrumentagainsttheeruptionofchaos.In but and democracy or thediffusion ofsocialism, might differ, e.g. supporting the spread of freedom or provide legitimacy by projecting some higher aim of anarrownational identity, imperial identities and foremostinterestedinsecuringitself. first being thus interests, policy foreign its pursue EU displaysthewillingnesstousethatpower between itself and itsneighbours.Increasingly the but isquiteawareoftheunequalpowerrelations still apply soft,civilian or normative policy tools stability. Fromthatperspective, theUnionmay borders” external its towards out’ ‘fading be will that EU as well as inENP, conveying the governed states” in the European Security Strategy Brussels emphasized such a“ringofwell-

mission toward the Region The European Neighborhood Policy: Assessing the EU’s Policy Onsimilarities of Enlargement andENP see Tom Casier (2010) Seefootnote5. Review, 10,17-38,26. towards theSouthernMediterranean? ENP: What’s atStakewiththeEuropean Neighbourhood Policy Raffaella A. DelSarto/ Tobias Schumacher (2005) Comparative Perspective Washington DC:Brookings,99-119. World, the in Role Europe’s Assessing Union: European the of

Due tointernal heterogeneity and theabsence Karen Barkey(2008) imperial missionsinanycasepretendtobe 19 , whileestablishingtheprincipleof to theexterior. Ideologiesandnarratives political and legal standards which , in:Frederiga Bindi (ed.), The Foreign Policy Empire ofDifference. The Ottomansin , Cambridge:HarvardUP, 21. ‘defining authority’ ‘defining

European Foreign Affairs European 20 , throughthe‘re- “image of an From EMP to 18 21

for differentiated integration inthefuture. allowed ofMaastricht the Treaty and time; first formulating common values to theexterior for the defined the benchmarks for joining the union, thus formulation of the Copenhagen Criteria which degrees ofintegration. The year1993markedthe the 1990s, creating overlapping zonesofvarious market realized multi-dimensional governance in union. today’s Enlargement and the implementation of the single govern that rules and established those legalconcepts,principles activities in theEasternhalfofcontinent after theendofCold War. Brusselsexternal the EU’s transformativepowerlostitsappeal. since aclear membership perspective was omitted, to adopttheEuropeanwaysofdoingthings.But elites the neighbouring socializing by influence of zone Europe’s expand gradually to intention power” of have tobeaccepted forparticipating in thegame 24 23 censuses, 22 with attributes; their and people century that “occupied itself (…) with classifying tradition of imperial bureaucracy in the 19 peripheries.” the is monitored in evaluation procedures in the at states the centre and zones of lesspolitically developed projecting a worldorderwithEuropeanstatesat model geopolitical a finally and states; and European steps different paces ofcooperationbetween Europeanandnon- define which regulations second, standards; the define authoritatively who the “first, features: general self-perception of European states as those general three comprising civilization’, of ‘standards of politics on based is

Europe: Security, Territory, andIdentity, London:Sage,59-93. Pavel Baev/ Victoria Einagel (eds), Geopolitics inPost-Wall (1997) Wæver Ole Analogies toPre-Nation StateImperialSystems cp. 240; 239-262, Perspective Imperial Rule?EU Accession Politics Viewed from aHistorical (2007) Behr Hartmut Psychogenetic Investigations Norbert Elias (1939) Inacivilizing processdescribed by Norbert Elias, see (February), 239-262,241. Perspective Imperial Rule?EU Accession Politics Viewed from aHistorical (2007) Behr Hartmut As inthe19 The European Union asEmpire wasestablished 22 , EuropeanJournalofInternational Relations, 13(2), , European Journal ofInternational Relations, 13.2 a iiiig mission civilizing a – th century, imperial rule of theEU The Civilizing Process. Sociogenetic and The European Union in the Legacies of The European Union in the Legacies of , Oxford:Blackwell(2000). 24 Harmonization Emerging European 23 , in:Ola Tunander/ wt the with –

Eastern th

IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 9 - , Carnegie At the same 30 European European Conflict Management in The EU as a realist actor in normative The EU as a realist , Democratization, 16(1), 81-99, 82. While the Union was increasingly While 29 EU-Lebanese Relations un EU-Lebanese – a ‘normative ENP til 2011: fig leaf’ Lebanon should be the perfect target country target perfect should be the Lebanon the Middle East: Toward a More Effective Approach Effective a More East: Toward the Middle Berlin: ), Center, East Middle 14 (Carnegie Papers, No. 1. February, SWP, (2009) Peter Seeberg the European in Lebanon and EU democracy promotion clothes: Policy Neighbourhood Cp. Muriel Asseburg (2009) Asseburg Muriel Cp.

30 security threats emanating from the Southern the from emanating threats security neighborhood; mainly spillover or uncontrolled crime, terrorism, organized of conflicts, migration. to and willing guided by security considerations the civilian project its power in the neighbourhood, human rights promotion and of democracy agenda was threatened to be perceived as ‘normative fig leaf’. in the Southern neighbourhood for diffusing the present does “not as it policies, normative as and character institutions same authoritarian Arab other countries in the region.” of adoption the favor considerations security time, approaches less ambitious and more conventional to The stability. civil war from 1975 to 1990, the continuing conflict with Israel and the spillovers from the war in Syria can is based in Lebanon leadership Political security. jeopardize Europe’s 29 the perspective of its partner countries, the EU’s like to be perceived values run danger norms and sense, as concealing in a Marxian an ideology actual distributions legitimizing and therefore EU has to overcome the negative The of power. in its neighbourhood its image repercussions of and at the same time – seemingly contradictory – its imperial nature. learn to deal with 3. of imperial establishment to the In parallel of EU foreign policy Europe and the development have Europeans 1990s, the the in instruments involvement political their increased gradually in the and moved to assert their interests These interests are Near East more forcefully. and proximity by geographic inspired largely perceived and include considerations geopolitical

, Julian . From 28 adopting a Civilian Power or Power Civilian Between Metropole Metropole Between , in: Cooper/ Stoler http://www.nytimes. , there remains is established On their annual On their 27

25 conventional stability conventional (last access: 22.03.2012). The American Empire: The Burden American Empire: The , München: Pantheon, 94; cp. cp. Imperium der Zukunft. Warum Europa Europa Imperium der Zukunft. Warum , in: Astrid B. Boening/ Jan-Frederik , in: , European Foreign Affairs Rewiev, 10(4), 535- Rewiev, Affairs Foreign , European The Empire Strikes Back: 1989, 2011 and Europe’s and Europe’s Strikes Back: 1989, 2011 The Empire - and now the ENP countries. ENP - and now the 26 Ignatieff (2003) Ignatieff Imperial politics mix politics Imperial com/2003/01/05/magazine/the-american-empire-the-burden. html?pagewanted=all&src=pm New York Times Magazine, 05.01.2003, Magazine, Times York New Berlin: Springer, 111-129, 119. 111-129, Berlin: Springer, (2005) Söderbaum Fredrik Björn Hettne/ of Role and the Actor Global The EU as a Imperialism? Soft Interregionalism 552, 550. Michael World, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1-56, 11. World, Alan Posener (2007) muss werden Weltmacht Pänke (2013) Policy Neighbourhood 2): (Vol. Power Europe (eds.), Global Loon van Aukje Kremer/ Policies, Actions and Influence of the EU’s External Relations, Cooper, Frederick/ Cooper, Ann Laura Stoler (1997) Agenda a Research and Colony: Rethinking of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois Tensions (eds), “strategic use of norms (democracy promotion, “strategic

27 28 26 a hesitation to consider the EU as a hesitation to consider the EU “soft imperialism” or as an “empire lite” 25 but ENP rhetoric of ownership and a symmetric of ownership and a symmetric rhetoric but ENP by a restructuring is not accompanied partnership Since the patterns of interaction. of hierarchical power toolkit hard of the EU uses instruments (financial support, market access) policy in the sense of security politics and a politics security sense of in the policy norm of long-term policy foreign strategic diffusion aiming at a sustainable transformation – and thus deeper stabilization – of the peripheries. A human rights, market logic)” Great Britain, Italy or – as in – case of Lebanon France. These Southern the in politics EU complicate further individual imperial legacies Mediterranean. contradicting all claims of joint ownership, were of joint claims all contradicting colonialism of history long a by intensified further in the European neighbourhood the – actors (as Prussia, Habsburg, by German in the East or Russia (USSR), in the South German Reich) by European powers like by direct colonialization tours, EU representatives appraised, through the appraised, through representatives tours, EU use of ‘safeguards’, ‘benchmarks’, ‘monitoring’ and ‘screening’, the ‘progress’ of the accession candidates relationship, asymmetrical Perceptions of this surveys, and routines, establishing space, marking transactions, ethnographies; with and recording standardizing practices.” 10 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia In 2006the Lebanon. to contributors financial main the were trade relationsandthemember statesandBrussels published, LebanonandtheEUalreadyhadstrong preparation ofan military personnel. the entrepreneurs (among them the Hariri clan), clients, and Syria’s movements), salafist Sunni Lebanese the among elites: religious rebels(includingHezbollah, identified be can five groups pact”; sharing power “cross-sectarian a on 32 31 somewhat hiddeninthedocuments,causing the interests. Unfortunately the securityagenda appears security Union’s the serving policies standards, while promoting conventional foreign gradual convergence of Lebanese withEuropean rhetorically emphasize transformationand towards politics Lebanon. ContentsoftheEUdocuments EU’s the in identifiable easily politics ( attempts ofreform. as the of the overallregionalstablesecurityenvironment importance the and integrity” territorial and sovereignty full Lebanon’s restoring of objective at short-term stability, emphasizing “the important European politicsadoptedarealist agenda aiming and reform supporting thenational dialogue. electoral And asaresult, as – institutions political the agenda to rather short-term stabilization of Lebanese realities, Brussels quickly reduced in the spirit of convergence. While adapting to Union” European the of those to standards and norms legislation, Lebanon’s of approximation the advance “significantly to seeks and ENP of serves asbaseforthe ambitious reform agenda followed by the 33

Ibid.,2. Modern Lebanon (2007) Traboulsi Fawwaz 239-266; Publishers, Negotiating the Politics of Change,London:Lynne Rienner Political Dynasties (2004) El-Husseini Rola UP; Oxford Oxford: in Wartime Lebanon. DeclineofaStateandRiseNation (1993) Hanf e.g. Theodor see Lebanon on 84; Ibid., Plan (2007) Policy Neighbourhood European n 05 we te first the when 2005, In All three elements of European imperial , 1. sine quanon authority, behaviour, mission) Association Agreement , London:PlutoPress. , in: Volker Perthes (ed.): Arab Elites: 31 Action Plan Association Agreement precondition for all further Country Report f 07 which 2007, of EU-Lebanon Action Lebanon: Building wassigned, A Historyof Coexistence was in are 32 33 .

fetv institutions.” effective good governance and transparent, stable and of democracy andthe rule of lawincluding “work together to promote thesharedvalues The programmes” progressively in key aspects of EU policies and Market, Internal EU’sand thepossibility for the in of economic stake a including degree significant a “ and by Lebanon in adopted bytheEuropeanUnionin cooperation. the groundandthusmerely imitating meaningful technocratic process unawareofthe realities on a in resulting – commission EU the case this – in agencies imperial diffusion bureaucratic by to norm out carried approach one-size-fits-all a ambitions. This misperception is the result of impression of an instrumental use ofnormative 37 36 35 34 Mediterranean PeaceandStabilityCharter.” (…) onceconditionsarefavourable, a Euro- interests since themain objective is to bilateral approach byhighlighting its regional issues. Furthermore,theUnionissoftening Southern Neighbourhood,focusesonmigration Brussels inlinewithsimilardocumentsthe is understandablyofparamountimportance, nationals” by Union” own nationals, stateless persons and third country European the improving “cooperation regarding and Lebanon into should issues. and security freedom justice, of field the in cooperation hard security interests surfaceinthe sections on narrative. Behind theambitious reform agenda, typical formulation for anideal and non-binding perspective of moving beyond cooperation to

normative clothes: EU democracy promotionnormative clothes:EU inLebanonandthe Plan (2007) Policy Neighbourhood European Ibid.,18. Ibid.,4. Plan (2007) Policy Neighbourhood European The ENP political dialogue section , 7+8. Cp. Peter Seeberg(2009) Peter Cp. 7+8. , , 2. These passages demand that “prevent andcontrolillegal immigration as well as 36 Thus, sinceinternal securityofEurope 34 throughnormative programming. EU-Lebanon Action Plan EU-Lebanon Action aur 2007 January regional andinternational 35

This represents a Lebanon toparticipate The EU as a realist actor in

emphasizes to EU-Lebanon Action EU-Lebanon Action readmission of

oeig the opening ; October 2006

integration,

“promote Lebanon 37 was

IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 11

turn - Action Plans Action Action Plans Action

strengthen positive strengthen

The 42 and instead of supporting of supporting instead and per se , OSW Studies, issue 36, April, Warsaw: OSW, 10. OSW, Warsaw: April, Studies, issue 36, , OSW To accomplish a fair evaluation of evaluation a fair accomplish To 43 Integration or Imitation? EU policy towards its Eastern towards EU policy Integration or Imitation? . This is a result of a normative-geopolitical This is a result of a normative-geopolitical . 41 EU-Lebanese Relations Increased im since 2011: pact due to more realism on the ground The declared objectives in the ENP documents in the ENP objectives The declared Ibid., 573. On the (2011) Eastern Partnership: Katarzyna Neighbours Pełczyńska-Nałęcz Ibid., 12.

41 42 43 to both member both parties. demotivating and partner “an objective into states”, while the they will be merely imitating integration process.” has to EU politics in the Near East, Brussels nature, imperial its reconsider in in stabilization outcomes of political readings favor of its transformation record. 4. geopolitical their with Arab states the Uprisings in of Treaty of the along with changes implications represented Lisbon concerning EU foreign policy, a shift away from normative first demanded expectations; a new the focus on stability the and misunderstandings concerning the evaluation of the evaluation concerning misunderstandings policy. neighbourhood impact of EU’s quality and are predominantly Lebanon concerning considers the Union actually while normative, a Lebanon into e.g. embedding its own security, migration on focusing and context regional the mismatch Analysts identify “a dramatic issues. instruments realist-inspired between short-term and the highly in Lebanon ENP promoted by the that call objectives constructivist and idealistic of democracy and rule of for the shared values law” of the nature imperial the in originating ambiguity principle of the values exchange internal The EU. as ground for new legitimacy of convergence public referenda in gained strength by the failed May 2005 on a in Netherlands and the France European constitution; visible in the to seemed Southern neighbourhood and of the normative ENP’s The 2011. until least at dominate agenda runs danger to be “incomprehensible

39 , Staff , Staff , Staff , Staff , Joint (for Reports The Action Plan Action

Progress Reports Progress , Democratization, 16(1), 81-99, , Democratization, Implementation of the European of the European Implementation of the European Implementation Implementation of the European Implementation of the European The example of Lebanon Lebanon of example The 40 In context of the June 2009 the of context In 38 . Action Plan Action The fixation on the ambitious goals of Neighbourhood Policy in 2010, Country Report: Lebanon Policy Neighbourhood 2. 637, Brussels, 25.05.2011, Paper SEC(2011) Working Staff European Commission (2009) Report Lebanon in 2008, Progress Policy Neighbourhood Document SEC(2009) 518/2, Brussels, 23.04.2009. Working European Commission (2010) Report Lebanon in 2009, Progress Policy Neighbourhood Document SEC(2010) 522, Brussels, 12.05.2010. Working European Commission (2011) European Neighbourhood Policy Neighbourhood European 81.

38 39 40 countries, worsened by imperial agencies far away countries, worsened by imperial from their potential partners; and bound to invite not able to adopt a significant numberthe of implementation the for essential are which of laws, ENP Action Plan.” focus on convergence the continued shows that in to fail is destined in the spirit of Enlargement Southern ENP the in realities political of the light the killing of former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri arena and political the Lebanese (…) polarised of key institutions the functioning paralysed Due to the the cabinet. and parliament including was parliament Lebanese the impasse, political the “progress was achieved elections, parliamentary in the area of electoral reform”; accompanied by Observation Mission (EOM). an EU Election Special the over controversy “the 2010, In tasked with investigating for Lebanon Tribunal cooperation, the complex political realities the complex political cooperation, track the progress along any substantial hindered The May 2008 clashes between of convergence. political a to let Hezbollah and government the in line with deadlock which blocked draft laws covering the years on very few positive expressions with critical 2007-2011 were basically acknowledging slow progress in fields of human reform, social sector reform and rights, judicial nature of trade issues. the technocratic Besides simulated monitoring, which led to a somewhat in Lebanon. The annual The in Lebanon. since 2008) focus on the Lebanon published and in a technocratic process of harmonization and mark agenda reform through the run procedure goals. with checks all accomplished normative programming in the in the programming normative politics evaluation of EU an unbalanced leads to 12 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia n ihs ewe bten un andAlawite visible Sunni between e.g. between 2011; fights summer in eruptions since to intensifying violence of lead conflict Syrian Lebanese Army.” furnishing aid to the security services and the by power ‘hard’ more with combined jobs, and to address social issues like lack of education ‘soft’both assistance “provide should EU the that normative-geopolitical ambiguity, emphasized EU’s the reflecting Eichhorst, situation security Commission. To stabilize an increasingly fragile in Lebanon than the former Delegation of the EUpolitics on impact higher significantly a had the Delegation enjoyed more competences and Laurent, Angelina Eichhorst as newhead of Action Plan stability and pushed the reform agenda of the naturally requiredastrongerfocusonshort-term adopt tonewcircumstancesinthecountrywhich established in January of the same year to quickly theinstitutions forced in Brusselsandthe EU Delegation in Beirut war The significantly. the contextofEU-Lebaneserelations changed beginning of the war in Syria in March 2011, Union. the of responses’ made ‘tailor enhances thelocal room ofmanoeuvre and allows new approachtoimplementing ENP. The EEAS second created theinstitutional capacities for a hallmarking the disassociation of all Lebanese negotiated the Baabda Declaration of June2012, the importance of neutrality andsuccessfully dominating the government, Mikati emphasized led coalition in June2011. DespiteHezbollah entrepreneur Najib Mikatiformed a Hezbollah- 2011, mainlybyHezbollah. The wealthySunni Saad HaririinJanuary led tothetopplingofPM Hariri in February 2005. The gridlock on the STL Rafiq Minister Prime former of assassination the Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL), probing the pro-Syrianoppositiononcontroversial the aggravated conflict tensions between the government coalition and Syrian the politics, In neighbourhoods in the Northern city of Tripoli. 44

hope fordeal:EUenvoy InterviewwithKareemShaheen(2014) The involvement of Lebanese actors in the to the side. As successorto Patrick 44 , The DailyStar(Lebanon),19.02.2014. Cabinet proof there is

With the

the balance of political forces. InOctober2012, destabilizing the socio-economic environmentand an extremely sensitive security environment by had Syria political structures, the present refugees create today’s which in mirrored in are – war role decisive a a played – war civil the of composed along dynastical lines, and the militias capita concentrationofrefugeesworldwide. per- highest world’s the with country the into it of thecurrentpopulation in Lebanon, turning 25% represent refugees Syrian numbers, official help the country to deal with the crisis. Basedon called repeatedly the international community for more support to officials Lebanese crisis. the startof the since inSyria violence the fled who in Lebanon refugees, registeredwithUNHCR, of January2014therearenearly930,000 As the spiraling refugee crisisneedscloseattention. highly visible.Bordersareasporousever, and actors fromtheconflictinSyria. 46 http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27- 45 military involvement of the Lebanese militia Hassan Nasrallahopenlyacknowledgeddirect A fewweekslater, Hezbollah Secretary General – declaration Baabda Prime Minister Mikati resigned in March 2013. the violating thus – war Syrian the in fighters) and weapons of smuggling Lebanese actors gotincreasingly involved (border salafist Hezbollah as supportersofthe with Assad regime. As sheikhs ideologies, called forJihadinSyriaandattacked Sunni . and around Homsandthecorridorlinking Aleppo Bekaa valley, closetothecontestedareasinSyria Armed Forces(LAF)clashedintheNortheastern Syria, followersofHezbollah andthe Lebanese rebelsin the of supporters of 2013, months first assassinations tothestreetsofLebanon. In the General Wissam al-Hassan reintroduced political the bomb attack on Internal Security Forces (ISF)

access: 04.05.2014) lebanonnews/545875-eu-supports-dissociation-policy said, for Refugees(UNHCR) Earlier onSunday, the HigherCommissioner 477.pdf 4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/Lebanon%20S%202012%20 on 11 June2012, BaabdaDeclaration issuedbytheNational Dialogue Committee Since political leadership in Lebanon is still In 2013,thespilloversofSyrianwarwere (lastaccess:10.01.2014) https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/ 45

(last 46

IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 13 ), mobility Since the Since 52

Sally Khalifa Sally ; significantly Euro-Med: European European Euro-Med: as and 51 indicate, that the that indicate, A less ambitious less A The Quest for Intercultural The Quest for Intercultural 50 , Middle East Report, No. 220 Report, East , Middle markets , Action Plan Action Peace and security 40%, Trade

money , EUI Working Papers, RSCAS, 2010/74, Florence: . ENPI – EU Neighbourhood Barometer, Autumn 2012, The political impact of the Union is now of impact The political Dialogue in the Euro-Mediterranean Region: Opportunities and Region: Opportunities Dialogue in the Euro-Mediterranean Challenges EUI, 13; cp. Sheila Mediterranean in the Ambitions Carapico (2001) (Autumn), 25-27. Ibid., 10. 20.03.2013, 19. Atwan (2010) Sally Khalifa Isaac

52 [questioning] the intensions and credibility of that [questioning] the intensions and credibility hegemonic power to the north,” Atwan Isaac noted. “three adopted the of in terms analyzed M-approach” ( environment, security and given the fragile addressing by EU initiatives complemented security Money The EU is Lebanon’s States): United the (followed by Syria and partner most important trading it accounted for 29% of Lebanon’s total trade in Exports to the EU amounting to €5.6 billion. 2011, Lebanese represent imports around from 11%; the EU amount to 38% of Lebanese trade. mid-1990s, the EU has been the leading donor to 50 51 formulated in the in formulated strengthening Brussels’ influencein the the expectations anticipating and better in Lebanon the of polls Opinion neighbourhood. Southern Barometer EU Neighbourhood would appreciate the Southern ENP in societies a than more of stability a focus on the principle the Among on convergence. focus continued ‘most beneficial areas of EU and respondents ENPI South’, highlighted: Trade 23%, 26%, Tourism Economic Democracy 18%, Development Education important areas’: 15%. 21%, On than ‘most 36%, than Human Rights future should 25%. be: Peace and Focus security 31%, Trade in the 18%, Human Rights 14%. Union to move beyond the enables reform agenda of patterns hierarchical its with history colonial claimed ‘superiority’ and diffuse the continued initiatives of European and mistrust “suspicion norms, structures, its values, to disseminate to the southern partners. (…) and institutions

, 48 Syria- , Daily Progress Progress Car bomb in Beirut Car bomb in , Daily Star (Lebanon), Twin suicide car bombings kill Twin Implementation of the European of the European Implementation , Joint Staff Working Document Working , Joint Staff , Daily Star (Lebanon), 02.02.2014; Rima Stabilizing a deteriorating security a deteriorating Stabilizing The formation of a new Lebanese formation The 49 47 Suicide Bomber kill 25 near Iran Embassy in Beirut , Daily Star (Lebanon), 19.02.2014; Dana Khraiche, changes significantly in2011, reflecting Forced by the Syrian war, the EU favored quite Forced by the Syrian war, Due to intensified EU-Lebanese relations SWD(2012) 117 final, Brussels, 15.05.2012, 2. SWD(2012) 117 Ibid., 2. Daily Star (Lebanon), 19.11.2013. European Commission (2012) and in 2011 Policy in Lebanon: Progress Neighbourhood for action recommendations For more information on the attacks (mainly targeting Hezbollah targeting (mainly on the attacks For more information support for the Syrian for their active strongholds in retaliation Amrieh, Antoine Shaheen/ see e.g. Kareem regime), linked clashes in Beirut leave on dead 24.03.2014; Kareem Shaheen, six in Beirut Star (Lebanon), 21.02.2014; Dana Khraiche, wound 77 kills four, Aboulmona, Suspected suicide bombing in Beirut suburb kills four

49 48 47 e.g.), and reviving a depressed economy represent e.g.), and reviving a depressed economy since in Lebanon for EU politics priorities the 2011. efficient stability politics over the reform agenda preserved its political stability, sovereignty and stability, preserved its political the pursued by policy the due to unity internal government.” legitimate situation, support of durable and elections (through timely institutions political It concludes that “in the context of a volatile It concludes that “in the context world, and most importantly Arab in the situation successfully in the neighbouring Syria, Lebanon strong commitment to cooperation with the EU. with the to cooperation strong commitment out, gave High level visits, which were carried the bilateral relations an additional impetus.” on the reformed ENP and e.g. referring for the and e.g. referring reformed ENP on the first time to individual performances of Lebanese and clearly highlighting the stability politicians of Prime Minister “The new cabinet principle. Najib Mikati, which took office in July, showed was inaugurated as Prime Minister of a national Minister as Prime was inaugurated coalition government; until prime minister. remained caretaker then, Mikati had of the Syrian crisis the tone caused by the Reports nearly 20 soldiers died. Since fall 2013 Lebanon fall 2013 Lebanon soldiers died. Since nearly 20 almost bombings suicide in witnesses casualties every week. 2014, 15 February until stalled government when the designated Tammam Salam finally in Syria. In June, supporters of radical Sheikh Sheikh radical supporters of In June, Syria. in in the multi-confessional LAF the Assir fought clashes In the of Beirut. of Sidon, south city 14 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 54 53 though profits their stabilizing by areas these leverage to avoidaradicalization of farmers in has identified socio-economic measures as helpful the North and theBekaa valley inthe East. The EU of areas agricultural the in especially – Lebanon a serioussecurityrisktothesocial fabrique of The work force of the Syrian refugees represents Delegation in Lebanon indicated potential uses: a represent potentially very powerful tool of ENP. The EU Market Internal EU’s the in Stakes Markets much higher. to react quickly to short-term challenges this leverage would be be capable to flexible more applied be could instruments financial if politics, gave Brusselsconsiderable leverage in Lebanese helped substantially to stabilize the country and crisis refugee the in funding EU 1970s. mid the an importantfactorinigniting theCivil War in Palestinian refugees afterbeingexpelled fromJordanwere when history; violent Lebanon’s of given the tragic rolerefugees had played in the past Union; the of commitment remarkable a in the refugee crisis inLebanon, andrepresents makes theEUmostimportantcontributor agencies andNGOs. the of Office European Commission (ECHO) through UN Humanitarian the via channeled government; Lebanese whereas the remaining €135.3 million are the to budget ENPI the funds, €85million have been contracted through allocated an additional €222.8 million. Of these December 2013, the European Commission has Lebanon handlingtheSyrianrefugeecrisis.Until approximately €50 million, was expanded to help €150 million2011-2013. and (2007-2010), (ENPI) Instrument Partnership million under theEuropeanNeighborhoodand €187 (2000–2006), II MEDA under million €235 under MEDA I(1995-1999)were€182million, Lebanon. The total amounts offundscommitted

Delegation of theEuropeanUniontoRepublic of Lebanon, cooperation/lebanon/lebanon_en.htm http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/where/neighbourhood/country- Delegation of theEuropeanUniontoRepublic of Lebanon, EU responsetotheSyriancrisis,16.12.2013. The annualsupport,amounting to 54 The financial support financial The 53 (lastaccess:12.01.2014)

challenge remains thehighsanitarystandardsto as honey, dairy productsandmeat. The biggest arrangements for other agricultural good aswell, mentioned. Agreement negotiated under the from a 50.000 tonsduty free quota for potatoes benefit to Lebanon allow prices. will decision The compete with Syrian potatoes offered at dumping blocked by thewarinSyriaandprices cannot to Jordanand , nowtransportroutesare were soldontheinternal market orexported North) andtheBekaavalley. agricultural production regionsof Akkar (inthe originating from the two most important Lebanese of warepotatoesnotintendedforplanting,and spread, the European Commission allowed imports rural LebanonandtoavoidtheSyrianwar summer 2013,inordertoalleviate pressure from and cheaplaborprovidedbySyrianrefugees.In market the flooding goods agricultural Syrian of competitive pricing, when facing the challenge 57 http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/lebanon/press_corner/all_news/ 56 55 focused verymuch on itsownsecurity by of civil society. As mentioned earlier, theUnion especially for studentsandactiveparticipants of partnerships necessity the and people”-contacts ENP highlights theimportance of“people-to- Mobility the sanitaryqualityinmid-term. employment stable andprojects which enhance Lebanon gives grantsforruraldevelopers to keep export them to the Union. Thus, the Delegation in

14.01.2014. Interview with EU diplomats at the European Delegation, Beirut, news/2013/20130909_2_en.htm European Union (09/09/2013) Lebanon toexportpotatoesfrom Akkar andtheBekaato the crisis.” Syrian the for thoseagricultural regions mostaffected by the impact of expected to providesubstantial economic opportunity, particularly European Union,L 205/13. the of Journal Official (2013/413/EU), 4683) C(2013) document in the regions of Akkar and Bekaa of Lebanon potatoes, otherthanpotatoesintended for planting,originating certain provisions ofCouncilDirective 2000/29/EC inrespect of 2013 authorisingMemberStatestoprovide forderogations from European Commission (2013) “The possibility to exportpotatoes intotheEuropean Union is . The political intention is explicitly 56 Currently the EUconsiderssimilar o aiiae ia rcsig – processing visa facilitate to

Lebanon Potatoes to EU – Now possible for possible Now – EU to Potatoes Lebanon EU-Lebanon Association Implementing Decision of 30 July ? (lastaccess:17.01.2014) 55 Lebanesepotatoes 57 (notified under (notified mobility IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 15

63 66 . , worth , fostering , fostering indicate that a that indicate Cabinet Proof there is there Proof Cabinet Developing National Developing

Towards A Comprehensive EU Comprehensive A Towards Implementation of the European of the European Implementation Implementation of the European of the European Implementation of the European Implementation 65 , Joint Staff Working Document Working , Joint Staff , Joint Staff Working Document Working , Joint Staff Document Working , Joint Staff , Joint Communication JOIN(2013) , Joint Communication Marie Curie programme , Daily Star (Lebanon), 19.02.2014. Horizon 2020 Marie Curie programme Curie Marie “Moreover, the EU will explore the EU will “Moreover, 64 In the In 62 In December 2011, Brussels and Lebanon In December 2011, Approach to the Syrian Crisis Approach 22 final, Brussels, 24.06.2013, 5. European Commission (2012) and in 2011 Policy in Lebanon: Progress Neighbourhood for action recommendations final, Brussels, 15.05.2012, 5. SWD(2012) 117 European Commission (2012) and in 2011 Policy in Lebanon: Progress Neighbourhood for action recommendations final, Brussels, 15.05.2012, 15. SWD(2012) 117 European Commission (2014) in 2013 and in Lebanon: Progress Policy Neighbourhood for action recommendations SWD(2014) 92 final, Brussels, 27.03.2014, 19+20. Interview with Kareem Shaheen (2014) hope for deal: EU envoy Commission (2013) European

66 the only way to get out of the Syrian crisis “sound the out of only way to get the and sane.” of capabilities possibilities of strengthening the structures as a way to security state Lebanese of Lebanon and the stability improve the stability of the region as a whole.” new project a signed and Stabilisation for Security Capability ISF (Internal enhancing further €12 million, competences. organizational Forces) Security Furthermore, the Union identified support for 62 63 64 65 2007). 13 Lebanese collaboration, research international increased funding By 2013 participated. fellows by €2.7 million initiating new in the participants projects and 32 of the impact indicate The increased numbers in Beirut in raising awareness the EU Delegation for EU programs and national contexts – responding in the to Lebanese case a difficult education and heterogeneous de-centralized very landscape. The Lebanese the within initiatives embracing (CNRS) Council Scientific Research funding framework and has been acknowledged shift of EU politics appreciated. the presence of the EU delegation is Beyond “three M”: Security security immediate on focus realist more A EU-Lebanese dominate to started concerns the of head the to According 2011. since relations Angelina Eichhorst, in Lebanon, EU Delegation the “adherence to the policy of disassociation” is

in

Even if , similar , similar - as well 60 Directive . Blue Card Blue EU-Lebanon Action Applicants require Blue Card Blue Card Blue Card remained limited”; is mainly the fault of fault the is mainly 59

Implementation of the European of the European Implementation , Joint Staff Working Document Working , Joint Staff The failure to agree on a on to agree The failure 58 – an EU-wide work permit mobility partnership mobility Until 2011 Lebanon’s participation in participation Lebanon’s 2011 Until 61 Blue Card Blue http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/BA-Chef-Weise- , 18. 7th Framework Programme for Research and for Research 7th Framework Programme The EU evaluates Lebanon’s research and recommendations for action recommendations SWD(2013) 93 final, Brussels, 20.03.2013., 16. With the exception of Denmark, Ireland, and UK; cp. Council Directive 2009/50/EC. Nur-7000-Zuwanderer-mit-Blue-Card-2073163.html feedback of DG Home on my request (18.01.2014). European Commission (2013) in 2012 and in Lebanon: Progress Policy Neighbourhood European Neighbourhood Policy (2007) Plan

59 60 61 Technological Development Technological (since to €1.8 million funds amounted project 58 contacts in that area. “According to the Global the to “According area. that in contacts 61st ranked 2012, Lebanon Index Innovation 11th the in and innovation, of ranking world the Asian Western African and among North place countries.” the conclusions, the entry hurdles seem too high of an conclusions, the substantial numbers of migrants. obstacle to attract as high, which would open innovation potential opportunities for enhanced “people-to-people”- 2014, Berlin issued 7.000 Blue Cards. 4.000 of already who were foreigners to given were these In 2012, only 35 Lebanese residing in Germany. to Germany with a emigrated the delay in transposing the meaningful suggest it to be too early to draw the member states, as many states had not even states states, as many member the of deadline the after legislation the implemented the enacted had Germany 2011. June As of January April 2012. fully only in legislation allowing high-skilled non-EU citizens to enter to enter non-EU citizens allowing high-skilled the Union’s Schengen-area. to those which the Commission signed with to those which in March Tunisia 2013 and Morocco in summer is the mobility second tool for increasing A 2014. so-called turned out to be a flop; this at least 1.5 times the average gross annual salary gross annual average the 1.5 times least at (€46.500 in Germany) State paid in the Member and a relevant higher professional initiative the qualification Germany). So far, in degree (Master for agreeing on a for agreeing highlighting illegal immigration into Lebanon and into Lebanon immigration illegal highlighting Union. the European obstacle the biggest clause remained readmission 16 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia support. Germany and the UK, alsoprovide individual and anumberofmember states, including France, – aim this for million €12 mentioned above the intelligence sharing. The Commissionallocated co-ordination on border strategy and greater management capacities, namely border increased inter-agency Lebanon’s strengthening Syria, theEUneedstomaintain its focuson independence in1943. support fortheLebanese army since Lebanese largest the equipment; military French in invested 2013, whereRiyadh provides themoney to be between FranceandSaudi Arabia inDecember brokered deal weapon billion $3 the is result first states to provide direct support to the LAF. A 2013 wasintended toencourageEUmember to the LAF. to adviseonsecurity issues andgivesupport of anEUMilitaryExpertattheDelegation neutral.” structure, it is perceived as being impartial and as“well- LAF respected and asitiscrossconfessionalin the identified rightly Brussels comprehensive response to the Syrian war. And the Lebanese Armed Forces(LAF)aspartofa 71 70 69 68 67 sectarian trendsinsecurityissues. actors seemtoembrace the importance to counter ownership isthisarea was commendable, as state in the Syrian war, stakeholder participation and control border of strengthening context difficult concept.” IBM the of understanding conducted within the agencies involved to improve Management] awareness-raising sessionswere asserts that “numerous IBM[Integrated Border

Neighbourhood Policy in Lebanon:Progress in2013and EuropeanCommission(2014) Syria JulienBarnes-Dacey(2012) auf libanesische Armee Rainer Hermann(2013) Ibid. 22 final,Brussels,24.06.2013,12. Approach totheSyrianCrisis European Commission (2013) SWD(2014) 92final,Brussels,27.03.2014, 13f. recommendationsaction for Due to the growing cross-border threats from , ECFR/61,September, 8. 70 67 The

The responseincludesthedeployment 68 The EUstrategy paper of summer EU Progress Report2014 , FAZ, 31.12.2013,2. 69 Paris undSaudi-Arabien rüsten die Lebanon: ContainingSpillover from , JointCommunication JOIN(2013) , JointStaff Working Document Implementation of theEuropean Towards A Comprehensive EU 71 Despitethe

ih tt isiuin wud continue.” would institutions state with with all political actors in Lebanon and cooperation organizations, “while makingclear that dialogue terrorist of list a to wing’ ‘military Hezbollah’s very visible in July2013,when relations of the Union towardsHezbollah were complicated The state’. the in ‘state a into militia on autonomousmilitary capacities, which turnthe against Hezbollahbycriticizing itsdeclared right Tehran’saims at strengthening Lebanese state institutions on negotiations current nuclear program). At the same time, Brussels the in (e.g. moderating Hezbollah and reaching out toIran the most important Western actor capable of the USA ortheGulfstates. Union isconsidered as a more neutral arbiter than the beforementioned public opinionpolls,the chaos.” into descend not does “a role that will be key to ensuring that Lebanon the European Union talkstoHezbollah which holds US, the unlike Hezbollah; of strengthening 74 73 72 trust population’s in thestateandcentral government. the increasing at aimed and strengthening Lebanese governing institutions Hezbollah’s politicalside. has notsubstantially affected the relationship with wing military party’s the of blacklisting the that continue.” will parliament, active, including members of government or Hezbollah party memberswhoronlypolitically Eichhorst twittered inJuly2013:“Ourworkw/ actor security open. important most Lebanon’s with impunity whilekeepingchannelsofdialogue and intended to sendastrongsymbolagainst in abombing,targeting Israeli tourists inBurgas authorities that Hezbollahmemberswereinvolved Union hadtorespondaccusationsofBulgarian

aneichhorst Angelina Eichhorst on aswell see f.; 3 Official JournaloftheEuropeanUnion, C212/5,26.07.2013. 27.03.2014, Brussels, final, 92 SWD(2014) recommendationsaction for Neighbourhood Policy in Lebanon:Progress in2013and EuropeanCommission(2014) Syria JulienBarnes-Dacey(2012) Even if the EU seeksto avoid any potential Last but not least, EU efforts focusedon

, ECFR/61,September, 7. Head of the EU Delegation, Angelina (lastaccess:17.01.2014). Lebanon: ContainingSpillover from , JointStaff Working Document , 22.07.2013, ,

Implementation of theEuropean 74 And indeeditseems The Union 72 indicated As by Brussels added https://twitter.com/ remains 73 The

The

IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 17 and The EU programme, and programme, Agreements SPRING and normative programming programming and normative are and focus foremost on short

imitate genuine partnership behind behind partnership genuine imitate EU Action Plan the framework of the ENP, the EU should be more the ENP, framework of the the straightforward regarding the question of what its genuine interests the in are which objectives stability mid-term and the “three M-approach” in better addressing the actual needs of the Southern partners, reflects a approach in Euro-Mediterranean more realistic relations; a departure from the narrow corset of the the focus Since 2011, in spirit of convergence. component of the shifted towards the geopolitical of the EU in Lebanon. politics ambiguous imperial avoid To accusations of “regulatory imperialism” the local to strengthen the EU should continue and roll back the of the Delegations capacities This Commission. apparatus of the bureaucratic in for the ENP the following paper recommends general and EU politics in Lebanon specifically: Realism in the Neighbourhood: 1) More from normative- suffers Neighbourhood entire its in same the at demanding ambiguity, geopolitical of the stabilization motivated a geopolitically time peripheries (in terms of power) and a sustainable to neighbourhood according of the transformation of norms). In EU (in terms of the system value the how successful a normatively less ambitious but less ambitious a normatively how successful in foreign policy determined more conventionally 2011, be. Until can neighbourhood Southern the ENP of the ambiguity normative-geopolitical the – inherent to all imperial politics – leaned too far culminating equation, side of the normative the to at process aiming in an overly technocratic in a dangerous but resulting convergence, procedural fixation,Plans Action where a ‘normative fig leaf’ Lebanon EU on of the impact The power relations. obscuring asymmetrical was caused This after 2011. increased substantially re- which mutually by two developments mainly The war in Syria with its enforced each other: for the Middle consequences geostrategic dramatic East and the introduction of the Action EU’s Service External allowing a local – extended competences and substantial – through influenceon bilateralization The radical EU decision making. of the “more for in the programming more” principle, short-term

, 75 76 - https:// , Joint Staff Working Working , Joint Staff Implementation of the 77 on the government formation this paper argues that this paper argues Implementation of the European Implementation of the European 78 , Joint Staff Working Document Working , Joint Staff (2013) Der Arabische Frühling. Hintergründe Arabische Frühling. Hintergründe (2013) Der , 140215/01, Brussels, 16.02.2014; Delegation of With the example of Lebanon, it shows the example With

, Beirut, 31 May 2013; and Angelina Eichhorst on Twitter, Conclusion and recommen dations Schneiders (Hrsg.) Springer VS. Analysen, Wiesbaden: und European Neighbourhood Policy in Lebanon: Progress in Lebanon: Progress in Policy Neighbourhood European for action and recommendations 2011 Document SWD(2012) European Commission (2013) 117 final, in 2012 and in Lebanon: Progress Policy Neighbourhood Brussels, for action recommendations 15.05.2012; SWD(2013) 93 final, Brussels, 20.03.2013, 2. Thorsten Gerald see e.g. For the Southern Mediterranean in Lebanon of Lebanon, Press Release, the European Union to the Republic on held not be will elections that Union regrets The European time 06.02.2014, 29.01.2014, 19.01.2014, 26.12.2013… twitter.com/aneichhorst European Commission (2012) European Commission (2014) Joint Staff Working Document, Working European Commission (2014) Joint Staff in Policy Neighbourhood Implementation of the European for action in 2013 and recommendations Lebanon: Progress Joint Staff Working Document SWD(2014) 92 final, Brussels, 27.03.2014, 3 f. the Spokesperson of EU High by Statement See for instance Representative

78 77 75 76 While a majority of EU analysts focus on the While a majority of EU analysts in the especially ENP, of the shortcomings Southern Mediterranean, usually than higher much are capacities impact estimated. November 2013, respectively. 5. relations were high level visits of Prime Minister were high level relations April 2012, Catherine to Brussels in Najib Mikati 2012, June 2013, October in Lebanon Ashton to Kristalina as well as Commissioners Štefan Füle, March, May and in Barnier and Michel Georgieva looking forward to the timely holding of holding to the timely looking forward parliamentary and messaging of the Lebanese Indeed the continuous presidential of elections, on the importance actors political elections.” of the EU Delegation. priority top remained Further visible signs of intensified EU-Lebanese in the short-term to preserve stability through stability to preserve in the short-term the current government. In December legitimizing called Council European April 2014, the 2013 and Declaration, of the Baabda for the implementation of a government, formation the “urging therefore EU is especially interested in electoral reform, reform, in electoral interested EU is especially the of overcoming capable in the long-term but more importantly system, confessionalist 18 IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia substantial percentage of theENPIfunds,exceeding allows forspeedierandmore strategicsupport. A flexibility its in increase An neighbourhood. the to ability respond quicklytochangesandchallenges in Union’s the restricting often is funds more support flexible: financial making – Money 3) state delegations. diplomats to theexpense of individual member the Council could assign particular missions toEU representation of the member states, eventually and avoid a technocratization of EUpolitics. As Council should bestrengthened to allow political steering The clarified. be to needs Council and coordination the EEAS’ role between Commission Furthermore, andtoensureproperplanning importance of their national external services. diplomats with skepticism and fear the decreasing larger – member states which observe the European usually – those with discussions in highlighted be external relations anddecision makingneedsto Union’s the on impact positive potentially their The importance of the foreign Delegations and principle. more” for “more countries, partner the ownership, tailor-made approachestotheneedsof some ofthecoreobjectives of theENP withlife: and the Council, is an indispensable asset in filling extended competences between the Commission local perspectiveoftheEUDelegations, with their 2) Strengthening the role of the EEAS: agenda. to avoidatechnocratic and overambitious reform procedures, shouldbereviewedandstreamlined and currently awaiting the completion of legal Plan EU-Lebanon Action resources limited the of the Union. Concerning Lebanon, the on reflection honest an Besides, amorerealistapproachwouldinclude step-by-step. interests its fashion self-confident and values,whilepursuinginatransparent a conventional foreignpolicyguidedbynorms unachievable, are muchmoredangerousthan agenda, andraisinghighexpectations which are especially linked toasnobbishconvergence eyes of potential partners, a ‘neo-imperial’ attitude best interestoftheENP partnersaswell.Inthe The long-term programming ofEU , negotiated since 2011 second

The in the EU’s internal market and accomplishing free time. The main obstacleforoffering partial shares allowed for the import of Lebanese potatoes in short Brussels sector, agricultural Lebanon’s help To of conditions of access principle to the Union’s internal market. the re-focusing convergence: – Markets 4) situation inLebanon. ‘exploding’refugee an of costs potential of states Lebanon and theEUshouldremind the member promised grants materialized onthe ground in York inSeptember 2013.Sofar, notmuchofthe Support GroupforLebanon,establishedinNew refugee crisis,aspromisedbyanInternational to helptheLebanesegovernmentwithSyrian its memberstatesintosubstantial commitments positive rolesofar, butcoulddomoretopressure countries. ConcerningLebanon,theEUplayeda react swiftlytonewpolitical developments in their on shorternoticeenablingtheEUDelegationsto the current 79 neglect ofexistinginitiatives (e.g. vocational trainings, need to be offered. The opportunities, in terms of studentexchanges and visa addressing young peoplefromtheMENA-region.More sincerely – facilitation: Mobility 5) non-state actors. destabilising of appeal the weakening areas; these Brussels should focus development projects on in causing Sunni frustration and radicalization, Since povertyandhopelessnessplayacentral role are mostacute andcallforshort-termmeasures. in the North (Tripoli and Akkar) and the Bekaa grievances, furtherfuelledbytheSyrianwar, economic the specifically, Lebanon Concerning sanitary conditions to meet European standards. EU fundsandprojectsshouldaimatimproving benchmarks need tobeintroduced and substantial Plans regulations shouldbefocalpointoffuture (e.g. sanitary standards). Harmonization of trade trade agreementsaredifferent traderegulations

from Syria Cp.JulienBarnes-Dacey(2012) overavaguedemocratization agenda. Clear , ECFR/61,September, 9. SPRING the EUneedstoattract high-skilled The EUneedstoclarifythe 79 funds,shouldbeavailable Lebanon: ContainingSpillover Blue Card Action ) IEP Policy Papers on Eastern Europe and Central Asia 19 To avoid all To (especially the 1.5 average annual the 1.5 average (especially Blue Card Since 2011 the EU is moving towards a greater the 2011 Since importance of values and norms as essential of values importance values genuine as behavior external for guideline – and not merely as a technocratic end in itself. assertiveness and displays a new self-confidence for This paper argues politics. in international of the component the geopolitical embracing EU’s ambiguous imperial politics, and conventionally less ambitious normatively to adopt a the This includes ENP. more determined Michel Sleiman, it will be extremely difficult to issue of electoral consensus on the complex reach in elections parliamentary have and reform November 2014. statement of the Salam government in February government of the Salam statement to needs Delegation the 2014. Furthermore, of importance convince all Lebanese actors of the in 2014. elections and parliamentary presidential remains still elections of the presidential fate The successor to president a legitimate Without cloudy. countries, the EU should maintain its close and countries, the EU should maintain in Lebanon. forces major all with relations steady back to the This would include getting Hezbollah table of the National Dialogue, which negotiation the party left in protest against the first cabinet awareness campaign among European companies among European companies awareness campaign on the information transparent and provide more migration process. 4) Beyond “three M” – security: neighboring war into Syrian of the spillovers states (e.g. USA, Canada), where policies are policies where Canada), USA, (e.g. states this end, To and easier. welcoming more much to lower the hurdles for Brussels should consider the an agencies based on recruitment salary), introduce by the member states is intolerable and leads intolerable states is by the member in EU for the disadvantage to a tremendous of other regimes migration with the competition