Ambo University School of Graduate Studies

AMBO UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE

ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGIES AND ASSOCITED AGRONOMIC PRACTICES IN DETERMINING POTATO(Solanum tuberosum) YIELD AND TUBER QUALITY IN META ROBI WOREDA, OROMIYA REGION, ETHIOPIA

M.Sc. (Agronomy) By

SINKINESH GELA ABOMA

MARCH, 2016

AMBO UNIVERSITY

ETHIOPIA

ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGIES AND ASSOCITED AGRONOMIC PRACTICES IN DETERMINING POTATO(Solanum tuberosum) YIELD AND TUBER QUALITY IN META ROBI WOREDA, OROMIYA REGION, ETHIOPIA

A Thesis Submitted To the School of Graduate Studies, Collage of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, Department of Plant Science Ambo University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Science in Agriculture (Agronomy)

Sinkinesh Gela Aboma

Advisor: Tesfaye Belami (PhD)

Co-Advisors: Amare Haileslassie( PhD)

Habte Tadesse (Msc)

March, 2016 Ambo University Ethiopia

DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my families for their continuous contribution to my professional development throughout my life.

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR Fist, I declare that this thesis is my bonafide work and that all sources of materials used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged. This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment for M.Sc. Degree in Agronomy at Ambo University and is deposited at the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules and regulations of Library. I solemnly declare that this thesis is not submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any academic Degree, diploma, or certificate.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission provided that accurate acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the Dean of the College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences and / or Head of the Department or the Dean of the school of graduate Studies when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interest of the scholarship. In all other instances, permission must be obtained from the author.

Name: Sinkinesh Gela Aboma

Signature: ______

Place: Ambo University, Ambo

Date of submission: March, 2016

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH The author was born on 22 July, 1987 in Ginda Barat district West Shoa zone, Oromia region. She attended her elementary and junior education at Gura Jerjera, and Secondary School in Kechis and Ambo towns respectively, and Senior Secondary School in Ambo town. After successful as passing ESLCE, she joined Haramaya University in 2009 and graduated with B.Sc. in Environmental Science in July, 2011. After graduation she served in Meta Robi district Office of Rural Land and Environmental Protection for Seven months. She joined Ambo University in October 2013 to pursue her M.Sc. degree in Agronomy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I would like to praise the Almighty, God, for giving me courage and wisdom in my life. My deepest appreciation goes to my sponsor, LIVES, because without their financial support, this work would have been impossible. My special thanks are extended to my major advisor, Dr. Tesfaye Belami, and my co-advisors Mr. Habte Teddese and Dr Amare Haileslassie, for their able and unreserved guidance and professional criticisms. I am indebted for their professional assistance starting from specifying my research question until the completion of the study. I am also grateful for the support rendered by Almaz Kebede and Amalaworki Abera. I would like to thank all the farmers in Meta Robi district for their innocent and genuine collaboration by giving the right information during the time of data collection. I am also thankful to Dessu Edosa and all the district Rural Land and Environmental Protection and members of different bureaus. Finally, my appreciation goes to Atsiba G/Kidan, Lemma Merera, Gedefa Turuchi, Guta Geda, Kumera Megersa, Aduna Bekele, Tesfa Benti, Adana Adugna, and most importantly Debela Ababa for their unreserved support throughout the course of preparing this thesis.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

BW Bacterial Wilt

CIP International Potato Improvement Center

DLS Diffused Light Store

EARO Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations

FM Farmers Management

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GO Governmental Organizations

HARC Holetta Agricultural Research Center

IAR Institute of Agricultural Research

NGO Nongovernmental Organizations

PTM Potato Tuber Moth

PV Potato Virus

RM Researchers’ Management

RMT Rapid Multiplication Technique

UNSPPA Uganda National Seed Potato Producers Association

Table of Contents DEDICATION ...... ii STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR ...... iii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... x LIST OF FUGERS…………………………………………………………………………….....xi

LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDEX…………………………………………………………….xii

ABSTRACT ...... xiii 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Background ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 2 1.3. Objectives of the Study ...... 4 1.3.1GeneralObjective ...... 4 1.3.2.Specific Objectives……………………………………………………………………..4 1.3. Significance of the Study ...... 4 1.4. Scope of the Study...... 4 2. LETRATURE REVIEW ...... 5 2.1 Potato Production in Ethiopia ...... 5 2.2. Agronomic Practices of Potato Production ...... 6 2.2.1.Effect of Soil Fertility Management On Growth and Yield of Potato ...... 6 2.2.2.Fertilizer Rate…………………………………………………………………………..7 2.2.3.Effect of Land Preparation……………………………………………………………..7 2.2.4.Seedbed Preparation……………………………………………………………………8 2.2.4.Effect of Earthning up………………………………………………………………….8 2.2.5.Effect of Planting Time………………………………………………………………...9 2.2.6.Effect of Seed Tuber Size on Potato Growth and Yield………………………………9 2.2.7.Effects of Inter- and Intra-Row Spacing on Tuber Yield and Yield Components of Potato……………………………………………………………………………………….10

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2.2.8.Effect of Weeding…………………………………………………………………….10 2.2.9.Effect of Harvesting Time……………………………………………………………11 2.2.10.Effect of Storage System on Post Harvest Loss of Potato ...... 12 2.3. Effect of Disease and Insect Pests on Potato...... 12 2.4. Trends of Potato Consumption in Ethiopia ...... 13 2.5. Potato Marketing System in Ethiopia ...... 14 2.6. Effect of Irrigation Management on Potato Growth and Yield ...... 14 2.6.1Factors Affecting Irrigation Development Activities ...... 16 2.6.2.Critical Watering Periods……………………………………………………………..17 2.7. Varietal Difference on Yields of Potato ...... 19 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 20 3.1. Description of the Study Area ...... 20 3.2. Study Design and hypotheses related to explanatory variables and description of explanatory variables...... 21 3.3. Method of sampling and data collection ...... 26 3.3.1.Sample size determination…………………………………………………………….26 3.3.2.Sampling Procedure…………………………………………………………………...27 3.4. Method of data collection ...... 27 3.5. Data entry and analysis ...... 28 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 29 4.1. Demographic and socio economic characteristics of the sampled households ………………………………………………………………………………………….29 4.2.1. Soil fertility and crop management for potato production ...... 30 4.2.2. Potato cropping system in the study area ...... 32 4.2.3. Potato variety and seed rate used for planting in study area ...... 33 4.2.4. Practices of weed management and earthnings up for potato production ...... 34 4.2.5. Disease and/ Insect pest problems and their control methods ...... 35 4.3 Seed quality in the study area ...... 36 4.4 Type of Irrigation Practices in study Area ...... 37 4.6. Potato tuber yield obtained from 0.25ha of land in study areas ...... 40

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4.7. Results of Multiple Linear-Regression Models ...... 43 4.8. Major Challenges faced by potato producers ...... 45 5. Conclusion ...... 46 6. Recommendations ...... 48 7. References ...... 50

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of socio demographic variables………………………………….29 Table 2: Fertilizer and type of organic fertilizer used in study area……………………………..31 Table 3: Descriptive result of yield reduced due to disease/pest, control of the insect pest/or disease and seed tuber sorting…………………………………………………………………..36

Table 4: Descriptive results of irrigation in study area………………………………………….39

Table 5: Training and extension services and DA implementation in study areas……………...40

Table 6: Mean values and coefficient of variation of tuber yield of potato in four study kebeles……………………………………………………………………………………………41 Table 7: The result of ANOVA for yield difference in four kebeles of M/Robi woreda………..41 Table 8: Pearson correlation of Yield obtained from 0.25ha of land and other variables……...... 42 Table 9: Model Summary of the variables…………………………...... 43 Table 10: Regression results of different variables………………………………………………44

LIST OF FIGURES Page

Figure 1: Location Map of the study district……………………………………………………21

Figure 2: Schematic and diagrammatic figures of sampling techniques and sample distribution……………………………………………………………………………………...27 Figure 3: Perception of farmers on the quality of their soil and fertilizer used………………………………………………………………………………………………31

Figure 4: The descriptive results of farmers grow potato as sole or inter-crop with other crops…………………………………………………………………………………………….33 Figure 5: Descriptive result of potato variety and sources of tuber seed………………………...34

Figure 6: Weeding and Earthingup of Potato in the Study Area………………………………...35

Figure 7: Frequency of the farmers sorting their tuber seed before planting in the study area……………………………………………………………………………………………….37

LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDEX

Appendix tables Page

Table1: Livestock ownership……………………………………………………………………57

Table 2: No. of oxen ownership…………………………………………………………………57

Table 3: No. of cows’ ownership………………………………………………………………..57

Table 4: Farmers’ experience with irrigation……………………………………………………57

Table 5: Seed rate used and tuber yield get from 0.25ha of land at the study area………………………………………………………………………………………………61

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ABSTRACT Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is one of the most important root crops grown in Ethiopia, with the highest volume of production among all other root crops. It covers the largest area allotted to root crops in the country. Being a highly productive crop, as well as serving as a source of both food and cash income, improvement in its production and yield can change the lives of millions of smallholder farm households. The study aims at assessing the role of irrigation technology and associated agronomic practices as determinant factors of potato yield and tuber quality in Meta Robi district, West Shewa Zone. The study employed purposive selection of the study site and random selection of the respondents. Hundred fifty households were selected from the target group by employing an appropriate scientific sample size determination. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaire, focused group discussion and key informant interviews. Both quantitative (descriptive statistics) and qualitative data analysis methods were employed. In order to meet the objective of the study, an appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics, mainly the multiple linear regressions, correlation coefficient and coefficient of variation were used. The result of the study revealed that the study area is limited by the access to improved irrigation technology. Few farmers were found use motor pumps and the dominant agronomic practices are traditional. The result also suggested that farm household characteristics and input use attributes, unlike the access to supporting services, were very important determinants of potato production and productivity. The relation between inputs used and productivity was strong and positive. The study also found incidence of diseases, shortage of fertilizer and low level of technology adoption were identified as a priority problems faced by smallholder potato producers. For improved productivity of potato both in quality and quantity, it is essential to improved access to inputs and a hence use of technological intervention.

Key Words: Irrigation technologies, Agronomic practice

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background The Potato (Solanum tuberosum) has its origin in South America, around Lake Titicaca which is near the present border of Peru and Bolivia (Hourton, 1987). It is one of the most important food crops grown in more than 100 countries of the world (www.npcspud.com/history.htm). Over one billion people consume potato worldwide and it is the staple diet of half a billion people in developing countries. Developing countries currently produce about 30% of the world’s potatoes. It is also the fastest growing staple food crop and source of cash income for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Potato was introduced to Ethiopia by a German botanist called Wilhelm Schimper in 1858. Despite its earliest introduction to the country and the agro-ecological suitability of the country, compared to any African countries, potato productivity in Ethiopia is very low. Higher disease incidence, especially late blight, insect pest attack (especially potato tuber moth), lack of improved varieties, poor crop management practices, use of inferior quality seed tubers of unknown origin, inappropriate storage structure, poor seed system, and poor research-extension linkage are among the key factors contributing to the present low productivity of potato in Ethiopia. Potato cultivation was limited to the cooler highlands until its dissemination to other mid-altitude areas during the end of nineteenth century (Gerbemedhin et al., 2001). Similarly, 70% of the country's arable land is potentially suitable to potato cultivation (Kaburire and Ruvuga, 2006; FAO, 2008; Haverkort et al., 2012). More than one million Ethiopian farmers are currently producing the crop, 80 % of them are found in Oromiya and Amhara Regional States (Abera and Fasil, 2005). In Ethiopia, potato is grown in four major areas: the central, the eastern, the northwestern and the southern areas. Together, these areas cover approximately 83% of the potato farmers (CSA 2008/2009).

In the central area, potato production includes the highland areas surrounding the capital city of Addis Ababa, within a 100–150 km radius. In this area the major potato growing zones are West Shewa (Ginchi, Jeldu, Galessa,Tikur-Inchini, Shenen (Jibat), Welmera and Meta Robi) and North Shewa where about 10% of the potato farmers are located (CSA 2008/2009).

Among the vegetable crops grown in Ethiopia, potato ranks first in terms of area coverage. Compared with any other vegetable crops, potato has shown a rapid expansion in Ethiopia, as in other developing countries, because of its high dry matter, calorie and protein production per unit area (Solomon, 1985). In arid and semiarid regions, potato is sensitive to water stress and irrigation is an essential component of potato production (Wright and Stark, 1990). Potato is quite sensitive to drought (Van Loon, 1981) as it needs frequent irrigation for suitable growth and optimum yield (Yuan et al., 2003; Kiziloglu et al., 2006) and water stress, especially during stolon/runners initiation and tuber bulking which can result in substantial yield loss. Thornton (2002) and Shock (2004) reported that all growing stages of potato, especially tuber formation stage, are very sensitive to water deficit stress. In contrast, Wright and Stark (1990) reported some stress can be tolerated during early vegetative growth and late tuber bulking under water deficit conditions. Also, Shock et al. (1992) reported that potato can tolerate water deficit before tuber setting without reduction in tuber quality in some conditions. Potato is also known for its veracious nutrient uptake. Therefore, the main objective of the present study was to assess farmer’s potato production technologies (irrigation, and other agronomic practices) as a function of variation in the productivity and tuber quality among farm clusters, in Meta Robi district of Oromia Regional state, Ethiopia. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Agricultural production in Ethiopia is largely rain-fed, which always faces the challenges of erratic and often insufficient rainfall. Meta Robi district, an area where smallholder subsistence farmers depend mainly on rain fed agriculture and practice traditional irrigation, produces vegetable crops such as potato. The farmers apply traditional agronomic practices that resulted in low productivity in the area. To cope with fast growing population and the persistent reduction in the size of landholdings in the study area and to cope with the limitations of rain fed agriculture, development of modern irrigation scheme and improving farmers access to appropriate agronomic practices is highly indispensable. This will ensure food security and alleviating rural poverty in general, by allowing double crop production in a year. Irrigation has attracted the government attention and has become part of the growth and transformation plan and, in this regard, most irrigation development scheme are getting institutional support from the local

government and are believed to have a considerable contribution to poverty reduction and household food security in the country at large. However, many problems constrain the rapid development of irrigation technologies and agronomic practices. Although there are many perennial rivers and ground water resources, the current performance of the already developed irrigation schemes and productivity of the system is far below its potential. In this study, the key hypothesis is that there is diversity among farmers in the study areas in terms of access they have to resource, extent of exposure to improved technologies and farm productivity, all of which will ultimately result in variation in crop yields. Identifying those factors which contribute to variability in yield from farmer to farmer can help to easily learn and intervene to ultimately enhance potato production and productivity. Based on the nature of the problem, the following research questions are addressed in this study:  What are the major irrigation technologies applied by the farmers in the study area for potato production?  What are the major agronomic practices by the far applied by the farmers in the study area for potato production?  What is the extent of variability in potato tuber yields among potato growers in the study area?  What are the factors that affect potato yield under current production and how to improve current level of productivity?

1.3. Objectives of the Study 1.3.1. GENERAL OBJECTIVE To assess irrigation technologies and associated agronomic practices as determinant factors of potato yield and tuber quality in Meta Robi district,Oromiya region, Ethiopia. 1.3.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES  To assess crop production technologies employed by the farmers for potato production in the study areas.  To investigate variability in tuber yield of potato and to identify determinant factors for yield and quality under current production system.  To draw lessons as to how to improve the current level of productivity in Meta Robi district of Ethiopia.

1.4. Significance of the Study After identifying different irrigation technologies and agronomic practices of potato production in the study area, it is believed that, it helps to inform farmers to focus on effective agronomic practices and irrigation technologies that boost yield. It is also anticipated that the result obtained from this work would supplement the wealth of information currently available on agronomic practices of potato under different irrigation technologies in Ethiopia. 1.5. Scope of the Study There are many physical, biological, climatic and socio-economic factors that influence potato production and yield in the context of farm households. For instance, some of these factors that influence potato productivity include: the use of plant protection measures, inappropriate use of irrigation technology, absence of the use of high yielding variety, viral diseases, bacterial wilt, drought, erratic rainfall, frosts, farmers presumption etc. This study mainly focused on four kebeles namely Falle, Abu-cheru, Baka and Kimo-Dima of Meta Robi district of Oromiya region.

2. LETRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Potato Production in Ethiopia Potato ranks fourth in volume of production next to wheat, barley and rice at international level. In Ethiopia, potato is the first among all other root crops produced in the country. Compared to other root crops, it has relatively higher productivity (Bezawit, 2011). Currently, the average estimated potato yield in peasant farmers’ field in Ethiopia is about 82 quintals ha-1(CSA, 2010). However, research evidences show that the potential potato yield in farmers’ field using modern techniques of production is about 300 quintals per ha-1 (Bezawit, 2011). Potato can be grown up to 4000 meters above sea level, but more preferably from 1800 to 3500 meters above sea level. A temperature ranging from 15 to 270c and an annual rainfall of 750 to 850 mm is more conducive for potato production. Potato can be grown in any type of soil except saline and poorly drained soil. However, sandy loam type of soil is more suitable for its growth (Bezawit, 2011). Given these environmental requirements for potato cultivation, it can be inferred that Ethiopia has well-suited agro-climatic conditions that meet the stated physical requirements for potato production. In addition to agro-climatic conditions, there are other pre-harvest and post-harvest practices that highly influence both quality and quantity of potato production. These include: land preparation and weeding, type and level of fertilizer use, control of pests and disease, and proper storage. The land must be ploughed 3 to 4 times repeatedly and weeding must be on regular basis. Regular weeding and keeping the farm clean helps to prevent the incidence of pests and diseases. The most common potato disease that has significantly been reducing potato production in Ethiopia is the late blight. In areas that are more vulnerable to late blight, it is possible that this disease might reduce production by 97%. Other diseases that are of great concern to potato production in Ethiopia include bacterial wilt and viral diseases like leaf roll virus. Planting seed varieties that are more resistant to such diseases, timely planting, keeping the farm clean and using fungicides can help prevent the occurrence of such diseases (Bezawit, 2011).

Currently, there are many improved potato varieties, capable of resisting the late blight disease, which were released by different regional and national research centers. In addition to resisting this disease, they also have considerably higher level of productivity (Bezawit, 2011). Among

different varieties, the ones that are currently being used by farmers in the study area are Jalene (CIP-37792-5) released in 2002 and Gudane (CIP-386423.13) released in 2006 (MOARD, 2009). But the question is whether every farm has access to these varieties and whether these having access to the different varieties are practicing location specific agricultural practices. Potato is a crop that highly consumes the nutrients in the soil. Therefore, in order to ensure higher yield, it is necessary to apply optimum level of fertilizer as well as the right type of fertilizer depending on the type of soil and the climatic condition of the area (Bezawit, 2011). For instance, in Shashemene region and the surrounding areas where the study was conducted, the recommended level of fertilizer is 198 kg of DAP and 99 kg of Urea ha-1. The question is also to understand how many of the smallholder farms are practicing this. Proper storage is one of the most important post-harvest criteria that must be met in order to ensure the quality of potatoes (Bezawit, 2011). Seed potatoes must be stored in box pallets, boxes or stacking trays, bags or in bulk that allow light to come in and free circulation of air. On the other hand, ware potatoes must be stored in cases that permit free circulation of air and away from light. The expected storage life is approximately 6 months in storage with natural cooling and 8 months in refrigerated storage (ESA, 1990).

2.2. Agronomic Practices for Potato Production

Crop Management

The suboptimal agronomic techniques practiced by potato growers in Ethiopia are undoubtedly the contributing factors to the existing low average yield (Baye and Gebremedhin, 2013). Agronomic studies have been undertaken by different research centers to develop a package of optimum management practices, together with improved cultivars, which are briefly described in the following sections.

2.2.1. Effect of Soil Fertility Management On Growth and Yield of Potato An adequate soil fertility and crop management are not only key components for sustainable crop production in potato based cropping systems but also decisive factors to increase productivity and crop quality. Especially in SSA the gap between actual and potential yields is caused to a great extent by insufficient nutrient supply to the crop and nutrient mining of the soil. This situation is aggravated by a crop like potato which has a high nutrient demand but a low nutrient

recovery rate. The negative effects are felt more strongly in practices that use little crop rotation. For farmers to invest in potato production there should be a convincing benefit that the potato brings against other competing crops. This calls for a reliable market for potatoes, which potentially exists but needs to be systematically enhanced in a value chain approach (Baye and Gebremedhin, 2013). Soil fertility management stimulates microbial soil life and decomposition processes, which in turn decrease the incidence of soil or seed borne diseases such as bacterial wilt (BW). Ethiopia as an example, faces a wide set of soil fertility issues that require approaches that go beyond the application of chemical fertilizers, the only practice applied at scale to date. Some sources list Ethiopia among the most severely erosion-affected countries in the world, along with Lesotho and Haiti. Acidity-affected soils cover over 40% of the high lands, associated with country depleted organic matter and macro, and micro-nutrients due to widespread use of biomass as fuel (Baye and Gebremedhin, 2013). 2.2.2. Fertilizer Rate Potato is naturally a heavy nutrient feeder crop. Economically feasible fertilizer rate varies with soil type, fertility status, moisture amount, climatic variables, crop variety, crop rotation, and crop management practices (Smith, 1977). Research results indicated that 108/69 and 81/69

kg/ha N/P2O5 were economically feasible and optimum rate for potato production in south Gondar and Gojam areas, respectively (Tesfaye et al., 2008). For optimum potato tuber yield in Nitosols andVertisols of the highland areas of North Shewa, 110 kg/ha nitrogen and 70.5 kg/ha

P2O5 were recommended (Abdulwahab and Semagn, 2008). Berga et al. (1994) recommended

that 165/90 N/P2O5 as feasible rate for the central Shewa, and this is still in use as blanket

recommendation throughout the country. In the same way, 146/138 N/P2O5 was recommended as economic and agronomic rate of fertilizer for the highlands of Hararghe (Terressa, 1995). These recommendations may not work for the current market, soil fertility status, and other climatic variables. Therefore, detailed soil test-based fertility studies should be carried out to provide appropriate location specific recommendations.

2.2.3. Effect of Land Preparation According to Gebremedhin et al. (2008), good water penetration and aeration are must for proper growth and tuber formation. Excessive tillage and land preparation causes compaction and

should be avoided. To be effective the soil should be plowed below any compacted layer within the normal root zone and then disk harrowed before planting. Spike-tooth harrowing to break clods and level the soil may be needed just prior to planting. Preparing fields for potatoes requires heavy tillage turning the soil over. One can use hoes, tractors or ploughs in tilling to a depth of around 20 -50 cm. Hoes are usually used when tilling the soil to a depth of 50 cm. This is done in two stages: the first is to a depth of 20 cm, and then the second is digging and turning the lower layer over for a further 30 cm (Gebremedhin et al., 2008). When tilling the field, remove unwanted weeds, especially grasses. Collect the weeds and burn them after they are dry. Another method is to bury them more than 50 cm down so they cannot grow again. Leave tilled soil for one week in order to neutralize soil temperature before planting any potatoes .Tilling mostly allows other parts of the soil to be planted thus maintaining soil fertility, improves the condition of the soil, controls weeds, exposes pests and a disease present in the soil to sunlight and kill them. Nevertheless, tilling the soil can change the composition and balance of living organisms in the soil and reduce soil fertility and increase erosion. Newly tilled soil is very crumbly and easily carried away by water and accelerates decomposition of organic matter. To avoid these negative impacts, organic fertilizer needs to be added immediately after tillage and till lightly (Gebremedhin et al., 2008). 2.2.4. Seedbed Preparation The seedbed needs to be raised to suit the direction and gradient of the field. They should be made to run across the slope. If fields are too steep, it should be leveled and terraces should be built to prevent erosion. The width of and distance between raised seedbeds needs to be made appropriate to plant spacing. Raised seedbeds are generally made when planting in the rainy season so furrows are deeper, thus allowing water to flow more easily. Raised seedbeds should be around 10-20 cm high for better yield. Make raised seedbeds before planting in the dry season might not be needed, as they will form when you cover seeds with soil, weed and hill up (Abdulwahab and Semagn, 2008).

2.2.4. Effect of Earthning up According to Agajie et al. (2008), earthing up in potatoes is an important agronomic practice. It involves drawing mounds of soil up around the plant to prevent new tubers from growing and

turning green and poisonous. Also many times more potatoes will form the buried stems. It also helps to prevent greening, tuber moth and blight infection. Potatoes are a shallow rooted crop; hence care is needed to avoid excessive cultivation. After N is top dressed, potatoes should be ridged up to 20-30 cm high. The first ridging will be the first weed control. The second ridging should be done after potato tubers have started to break the soil. Earthning up should be done and completed by the time when the crop is 25 cm tall (Agajie et al., 2008). Proper earthing-up increases tuber yield by creating favorable conditions for tuber initiation and development and also reduces yield loss (Gebremedhin et al., 2008).

2.2.5. Effect of Planting Time

Planting time varies from place to place and from variety to variety. It influences tuber yield and LB incidence. For maximum yield, potato should be planted when favorable conditions prevail for better growth and development. Farmers in northwest Ethiopia plant potato earlier in the season to escape LB infection. However, this practice exposes the crop to moisture stress at early growth stage for which potato is very sensitive and subject to considerable loss. Tesfaye et al. (2008) reported that regardless of type of varieties, yield declines as planting date was delayed. The recommended planting dates for rain fed potato cultivars range from the first of May to the first of June depending on the onset of rain. Similarly, early June was recommended for Endibir (Gurage zone), Holetta (central Shewa), and other similar agro-ecological areas (Berga et al., 1994). Abdulwahab and Semagn (2008) recommended the last week of May to mid-June as an appropriate planting time for potato in the highlands of Ankober (North Shewa) and other similar agro-ecologies.

2.2.6. Effect of Seed Tuber Size on Potato Growth and Yield Seed tuber size and plant population density are among the major factors affecting the production and productivity of potato. According to Berga et al. (1994), spacing should depend on the intended use of the crop such as for seed or ware. Closer intra-row spacing of 10 or 20cm in rows 75 cm apart would be beneficial for seed; larger seed tubers (45-55 mm) do better than the smaller ones. Wider intra-row spacing (30 or 40 cm) were better, again on rows 75 cm apart, for ware potato. Considering the amount of seed tuber required and type of output and synergy with

other cultural practices, seed tuber size of 35-45 mm diameter, 60 cm inter-row spacing, and ridging once at 3-4 weeks of crop emergence were recommended for seed potato production. However, 35-45 mm diameter seed tuber, 75 cm inter-row spacing, and ridging once at 3-4 weeks from crop emergence was found to be optimum and recommended practices for ware potato production at Adet and its environs (Tesfaye et al, 2008). 2.2.7. Effect of Inter- and Intra-Row Spacing on Tuber Yield and Yield Components of Potato Many diverse and complex biotic, a biotic, and human factors contribute to the existing low productivity of potato in Ethiopia. Some of these include shortages of good quality seed tubers of improved cultivars; disease and pests; and lack of appropriate agronomic practices, including optimum plant density, planting date, soil moisture, row planting, depth of planting, ridging, and soil fertility status (Berga et al., 1994). Optimizing plant density is one of the most important subjects of potato production management, because it affects seed cost, plant development, yield, and quality of the crop (Bussan et al., 2007). The yield of seed potato can be maximized with higher plant population (closer spacing), by regulating the number of stems per unit area, or, to a certain extent, by removing the haulm earlier during the maturity (O‘Brien and Allen, 2009). Rahemi et al., (2005) also reported that intra-row spacing significantly affected yield of potatoes: the 20cm intra-row spacing, in comparison with 30 cm spacing, showed 13.9, 59.8, and 30.39% increase in yield. Intra-row distance of 20 cm increased total tuber number and weight, and tuber weight per plant and the marginal return rate increased by 13% when intra-row distance decreased from 35 to 25 cm. EARO (2004) also reported there is little difference in yield between intra-row spacing of 25 and 30 cm for all varieties released so far in Ethiopia, and the 30 cm intra-row and 75 cm inter-row spacing are accepted as standard.

2.2.8. Effect of Weeding Potato yields can be seriously affected by the presence of weeds; particularly where crop competition is reduced because of poor growing conditions or disease or in varieties where haulm development is slow. Weeds can also have a serious affect on lifting the crop, entangling equipment and slowing operations (Ken Davies, 2007). They can also encourage some pests and diseases such as slugs, free living nematodes, wireworm and rhizoctonia. The potato crop, once the haulm meets in the rows, is usually effective in reducing late weed emergence through

shading. However, weeds emerging before row closure can grow above the crop canopy. Entangling weeds such as bindweeds and knotgrass can grow through the crop, and tall weeds, such as fat-hen, sow thistles, oilseed rape and grasses can grow above the crop, shading and competing strongly for resources (Ken Davies, 2007). Timing of Weed Control Weed control needs to start whilst the weeds are accessible to treatment, that is, pre-emergence of the crop to before the crop shades emerged weeds. The treatment needs to be able to maintain weed control for up to 6-8 weeks after crop emergence to allow the crop canopy to close and shade further weed emergence. In less vigorous and less competitive varieties, canopy closure may take longer, or remain incomplete (Ken Davies, 2007). In conventional farming systems, treatments are based on herbicide treatment. This may be before weeds and crop emergence with a residual soil-acting herbicide which gives a number of weeks of control, depending on dose, soil type and weather conditions. Some residual herbicides have some foliar as well as root activity and can be used as the weeds and crop emerge (Ibid). In organic farming systems, cultivations and thermal weed control systems are used. There is no residual effect from such treatment, so an alternative approach is needed. By planting under a low ridge which is built-up by successive shallow cultivations/ridging operations, good control of weeds is achieved, whilst reducing the danger of crop root pruning. However, care has to be taken as later cultivations may damage the crop. Just as the crop and weeds emerge, Thermal weed control can be successful (Ken Davies, 2007). Which is best used whilst weeds are at seedling stage. The skilled organic grower can achieve good weed control, but planting the crop in good conditions which allow rapid haulm development, good canopy development and thus good crop competition, is even more important than for the conventional grower.

2.2.9. Effect of Harvesting Time In the absence of storage technologies for ware and seed potato, farmers keep potato harvest in the ground for a long period in Ethiopia. This reduces tuber yield significantly. A study on extended harvesting period in Haramaya revealed that yield of marketable tubers was reduced by 60% when tubers were harvested at 210 days after planting as compared to a harvest at 120 days (Berga, 1984). Similarly, Gebremedhin (1987) reported significant yield reductions (70–100%) as harvesting was delayed from about 125 days to 230 days after planting at Holetta.

2.2.10. Effect of Storage System on Post Harvest Loss of Potato Since potato tuber is a living botanical organ, it loses weight and quality during storage. Ethiopia lacks proper storage facilities, and farmers are forced to sell their potato harvest at low prices during harvesting and buy seed tubers at high prices during planting. However, farmers are aware of the new seed storage technology that is, diffused light store (DLS). Practical training is provided to farmers in different part of the country. Currently, 87% of the central part and 25% in the north and west are using DLS to store their improved potato variety seed (Agajie et al., 2008). Generally, better quality seed tubers are obtained with storage in DLS than in traditional dark storage, and as a result, productivity of potato in Ethiopia increases. 2.3. Effect of Disease and Insect Pests on Potato 2.3.1 Effect of Insect Pests

Numerous general insect pest surveys have been conducted in the last three decades (Crowe et al. (1977), as cited by Bayeh and Tadesse (1994). The insect pests identified were: Agrotis spp. and Euxoa spp (cutworms), Dorylus spp (Gojam red ant), Epilachanahirta (potato epilacha), Lagriavillosa (metallic leaf beetle), Phthoruimaea opercullela (potato tuber moth), Myzuspersicae (green peach aphid), and Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphids). Of these, potato tuber moth (PTM), cutworms, and aphids were the most important. Research has been made to develope management options against these economically important insect pests.

Many survey reports indicated that PTM was known to damage potato only in the warmer areas, though major production areas mainly cover the highlands. Monitoring of PTM was conducted using PTM sex pheromone trap at Holetta. The result showed that the peak months were January, February, and June. Unlike the field situation, monitoring in the store showed no obvious peak record (Bayeh and Tadesse, 1994). Aphids in potato, though, were more important as vectors of virus diseases than as pests. Monitoring work was conducted using yellow water traps at Holetta, and during the monitoring different aphid species were recorded. The peak months were January, April, and November–December. The dominant species were Brassica aphids, green peach aphids, and potato aphids (Bayeh and Tadesse, 1994).In this work an attempt was made to correlate the population fluctuation with some a biotic factors including temperature (minimum and maximum temperature in °C), rainfall (mm), and wind speed (km/h).

The result showed that rain fall and minimum temperature had negative effects, whereas the influence of the other two factors was not significant.

Effect of Diseases

Potato suffers from a wide range of leaf, stem, and tuber diseases. A number of pathological activities have been done in the last decades: since 1989, 11 fungal, three bacterial, six viral, and one mycoplasma diseases have been recorded. Among these, LB, followed by bacterial wilt (BW), potato leaf roll virus, and potato virus Y (PVY) were the most important diseases. LB was widely distributed where the crop is grown under rain fed conditions (Bekele and Yayinu, 1994). In this report, BW was detected but found to be restricted to the mid-and low altitudes. Currently, however, it has also been recorded in high altitudes (>2400 masl); virus diseases were more prevalent in the mid- than in higher-altitudes. Studies on host-plant resistance, loss assessment, cultural control measures, and integrated management have been made on many diseases. Promising results have been obtained. Potato LB caused yield losses of 34– 97.5% at Holetta. Race analysis of Phytophothera infestines was performed at Holetta and Race 1,2,3,4, and 6 were identified. However, R2 and R3 were found to be highly prevalent (Bekele and Yaynu, 1994). Race identification has been carried out for BW and only Race 3 was recorded from different farms (Yaynu and Korobko, 1986). Results of chemical control trials indicated that a fungicide (Ridomil MZ 63.5% WP) containing Mancozeb and Metalaxyl was very effective in controlling LB (Bekele and Yayinu, 1994).

2.4. Trends of Potato Consumption in Ethiopia

Since there is very little import or export of potato in Ethiopia, consumption could be approximated by production. However, because of the absence of reliable production data, average potato consumption is likewise speculative. The most comprehensive recent survey, undertaken by the Ethiopia Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) (2000), estimated total national production at just less than 1,500,000 tons. For a population estimated at just fewer than 65,000,000 the same year, average per capita consumption would be around 17.5 kilograms per year, but with strong local variation as indicated by the distribution map. This would be a moderate per capita rate by world standards.

2.5. Potato Marketing System in Ethiopia

Even during the Dergue regime, when the Ethiopian Government was more actively involved in agricultural production and distribution of crops, potato marketing remained an essentially free market activity, but one in which farmers were challenged by lack of transportation and timely and accurate market information. Decades later, farmers still face essentially the same situation. Wholesale prices at times of peak supply can drop to as little as US$10 per ton. When supplies become excessive, farmers in more remote locations facing high transport costs might be forced to dump their potatoes (Medhin et. al. 2001).

2.6. Effect of Irrigation Management on Potato Growth and Yield

Availability of soil water is a major factor that determines yield and quality of the potato crop. Too little water reduces yields, induces tuber malformations, or increases severity of common scab or Verticillium wilt after infection has occurred. Excess or poorly timed irrigation may reduce yields and quality, cause several disease problems in the field or in storage, or leach nutrients from the root zone. Fluctuations in water availability favor disorders such as second growth and internal necrosis.

Efficient irrigation requires finding out how much available water the soil can hold. Available water is that portion of the soil water that can be withdrawn by plants. During the growing season, irrigation is needed when a certain proportion of the available water, the allowable depletion, has been used. The allowable depletion in a particular field varies according to soil type, stage of crop growth, amount of available water, weather conditions, and irrigation cost. Because potatoes are sensitive to water stress, the allowable depletion is no more than 30 to 40%. To minimize common scab infection, the allowable depletion is no more than 20% during tuber initiation.

Potatoes are a shallow rooted crop; 90% of the roots grow in the top 30.48 to 45.72 cm of the soil. You can determine from the clay content and soil texture in the top 45.72 cm how much available water the soil can hold. For a soil profile that includes layers of different soil types, calculate the available water separately for each layer; and then add them together to obtain the total available water in the rooting zone. Take salinity into account in estimating available water;

if the soil or irrigation water contains high levels of salts, plants withdraw less water, and so the available water will be less.

The most important types of irrigation for potato production are the following.

Sprinkler irrigation - Most potatoes are irrigated with sprinklers. Center pivot, wheel line, and solid set systems are most commonly used. Sprinkler systems are more versatile than furrow irrigation systems and can apply fertilizers and some pesticides effectively. Uniform water application is most easily achieved with sprinkler systems. Sprinklers are readily adapted to uneven ground. When preparing fields, be sure not to leave any low spots where water will collect.

Sprinkler irrigation provides conditions in the potato canopy that are favorable for certain diseases, such as early blight, late blight, bacterial stem rot, and white mold. To reduce spread of these diseases, allow foliage to dry between irrigations. An advantage of center pivot irrigation systems is that the water applied is added relatively quickly to the plants. However, regardless of irrigation technique, watering during late afternoon or early evening may allow foliage to stay wet all night, providing a favorable environment for late blight. Allowing solid set sprinklers to run more than 6 hours, regardless of the time of day, has the same effect. Also, foliage near the middle of center pivot circles tends to remain wetter and more prone to foliar diseases and produces poorer quality potatoes, so this area should not be planted.

Drip irrigation - Drip irrigation systems are the most efficient, typically requiring 10 to 20% less water than sprinklers. The risk of foliar diseases is lower with drip systems, and they can apply fertilizers and some pesticides effectively. However, drip systems may create challenges with tillage and harvest operations and are particularly challenging when used on very coarse soils. Mite infestations may increase with the use of drip irrigation. The expense of drip systems generally makes them uneconomical for commercial potato production.

Sub-irrigation – Sub-irrigation can be used where the water table can be raised easily, soil is of uniform texture and structure, and fields are relatively level. The low, flat, peat soils of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Delta area of California are favorable for the use of sub-irrigation, but the lack of a high degree of soil uniformity makes other irrigation systems more advantageous.

Pre-irrigation - Soil moisture should be at 60 to 80% of field capacity at planting time. If rainfall is not adequate to fill the soil reservoir, use fall irrigation or irrigate before planting. Avoid irrigations between planting and emergence. Irrigations at this time can increase blackleg, Rhizoctonia stem and stolen canker, and seed piece decay. It is best to have soil moisture high enough so that the first irrigation is not needed until plants have emerged. However, irrigations must be used if the soil becomes excessively dry and they may also be needed to reduce wind erosion.

Post-plant irrigations - With sprinklers, each post plant irrigation should bring the top 18 inches of soil back to field capacity; do not irrigate to a depth of more than 24 inches. The timing and amounts of post plant irrigations depend on the water holding capacity of the upper 18 inches of soil and the rate at which the water is used by evapotranspiration. Maintaining adequate soil moisture is critical during the tuber initiation and tuber growth phases; water stress during these periods may cause tuber malformations and translucent end, especially in Russet Burbank. Dry conditions before tuber initiation discourages Verticillium wilt but favor common scab infections; be sure to know which disease is of greater importance in your area. Overly wet soils favor powdery scab infections.

Final irrigations in most growing areas should be timed to allow soil moisture to drop to about 60% of field capacity at the time of vine kill. This level of soil moisture encourages proper development of the tuber skin and decreases the chance that tubers will be infected during harvest by early blight, late blight, or soft rot pathogens. However, if soil moisture falls below 50% during vine-kill, stem end browning may result. In hot growing areas, light irrigations may be continued until harvest to keep soil temperatures down. Excess irrigation at this time may reduce oxygen levels in the soil and cause tuber rot or black heart.

2.6.1 Factors Affecting Irrigation Development Activities The successes of small scale irrigation (SSI) generally depend on the cooperation of government institutions and individuals, such as, for instance, the departments of irrigation, extension and rural works, banks and planning bodies. Unsurprisingly, development issues are interrelated and water resource developments by nature have interrelation with many factors. Consequently, irrigation developments are also determined by many factors for their success. As stated by Brown Nooter (1995), the performance of irrigation schemes depends on: cropping

pattern, market accessibility, maintenance and spare parts, social and political, and land tenure policies. Some major factors that negatively affect irrigation development, based on previous empirical studies and own observations are: Salinity: in the long term irrigation can increase the salt content of the soil and may cause the land not to be used for cultivation any more. Siltation: This is the process of filling canals and reservoirs with soil and sands leached from their respective up streams mostly due to poor catchments management (FAO, 1997b). Depletion of water resource and dependent life systems (ecological problem of surface and ground water development for marginal water quality areas). Conflicts (trans-boundary, between upper and downstream users, between management and users, implementers and donors etc) (Desalegn, 1999). Flood and erosion: appropriate surface drainages and effective operation are, therefore, critical for productive and sustainable irrigation in particular since canals are long, and it is difficult to adjust head diversions. Since some are vulnerable to excess water, irrigation-system must be responsive not only to the problems of little rainfall but also to problems of too much rain (WB 129:25). Drainage challenges, renewability issues, seepages, canal lining, theft and vandalism of control structures (Donald Campbell, 1995). Market prices for crops: irrigation projects may exhibit negative net present value (NPV) upon implementation due to change in market prices of goods from what is expected during the time of feasibility studies. Change in interest rate: such huge investments are sensitive to cost of capital fluctuations. Maintenance challenges and quality of design: the quality of design and maintenance system can also determine their sustainability. Pest infestation and input shortages: are also some of the areas of concern due to their significant contribution as a threat. Water born diseases: resulting from an irrigation projects are examples of diseconomies/ external costs imposed by the project to the society (Kanshahu, 2000; Sahas, 1996). In support of this, FAO (1986) indicated that water related diseases and threats to flood plain ecosystem are other high environmental costs.

2.6.2. Critical Watering Periods Keeping a potato crop at optimum moisture levels for the duration of the season requires a high degree of management. There are certain stages of growth where water management is more critical:

1. Emergence - Avoid watering to 'get the crop up'. If the soil is dry before planting, pre irrigation should always be considered. If the crop is watered either just before or just after emergence, seed piece breakdown and fungal wilts are usually promoted. 2. Tuber set- Victorian potato varieties do not naturally set large numbers of tubers. In order to encourage tuber set, it is important not to allow soil temperatures to raise much above 25°C. At higher temperatures, many of the small newly initiated tubers are re-absorbed and the plant may be left with only two or three tubers. Irrigation water applied at this stage will keep soil temperatures down. 3. Bulking up - Slight moisture stress at this stage will depress yield and this will occur well before any signs such as a darkening of crop color or wilting of plants can be seen. More severe stresses at this stage will affect tuber shape. Stress early in the bulking up stage will cause some tubers to be pointed like a pear at the stolon end. Stress late in bulking up can cause a point at the rose end. Growth cracks develop if plants are stressed until the time when skins start to become firm late in the bulking up phase, then receive plentiful moisture so that the tubers begin to enlarge again.

4. Final crop watering - While tubers are bulking up, their final size can be regulated by controlling soil moisture. If the crop is watered right out until the death of the tops, large tubers would usually result and these are preferred by the French fry trade. If tubers of a high specific gravity are desired, it is better to finish the crop dry. This is normal practice in crops grown for potato crisps. However, this can be overdone, particularly if soils become so dry that they heat up rapidly and cause a deterioration of the cooking quality of the tubers. Some varieties, such as Sebago, develop tuber disorders if allowed to finish too dry.

5. Pre-harvest irrigation - Harvesting in dry soil conditions greatly increases the level of tuber damage. Much can be gained by applying a light irrigation just one or two days ahead of harvesting to soften the clods and improve conditions for both the crop and the harvester crew.

2.7. Varietal Difference in Yields of Potato The local varieties, introduced earlier, may be of the same parentage (Haile michael, 1979), suggesting that the genetic base of local varieties in the country is most probably narrow. Improving the productivity of potato, which is a demanding process, has occurred by trying to widen the genetic base of potato. A selection program was started in 1973 at the College of Agriculture in Haramaya in cooperation with the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) and the International Potato Center (CIP) with a large number of seedling populations. A more coordinated improvement effort was started later in 1975. Introduction and evaluation of commercial varieties, germ plasm, generation of local populations, and, more recently, introduction of advance materials were some of the strategies that have been followed to develop varieties by the National Potato Research Project (formerly known as the National Potato Improvement Program). A number of variety trials were conducted in different areas of the country to address problems of different agro-ecologies. As of 2010, 29 improved potato varieties with high-yielding potential, wide adaptation, and resistance/ tolerance to diseases and pests have been released (Berga et al., 1994) and put under production.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1. Description of the Study Area This research was carried out in Meta Robi district in West shoa administrative Zone of the Oromia Region (Figure 1). Meta Robi located at 36° 41’ to 39° 16’ North and 31° 14’ to 34° 26’ East, at 101 km West of Addis Ababa. The altitude of the district ranges from 1500 to 2100 mean sea level. The annual average rainfall at the district is 750-1100 mm and the mean temperature ranges between 15 and 230C (Meta Robi district Agricultural office, 2014).

The district has 41 kebele administrations. According to CSA (1997), the population of the district is estimated to be 144,309, of which women account for 50.3% and men account for 49.7% of the population. The total area coverage of the land is 93,769 ha, of these, 54,556 ha is cultivated land, 11,775 ha is grazing land, 6792.75 ha is forest land and 10437.32 ha is others like hill. The majority of the area is covered by Kola (45%) and followed by Weyina-dega (35%) and Dega (20%) (Meta Robi district Agricultural office, 2014).

There are two cropping seasons in the area, off- season (using irrigation) from January to April and Meher (main rainy season) from June to September. The off- rainy season is mainly used for growing crops like potato, maize, tomato, onion and garlic using of irrigation. The Meher rains are used for planting of cereal crops like barley, maize, teff, wheat and vegetable crops. Potato is grown during both cropping seasons. Livestock also play a major role in crop production in the study area; they serve as draught power, in addition to providing meat and milk. Livestock also denote prestige and asset to the household.

The study area

Figure 1 Location Map of the study district

Source: West Shewa Zone Administration office 2007

3.2. Study Design and hypotheses related to explanatory variables and description of explanatory variables In order to understand farm characteristics and agronomic practices that best explain the variability in potato productivity in the study area, a General Liner Model using variables related to farm characteristics and agronomic practices was run. We used the yield data collected from sample plots of the target farms as dependent variable.

The independent variables various comprised social characteristics, household’s personal and demographic variables, economic variables, and institutional variables which were assumed to affect the use of irrigation technologies and improved agronomic practice for potato production in the study area at household level. Based on the available information from related literatures, previous agricultural technology adoption studies and the researcher's personal knowledge about the area, the variables, which were anticipated to have significant impact on the use of irrigation

technologies and improved agronomic practice in potato production in the study area was selected and hypothesized. The explanatory variables that are hypothesized to have positive or negative influence on potato irrigation technologies and potato agronomic practices in the study area are described below. Definition of variables used for analysis. The explanatory variables are defined as follows: a) Age of farmer: The role of a framer’s age in explaining irrigation technology adoption is somewhat controversial in the literature. Whatever the condition, it is important to include age as a factor that would help explain about agronomic practices of potato and irrigation technology. It is measured in number of years from birth. According to (Techane et al., 2006; as cited by Alemitu, 2011) it is assumed that as farmer age increases the probability of adoption is expected to decrease because it is expected that the farmer becomes conservative. Contrary to this Hailu (2008 as cited by Alemitu 2011) reported positive relationship between age, irrigation and agronomic practices which enables easy adoption of new technologies. b) Gender (sex): Gender difference is found to be one of the factors influencing adoption of new technologies and agronomic practices. Due to many socio-cultural values and norms, males have freedom of mobility and participation in different extension programs and consequently have greater access to information. According to Tesfaye et al. (2001) and Mesfin (2005), as cited by Alemitu (2011), it is hypothesized that male farmers are more likely to adopt new technology. It is recorded as 1 if the farmer is male and as 2 if the farmer is female. c) Farming experience: With increased farming experience, farmers are generally better able to assess the relevance of new technologies and agronomic practices. This often comes from their interactions with their neighbors and the outside world. It is measured in number of years of experience in potato production. According to Chilot (1996), as cited by Alemitu (2011) farmers with higher experience appear to have often full information and better knowledge and are able to evaluate the advantage of the irrigation technology and agronomic practices. d) Education level: It is often assumed that educated farmers are better able to process information and search for appropriate technologies to alleviate their production constraints. Nevertheless, it is significant to examine the role education plays in technology adoption decisions. It is measured as: using a scoring scale of 1 if the farmer is illiterate, 2 if the farmer

can read and write, and 3 if the farmer attends formal education. Potato irrigation technologies and agronomic practice is expected to correlate positively with education (Getahun et. al., 2000). e) Household size: Labor was measured in terms of man equivalent labor force (Storck et.al, 1999). Family labor plays an important role, particularly in rural families, as a factor of production. Therefore, household with more agricultural labor results in more profitability in agricultural production if available farming land can accommodate household productive labor force appropriately; otherwise, they will be a burden to the family. Household labor availability has positive effect on potato irrigation technologies and potato agronomic practice (Million and Belay, 2004). f) Cultivated land size: The size of the family farm is a factor that is often argued as important factor affecting potato irrigation technologies and potato agronomic practices. It is frequently argued that farmers with larger farms are more likely to adopt improved technology (especially modern varieties) compared with those with small farms. Hailu (2008) reported that farm size, measured in hectares, exerts a positive influence on adoption of improved technologies. g) Number of livestock: Livestock is the farmers' important source of income, food and draft power for crop cultivation in Ethiopian agriculture. It was measured in terms of number or Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) (Storck et. al, 1999). It was hypothesized that as livestock ownership increases adoption/intensity of potato production is expected to increase because it serves as proxy for wealth status and also indirectly as the sources of manure to fertilize soil (Chilot et al, 1996; Freeman et al, 1996; Habtemariam, 2004). h) Experience of farmer on irrigation practices: With increased irrigation farming experience, farmers are generally better able to assess the relevance of new technologies and additional income earned from activities outside the farm increases the farmers’ financial capacity. This often comes from their interactions with their neighbors and the outside world. It is measured in number of years of experience in irrigation practices. Farmers with higher experience appear to have often full information and better knowledge and are able to evaluate the advantage of the technology. i) Moisture stress: Potato is widely known to be very sensitive to soil water deficits. Even a well irrigated potato crop can undergo a temporary water stress, particularly on a hot and sunny day (Jefferies, 1995). In fact when potato is exposed to high atmospheric demand for water, even

in wet soil, stomatal closure and partial wilting may occur (Gregory and Simmonds, 1992) and also reduce the yield. The reduction of yield as a result of water stress can be caused by reduced leaf area and/or reduced photosynthesis per unit of leaf area. Water shortage during the tuber bulking period decreases yield to a larger extent than drought during other growth stages. This illustrates that the potato is very sensitive to water stress, although Jefferies and Mackerron (1993) and Costa and Mackerron (2000) suggested that the sensitivity to water stress depends on the timing of water stress, its duration and intensity. j) Manures and fertilizers use: Potato has a high nutrient requirement; a yield of 25 tones of tubers/ha depletes the soil of 119 kg of N, 50 kg of P and 225 kg of K. In light soils and places where organic manures are not easily available, green manuring is beneficial. Well decomposed FYM at 30 t/ha should be incorporated into the soil three to four weeks before planting. k) Type of variety: Growing the varieties with resistance to the most important diseases and pests is one of the key factors for successful high yield potato production. l) Seed rate: Seed rate depends on tuber size; 800-1000 kg/ha is generally recommended. Choudhary et. al (1990) conducted a trial comparing improved seed of the Swat and Kaghan varieties brought from the Kaiam Integrated Development Project with seed from the local market. Potatoes grown from the improved seed gave better soil coverage, had a lower incidence of virus attack and higher tuber weight and gave higher yields than those from the locally purchased traditional seed. m) Use of Pesticides: The potato plant and its underground tubers are affected by several diseases and pests. The important ones are late blight of potato, which affects the stems, leaves, and the tubers and causes heavy losses in tuber yield. Among the diseases affecting tubers, the black scurf, common scab and wart are important. Aphids and leaf-hoppers are the important vectors as they are responsible for transmitting and spreading a number of viral and mycoplasmal diseases. Among pests, the cutworms, white grubs, potato tuber moth and cyst nematodes are important. The cutworm damages the plants in field by cutting the stem at ground level and the white grub damages the underground tubers in the field. It damages the plants in the field and the tubers in both fields and stores. They affect the roots, hinder the movement of nutrients to the

plant and thereby reduce crop yields. Effective control measures have been developed against most of the diseases. n) Weed management: Weeds compete for nutrients, moisture, light and space and cause considerable loss in potato yields. They also harbour a few pathogens and act as alternative host to a number of insects and pests. Weed density and relative time of weed emergence have impacts on crop weed interactions. The timing of weed emergence relative to crop emergence is important to crop growth and yield. Weeds emerging before the crop cause greater yield loss (Kropff, 1988; Chikoye et al., 1995; Bosnic and Swanton, 1997; Steckel and Sprague, 2004) produce more seed (Peters and Wilson, 1983) and have higher shoot weights and competitive indices (Martin and Field, 1988). o) Access to extension services: The frequency of contact between the extension agent and the farmers is hypothesized to be the potential force, which accelerates the effective dissemination of adequate agricultural information to the farmers, thereby enhancing farmers' decision to adopt new crop technologies. p) Participation in training: Training is one of the means by which farmers acquire new knowledge and skills and it is measured by the number of times the farmer has participated in training at production time. Hence, participation in training is expected to positively influence potato production (Belay, 2003). q) Distance from market center: Distance from market center refers to the distance of the household’s residence from the nearest market place in Kilometer (Km). Access to market and other public infrastructure may create opportunities of more income by producing and providing market oriented produce and easy access to input and transport facilities; household closer to market center have better chance to adopt technologies and get profit from their production. Therefore, this variable is expected to positively influence potato irrigation technologies and potato agronomic practices. It is measured in Kilometers. As market distance increases potato production and intensity of production is expected to decrease (Hailu, 2008).

3.3. Method of sampling and data collection Qualitative and quantitative data were collected mainly through household survey. Questionnaires, key informants interview, and focus group discussion were used as tools to collect the data. In the first stage, four kebeles were objectively selected based on their potential of potato production by irrigation. In the second stage, sample households were selected randomly and this make up a total of 150 samples. The focus group discussion was arranged through randomly selecting 10-12 female and male potato growing farmers by using irrigation to participate in the focused group discussion separately. District level experts, development agents and innovative farmers were also used as key informants to collect data using a separate questionnaire. In addition to the primary data gathered from these sources, supplementary information from other secondary sources was gathered from various published and unpublished documents. The main sources of secondary data include reports from two different organizations like irrigation agency and agricultural office and previous research findings, internet and other published and unpublished materials, which are found to be relevant to the study.

3.3.1. Sample size determination The sample size of the study is determined by the following method (Equation).

Where n = sample size Z=95 confidence limit (interval) under normal curve that is 1.96 d=margin of error or degree of accuracy (accepted error term) (0.05) =Level of significance (0.05). Therefore; Total sample size would be 150 out of this (68) from Falle, (22) from Abu-Cheru (14) from Kimo- Dima and (46) from Baka was selected based on number of household in their kebele.

Meta Robi

Falle (840) Abu-cheru Kimo-Dima Baka (572) (280) (160)

68 22 14 46

Figure 2: Schematic and diagrammatic figures of sampling techniques and sample distribution.

3.3.2. Sampling Procedure In this study, a two stage sampling technique was employed. The first stage was purposive selection of potato growing Kebeles of the district based on their potential for irrigation based potato production, followed by selection of sample households. The Kebele identification was made through reviewing secondary data on production and area coverage of the potato crop. Four potato growing Kebeles were purposively selected as a sample out of 41 Kebeles of the district. Before selecting household heads to be included in the sample, potato grower household heads of each rural Kebele were identified in collaboration with Kebele leaders, key informants and development agents of the respective rural Kebele. In the second stage, 150 farm household heads were selected from identified potato growers using stratified random sampling technique taking the geographical location into consideration of four selected rural Kebeles. As a result, the survey was administered and data were collected and analyzed on 150 respondents from the total of 1852 farmers used irrigation for potato. 3.4. Method of data collection

Primary and secondary data were collected to answer the research questions and achieve the objectives of this study. Enumerators were given training and briefings on the objective, contents of the interview and were also acquainted with the basic techniques of data gathering and

interviewing techniques and on how to approach farmers. While conducting the interview, the questionnaire was translated in to the local language. Before the actual data collection, preliminary test was carried out that enabled some modification of the questionnaire afterwards. Based on this preliminary test, some questions that were found to be irrelevant or misleading were modified to fit the existing situation in the study area. Totally, 150 randomly selected sample household heads were covered under the survey. At last, to fill gaps observed during personal interviews, focus group discussions and key informant interview were conducted with Development Agents (DAs), district level experts and group of innovative farmers’ in each selected rural Kebeles. 3.5. Data entry and analysis Coding and verification of data were made carefully in order to ensure the quality of the collected data. All gathered data were coded in various ways depending on their nature (qualitative or quantitative). Depending on the objectives of a study and nature of data available, analysis to be made requires different approaches. All of the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed by the use of statistical software known as SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 20). Statistical techniques like descriptive analysis (mean, standard deviations, maximum, minimum and percentage) and correlation and multiple linear regression model were used in the analysis of the data for this research. The results were summarized and presented in tabular and graphical forms.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Demographic and socio economic characteristics of the sampled households From the total surveyed households, 136 (90.7%) were male respondents and only 14 (9.3%) respondents were female. With regard to marital status, 135 (90.0%) of the respondents were married; only 8 (5.3%) respondents were single and 7 (4.7%) respondents were separated. And 124 of the male respondents were married, 8 of them are single and 4 were divorced. From the 14 female respondents, 11 of them were married and only 3 respondents were widow. The average age of the sampled respondent was 47.75 years. With regard to age of family members, 80.7% of the respondent’s family age was found between 15 and 65 years and 19.3% were above 65 years old. The mean household family size of the respondent was 6.11 with a minimum of 1 and maximum of 11 household members. Concerning education level, 62 (41.3%) of the farmers were illiterate, 63 (42.0%) of them can read and write and only 25 (16.7%) of the respondents were literate or attended formal education. From those who have attained formal education, 2 (1.3%) of them were able to complete grade 10. 23 (15.3%) of the farmers have attended between grade 2 and 5 (Table 1). Table 1: Descriptive statistics of socio demographic variables

Parameter of comparison Frequency Percent Gender Male 136 90.7 Female 14 9.3 Marital status Single 8 5.3 Married 135 90.0 Divorce 4 2.7 Widowed 3 2.0 Age 15-65 121 80.7 >65 29 19.3 Educational level Illiterate 62 41.3

Can read and write 63 42.0 Have years of formal 25 16.7 education

The size of land holding of the sampled farmers ranged from 0.5 to 8 hectares. The mean size of land holding of the sampled household is 3.13 hectares. Of which the average land size farmers used for irrigated potato production was 0.38 ha with maximum of 1 ha and minimum of 0.125 ha. Some farmers haven’t enough farm land. These farmers share the small lands they have for different crops or share with another person or rent additional land from someone. As a result they couldn’t get high production and income from potato and what they produce is used only for home consumption.

In terms of livestock ownership, 150 (100%) of the farmers owned at least one type of livestock. oxen/bulls, cows/heifers, goats, sheep, donkeys and horses are the main types of livestock owned by the household respondents (Annex 1). The average numbers of oxen which can help for farming was 2.27, from all farmers interviewed only one person hasn’t own oxen and rent from others. Farmers with no oxen do not plough their land timely and hence their productivity of potato was low. The total number of cattle (oxen and cows) owned by the sampled households was 292 at the time of the survey. All of the respondents had cattle during the survey time and, among the sampled households the maximum oxen and cows’ ownership was 10 and 15, respectively. One farmer (0.7%) had ox and 7 (4.7%) of them had no cows (Annex 2 and Annex 3). Farmers with large number of cattle harvested more potato as a result of use of manure as fertilizer. And also have high potential to use modern production like using improved seed, the recommended rate of chemical fertilizer, fungicides and good agronomic practices.

4.2. Agronomic practices of Potato in Meta Robi Woreda

4.2.1. Soil fertility and crop management for potato production The status of soil fertility of the farmers as per their own perception in the study area is shown below (Figure 3). From the total of sampled farmers, 80 (53.3%) of the respondents apply

fertilizer to potato farm land, while the rest of the respondents 70 (46.7%) do not use any type of fertilizer for potato production. Among the farmers who used fertilizer for potato production 43 (28.7%) of the respondents applied inorganic fertilizer (UREA/DAP), while 23 (15.3%) used organic fertilizer in the form of cattle manure, poultry manure and compost alone (Table 2) and 14 (9.3%) used both types of fertilizers (organic and inorganic fertilizer) (Figure 3). The average amount of UREA/DAP the farmers applied to potato farm land was 1.45 kg/1.37 kg with minimum of 0.5/0.75kg per hectare, respectively. Table 2: Fertilizer and type of organic manure used in study area

Farmers used fertilizer Type of organic fertilizers applied by sample farms Cattle Poultry Compost Yes No manure manure Frequency 80 70 22 2 13 Percent 53.3 46.7 14.7 1.3 8.7

120

101

100

80 70

60 43 40 36

FREQUANCE OF RESPNDENT OF FREQUANCE 23 20 14 9 4 0 Poor Slightly Moderately Very fertile Not use any Organic Inorganic Both type fertile fertile fertilizer fertilizer fertilizer soil fertility level and type of fertilizer used

Figure 3: Perception of farmers on the quality of their soil and fertilizer used

4.2.2. Potato cropping system in the study area From the sampled farmers interviewed, 140 (93.3%) of the respondents grew potato as sole crop and 10 (6.7%) of them intercrop with other crops like Maize and black cabbage but the yield of sole crop is greater than intercropped may be because farmers do not intercrop properly following research recommendations. Although as Midmore, 1993 reported that intercropping through more effective use of water, nutrients and solar energy can significantly enhance crop productivity compared to growing sole crops. Besides this, the increasing concern about sustainability of agricultural productivity favors the use of intercropping systems as one means of sustainable intensification of cropping system, due to the positive effect of such cropping system on soil conservation and improvement of soil fertility (Jarenyama et al., 2000), as efficient way of using natural resources (Horwith, 1985), and as a means of pest and disease pressure reduction (Theunnissen, 1997).

According to the respondents, 93.3% of the farmers did not intercrop potato with other crops due to lack of information or training on the importance/advantage of intercropping over sole cropping (Figure 4). The other cropping system is crop rotation which is very important if the first crop is affected by aberrant climate condition. Although the farmers at the study area do not use rotation due to the topography of their land i.e. the land is covered by water at summer season and it is not dried for longer period of time for these reason they produce only at one time in a year.

Also the farmers at study area have a long time experience of potato cultivation using irrigation, results indicated that they still use traditional irrigation schemes and produce potato only for home consumption.

Sole crop Inter-crop with other

1 2

Figure 4: The descriptive results of farmers growing potato as sole or inter-crop with other crops.

4.2.3. Potato variety and seed rate used for planting in study area From the total respondents, 78.7% of them use local variety and 21.3% of the farmers use improved variety (Figure 5). This indicates that, the majority of the farmers do not use the high yielding improved variety of potato due to lack of access to inputs and also due to lack of awareness. The improved varieties used in the study areas are Gudane, Jalanne, Gausa and “Netbi Amist” (0.5). Farmers get the seed tuber (improved or local variety) from different places. The seed tuber they use as a planting material is quite variable in size. About 60.7% of the farmers get seed tuber from local market and only 0.7% of them get from the nearby research institute (Figure 5). As can be seen from Figure 5, above 50% of the respondents buy the seed tuber from the local market due to lack of accessible road and absence of input suppliers in the vicinity. The variability in the size of seed tuber used for planting can affect the seed rate, the yield and quality of potato production. About 45.3% of the farmers use medium size potato seed tuber in study area. Farmers believe that the use of medium sized seed tubers is good in that the use of such seed tuber size coupled with better agronomic practices enable them to get better tuber quality and yield. The use of big sized seed tuber brings about shortage of planting materials was although the use of such planting material is still better to get better tuber quality

that is preferred on market. The average yield of potato in Ethiopia is estimated to be 80 quintal /ha (Tesfaye et al., 2007). Indeed a recent study put the national average yield of potato at 105 quintal /ha which is very much low compared to the potential of 500 quintal/ha elsewhere in the world. In Ethiopia, the yield of improved varieties range between 190-460 quintal/ha reported on-station depending on varieties, location and other factors. Under farmers’ condition, the average yield reported for improved seed is between 190 and 380 quintal /ha for different varieties at different locations. In the study area, four Kebeles of Meta Robi district, West shoa, Oromiyia Region, farmers produce even less than the national average (30 quintal) and the average seed rate that farmers use for hectare of land is 6.24 quintal (Annex 5).

Research 0.7%

Local market 60.7% Local variety 78.7%

Cooperative farmers 22% Own saving Improved variety 16.7% 21.3%

Local variety Improved variety Own saving Cooperative farmers Local market Research

Figure 5: Descriptive result of potato variety and sources of tuber seed.

4.2.4. Practices of weed management and earthlings up for potato production Weeds constitute a major group of enemies of crops, if weeds are not controlled on time they compete with the crops for essential resources of water and nutrients and ultimately reduce the yield. Weeds can also have a serious effect on lifting the crop, entangling equipment and slowing operations. They can also encourage some pests and disease (British Potato Council, 2007). Depending on severity of weed, the farmers in a study area practice weeding many times. On the other hand, earthening up is done for crop anchorage and it also serves the purpose of protecting

the potato tuber from the direct effect of sun light (greening) and the potato thus earthened up gives high tuber yield and quality.

96 (64%)

67 (44.7%) 57 (38%)

43 (28.7%)

25 (16.7%)

11 (7.3%)

1 (0.7%)

Only once Twice Thrice Four times Frequancy of weeding and Earthing up Weedin Earthingup

Figure 6: Weeding and earthingup of potato in the study area.

4.2.5. Disease and/ Insect pest problems with their control methods Late blight of potato is global in distribution and this disease is dominant in potato production areas with cool and moist climatic conditions especially during the main growing season. This disease kills the tops of potato plant and also affects the tubers. The survey result indicated that it was the most destructive diseases. Cut worm and termite were other serious threats to potato production in the study area. The disease and insect pests can reduce the tuber yield by different amount depending on their severity in the study areas. Mainly these disease and insect pests appear when the tuber was growing and they highly reduced tuber yield and quality. These disease and insect pests controlled by different methods in order to get high yield of good quality. The farmers at the study area control the diseases and insect pests by spraying chemicals, cultural methods (applying excess water) and some farmers didn’t attempt to control. Specially, root cut worm didn’t have any chemical or other control measures recommended at study area and as a result has become a significant threat to potato production (Table 3).

Table 3: Descriptive result of yield reduction due to disease/ insect pest and there control.

Parameter of comparison Response Frequency Percent Disease/insect pest problem Yes 135 90.0

No 15 10.0

Control of the disease/ By chemicals 103 68.7 insect pest By cultural method 12 8.0 Did not control 20 13.3 % of Yield reduction 1-10 4 2.7 11-20 15 10.0 21-30 75 50.0 Above 50 41 27.3

4.3 Seed quality in the study area Seed quality is an important determinant for tuber yield and quality. The number and size of tuber to be harvested largely depends on the seed tuber size used at planting. Potatoes to be used for seed have specific size requirements. If seed tubers are too small, they will have small number of stems that produce only a few tubers, thereby reducing yield. On the other hand, too big seed tubers may result in the production of too many stems, which eventually produce too many tubers that may compete for growth factors in soil and become too small. Thus, such tubers will be unmarketable for use as either ware or seed potato. Besides, too big tubers will be too bulky and uneconomical to use as seed or increase cost of transport. Therefore, the best seed tubers are the ones that are medium sized (39–75 g) (EIAR and ARARI, 2013). It was found that 45.3% of the farmers at study area use medium size tuber seed for planting and about 54.7% of them used small size tuber seed. The tuber quality of potato is also improved by applying appropriate inter and intra row spacing. However, none of the farmers at study area row plant their potato but they simply broadcast it (they simply plant in a zigzag manner without definite row arrangement). Tuber number and size reduction negatively affect the tuber yield, and marketing of potato tuber and also disease and pests can affect seed quality. Sorting of seed tuber before planting enables

farmers to obtain good potato tuber yield and quality at harvest. From all sampled farmers only 49 respondents sort their seed tuber at planting time whereas most of them do not sort the seed tuber before planting (Figure 7).

Farmers ferquancy to use seed sorting before planting 120

100

60 Tuber seed sorting before planting 40

0 Yes No

Figure 7: Frequency of the farmers sorting their tuber seed before planting in the study area.

4.4 Type of Irrigation Practices in study Area Irrigation helps to increase the intensity of crop production and mitigates the problem of water shortage caused by meager rainfall. Abu-baker et al., (2014) reported that the amount and frequency of irrigation significantly affects the yield of potato and is needed in sufficient amount to ensure optimum yield. It affects potato yield through affecting stolon initiation and tuber bulking, the two critical stages in potato growth requiring sufficient water. These findings agreed with those of several studies in different environments, which indicate that the soil moisture deficit in potato crop leads to reduction in the total yield (Shock et al., 1992). Moreover, there have been many reports on the effects of water deficit and irrigation regimes on potato crop in many parts of the world (Ojala et al., 1990; Silva et al., 1990; Kincaid et al., 1993; Fabeiro et al., 2001; Yuan et al., 2003; Kaur et al., 2005; Onder et al., 2005), which show that water deficiency caused a reduction of yield by reducing growth of crop canopy and biomass (Patel, 2007; Badr et al., 2012).

Most of the farmers (91.3%) in four sampled Kebeles practice traditional irrigation like furrow irrigation and the remaining 8.7% use modern irrigation. There is no practice of using modern irrigation at four sampled Kebeles, but in the two other Kebeles (Falle and Abu-cheru) there are farmers use motor pump as modern irrigation by renting from other farmers those who buy for themselves and used the water from dam which is constructed by government. About 77.3% of the farmers at the study area constructed their own traditional dams; only 22.7% use the dams constructed by the government. The survey result indicated that in the study area 87 (58%) of the farmers have been using irrigation for potato production for the last 8 years and 6 (4.0%) of them started to use irrigation for potato only this year (Annex 4).

As it was found that 28% of the respondent produce potato twice a year, but the large (72%) of the farmers produce only once per year because of irrigation water scarcity, lack of technical assistance from agricultural agents, shortage of labour and undulating topography of their land (Table 4). The majority of farmers at the study area use water from a river known as Lega robi, which start from Baka and extends up to Falle. When it goes from Baka to Falle Kebele some farmers at A/Cheru and all farmers at K/Dima use the same river as a source of irrigation water, as a result the volume of water gets reduced and because of this at the tail of Falle Kebele the farmers do not get enough water for potato production. This shortage of water is seriously affecting the potato production and productivity in the study areas. There is also conflict on water as the result of which some potato farmers have been forced to change their crops. Due to shortage of water the framers irrigate their potato field for many hours at one time assuming that they will compensate for the shortage at other time and this has in fact detrimental effects on yield. The average of single irrigation was 7.74 h/0.25 ha with minimum of 1 h/0.25 ha. Indicating that the farmers waste a very long time on application of water to small farm land (Table 4), thus water application efficiency is very low.

It also found that 109 (72.7%) of farmers stop the application of irrigation water 1 month before harvest i.e. irrigating the potato field only once after planting because of water scarcity (Table 4), which may significantly reduce marketable yield as reported by others (Beukema and van der Zaag, 1990). Water deficits were expected to cause cracking of the topsoil, and hence, tubers would be exposed to pests and moth which inflicts tuber damage (Ali, 1993).

Table 4: Descriptive results of irrigation practices in study area. Parameters comparison Frequency Percent Once 27 18.0 Twice 57 38.0 Irrigation frequency/season Thrice 41 27.3 Above 4 times 25 16.7 Up to harvest 2 1.3 Up to 1 week before 4 2.7 Crop life span under harvest irrigation Up to 2 week before 35 23.3 harvest Above 1month 109 72.7 Community 116 77.3 Owner of irrigation Government 34 22.7 Irrigation schemes Traditional 137 91.3 Modern 13 8.7 Only this year 6 4.0 Years of practice potato 2-4 years 21 14.0 irrigation 5-7 years 36 24.0 Above 8 years 87 58.0 Duration of single Minimum Maximum Mean irrigation (hours/0.25ha) 1 48 7.74

4.5. Training and extension services

Among the total households interviewed, about 59.3% of them said that they had received training while the remaining 40.7% indicated that they had not received any type of training on irrigation. Most of the training given had to do with techniques of irrigation practices, use of extension package, pre-harvest practices like weeding, earthening up and plowing. In addition, very few of the respondents also mentioned that they had received trainings on planting by rows, environmental conservation and family planning. It has also been found out that most of the

trainings were given by the government and very little is given by NGOs. Bakhsh et al. (2005) as cited by Bezawit (2011) pointed out that lack of trained manpower, lack of finance, poor marketing facilities and high cost of agricultural inputs are some of the factors that result in low crop yield. As explained above, supporting services like training on irrigation and extension play great role in enhancing agricultural production (Bakhsh et al., 2005). In addition to training, households also get extension service in their locality from development agents (DAs) and Agricultural extension assigned by the government. In this regard, about 76.7% of the respondents said that they had received extenstion service, though the number of times households get this service during that particular year varies greatly across households, while the remaining 23.3% said they had not received any extension service. With regards to the implementation of Development Agent workers’ advice, only 14.0% of farmers said that they are perfect implementers and 6% of them just ignore what the development agents advise them (Table 5).

Table 5: Training and extension services and DA advise implementation in study areas.

Parameters of comparison Yes No Quality of the DAs Did you receive training 59.3% 40.7% Perfect Medium Ignorant during irrigation time implementer implementer Did you receive extension 76.7% 23.3% 14.0% 56.7% 6.0% services during irrigation time

4.6. Potato tuber yield obtained from 0.25 ha of land in study areas Descriptive Statistics of Yield Variability among Kebeles

As it can be clearly observed from the table 7 below, the mean scores of the potato yield were 636.0, 871.4, 879.5 and 821.00 (kg/0.25ha) in the four Kebeles of M/Robi district (Falle, K/Dima, Abu-cheru and Baka), respectively. Table below indicates the result of the coefficient of variation in order to see the variability of potato yield among farmers in the study areas and to compare their consistence of the productivity among the four Kebeles.

Table 6: Mean yields/0.25 ha and coefficient of variation of tuber yield of potato in four study Kebeles. Kebeles Mean (kg/0.25 ha) Std. Deviation CV (%) Falle 636.03 244.925 38.52% K/ Dima 871.43 368.841 42.37% A/cheru 879.55 332.616 37.84% Baka 821.74 253.783 30.90% Mean 750.67 292.007 149.63

The table above revealed that tuber yields in Kimo Dima were highly variable as compared to the other Kebeles (CV=42.37%). Relatively speaking, the coefficient of variation of tuber yield of potato at Baka Kebele is low implying that the variability of yield among farmers was quite low. This may be due the Baka farmers are in proximity of market and they get somewhat better scientific assistance from agricultural agents.

The result revealed (Table 7) that there is a statistically significant difference in the yield of potato in four Kebeles of Meta Robi district. Since the P-value is less than 5% of the level of significance and thus the null hypothesis is rejected and also the data normally distributed. Table 7: The result of ANOVA for yield difference in four Kebeles of M/Robi District.

ANOVA Yield obtained from 0.25 ha by kg df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Sig. Between 3 1695577.64 565192.546 Groups 7.495 0.000 Within Groups 146 11009355.7 75406.546 Total 149 12704933.33

There is a statistically significant difference among Kebeles for average yield of potato in M/Robi district and difference may be attributed to differences in agronomic practices and irrigation system in the different Kebeles (Table 7).

Correlation analysis also showed that yield was significantly (P = 0.05) influenced by seed rate (r = 0.673), amount of DAP (r = 0.581) and urea (r = 0.419), number of oxen owned by the farmer (r = 0.234), hectares of lands used for irrigated potato (r = 0.222) and the days of agricultural extent ions gave advice for farmers (r = 0.317). Seed rate had the strongest positive correlation with tuber yield obtained from 0.25 ha of land (Table: 8) Table 8: Pearson correlation of Yield obtained from 0.25ha of land and other variables.

Variables Pearson correlation Age of the respondent 0.212 0.005** Family size 0.002 0.007** Number of oxen 0.234 0. 004** 0.419 UREA applied 0.000** 0.581 DAP applied 0.000** 0.673 Seed rate used on 0.25ha 0.000** 0.222 Land size allocated to potato 0.006** 0.317 Number of days of agricultural extension advice 0.000** 0.150 Days of training on irrigation 0.033* -.254 Market Distance from farm land 0.005** * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 probability level; ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 probability level.

According to Babaji et al. (2009),cited by (Husna Sha. and Eliakira Ki., 2014) nutrients N, P and K have a major role in the increase in dry matter composition in plant and hence in leaf area. Thus, the findings of these scholars were more resembled with this finding. Abdissa et al. (2012) cited by Husna Sha and Eliakira Ki, 2014 also reported similar findings that with increase in the amount of farm yard manure and phosphorus, root diameter also increased progressively and attributed this to the enhanced availability of micronutrients as

well as organic carbon as food for soil biota. They also stretched that enhanced release of nutrients from the soil promoted root growth and nutrient uptake, hence better root growth and tuber yield. These findings concur also with those of Ano and Orkwor (2006) and Islam et al. (2002) who reported the highest tuber yield with the application of NPK 15:15:15 fertilizer. Although the correlation co-efficient is positive implying increase in yield as DAP, Urea and seed rate usage increases, the value of the correlation co-efficient to seed rate (0.673) indicates that the relationship between seed rate used and yield obtained from 0.25ha was stronger. The results of the survey clearly showed that lack of proper amount input has many effects on yield produced. Not only input but also farm size was positively correlated with yield obtained from 0.25ha. Therefore, a possible explanation for the positive correlation between farm size and yield when farm land is increasing as well as production also increased assuming other factors remains constant.

4.7. Results of Multiple Linear-Regression Models The summary indicated in Table below reveals that the regression results for variables that affect potato yield. Table 9: Model Summary of the variables.

Model R R Square Adjusted R Change Statistics Square R Square F df1 df2 Sig. F Change Change Change 1 .729 .531 .497 .531 15.724 10 139 .000

The correlation coefficient of 0.729 indicates that there is a strong positive linear relationship between tuber yield and joint predicator (dependent) variables (Table 9). Through the coefficients of determination (R2) in the linear regression model have shown inconsistent variation in the tuber yield with its affiliated variables. The R2 value obtained with different predictor variables included in the model indicated that 53.1% of the variation in tuber yield was determined due to fertilizer application, seed rate used in the study, oxen, advices and training on irrigation and also farm land as predictors. Since the value of the coefficient of determination is 53.1% there is clear evidence as the respondent variable was averagely predicted by the joint set predictor variables.

As seed rate, age of the respondent, family size, days of agricultural extension advice, DAP and hectare of land used for irrigation increased by one unit the tuber yield of irrigated potato can be increased by the amount of 1.841, 15.754, 43.850, 81.343, 1.115, and 207.695 (kg/0.25 ha) respectively. When the market distance from farm land decreased by one unit, yield was increases by 106.527 kg/0.25 ha (Table 10). Table 10: Regression results of different variables. Standardiz Unstandardized ed 95.0% Confidence Coefficients Coefficien Interval for B Model ts Lower Upper B Std. Error Beta t Sig. Bound Bound

(Constant) 276.8 61.363 4.511 .000 155.521 398.129 3 Age of the respondent 15.75 5.956 .212 2.645 .009* 3.984 27.524 4 Family size 43.85 16.392 .159 2.675 .008* 11.440 76.259 0 Amount of UREA fertilizer used for potato 6.776 11.670 .065 .581 .562 -16.294 29.845

Seed rate used on 0.25ha 1.841 .205 .604 8.996 .000* 1.436 2.245 by kg Days of agricultural extension advice 81.34 40.002 .165 2.033 .044* 2.294 160.392 3 Hectares of land used for potato irrigation 207.6 94.838 .132 2.190 .030* 20.218 395.173 95 Number of oxen that can help for farm 11.36 21.751 .032 .523 .602 -31.629 54.366 8 Amount of DAP fertilizer used for potato 1.115 12.004 .011 .093 .000* -22.615 24.844 Days of training on 20.63 11.899 .112 1.734 .085 -2.888 44.154 irrigation 3 Market distance from - 33.304 -.254 -3.199 .002* -172.340 -40.715 farm land 106.5 27 *Level of significance,

Similar findings are also reported by Babaji et al. (2007) that potato like other most crops shows high response to N and P nutrient elements. Previous studies which involved linear regression analysis of different yield and yield attributes have also reported similar findings. For example, Zamil et al. (2010) reported a positive linear relationship between yield of tubers per hectare and the different levels of nitrogen. The amount of UREA applied, days of training on irrigation and number of oxen didn’t significantly influence potato tuber yield. This is might be due to the fact that farmers use below the recommended rate of UREA and share experience among themselves. Some fields may also need additional nitrogen and become adequate inherent fertility level

4.8. Major Challenges faced by potato producers The survey results revealed that potato producers in the study area face various kinds of marketing and production problems as it is explained in the section below. Input and Marketing problems The most pronounced input problem that the households in the area faced is shortage in supply of fertilizer or inability to get it by the time needed. About 49.3% of them stated this as the most difficult input problem they had to deal with. About 37.3% of the respondents said that fall in price of their ware potatoes are another market challenge. The other problem is the interference of middlemen when farmers want to sell their potatoes in market. The middlemen manipulate the market price and farmers are forced to sell at a lower price. This is very common as farmers usually don’t sell their potatoes directly to traders; about 26.7% of the respondents stated this as one of their most difficult challenge. Production problems The problems faced by the surveyed households are not only limited to input, financial and marketing aspects, and also potato farmers are exposed to various kinds of production problems as well. The most common production problem of potato producers in the study area is the incidence of diseases that damage their potatoes. About 73.4% of the respondents mentioned this as one of the most serious production problem. About 30.7% of the respondents said that their potatoes usually get rotten as they don’t have stores. The other challenge that falls under this category is shortage of rainfall. From the total households interviewed, about 24.7% of them mentioned this as one of their production problems. About 21.3% of the respondents also mentioned that incidence of pests is another problem that has raised concern.

5. CONCLUSION This study was conducted in M/Robi district, which is located in W/Shoa Zone Oromia Region, Ethiopia. The study tried to investigate the status of irrigation technologies and factors influencing potato production. The result showed that irrigation technologies in the area include motor pump and diversion of water by making furrow i.e. traditional irrigation. There was the scarcity of water in the study area. There is variation among the grower households in the level of agronomic practices. Most of the variables (seed rate, age of the respondents, family size, market distance, days of agricultural extension advice and hectares of land used for irrigation) were found to positively influence the potato production, were significantly associated with the tuber yield. From the descriptive result majority of households included in the study were male as compared to female. This implies that male farmers have better access to use irrigation and are more likely to practices the agronomy of potato and get high yield of potato. Some of the farmers received trainings pertaining to irrigation practices as well as extension services from the district level of government office. With regard to using improved potato production package considered in this study includes use of improved variety, seeding and fertilizer rate. These were found to be practiced by a few farmers’ who use irrigation, but below the recommendation rate. Having somehow similar land size allotted to potato irrigation, the average yield in Abu-cheru Kebele was higher than others (Falle, K/Dima and Baka). This might be due to higher level of fertilizer use, market distance and different agronomic practices in this Kebeles as compared to other Kebeles. The results also showed the studied that households had various types of production, marketing and institutional problems; production problem being the most serious one and institutional problem being the least important one. This study also found out that there was positive but very weak correlation between yield and oxen used for farming on one hand and between yield and land used for potato irrigation on the other hand. Therefore, this answers one of the research questions about yield and sub-optimal use of inputs. Following the basic research question as to which agronomic practices influence potato production and yield, it can also be concluded from the regression results that agricultural extension advice and seed rate use attributes strongly contribute to both potato production and

yield. Total land used for potato irrigation and level of tuber seed use were found to be very strong determinants of potato production and yield. Even though farmers in the study area have realized increase in potato production, they still encounter various types of production and marketing problems. Accordingly, on the basis of one of the research questions regarding problems encountered by potato farmers, the most serious of these include: incidence of diseases, shortage in supply of fertilizer and improved variety, water scarcity and difficulty in meeting the requirements of existing credit providing institutions, awareness about irrigation technology and agronomic practices. In order increase Production and productivity of potato in the study area, using irrigation technology and appropriate agronomic practices were found to be indispensable.

6. RECOMMENDATION It was evident from the study that although the country as a whole and farmers in the study area witnessed increase in potato production during the past few years, the improvement in yield is quite negligible. Therefore, improving yield at national level should be given more attention in the coming years. This can be achieved through improving the supply and accessibility of modern agricultural inputs like chemical fertilizers and improved variety to the farmers. Farmers’ deviation from using recommended potato production practices was partly due to low extension service and also lack of financial capacity of farmers particularly to apply the recommended fertilizer rates. Therefore, extension service provision has to be strengthened so as to improve farmers’ access to information and extension advices. In addition, the use of local potato varieties must be duly examined as the use of these varieties seems to have an effect on productivity, since these varieties have low genetic potential and are also mostly susceptible to diseases and pests. Therefore, it might be wise to train the farmers to replace local varieties with improved varieties to be grown with good agronomic practices. Further, improvements in input supplies especially DAP and improved seed; can have significant contribution to improving potato productivity at farmers’ level. However, as can be seen from the result of the survey, using urea is not contributing significantly to potato production and yield. Consequently, this calls for serious monitoring and review of the current rate uses being undertaken. Improving labor productivity should also be given due attention, because the amount of labor used for potato production seems to be positively and significantly contributing to production and yield. Inter- cropping the potato with other crops is very important than sole cropping, because it helps to diversify income and getting high amount of yield from unit land per time. In order to improve the supply and accessibility of agricultural inputs like fertilizer, the government and policy planners should also take into account the need for market distance by constructing approach roads and existing big market facilities. Therefore, establishing more credit providing institutions in the area should be given priority. It is also advisable for the existing credit providing institutions to make their services more customer-friendly by lowering their profit requirements.

In addition to marketing problem, potato producers in the study area also faced with different types of production problems. Though farmers are currently using fungicides to combat the Late Blight disease which is highly prevalent in the area, this disease continues to be a challenge. In addition to this, cut worm is another challenge. Therefore, introducing the right type of pesticides and orienting the farmers on proper usage might be helpful in reducing the incidence of diseases and insect pests. Strong advice for farmers by increasing no of standard days of agricultural extension services is advisable. Lastly, it is highly advisable and encouraged by the development planners in improving irrigation technology so that the farmers become more productive in enhancing the yield of their product which plays a vital role in the economic development of the country.

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8. Appendixes

Annex 1: Livestock ownership

Type Frequency Percent Oxen/Bulls 149 99.3 Cows/ Heifers 143 95.3 Goats 5 3.3 Sheep 109 72.7 Chickens 102 68.0 Mules 3 2.0 Donkeys 90 60.0 Horses 89 59.3 Annex 2: No. of oxen ownership

No. of oxen No. of household Percent 0 1 0.7 1 3 2.0 2 62 41.3 3 28 18.7 4-7 48 32.0 8-10 8 5.3 Total 150 100

Annex 3: No. of cows’ ownership

No. of cows No. of household Percent 0 7 4.7 1 20 13.3 2 36 24.0 3 25 16.7 4-8 48 32.0 9-15 14 9.3 Total 150 100 Annex 4: Farmers’ experience with irrigation

Experience in years No. of households Percent Only this year 6 4.0 2-4 years 21 14.0 5-7 years 36 24.0 8 and above 87 58.0 Total 150 100

Annex 5: Seed rate used and tuber yield get from 0.25ha of land at the study area.

4 Kebeles of M/Robi Woreda Seed rate used (kg/ 0.25 ha) Tuber yield get (kg/ 0.25 ha) Falle 1 50 300 2 100 600 3 50 200 4 50 250 5 100 500 6 100 550 7 200 700 8 150 600 9 50 750 10 100 600 11 200 800 12 100 700 13 100 600 14 150 400 15 100 300 16 50 400 17 50 500 18 100 400 19 50 300 20 100 500 21 300 1000 22 250 800 23 300 900 24 150 850 25 200 750 26 250 800 27 150 600 28 300 900 29 100 800 30 100 500 31 150 300 32 100 400 33 150 700 34 200 1000 35 200 900 36 100 500 37 300 950 38 200 600 39 150 750 40 50 350 41 150 600

42 200 850 43 500 500 44 100 800 45 150 700 46 100 500 47 200 850 48 50 300 49 50 300 50 200 400 51 200 600 52 50 700 53 150 900 54 100 800 55 100 500 56 200 600 57 200 750 58 50 300 59 400 1200 60 150 800 61 200 1000 62 300 1000 63 150 500 64 100 400 65 400 1200 66 200 1100 67 100 500 68 50 300 K/Dima 1 100 600 2 25 200 3 150 1000 4 200 1200 5 250 1300 6 150 1000 7 50 500 8 150 1000 9 200 1400 10 150 1000 11 200 1100 12 50 300 13 100 1000 14 50 600

A/Cheru 1 100 800

2 100 1000 3 200 500 4 50 300 5 200 1100 6 100 1000 7 200 600 8 50 500 9 50 200 10 500 1400 11 400 1200 12 400 1300 13 300 1000 14 450 1300 15 300 1200 16 500 1100 17 200 900 18 100 900 19 200 800 20 150 500 21 200 1000 22 200 750 Baka 1 100 800 2 100 900 3 75 400 4 100 700 5 100 800 6 150 900 7 50 600 8 200 1200 9 100 900 10 100 500 11 200 1000 12 100 750 13 100 850 14 200 800 15 100 1000 16 100 800 17 100 600 18 100 1100 19 100 1000 20 100 700 21 200 1200 22 400 1300 23 300 800

Annex 5 Cont… 24 150 600 25 250 700 26 100 600 27 100 600 28 100 800 29 50 300 30 200 900 31 100 800 32 200 900 33 100 700 34 100 1000 35 100 1000 36 300 1350 37 100 750 38 200 1100 39 150 400 40 1000 1200 41 200 1000 42 100 400 43 300 900 44 50 300 45 200 1100 46 200 800

Annex: 6 Questionnaires General Instructions:

Please indicate your answers by putting (√) in the box in front of your appropriate response. If you have a different answer from the options offered, write a short and precise answer in the blank space (s) in front of the last option- Any others specify.

 Demographic Characteristics of the respondents

1. Your position of the respondent: Head of the household Spouse of head of the household Children Relatives Others 2. Respondents kebele where you live Falle Kimo-Dima Abu-cheru Baka 3. Gender of the respondent Male Female 4. Age of the respondent (Year): ------5. Education level 1) Illiterate 2) can read & write 3) years of formal education 6.Marital status of the respondent

Single Married Divorce Widowed

7. Family size of the respondent: 0-3 4-5 6-8 Above 8. Age of your family member <15 15-65 >65 years  Relevant Information about Agronomy of potato yield

Pleas indicate your answers by putting (√) in the box in front your appropriate response. If you have a different answer from the options offered, write a short and precise answer in the blank space (s) in front of the last option – Any others specify.

1. How do you rate the soil used for potato production? Poor Slightly fertile moderately fertile Very fertile

2. Do you grow potato as sole crop or intercrop with other crops Sole crop Intercrop with others

Annex: 6 cont… 3. If you inter-crop, with which crops do you inter crop?

Maize Carrot Fava-bean

Others specify______

4. How many times do you grow potato per year?

Only once Twice 5. Do you at all apply any fertilizer to potato? Yes No

If yes, what type of fertilizer do you apply? Organic Inorganic Both

6. If you apply organic fertilizer, which one does you apply? Cattle manure Poultry manure Compost others specify ______

7. If you apply inorganic fertilizer, how much do you apply to your potato farm? UREA ______(Kg/0.5ha) DAP______(Kg/ha)

8. For how long have you been cultivating potato crop? 1-3 4-6 Above 7years 9. What type of potato variety do you use? Local Improved If improved, which vary do you often use? ______

10. From where/ whom do you get seed tuber? Own saving Cooperative farmers Local market Research Others specify______11. What is the seed rate you use? ______12. How much potato yield do you obtain per 1ha ______

13. Do you get any development Agents Assistance/Advice on potato production? Yes No 14. If yes, Implementation of agricultural extension worker advice

Ignorant medium implementer Perfect implementer 15. How many days do you get agricultural extension advice for the reason of maximizing potato production______16. How many numbers of livestock do you have? A. Oxen (bulls)______F. Donkeys______B. Cows (heifers)______G. Horses ______C. Goats ______H. Mules ______D. Sheep ______I. chickens ______

E. Bee hives______Annex: 6 cont… 17. How many oxen do you have that can help you for farm ______? 18. How many times do you practice weed after planting? Only once twice

19. How many times do you practice earthing up after planting?

Only once twice thrice

 Relevant Information about Irrigation Technologies of potato yield

Please indicate your answers by circling in front of your appropriate response. If you have a different answer from the options offered, write a short and precise answer in the blank space (s) in front of the last option- Any others specify.

1. For how many years did you practices potato production with Irrigation? A. Only this year B. 2-4 years C. 5-7 years D. above 8 years 2. What kind of irrigation system you apply for your farm? A. Traditional irrigation (furrow/ flooding) B. Modern irrigation (Drip/Sprinkler) 3. Who is the owner of the irrigation? A. Community C. NGO B. Government D. Other specify______4. How many hectare of land do you have? A. 1-6ha B. 7-10ha C. above 11 5. How many hectares of your land do you irrigate for potato production? A. 0.25ha B. 0.5ha C. 0.75-1ha D. above 2ha 6. How many times do you irrigate your potato field? A. Two times B. Three times 7. C. above 4 times 8. What is the duration of a single irrigation (hours) ______? 9. What is the length of the potato growing period? A. 3months B. 4months C. above 5months 10. Up to when do you irrigate your potato field? A. Up to harvest B. one week before harvest C. two week before harvest D. others specify______11. Do you have any specialized training on irrigation? A. Yes B. No If your response is yes, for how many times ______

12. Do you have labor shortage in operating your irrigation farm? A. yes B. No Annex: 6 cont… 13. How many labors you have who can engage in managing irrigation of the farm______? 14. Is there a problem of disease and/ or Insect pest on potato you grow? A. yes B. No If yes, which disease and/ or Insect pest is more problematic______? 15. By how much do you think will it reduce your yield? A. 1-10% B. 11-20% C. 21-30% 16. How do you control them?  By spraying chemicals  By cultural methods C. We don’t attempt to control 17. Do you sort the seed tubers for disease/ pest before planting? A. yes B. No 18. Which seed tuber size of potato do you prefer as planting material? A. Big size B. medium C. small size D. all size type an available  General Information on factors associated with scale of potato production Please indicate your answers by circling in front of your appropriate response. If you have a different answer from the options offered, write a short and precise answer in the blank space (s) in front of the last option- Any others specify. 1. How far is the market from your potato farm measured in kilometers? A. <1 km B. 2-5 km C. 6-10 km D. >10 km 2. Have you ever faced marketing problem? A. yes B. No 3. Have you ever been visited by an extension agents? A. yes B. No If yes, how frequent? A. Less frequent B. frequent C. More frequent 4. Do you have any relation with any research center? A. yes B. No If yes, what advice/ support do they provide? ______5. What kind of institutional support do you need in relation to the irrigation scheme? ______