6. UNITED NATIONS NEW LIFE FOR AN AGING INSTITUTION?

TER DECADES of declining in­ .:. brokered a cease-fire in the IO-year organization's recent successes come as fluence and growing skepticism war between Iran and Iraq; no surpri se. To them, these accomplish­ N. among its member countries, .:. oversaw agreements between South ments represent the culmination of the United Nations has once again been Africa, Cuba and Angola that pro­ years of quiet but determined diplo­ thrust into th e center stage of interna­ vided for the independence of Na­ macy. As Edward C. Luck, president of tional relations. A string of conflict­ mibia and the removal of Cuban the United Nations Association of the resolution and peacekeeping successes, troops from the region; United States of America (UNA-USA), as well as the sustained efforts and ac­ .:. launched a peace initiative to end the points out, the opening of peace nego­ compli shments of some of its special­ war for control of the Western tiations or the final signing of an armi­ ized agencies, has given the UN new Sahara fought by Morocco and the stice are not the organization's major respectability and recognition. As Sec­ Algerian-backed Polisario guerrilla achievements. "People say that the UN retary General Javier Perez de Cuellar movement; is working better and there fore it's has noted, there seems to have been "a .:. brought Greece and Turkey to the doing good things," says Luck. "But we return to the earlier hope that greeted bargaining table on the question of should not overrate the changes by pre­ the birth of the world organization." unifying the island of Cyprus; and, tending that it was a bad UN before and The UN's list of achievements over .:. received the Nobel Peace Prize in now all of a sudden it's good. The sec­ !he past two years is indeed impressive. recognition of its peacekeeping ef­ retary-general has been doing the same The UN in 1988 alone: fort s in some of the world 's most kind of work through all those lean + helped to expedite the withdrawal of troubled areas. years when everyone said the UN Soviet troops from Afghanistan; For longtime UN-watchers, the wasn't doing anything."

New York City: UN member ./lags with General Assembly and glass Jafiade of Secretariat in background. 60 GREAT DECISIONS 1990

Renewed superpower interest Limitations wil At the beginning of the 44th General Of course, the success or failure of ver: Assembly in September 1989, President the UN does not rest solely on the atti­ I George Bush-himself a former U.S. tudes of the U.S. and the Soviet Union. rna, permanent representative to the UN­ The organization now includes 159 on I: noted that the organization is an inter­ countries, over 80% of them developing and national forum with the potential to do nations that consider themselves to be aro great things. "The UN," said the Presi­ nonaligned. All are represented in the ado dent, "is moving closer to that ideal." General Assembly, where each nation ofi Bush's remarks echoed similar senti­ has one vote. dec, ments expressed earlier by both former The Security Council, which has mar U.S. President Ronald Reagan and primary responsibility within the UN sud Soviet President Mikhail S. Gorbachev. for maintaining international peace and sea. In 1988, Reagan said the U.S. was security, is comprised of five perma­ pop "determined that the UN should suc­ nent members (Britain, China, France, ceed and serve the cause of peace for the Soviet Union and the U.S.), each of Fro humankind." At the 1988 Communist which has veto power over all substan­ [ party conference in Moscow, Gor­ tive decisions, and 10 nonpermanent dest bachev predicted that "a universal sys­ Javier Perez de Cuellar members elected by the General As­ the , tem of international security will take sembly for two-year ternos. seCl shape, primarily through enhancing the and was strongly supported by the U.S., Because of its structure, the UN's relal role and effectiveness of the UN." gathered momentum, newly independ­ ability to achieve the goals of interna­ whic The renewed superpower interest in ent Third World nations soon consti­ tional peace and security, respect for mill the UN reflects a growing realization tuted a majority in the General Assem­ human rights and economic and social Nati, that finding solutions for today's prob­ bly. These countries tended to use the progress as expressed in its Charter has ofPr lems will require greater international UN as a forum for airing grievances met with limited success. No pennanent T cooperation. According to Richard N. against the industrialized West, espe­ member of the Security Council, for eral Gardner, a professor of international cially the U.S., making it increasingly example. would hesitate to veto a reso­ prorr law at Columbia University, a former difficult for Americans to view the in­ lution that it believed was contrary to its pute: deputy assistant secretary of state for stitution in a favorable light. By the own policy goals. At the same time, the inG international organization affairs under early 1980s, most American policy­ resolutions passed by the General As­ struc the Kennedy and Johnson Administra­ makers had come to see the UN as an sembly may be approved by a large with tions and ambassador to Italy, the su­ impediment to U.S. policy goals. majority but they are nonbinding. With­ senta perpower leaders are moving toward a The Soviet Union, on the other hand, out the approval of the five perno anent cilol policy of multilateral cooperation be­ long played the role of a "spoiler" at the members they are unlikely to be trans­ Allie cause of a common realization that it is UN, taking frequent advantage of its lated into action. Thus, because the UN tive I the best means for resolving certain veto power to block U.S. and Western works best when there is a consensus, gene regional conflicts and such "transbor­ initiatives and disrupting orderly proce­ the organization sometimes has diffi­ Intel der" problems as global warming and dure in a variety of ways. Many Ameri­ culty responding effectively, especially Leag weapons proliferation. cans can vividly recall the 1960 address in crisis situations. the tl "There is a new spirit in Moscow to the General Assembly of then Soviet Even when a consensus for action is (191' and Washington," claims Gardner. Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev, during reached, the UN is hobbled by the lack Tt "Multilateral ism is now realpolitik." which he hammered on a table with his of an enforcement mechanism. For tioni~ "You need multilateral solutions for shoe. Though the Soviet Union has example, if a country refuses to allow to ral today's problems," agrees the UNA's never dominated the General Assembly peacekeeping forces on its territory or weak Luck. "It's a pragmatic, not an ideologi­ in the way the U.S. once did, by align­ persists in human-rights violations, tinue( cal point of view." ing with the more-radical Third World there is little the secretary-general or and n It is widely accepted that without the nations it was often able to use their any other UN official can do to force WOrll support of the superpowers none of the anti-U.S. sentiments to its advantage. compliance. As Seymour M. Finger, a theu UN's recent successes would have been Most analysts agree that the shift in senior fellow at the Ralph Bunche Insti­ took I possible. The new cooperative spirit superpower policies toward the UN tute and a former ambassador with the most, now evident in both the U.S. and the dates from Gorbachev's "new thinking" U.S. permanent mission to the UN, in hUi Soviet Union is truly a dramatic rever­ in foreign policy. In a 1987 article in points out. the secretary-general has no began sal from a trend toward unilateral action the official Communist party newspa­ troops and a budget that is only about D. R( that had been growing since the early per, Pravda, Gorbachev called for the one thousandth the size of that of the Big F 1970s. UN to become more active on a wide U.S. government, about $885 million a Sovie In the 1950s and early 1960s, the range of issues, including regional­ year. ton C UN was primarily a Western-led conflict resolution and other areas in "So," says Finger, "the success of D.C., organization. As the decolonization which the Soviet Union had tradition­ the UN depends on the attitudes of war ir process, which began in the early 1950s ally opposed UN involvement. governments. When governments are De UNITED NATtONS 61

willing to cooperate, the UN can be then between the Soviet Union and the varying intensity, went on for decades. very successful." other three countries, the Dumbarton The hopes for a forceful and independ­ Despite its limitations, the UN has Oaks proposals formed the basis of the ent world body that could resolve con­ managed to function for 45 years. Not UN Charter, adopted at the San Fran­ flicts and defuse tensions were shat­ only has it brokered peace agreements cisco Conference on June 26, 1945. The tered by the recriminations and super­ and stationed peacekeeping forces Charter was signed by 50 nations. Po­ power maneuvering of the 1950s and around the globe, but it has also land was not present at the conference 1960s. In many instances, such as the adopted declarations on a wide variety but was allowed to join as the 51st Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 and of issues, ranging from apartheid to founding member. the U.S. involvement in Vietnam from decolonization, disarmament and hu­ Unlike the League of Nations, the 1964 to 1975, the UN played little or no man rights . and held conferences on UN, headquartered in New York City, part in shaping events. such diverse subjects as the law of the enjoyed wide support in the U.S. and its sea, the human environment, food, Charter was quickly ratified by the The Third World population and the status of women. Senate. The preamble to the UN Char­ Prior to World War n, much of what ter encompassed many of the ideals that is now called the Third World (a desig­ From the ashes of war Americans believe in and for which nation for poor, developing countries. During the 20th century, fear of the they had fought. Reflecting the postwar mostly located in the southern hemi­ destructiveness of modem warfare and division of power, the Charter gave a sphere) remained in the hands of a few the desire for peace through collective power of veto to the Big Four nations major European powers, principally sec urity have tempered international plus France. Britain and France. Both countries con­ relations. Following World War I, in trolled colonies in Asia, the Middle which II million people died and 21 Shattered hopes East, northern and sub-Saharan Africa million were wounded, the League of The expectations raised in San Fran­ and the Caribbean. The war and the Nations was established at the initiative cisco were soon disappointed. Almost cost of rebuilding their economies after of President Woodrow Wilson. from the onset, East-West conflicts the war made it difficult for the Europe­ The League represented a multilat­ dominated and divided the UN, begin­ ans to continue administering their eral attempt to create a mechanism to ning with the presence of Soviet troops colonies. This, coupled with growing promote the peaceful settlement of dis­ in northern Iran in 1946. During the nationalist sentiments throughout the putes between nations. Headquartered next few years tensions between the world, sparked a broad-based move­ in Geneva, Switzerland, the League's U.S. and the Soviet Union erupted else­ ment toward decolonization. It reached structure was similar to that of the UN, where~Greece. Eastern Europe, Ber­ its peak in the early 1960s, when many with an assembly, composed of repre­ lin, Korea and China, where in 1949 countries, especially in Africa, achieved sentatives of all member states; a coun­ Soviet-backed Communists defeated independence. cil of representatives from the leading U.S.-backed Nation­ Refugees in Ethiopia, afounding member of the UN, receive alists, who fled to Allied powers; a secretariat or execu­ assistance from Unicef and other international agencies. tive body presided over by a secretary­ Taiwan. general; and the Permanent Court of By 1950, the cold International Justice. One of the war-as the East­ League's main purposes was to enforce West ideological con­ the terms of the Treaty of Versailles frontation came to be (19 19). called-was raging. The U.S. Senate-bowing to isola­ When Communist tionist sentiments of the day~refused North Korea attacked to ratify U.S. membership, seriously South Korea, the UN weakening the League. Though it con­ was able to take col­ tinued to function throughout the 1920s lective action only and most of the 1930s, the outbreak of because the Soviet World War II in 1939 brought an end to Union was boycot­ the League's activities. The war, which ting the Security took 60 million lives, proved to be the Council because of most expensive and destructive conflict its failure to seat the in human history. In 1944, as the war Chinese Communists. began to wind down, President Franklin The UN's expedition­ D. Roosevelt hosted a meeting of the ary force of troops Big Four powers (Britain, China, the from 16 nations, led Soviet Union, and the U.S.) at Dumbar­ by the U.S., was soon ton Oaks, an estate in Washington, engulfed in a full­ of D.C., to lay the foundation for a post­ scale war that lasted of war international order. three years. Despite d.ifferences that existed even The cold war, with are UN Photo/D. Monsen 62 GREAT Do;CISIONS 1990

The decolonization process had a Their purpose was to present a unified other measures viewed as restricting cu profound effecl on UN membership. bargaining position in the face of the international economic activity. Se From 1946 Ihrough 1950, the UN richer countries of the North. By 1975, both the U.S. and the Eu­ d added only nine new members. In 1955, With the prodding of the Group of ropean Economic Community had, at d however, an additional 16 members 77, the General Assembly attempted to least in principle, accepted some of the ha: were added. In 1960, 17 new countries, address the disparity in wealth between declaration's concepts. However, at­ bu 16 of them African, became members. the rich and poor nations. In 1974, the tempts to implement the new economic cal By 1964, total membership had reached General Assembly adopted the Declara­ order were frustrated by global events, an 115. tion on the Establishment of a New such as the sharp increase in the price arg The burgeoning Third World mem­ Intemational Economic Order (NIEO), of oil in 1979-80, the second in six bership altered the agenda and the vot­ based on "equity, sovereign equality, years, and the deep worldwide reces­ w ing patterns of the General Assembly. interdependence. common interest and sion of the early 1980s, which greatly In 1960, the General Assembly adopted reduced the demand for Third World alt the Declaration on the Granting of In­ commodities. In the past few years, the the dependence to Colonial Countries and NIEO has been shelved as developing Shi Peoples, over the stiff opposition of the nations searched for more pragmatic ist main colonial powers. After 1960, it ways to solve their economic problems. the concentrated heavily on issues such as rna, black-majority rule in southern Africa, Structural problems ap, the Arab-Israeli conflict and economic Apart from the larger, global ten­ wh. disparities between the developing sions, UN headquarters has been beset South and the industrial North. by a number of internal difficulties. In the Middle East, the secretary­ One criticism that has frequently been general and the Security Council took leveled at the UN staff is that its an early lead in the search for a peace­ leadership has been weak and often in­ ful solution to regional conflict by pro­ effective. When Perez de Cuellar be­ posing terms for the partition of Pales­ came secretary-general in 1981, he in­ tine in 1947. In 1949 the General As­ herited from his predecessor, the Aus­ sembly established the UN Relief and trian Kurt Waldhe.m, a UN headquar­ [J Works Agency for Palestine Refugees ters with over 13,500 staff members. mar in the Near East. Since 1986, as the result of a budgetary SuC( Since the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, the and administrative-reform package Ke) majority in the General Assembly has pushed by the U.S. and other major beer tended to be stridently anti-Israel. In donors and approved by the General mar 1975, for example, the General Assem­ Assembly, the secretary-general has and bly passed a resolution equating Zion­ managed to trim the staff by 13% and F ism with racism, a move which deeply strengthened his personal control over Ofl offended the U.S. and most of the other Karsh, Ottawa UN peacemaking diplomacy and other peac Western powers. Every year since 1982 Dag Hammarskjold critical areas. pree the General Assembly has voted on a The Secretariat (as the headquarters prO\ procedural motion to include on the cooperation among all states ... ," and a staff is known) was meant to be an negc agenda the lifting of Israel's credentials program of action with which the de­ international civil service. According to pion for participating in the General Assem­ veloping countries hoped to achieve Article 100 of the UN Charter, neither conf bly. (In 1989, only 37 countries voted greater control over their natural re­ the secretary-general nor his staff ofol in favor-down from 41 in 1988- sources and, ultimately, a greater share should "seek or receive instructions Vent while 95 voted against.) of the economic pie. from any government or from any other ceaSI Many analysts thought that faster authority external to the organization." orc New economic order Third World economic growth would In practice, however, the Secretariat thall Since 1960, economic discussions at help create new markets and thus lead soon became politicized at all levels the UN have centered on strategies and to greater economic activity on a global and in nearly every aspect of its work, T. programs to promote Third World de­ scale. It was also believed that improv­ with member countries openly lobbying secU/ live ( velopment. In the early years, North­ ing living standards in developing for specific jobs and attempting to in­ lion South economic debates concentrated countries would ease such problems as fluence their nationals in the Secretariat peac on economic and technical aid. The population growth and political unrest. in the conduct of their work. a/ag focus shifted in 1964 to trade with the Nonetheless, the U.S. and several Euro­ This "politicization" of the Secretar­ peac. convening of the first UN Conference pean nations opposed the NIEO's call iat severely hampered the secretary­ meOfi on Trade and Development (Unctad). for expropriation of foreign investment general's ability to develop a staff ca­ ciple, At the meeting a group of developing without compensation in accordance pable of operating independently of adju, countries fanned the so-called Group of with international law, the approval of member governments. In addition, lionG 77 (which now has 127 members). commodity cartels. price indexing and member countries have often been ac- migh. UNITED NATIONS 63

cused of recommending people to the than those who would take seriously the and underscored one of the UN's weak­ Secretariat who lack the necessary cre­ Charter's mandate for establishing an nesses. dentials and training to perform their independent civil service. Under Austrian Kurt Waldheim duties. As Finger wrote in 1975, the UN The first secretary-general, Norwe­ (1972-81) the Secretariat became a has "never hired the cream of the crop," gian Trygve Lie (1946-53), was forced larger and even more unwieldy bu­ but instead "has settled perhaps too to resign by the Soviet Union because reaucracy than it had been previously. easily for average quality personnel," of his support of UN intervention in the In 1981, Waldheim's bid for an un­ an assessment which many analysts Korean War. As Lie's successor, Dag precedented third term-for which he argue is still true today. Hammarskjold (1953-61) managed to lobbied heavily-was blocked only by bring a measure of both prestige and a veto from the People's Republic of Weak leadership independence to the job, though in the China. Both the U.S. and the Soviet Criticism has been leveled not only process he so alienated the Soviet Un­ Union, seeing Waldheim as a "pliable" at the staff, but also at the selection of ion that, shortly before his death, it secretary-general, had favored his the secretary-general. According to called for replacing the position with a reelection. Shirley Hazzard, an American journal­ three-person directorate. Hammar­ Perez de Cuellar, who first came to ist who has written extensively about skjold, a Swede, was succeeded by U the UN in 1971 as Peru's permanent the UN, even from its earliest days the Thant (1961-71), a Burmese, whose representative, has brought back to the major powers seemed content with tenure coincided with the Vietnam War. office of secretary-general much of the appointing to the position individuals U.S. opposition to UN involvement in prestige and prominence it enjoyed in who could be easily influenced, rather resolving the war tied U Thant's hands Hammarskjold's time.

The UN's long agenda

ESPITE ITS MANY shortcomings, The concept of peacekeeping devel­ to monitor events in Palestine. Since D the UN as well as its agencies has oped as a means to circumvent the cold­ then, the UN has organized 15 peace­ managed to pursue a broad and fairly war confrontation among the pennanent keeping operations, including six ob­ successful agenda during its 45 years. members of the Security Council, who server missions (which operate un­ Key among its many activities have were reluctant to see one another's armed) and eight expeditionary forces. been peacekeeping, development, disar­ troops used for coercive actions. Most recently, in 1989, peacekeeping mament, promotion of human rights Peacekeeping forces are established forces were dispatched to Namibia and and the welfare of children. either by the Security Councilor the Nicaragua. Peacemaking and peacekeeping. General Assembly, usually at the rec­ Notwithstanding the recent suc­ Of the long list of UN objectives, ommendation of the secretary-general. cesses, peacekeeping can often be a peacemaking and peacekeeping remain They can only be dispatched with the frustrating assignment. During the preeminent. Peacemaking refers to the consent of the warring parties, and must 1960--64 peacekeeping operation in the providing of a forum for debate and not interfere with the internal affairs of Congo (now Zaire), for example, UN negotiation and a channel for quiet di­ the host country or in any way favor forces (though they were ultimately plomacy to help resolve international one side in a conflict. credited with preventing the country's conflicts. Peacekeeping refers to the use Unlike normal military forces, UN breakup) became emproiled in a civil of observers or military forces to pre­ troops are only lightly armed and are war. Notes Sir Brian Urquhart, fanner vent a return to armed hostilities once a prohibited from using force except in UN under secretary for special political cease-fire has been achieved. Article 1 self-defense. Their role is limited to affairs who was known as Mr. Peace­ of Chapter I of the UN Charter states keeping warring parties separated in keeper during his time at the Secretar­ that the primary purpose of the UN is: order to reduce tensions and create the iat, "There have been times when the climate for the peaceful resolution of peacekeeping function was more like To maintain international peace and conflicts. that of an attendant in a lunatic asylum, security, and to that end: to take effec­ tive collective measures for the preven­ Keeping the peace has proven to be and the ,oldiers had to accept abuse and tion and removal of threats to the no easy chore. According to a report by harassment without getting into physi­ peace, and for the suppression of acts World Priorities, a nonprofit research cal conflict or emotional involvement of aggression or other breaches of the organization base.d .in Washington, with the inmates." '- peace, and to bring about by peacefUl D.C., during the past 30 years, 81 major Some notable peacekeeping accom­ '- means, and in conformity with the prin­ wars have been fought and nearly 13 plishments include the UN Emergency ,­ ciples ofjustice and international law, million people have died in them. Force (UNEF II), that was dispatched to ,f adjustment or settlement of interna­ The UN's first involvement in the Suez Canal area during the Egyp­ I, tional disputes or situations which peacekeeping came in 1948, when an tian-Israeli conflict of 1973, and the UN might lead to a breach of the peace. international team of observers was sent Disengagement Observer Force •

64 GREAT DECISIONS 1990

,) J .,( ,) )" < :> )

( E United Nations Uni ted Nalions/M. Grant ) A member of the UN Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group supervising the cease-fire (I.). UN police monitors/rom the Netherlands arriving in Namibia to oversee the transition to independence. ") (UNDOF), that was sent to monitor a tions on certain conventional weapons. right to life, liberty and security of per- J > di sengagement agreement between Is- Despite it s concern over disarma- son. It has served as a model for many "• rael and Syria in 1974. ment, the General Assembly has often of the constitutions drafted by new ii o As with most military expeditions, adopted resolutions too sweeping for nations. c peacekeeping operations are also ex- practical application, such as the 1961 In nearly every year since 1948, the u pensive. Maintaining UN forces in call for "general and complete disarm a- General Assembly has adopted resolu­ o :> Namibia until the country is granted full ment." What is more, the superpowers lions, declarations and conventions independence (scheduled for April I, have tended to follow their own agenda concerning specific human-rights 1990), for example, is expected to cost regarding arms limitations, test bans issues. from $500 million to $700 million. and disarmament, making multilateral The UN's record in dealing with Disarmament. The first re soluti on action difficult to achieve. The recent human-rights issues has al so been adopted by the General Assembly, just improvement in relations between the mixed. The UN Commission on Human months after the U.S. dropped nuclear U.S. and the Soviet Union, especially in Rights, comprised of representatives bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiro- the field of anns negotiations, has been from 43 governments. has in the past shima and Nagasaki, was on disarma- warmly applauded at the UN . In the shown a high degree of political selec­ ment. Over the past four decades, the words of Secretary General Perez de tivity. focusing much of its attention on subject has received continuous atten- Cuellar, "Every person on thi s earth has Israel and South Africa. while com­ tion at the UN. and the original resolu- a stake in di sannament." plaints against other governments were tion wa s followed by numerous multi- Human rights. As with disarma- often not discussed. In recent years, lateral treaties limiting the testing and ment, the promotion of human rights however, the Human Ri ghts Commis­ deployme nt of nuclear weapons. In has been a major concern for the UN sion has shown a greater willingness to 1959, for example, the Antarctic Treaty sin ce its earliest years. In 1947, under address all complaints. In 1989, for declared the South Pole region a the chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt, example, in its first action against a per­ nuclear-weapon-free zone, and in 1967, the Commission on Human Rights manent member of the Security Coun­ the treaty on outer space prohibited drafted the Universal Declaration of cil , the commission condemned China nuclear and other weapons of mass Human Rights. It was approved by the for suppressing the pro-democracy rally destruction from being placed in orbit General Assembly on December 10 , in Beijing's Tiananmen Square. around the earth, on the moon or any of 1948, a date that has since been annu- Development. The UN Charter rec­ the planets. Between 1967 and 1980, an ally observed as Human Ri ghts Day. ognized the importance of promoting additional six treaties were s igned, The declaration sets forth the basic social progress and better li ving stan· ranging from the prohibition of nuclear rights and freedoms to which all men dards when it established the UN Eco­ weapons in Latin America to restric- and women are entitled, including the nomic and Social Council (Ecosoc). UNITED NATIONS .65

Ecosoc, composed of representatives of destitute young victims of World War ness. As grim as these figures are, notes 54 member states, meets twice a year II. In 1953, the General Assembly made Unicef's executive director James P. and is the principal organ to coordinate Unicef's mandate pennanent, changing Grant, there has been significant im­ the economic and social work of the its name to simply the UN Children's provement in child welfare over the UN with the specialized agencies and Fund (although the acronym Unicef past four decades. other institutions, including the semiau~ was retained). In 1965, Unicef was "In the 1950s," says Grant, "70,000 tonomous UN Development Program awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "the children were dying every day, the vast (UNDP), founded in 1965. promotion of brotherhood among the majority of preventable causes. Forty With 5,000 projects worth some nations." thousand may still be an unacceptable $7.5 billion currently being carried out Since the early 1950s, Unicef has number, but it is clear that we are mak­ in more than 150 countries, the UNDP concentrated on finding ways to elimi­ ing progress." is the largest multilateral channel for nate the widespread malnutrition, dis­ The specialized agencies. Much of technical and preinvestment aid. Work~ ease and ill iteracy afflicting millions of the UN's work is carried on by special­ ing with some two dozen UN special­ children in the developing world. It ized agencies that are independent of ized agencies, the program covers virtu­ prides itself on taking a nonpolitical the UN, with their own governing bod­ ally the entire spectrum of economic approach to child welfare and has thus ies, bylaws, budgets, staffs and mem­ and social development-from agricul~ managed to gain access to countries berships. These organizations work ture, industry, power production and where other UN organizations are not with the UN and each other through transport, to health, housing and educa­ allowed to operate. Unicef provides aid Ecosoc. Some of the agencies, such as tion. The UNDP has sent teachers to in three major ways: through assistance the Universal Postal Un ion (UPU), pre­ Botswana, engineers to Nepal, trade in the planning and design of services date the founding of the UN by a half­ specialists to Poland and air-traffic for children; delivery of supplies and century or more. control consultants to Ecuador. Funding equipment for these services; and provi­ Other specialized agencies deal with for UNDP is provided by voluntary sion of funds for the training of person­ financial development and monetary contributions from UN member govern­ nel needed to work with and for chil­ issues (IBRD, IDA, IFC, IMF): agricul­ ments. dren (including teachers, nutritionists, ture (FAO); education, science and cul­ Another UN agency that has played health and sanitation workers, social ture (Unesco), and many other transbor­ an important role in development is the workers and community leaders). As der problems. As with the UN in gen­ International Bank for Reconstruction with the UNDP, funding for Unicef is eral, they are sometimes subject to po­ and Development (IBRD or World largely provided by voluntary contribu­ litical turmoil. During the 1970s and Bank). The World Bank was estab­ tions from governments. early 1980s, for example, Unesco took lished in 1944 to promote international According to UN statistics, 40,000 actions that were viewed as hosti Ie by investment for the development of pro­ children worldwide die every day, 95% many Western powers, causing the U.S. ductive resources. The bank, which of preventable causes, and another and other countries to withdraw from picks up where the UNDP leaves off, 40,000 are crippled for life through ill- the organization. offers long-term loans for such major development projects as hydroelectric Milk is distributed to refugee children in Somalia; Ecosoc strongly endorsed Ihe dams and deep-water ports. secretary-general's appeal for urgent·assistance. For all the attention devoted to de­ velopment by the UN and its agencies, progress has been uneven, with the poorest countries in particular lagging far behind. Within the next 40 to 50 years, world population is expected to = increase from the present 5 billion to between 8 billion and 14 billion. Most of this increase will be concentrated in already crowded Third World urban ar­ eas, which suffer from high levels of disease brought on by contaminated drinking water as well as sewage and waste disposal problems. Welfare of children. Another area in which the UN early accepted respon­ sibility was that of child welfare. The UN International Children's Emer­ gency Fund (Unicef) was created in 1946 by unanimous vote in the General Assembly. Its original function was to provide emergency assistance to the UN Photo!peter• Magubane 66 GREAT DECISIONS 1990

is fal Where does the U.S. stand? U to URING ITS EARLY, formative years, words, the U.S . was now "in opposi­ that if Israel is illegally denied its cre­ o D the U.S. was the undisputed tion" at the UN. dentials at the UN, the U.S. will "sus­ w leader at the UN. U.S. taxpayers picked During Jimmy Carter's presidency pend its participation in the General to up 40% of the organization's total (1977-81), the U.S. struck a concili­ Assembly ... " Another provision re­ costs, and the U.S. and its allies formed atory tone at the UN. Carter appointed quires that the secretary of state report a powerful majority. Despite cold-war Andrew Young as his pennanent repre­ to Congress each year on the voting confrontations and the increasing chal­ sentative to the UN (1977-79). Young record within the General Assembly of lenge from newly independent states, was an outspoken critic of racism who each member country, so that Congress support for the UN generally ran high had worked with Dr. Martin Luther can assess a particular country's sup­ among Americans until the late 1960s. King, Jr. in the U.S. civil rights move­ port of the U.S. when considering re­ The U.S. position at the UN changed ment of the 1960s. He quickly gained quests for military and economic aid. vo during the Nixon and Ford Administra­ the confidence of many nonaligned In 1985, Congress went a step fur­ b tions, when America-reeling from its countries, especially the Africans, who ther by passing the Kassebaum amend­ th, defeat in Vietnam-<>ften found itself saw him as a champion of the antia­ ment, which called for withholding pIa outvoted and outmaneuvered by an in­ partheid battle. In the Security Council dues to the UN pending cost-cutting creasingly hostile Third World voting in 1977, the U.S . voted with the major­ and structural refonns within the Secre­ m! bloc. It was in 1974, for example, that ity for a mandatory arms embargo tariat. Since the U.S. is now responsible Hil the Palestine Liberation Organization's against South Africa, a move not for 25% of the UN's regular budget (a re (PLO) chairman, Yasir Arafat-an dreamed of just a few years before. percentage roughly equal to its share of en, avowed enemy of Israel, a U.S. ally­ Young, however, was forced to re­ the combined gross national product of Ea1 received a warm welcome at the UN. It sign after it was revealed that he had all UN member countries), failure to ner was also during this period that the held an unauthorized meeting with a pay its dues soon put the UN under ind nonaligned countries began aggres­ PLO official. He was replaced by severe financial constraints. By 1988, sively promoting the NIEO. Donald McHenry, a young black Amer­ the U.S. owed the UN nearly $500 mil­ ican who had already distinguished lion in back dues and an additional In opposition himself as a career diplomat with long $250 million in arrears for peacekeep­ In its defense, the U.S. adopted a UN experience. ing operations (which is also an obliga­ sharper tone. In a speech before the tory payment), prompting Perez de General Assembly, John A. Scali, the The Reagan years Cuellar to warn that the UN would soon U.S . permanent representative to the Under President Reagan, the U.S. have to begin curtailing its activities. UN from 1973 to 1975, criticized the again went through a period of confron­ During his second term in office organization for passing "one-sided, tation at the UN. As his first permanent (1985-89), President Reagan's attitude unrealistic resolutions that cannot be representative, Reagan chose Jeane J. toward the UN changed. In 1985, implemented." Under Scali's successor, Kirkpatrick (1981-85), a neoconserva­ Ambassador Kirkpatrick, who had sof­ Daniel P. Moynihan, who served as tive who quickly showed a willingness tened her tone considerably. was re­ permanent representative for only eight to confront both the Soviet bloc and the placed by Vernon Walters, a retired months (1975-76), the U.S. adopted a Third World in a manner that was remi­ army general and deputy director of the policy of confronting the nonaligned niscent of Moynihan. Central Intelligence Agency who was bloc. Incensed by the 1975 Zionism-is­ During the Reagan Administration's widely admired for his linguistic and racism resolution, Moynihan responded first term (1981-85), the U.S. adopted diplomatic skills. In September 1988, with a U.S. resolution calling for the what appeared to many observers to be the President announced that he was release of political prisoners throughout a more unilateralist approach to foreign releasing $44 million to cover payment the world-a move calculated to show policy. Following a Security Council of U.S. dues to the UN through the end the hypocrisy of the majority in its se­ resolution condemning the 1983 U.S . of that year and pledged to payoff the lective approach to human rights. invasion of Grenada, for example, balance owed. Though much of the drama of those President Reagan is reported to have In 1987, the Soviet Union paid more tumultuous years took place in the said that the fact that the U.S. was voted than $200 million in arrears to the UN, General Assembly, it is in the Security down by eight votes "didn't bother his including money promised for past Council records that the shift in senti­ breakfast one bit." One U.S. official peacekeeping operations. It has an out­ ments at the UN can be most accurately was even quoted as remarking that the standing UN debt of $175 million. measured. Between 1945 and 1970, the UN could "go elsewhere" if it did not Soviet Union cast 105 vetoes in the like Reagan's policies. Lost influence Security Council, while the U.S. only In 1983, the U.S. Congress passed Though many analysts originally cast I. Over the next six years, from Public Law 98-164, setting several viewed the withholding of dues as an 1971 to 1976, the Soviet Union cast 5 conditions on American participation in effective means of forcing much­ vetoes and the U.S., 20. In Moynihan's the UN. One provision of the law states needed refonns on the organization, it UNITED NATIONS 67 is generally agreed that the continued failure to make back payments has hurt U.S. prestige and influence. According to Richard Gardner, "A country that owes over half a billion dollars to the world organization is in a weak position to claim its fair share of key Secretariat posts." John Washburn, a retired U.S. diplo­ mat who now holds a high-level UN post, believes that withholding dues has upset many U.S. allies and could set an unhealthy precedent. "These payments are international legal obligations, not voluntary contributions," says Wash­ burn. "Withholding them is simply not the kind of game that. a real leader plays." United Nations/J.K. Isaac So far, President Bush has offered Leaders of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon confer on Israeli withdrawal. more praise than criticism to the UN. His choice of Thomas R. Pickering-a pointment of leadership posts of all UN that U.S. policy goals can best be respected career diplomat with experi­ agencies. As one UN-watcher put it, served by addressing these issues ence in arms negotiations, the Middle "When was the last time anyone at the within the international forum. On the East and Central America-as perma­ White House gave two seconds thought other hand, on some issues--especially nent U.S. represe ntative was seen as an to who should be head of the Food and sensitive security matters and those indication that the Administration plans Agriculture Organization or Unesco?" where the U.S. has been traditionally at to make the organization a high foreign Critics argue that despite recent suc­ odds with the General Assembly-little policy priority. The President has cesses, the UN is still a cumbersome would be gained by seeking a UN con­ adopted the Reagan formula on dues­ vehicle for solving international dis­ sensus. full payment of the current year's as­ putes and the U.S. is often in the minor­ An argument against the selective sessment and installment payment of all ity on issues important to it and its al­ approach policy is that it could under­ U.S. dues in arrears. While Congress is lies. Even if Congress were prepared to mine the growing spirit of cooperation expected to fulfill hi s first request, it come up with funds to pay back dues within the UN system at a time when may be years before all back debts are (given the current U.S. budgetary diffi­ the potential for multilateralism has paid. culties, this is unlikely), many- includ­ never been greater. Since the Soviet ing some members of the Bush Admini­ Union has expressed interest in expand­ U,S, policy options stration-would prefer that the U.S. ing the UN's role in resolving conflicts, In light of the UN's recent achieve­ continue to use its financial leverage to the U.S. should be willing to give ments and the Soviet Union's changed push for further reforms. multilaterali sm a chance, without plac­ altitude toward the world body, is a o 2. Use the UN selectively as one of ing preconditions on what it will or will course change in U.S. policy toward the many avenues for achieving U.S. pol­ not address within the international UN in the coming decade called for? icy goals. This option recognizes that organization. The following are just two of the many some international problems call for a U.S. policy options. multilateral approach, others are best J I. Make the UN a more important dealt with in their regional context and *** foreign policy priority, Many analysts st ill others require unilateral actions. Just how far th e U.S. should go in believe that the U.S. must focus more The issue is not whether or not the U.S. restoring its support for the UN is a official attention on the organization should use the UN as a foreign policy question for debate. Should the organi­ than it has in recent years, since man y tool, but under what circumstances a zation become a priority for the Bush of the most pressing issues on the U.S. multilateral approach is in the U.S. best Administration? If so, what results can and the global agenda (including drugs, interest. According to Gardner, "neither be reasonably expected? In what the environment and terrorism) require dogmatic unilaterali sm nor utopian circumstances can the UN be used ef­ a multilateral approach. The U.S. multilateralism is an appropriate policy fectively to promote U.S. foreign policy should also be more willing to attempt for a superpower in a complex and dan­ goals? Should it be used? Or is it better to resolve disputes in the Security gerous world." to chart an independent course, relying Council and the General Assembly. It Proponents of this option argue that instead on unilateral actions? should also pay its back dues in full, the UN is best suited for taCKling such propose only the most qualified candi­ transborder issues as controlling the Opinion Ballot dates to fill staff positions at the Secre­ spread of AIDS, environmental pollu­ tariat, and become involved in the ap- tion and the population explosion, and 1111. on page 94 1111. 68 GREAT DECISIONS 1990

FOR DISCUSSION

1. The UN was founded to promote does the U.S. pay too much or not 6. In what field do you think the UN is peace, security and cooperation in solv­ enough for what it gets from the UN? most effective: peacekeeping and ing international problems. In your peacemaking, economic development opinion. has it succeeded in its goals? 4. During the 1980s the U.S. withheld and the struggle against poverty, human Has the U.S. benefited from its exis­ its UN dues in order to force structural rights, disarmament, or some other? tence? Or has the UN been an impedi­ changes on the organization. Do you ment to U.S. policy? think this was a good or bad policy? 7. Mikhail Gorbachev has stressed Under what, if any, conditions would greater cooperation in the UN at a time 2. Some analysts believe that the U.S. you recommend withholding U.S. dues when the U.S. has been accused of should take a selective approach toward in the future? being the organization's "number one the UN, using the organization to deal deadbeat." How should the U.S. re­ with some issues, but reserving the 5. The UN is increasingly being used to spond to Gorbachev's "new thinking" te right to take independent action on address such transborder issues as toward the UN? 2 others. Do you share their view? What global warming and international ter­ Is arguments can you make in favor of or rorism. Do you think the organization 8. Some analysts believe that if the UN gl against such an approach? can deal effectively with such prob­ did not exist it would have to be in­ lems? How could the UN enforce its vented now. Do you agree? What role o 3. The U.S. is currently responsible for decisions in these matters on uncoop­ do you envisage for the UN in the dec­ m 25% of the UN budget. In your opinion, erative member nations? ade that lies ahead? s

SUGGESTED READINGS E!'" bl Basic Facts about the United Nations. New York, UN of employing UN peacekeeping forces to help re solve re­ sp Department of Public Information, 1987. 178 pp. $3.00 gional conflicts. fe (paper). Detailed information about the origin, purpose and structure of the UN and its agencies. "Peace on the March." Time, September 26. 1988, pp. 34-36. Report on the achievements of UN peacekeeping Gardner, Richard N., "The Case for Practical International­ forces. ism." Foreign Affairs, Spring 1988, pp. 827-45. Former U.S. diplomat argues in favor of a pragmatic approach to "Prospects for a New Era of World Peace." Department of greater international cooperation. State Bulletin, November 1988, pp. 1-8. Includes the text of President Ronald Reagan 's final address to the General As­ Hazzard, Shirley, "Reflections: Breaking Faith." The New sembly, the White House statement on release of U.S. funds Yorker, September 25, 1989, pp. 63-99. and October 2, for the UN and a joint communique by the permanent mem­ 1989, pp. 74-96. A critical perspective of the five men who bers of the Security Council. have held the post of UN secretary-general. A Successor Vision: The United Nations of Tomorrow. Luck, Edward c., and Gati, Toby Trister, "Gorbachev, the New York, United Nations Association of the United States United Nations, and U.S. Policy." The Washington of America, 1987. 120 pp. $10.00 (paper). Available through Quarterly, Autumn 1988, pp. 19-35. Excellent discussion the Publications Department, UNA-USA, 485 Fifth Avenue, on current superpower attitudes toward the UN. New York, NY 10017. Report on the management, govern­ ance and rote of the UN with recommendations on how to MacLeod, Scott, "A Very Civil Servant." Time, December 5, improve its effectiveness. 1988, pp. 50-52. Interview with longtime UN diplomat Sir Brian Urquhart, "Mr. Peacekeeper." Tessitore, John, and Woolfson, Susan, eds., Issues before the 43rd General Assembly of the United Nations. Lexing­ Norton, Augustus Richard, and Weiss, Thomas G., "Burden ton, Mass., Lexington Books, 1989. 228 pp. $14.00 (paper). Sharing: Turning Again to UN Peacekeepers." The New Annual publication presenting background on major topics Leader, March 20, 1989, pp. 12- 14. Di sc ussion of the value on UN agenda.

For further in-deprh reading, wrire for rhe Grear Decisions 1990 Bibliography (see page 4).