DIRECTIONS FOR THE NATIONAL RESERVE SYSTEM – A PARTNERSHIP APPROACH

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council DIRECTIONS FOR THE NATIONAL RESERVE SYSTEM

Directions for the National Reserve System – A Partnership Approach. Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council © Commonwealth of Australia (2005) ISBN: 0642551367 This report was issued under the authority of the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC) For bibliographic purposes this report may be cited as: Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (2004), Directions for the National Reserve System – A Partnership Approach, Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, ACT This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under theCopyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Australian Government, available from the Department of the Environment Heritage. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to: National Reserve System Taskforce c/o National Reserve System Section Parks Australia South Branch Department of the Environment and Heritage GPO Box 787 Canberra ACT 2601 The Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Heritage, has collated and edited this publication for the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council. While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the Australian Government and members of the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (or the governments which council members represent) do not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contexts, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication. This report is available at: http://www.deh.gov.au/parks/nrs/index.html

Design: Big Island Graphics, Canberra

Cover photo credits: Grass Trees of Mount Coryah, Mt Kaputar National Park. Photographer: John Baker. Copyright DEH. Lake Placid, Barron Gorge National Park. Photographer: John Baker. Copyright DEH. River Red Gum, Flinders Ranges National Park. Photographer: John Baker. Copyright DEH.

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CONTENTS

Acronyms 4 5.0 Progressing the NRS 56 Foreword 6 5.1 Funding arrangements 56 Executive Summary 7 5.2 Core data sets 56 1.0 Understanding the National Reserve 5.3 Community awareness and involvement 56 System 13 5.4 Roles and responsibilities 57 1.1 What is the National Reserve System? 13 Glossary 58 1.2 International & national context 13 References 60 1.3 The protected area system in Australia 14 Appendix 1 62 1.4 Planning context 19 1.5 History of the protected area system 22 Tables 1.6 Benefits of protected areas 22 Table 1. Directions To Progress The 1.7 Issues in the development of the NRS 23 Comprehensive, Adequate And 2.0 Reserve System Planning and Design 24 Representative System Of Reserves 8 2.1 Key principles 24 Table 2. Collaborative Australian Protected 2.2 The bioregional reservation framework 27 Areas Database 2004 16 2.3 Biodiversity targets for the NRS CAR Table 3. IUCN Protected Area Categories 36 reserve system 29 2.4 Monitoring progress of NRS development 34 Figures 3.0 Establishment Of Protected Areas 35 Figure 1. Protected Areas in Australia 15 3.1 Standards for inclusion in the NRS 35 Figure 2. Conceptual relationship of NRS 3.2 Mechanisms for protected area to other protected areas and establishment 38 other lands 21 3.3 Management accreditation 48 Figure 3. Reservation levels for each IBRA 3.4 Monitoring reserve establishment 48 region 28 4.0 Management Of Protected Areas 50 Figure 4. Overall IBRA priorities arising 4.1 Management principles 50 from the assessment 28 4.2 Management plans 50 Figure 5. Conservation levels according to ecosystem classification levels 4.3 Key management issues 51 in the Kanmantoo IBRA Region 30 4.4 Co-operative management with Figure 6. The location of components in the Indigenous communities 53 Gippsland Plains Conservation 4.5 Legislative mechanisms for private Management Network protected area management 53 (as of January 2002) 46 4.6 Monitoring management effectiveness 54 4.7 Best practice management program 55

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ACRONYMS AAS Australian Academy of Science NGO Non-government organisation ANZECC Australian and New Zealand NHT Natural Heritage Trust Environment and Conservation NLWRA National Land and Water Resources Council Audit BDAC Biological Diversity Advisory NRMMC Natural Resource Management Committee (under the EPBC Act) Ministerial Council CA Conservation Agreement NRS National Reserve System CAPAD Collaborative Australian Protected NRSMPA National Representative System of Areas Database Marine Protected Areas CAR Comprehensive, Adequate and NRSP National Reserve System Program Representative NSCABD National Strategy for the Conservation CRA Comprehensive Regional Assessment of Australia’s Biological Diversity CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and NVIA National Vegetation Information and Industrial Research Organisation Analysis DEH Department of the Environment and NVIS National Vegetation Information Heritage System EPBC Environment Protection and Biodiversity NWI National Wilderness Inventory Conservation Act 1999 PA Protected Area ESCAVI Executive Steering Committee for PAPL Protected Area on Private Land Australian Vegetation Information PPA Private Protected Area GIS Geographical Information System RFA Regional Forest Agreement IBP International Biological Programme (precursor to IUCN) UNEP United Nations Environment Programme IBRA Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation IPA Indigenous Protected Area WCU World Conservation Union (IUCN) IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature (now World Conservation Union) JANIS Joint ANZECC/MCFFA National Forest Policy Statement Implementation Sub- Committee MAB Man and the Biosphere (Programme) MCFFA Ministerial Council on Forestry, Fisheries and Aquaculture NFPS National Forest Policy Statement

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THIS DOCUMENT IS BASED ON WORK BY THE NATIONAL RESERVE SYSTEM TASKFORCE OF THE NRMMC LAND, WATER AND BIODIVERSITY COMMITTEE • Peter Bosworth (Chair) Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Tasmania (DPIWE) • Chris Ashe/Joan Phillips Department of Sustainability & Environment, Victoria (DSE) • Norm McKenzie Department of Conservation and Land Management, Western Australia (CLM) • Peter Alexander/Tim Bond National Parks & Wildlife, South Australia (NPW) • Fiona Leverington/Tim Ellis Parks & Wildlife Service, Queensland (PWS) • Rob Dick Department of Environment and Conservation, New South Wales (DEC) • Steve Szabo/Bruce Rose Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra (DEH) • David Forsyth Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra (DEH) • Mike Butler Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment, Northern Territory (DIPE) • Bill Logan Environment ACT, Canberra (EACT) • Michael Doherty CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Canberra (CSE)

Photographer: John Baker. Copyright DEH 5 DIRECTIONS FOR THE NATIONAL RESERVE SYSTEM

FOREWORD

The National Reserve System (NRS) represents the collective efforts of the States, Territories, the Australian Government, and non-government organisations to achieve an Australian system of protected areas as a major contribution to the conservation of our native biodiversity. Directions for the National Reserve System – A Partnership Approach (the Directions Statement) has been prepared to assist government agencies, non-government organisations and the community in the ongoing development of the National Reserve System, and to assist stakeholders in the understanding of this process. TheDirections Statement will also guide the delivery of the National Reserve System program (NRSP), an activity of the Australian Government’s Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) of Australia. TheDirections Statement was developed from In developing this Directions Statement the Taskforce work by the National Reserve System Action Plan has drawn upon the approach used for the Strategic Taskforce of the Natural Resource Management Plan of Action for the National Representative System Ministerial Council, and formerly under the of Marine Protected Areas (ANZECC 1999) to Australian and New Zealand Environment and promote consistency in approach for terrestrial and Conservation Council (ANZECC). It builds marine environments as well as experience with upon the framework provided by the Interim other such plans both in Australia and overseas. Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia TheDirections Statement outlines a strategic (Thackway and Cresswell 1995), otherwise known national approach for making quantifiable as IBRA, and should be read in conjunction with progress towards the establishment and that document and the Australian Guidelines for management of a comprehensive, adequate and Establishing the National Reserve System endorsed by representative terrestrial protected area system. ANZECC in July 1999. It provides background information to assist in the understanding of the national reserve system and the processes and actions required for its development. It is not intended to replicate or override existing government processes.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The National Reserve System (NRS) represents which the lands were protected. A set of broad the collective efforts of the States, Territories, the management principles has been identified which Commonwealth, non-government organisations embody contemporary thinking on protected and Indigenous landholders to achieve an Australian area management to help achieve this aim and system of terrestrial protected areas as a major provides the basis for standards for protected area contribution to the conservation of our native management. biodiversity. It aims to contain samples of all TheDirections Statement recognises that the national regional ecosystems, their constituent biota and reserve system cannot be built solely on public lands associated conservation values. and that there is a significant role for the private Directions for the National Reserve System presents sector to play in protected area establishment and a common approach to the strategic planning management. It also recognises the role of protected and design, establishment and management of areas on indigenous lands and the importance of a comprehensive, adequate and representative engaging indigenous communities in protected area national reserve system for government agencies, planning and management. non-government organisations and the community TheDirections Statement acknowledges the need in the ongoing development of the National to establish and manage protected areas within a Reserve System, and assists stakeholders in the landscape context on the basis that conservation understanding of this process. objectives can best be achieved through an It emphasizes the critical role of partnerships integrated approach at the landscape level. between all governments, and between governments Involvement of the community and relations with and non-government organizations in ensuring the neighbours are recognised as critical issues in the success of the National Reserve System. successful on-going management of protected areas. Bioregions and subregions are used as the basis for For all stages of development of the national reserve assessing gaps in the current reserve system and system – planning and design, establishment identifying priorities for improved representation of and management – there are requirements for ecosystems. Agreed targets for ecosystem protection monitoring and evaluation to enable on-going have been identified within this context. assessment of progress towards achieving NRS goals. TheDirections Statement presents a standard Table 1 summarises the Directions to progress approach to the establishment of protected areas, the comprehensive, adequate and representative and includes an agreed set of minimum standards national system of reserves. which protected areas must meet to be included in the National Reserve System and count towards meeting reservation targets. These include a common approach to the application of IUCN Protected Area categories and the need to ensure that all protected areas, whether public or private, are established through secure means. A key aim in developing the National Reserve System is the on-going maintenance of values for

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Table 1. Directions to progress the comprehensive, adequate and representative National Reserve System The Taskforce notes that experience in Australia to date has generally demonstrated that it is seven times more cost effective to conserve intact native ecosystems rather than attempting to re-establish them after they have been cleared or significantly degraded. The next decade will be a critical period for biodiversity conservation planning in Australia and presents significant opportunities for progressing a comprehensive, adequate and representative NRS. The challenges and opportunities to progress the NRS are not uniform across Australia, so there will be some regional variation in the timing of the application of the Directions.

DIRECTIONS Implementation Timing Progressing comprehensiveness All jurisdictions By 2010-2015 1. Examples of at least 80% of the number of extant regional ecosystems in each IBRA region are to be represented in the NRS (Section 2.3.1) Progressing adequacy All jurisdictions By 2010 2. Protected areas are selected and managed to maximise the probability of survival of their biota through: · Including replication of sampled regional ecosystems · Being of sufficient size and condition to ensure long- term sustainability · Being managed within a bioregional planning context

· Optimising opportunities for species dispersal between NRS Scientific Advisory By 2005 protected areas. (Section 2.3.1) Group As part of the consideration of long-term targets outlined in Direction 11, particular attention will be given to providing more measurable criteria for progressing adequacy. (Section 2.3.1) Progressing representativeness All jurisdictions By 2010-2020 3. Examples of at least 80% of the number of extant regional ecosystems in each IBRA subregion are represented in the NRS by 2010-2020. (Section 2.3.1) Protecting threatened species and ecosystems All jurisdictions By 2010 4. As a priority, critically endangered and endangered species and regional ecosystems in each IBRA region are included in the NRS by 2010. (Section 2.3.1) 5. Significant progress is made towards inclusion of All jurisdictions By 2010 vulnerable species and regional ecosystems in each IBRA region in the NRS (Section 2.3.1) Updating biogeographic regionalisation Australian Government By 2005 for IBRA V6. framework assisted by all jurisdictions 6. IBRA subregionalisation and IBRA V6 to be finalized for On-going publication by 2005. (Section 2.3.1)

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DIRECTIONS Implementation Timing Freshwater ecosystems NRS Scientific Advisory By 2005 Group augmented with 7. The current understanding of freshwater biodiversity in appropriate freshwater relation to CAR to be reviewed and an agreed approach scientists finalized, which may include future amendments to the NRS Scientific Guidelines, to ensure freshwater ecosystems are appropriately incorporated within the NRS (Section 2.3.1) Assessing priorities All jurisdictions By 2006 8. Pre-European vegetation mapping coverage at 1:250,000 scale or better to be completed to assist with planning priorities in the intensive land use zone and identification and mapping of freshwater systems at an appropriate scale is commenced (Section 2.3.1)

9. Priority IBRA regions to be reviewed for the NRS and NRS Scientific Advisory By 2005 updated regularly (Section 2.3.1) Group 10. State, Territory and Australian Government NRS All jurisdictions By 2006 Implementation Plans to be developed for each priority IBRA region (Section 2.3.1) Long-term targets NRS Scientific Advisory By 2005 Group 11. Natural Resource Policies and Programs Committee (NRPPC) of NRMMC to consider recommendations for long-term targets for the NRS taking into account the JANIS Reserve criteria which apply to forest ecosystems. (Section 2.3.2) Monitoring progress of NRS development Australian Government 2005 and on-going with assistance from all 12. Biennial reports to be prepared on the jurisdictions comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness of ecosystems in the NRS as per the NRS Scientific Guidelines. (Section 2.4) IUCN categorization All jurisdictions 2004 and on-going 13. Protected areas will continue to be reported on by IUCN categories, in accordance with IUCN Guidelines, and identified anomalies are to be resolved for CAPAD 2004. (Section 3.1) NRS standards All jurisdictions By 2005 (assessment against standards) 14. Mechanisms for protection and management of protected areas (both private and public) to be assessed By 2006 (undertake any in each jurisdiction against the NRS Standards and after necessary enhancements) consultation necessary enhancements made. (Section 3.1) Private protected areas Australian Government By 2005 15. An all Jurisdiction approach to be co-ordinated to assist capacity building for the Private Protected Areas and Indigenous Protected Areas component of the NRS. (Section 3.2)

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DIRECTIONS Implementation Timing 16. An annual national forum to be convened for managers Australian Government 2005, then annually (both government and non-government) of protected areas to discuss implementation of relevant directions in the Directions Statement. (Section 3.2) 17. Covenanting and the use of revolving fund All jurisdictions By 2005 arrangements to be implemented as part of the NRS where appropriate and managers of revolving funds to be encouraged to give priority to implement NRS objectives. (Section 3.2.1) 18. As incentives will be necessary to achieve the NRS, All jurisdictions On-going continue to investigate and implement. (Section 3.2.2) Achieving National Reserve System standards All jurisdictions By 2006 19. A review of current legislation to be conducted in each jurisdiction, including covenanting arrangements and legislation relevant to leasehold lands, and if necessary and feasible action taken to ensure there is a clear nexus between enabling legislation and reserve system objectives. (Section 3.2.4) 20. Processes and legislation will be examined in each All jurisdictions By 2005 jurisdiction to ensure that any proposal to excise an area from a NRS Protected Area is made subject to a process of public notification. (Section 3.2.4) 21. Model documentation including agreements and Australian Government By 2005 covenants will be prepared for use by intending PA managers and be accessible on the NRS website. These shall incorporate all standards referred to in section 3.2. (Section 3.2.4) 22. Inclusion of the relevant State/Territory will be sought Australian Government By 2005 and on-going as a party to each agreement establishing a Private or Indigenous Protected Area. (Section 3.2.4) Protected area mechanisms All jurisdictions On-going 23. Jurisdictions, and those establishing and managing protected areas, where appropriate to investigate possible collaboration/partnerships with private organizations including business in regard to establishment and management of particular protected areas. (Section 3.2.4) Code of management All jurisdictions By 2006 24. A national code of management should be developed to ensure protected area management is of an appropriately high standard (Section 3.3) 25. Nature conservation agencies or appropriate NGOs All jurisdictions By 2005 and on-going should encourage partnerships with private protected area managers to provide advice, assistance, and training and support as required (Section 3.3)

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DIRECTIONS Implementation Timing Monitoring reserve establishment All jurisdictions For 2004 CAPAD Report and on-going 26. Protected areas in each jurisdiction, which meet NRS standards and which therefore qualify for listing in the Collaborative Australian Protected Areas Database (CAPAD), to be reported on, detailing the attributes of each protected area and its contribution to CAR. Such reports are to also include information on any NRS-qualifying Private Protected Areas to which the jurisdiction is a party, to ensure there is a comprehensive register of all qualifying protected areas for each jurisdiction. The Australian Government will continue compiling CAPAD. (Section 3.4) Public funding accountability All jurisdictions By 2004 and on-going 27. Protected Area managers to maintain public reporting processes and observe public accountability standards. (Section 3.4) Management of protected areas All jurisdictions By 2006 28. Management plans, or where this is not possible, statements of management intent, to be in place for all existing NRS Reserves and for any new reserves within 3 years of establishment unless Native Title Act considerations preclude this. (Section 4.2) 29. Interim management guidelines to be in place within All jurisdictions Within 9 months 9 months of acquisition of protected areas under the NRS of NRSP property program. (Section 4.2) acquisition 30. Protected areas to be managed in accordance with fire All jurisdictions By 2005 management plans which take into account the purpose of reservation and management objectives for the protected area and take into account issues such as public safety, the ecological role of fire, landscape effects of fire, indigenous use of fire, and asset protection. (Section 4.3) 31. Principles for key management issues to be developed All jurisdictions By 2006 based on best practice standards for protected area management. (Section 4.3) Involvement of indigenous communities All jurisdictions By 2005 32. A process for engagement of indigenous communities in protected area management to be in place in each jurisdiction. (Section 4.4) Legislative mechanisms for PPA management All jurisdictions By 2006 33. The potential for the application of relevant laws to be investigated to assist in the protection of values on Indigenous Protected Areas and Private Protected Areas in each jurisdiction. (Section 4.5)

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DIRECTIONS Implementation Timing Management effectiveness All jurisdictions By 2005 34. A reporting system, such as State of the Parks report, which identifies programs to monitor management effectiveness and progress towards achieving protected area objectives, to be in place in each jurisdiction. (Section 4.6) Best practice management All jurisdictions By 2005 35. An assessment against ANZECC best practice standards to be undertaken in each jurisdiction as part of the regular State of the Parks reporting. (Section 4.7) Funding arrangements All jurisdictions On-going 36. A joint partnership approach to be maintained for funding NRS acquisitions and new partnerships to be considered where appropriate. Governments to consider sources and quantum of funding for the NRS. (Section 5.1) Core data sets NRS Scientific Advisory By 2005 and on-going Group 37. A work program to be developed for the identification, acquisition and maintenance of core data sets required for the NRS. (Section 5.2) Community awareness and involvement All jurisdictions By 2005 and on-going 38. A communication strategy to be prepared to increase awareness and understanding of the objectives and achievements of the National Reserve System (Section 5.3.1)

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1.0 UNDERSTANDING THE NATIONAL RESERVE SYSTEM 1.1 WHAT IS THE NATIONAL protected areas; and promote the protection of RESERVE SYSTEM? ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species. The central role The National Reserve System (NRS) represents of protected areas in implementing the objectives the collective efforts of the States, Territories, of the convention has been repeatedly emphasized the Australian Government, non-government in decisions of the Conference of the Parties to the organisations and Indigenous landholders to achieve Convention. The target to achieve ‘a significant an Australian system of terrestrial protected areas reduction in the current rate of loss of biological as a major contribution to the conservation of our diversity’ by the year 2010 was agreed by the 6th native biodiversity. It aims to contain samples of Conference of the Parties to the CBD in 2002, all regional ecosystems, their constituent biota and and endorsed by the world’s leaders at the World associated conservation values. Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) later Protected areas are those systems of National Parks that year. and other types of conservation areas dedicated The Conference of the Parties to the CBD at its to the protection and maintenance of biological seventh meeting in 2004 agreed on a work program diversity and formally managed and protected for protected areas which included approaches for this purpose. The protected area system is an to ensuring the effective on-going development important tool for assisting with the conservation of of comprehensive, adequate and representative Australia’s biodiversity within the broader context protected area systems to meet the above goals. of integrated landscape management. Protected The work programme took account of the areas also provide significant other roles, notably recommendations arising from the Vth World Parks in providing ecosystem services and nature-based Congress held in Durban, South Africa, in 2003. recreation and tourism opportunities. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has The foundations of the National Reserve System developed an international system for the are the strong partnerships between the Australian classification of protected areas – the IUCN Government and the various State/Territory Protected Area Management Categories, which Governments. This is reflected in the shared vision provide for the full range of protected areas from presented in this Directions Statement and the strict nature conservation to multi-use reserves, and commitment to future collaboration and sharing outline the way in which sites in each class should of information and resources. Building upon be managed. that foundation, the success of the NRS is also dependent upon other key partnerships between the At the national level the goal of a “Comprehensive, various levels of government, community groups Adequate and Representative System of Reserves” and NGO’s, including indigenous bodies. for Australia is endorsed by the Australian Government, State and Territory Governments, 1.2 INTERNATIONAL & as signatories to the National Strategy for NATIONAL CONTEXT Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity (Commonwealth of Australian 1996) and the Australia is a signatory to the Convention on National Forest Policy Statement (Commonwealth Biological Diversity (CBD), which requests of Australia 1992). countries to: establish a system of protected areas to conserve biodiversity; develop guidelines for The goal of a ‘comprehensive, adequate and the selection, establishment and management of representative system’ comes from the recognition

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of the need to incorporate significant examples of 1.3 THE PROTECTED AREA the full range of ecosystems across the continent. SYSTEM IN AUSTRALIA Comprehensive refers to the inclusion within protected areas of samples of the ecosystems In Australia there are nine Protected Area systems, discernible at a regional scale. Adequate refers to one in each of the six States and two self governing how much of each ecosystem should be included Territories, and an Australian Government system. within a protected area network in order to provide Collectively they are known as the National ecological viability and integrity of populations, Reserve System (NRS), while the eight separate species and communities. Representative is marine protected area systems in each of the comprehensiveness considered at a finer scale, jurisdictions are collectively known as the National and infers that the variability within ecosystems Representative System of Marine Protected Areas is sampled within the reserve system (ANZECC (NRSMPA). Each piece of enabling legislation 1999b). for protected areas makes provision for a range of protected areas with varying management Successive Governments have supported three objectives. There are over 50 types of crown processes to work towards a comprehensive, reserves in Australia, from strict nature reserves adequate and representative (CAR) system of and wilderness parks to forest and even game protected areas - the National Reserve System reserves. Management objectives for all types of (NRS), the Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) reserves are required to meet the IUCN definition process and the National Representative System of of a protected area to be considered part of the Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA). NRS, and all protected area categories across each • The NRS focuses on ensuring rapid and jurisdiction have notionally been assigned to one of significant improvements in the terrestrial reserve the IUCN protected area categories. system. Its main priority addresses the key gaps In addition a number of protected areas have been in comprehensiveness at the national scale, established on indigenous-owned lands, and a using the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation number of private protected reserves have been for Australia (IBRA) as its regional planning established under a range of covenanting programs. framework. The NRS covers terrestrial It is recognized that in order to meet the objectives ecosystems other than those considered under of the NRS, private landholder involvement the RFA process. It seeks, particularly, to add through the establishment and management of poorly reserved environments to the national private protected areas is an essential component of reserve system. the program. • The RFA process is focused on specific forest and Together all protected areas make up just over 10% woodland ecosystems in specific forested regions of the Australian land mass. (See Figure 1). Spatial and addresses the issue of comprehensiveness, data on Australia’s protected area estate is held in the adequacy and representativeness at the Collaborative Australian Protected Area Database regional scale. RFAs are integrated strategies (CAPAD). Table 2 lists the Protected Area categories for establishing forest reserves and ecologically by jurisdiction (source: CAPAD 2004). sustainable forest management that aims to achieve resource security for resource utilisation industries. • The NRSMPA is being developed cooperatively by Australian Government, State and Northern Territory agencies responsible for the conservation, protection and management of marine environments.

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Figure 1: Protected Areas in Australia s s s s s d d l e s d s e n e g e d n i e g n f a n p n l a o p n l e s n i s a n o a d i i o a l l h i n s d l d n R a a t s s i t g l s S l u n R n i M S s s n s s s n t a e n a P i P a D l a l a r r n l H n n d x n t e a l s n n o l r i l a r i k r h e t P h r r n l p y l s e h n E e u e t o r i s e r w a a a l l k t c e e i e t s e s g e e l a t e e t d t y a s u r P g t c i u e o a l e b s c C l n r p o s h h s i e h l t d k s r s y s h h p i r l t n e t t n n o o n s n D t t t n e p r l i i a H Q a e u D c l e s c n r l a i l n s a r y d P e a D e n r r t a m s a r u u B r a e T l l N S m s t a n t o e a a e a n o a g U e o l a e p e o o a n D l b e o o n s o d n n e i o o l r l i t u l t p s t t e p e R n a l W y e D P c r r r z n b k d a g l l a C l p s i a u l i n g l b s t t s C u e d i s t C C d y C N N S S W d t C B r d s a P l m r h i l n f r c U e e P e M n s l i t n n e e e a o s o a s a y a S I h A a a d a r e a t t t t s l n n d o n l o n n t h k l r i m o o t u v e l a s t r e i n n n n n n a a e e a r c n t e n o i d i e i K S M V r B B o t s s s s n k n t r e a e i h a i l n a n o C o i a r e s p r n e L n a u o t r k n r C P n l o a a a a a a a c t n r c a e G n o B B i a a a a i o a K M R l h l d g g l o i i i i i i p s n o A R r D a i H r o o a C n a s e n n D l i o o b t a n n o o U m r n n n l o a F i w w a s s I l v l l l l t a r i a P L r s n n n n n n o e w n a o l o l y E E E E e p r o y P c S l V C l o a a a i a e r r o r Y o n m m i t t r N S o a a a i g n o b n y n W a o o n i i i l o t a a a a d e S a a a a a a n r e P e e Y i a l l i o r n r e l t t h E C r e B r s h e e m a a c r r r r r r r F C P e e e P p p L g n l o h h h h y e a r T r s C n n V e h o D t n t t l a t e d i c e h t r a a e e m t t t t n e a n t r c a p a a a a o o o d d a n w l l g a t m m m m m m s f f f e h h k t r t y e l n r i e a g e r k W W a g c l r u l r t t t s w l r l l l c n r a n n o b n p l r s m v r m n r w r l s g g n r n u u u u o p r e e d b d l n n r n s s s s s s t t b n n i i o v o u n n n l m a e n i i a a u i o u u c c c a a i u e r u u r r t w e a h e e o o e a a a e a a a a a a e o S S u i u r r v r r e r u i s y a i i i y o o o o i t t w i i i i l l a i i a a a a a a a a A A A A B B B B B C C C C C C C C C D D D D D D E E E F F F G G G G G G G G G H J K K L M M M M M M M N N N N N N N O P P R S S S S S S S S S T T T T T T T T V V V W W Y D D R A E R C R O C P C L C P S W D D P C L P U C P C T R P B C U M N T S K P N S L P B N C H Q D H M S P P U E R L D N I B I V U N L T N W A A A D G I L U A A D F S S U U V V A A H K M O P R Y A A E L M R A A C E K N S U I A R R B B E H R I S Y A I C I B C E E E S T T W B M V W I L L C I N N S S W A S A F A A A A B B B B B C C C C C C C C C D D D D D D E E E F F F G G G G G G G G G H J K K L M M M M M M M N N N N N N N O P P R S S S S S S S S S T T T T T T T T V V V W W Y E N A B S I R B Q Y E E S N D C T C N Y E M N N S C N A S B N B S B N B H B E T S P C R A S R T E A A S D S W E B N U S O I E L L T P L P M D E H U M C I F C N B E S T R S S H T N V C P I T T E Y R D C N E G R N I M W U P K T V O C V D B P H D C L U M B M H E G V C M I I P M C N B C L F U G D S S N A W K A U E G B F R D Y I G M E C A P A D R T C L A S E T D P R A R B N I A C U F T A S M B K N A C A D P T W P B I T V V N I O C A W D R M A R A D C H L U N s a K D K e C D V N r G G A d D y e r t S a c G d e L t n D o u r D o O P S O B l L C L P a i 1 S A . r t E M 6 s e A r r d R R e n B U T I e M g ) W e A L I S % - L P A 2 F s J G L 5 a . A R e 0 Y A r e 1 A m l h 0 W d a d e ( t A t n n n f s 0 W n H a y o a y n o y i r r a 4 t t t h i S s a t S l S i o o t d T n n t l t a n i i a u a e e e r r r N e r G e r r r o t e v t , e R s r m m r e e m S t s a t d u e i n n r T T r l u s / / s o o E A a c a o a A e r e r e e r i i t t p , t R t t e B - ) c v v i R r a a e P e s s ) t t 4 n n 0 e l g n c A t a u D t 0 4 S S a E E o e s t a 0 0 A E 0 f f t n d C e C e e n o 2 0 o o o e 2 s e S ( i e h h 4 2 6 a t r r e t c t ( n n h 8 t d 3 1 e m a e f n f o o . r . s r i n i S n o e o d N e t t 6 P i r e g a A a t t n G c a a g l e e l l e 9 e n n n i i s e a r l a v m d a h ± o W e e p p t n i t o i o i A u 8 : 9 l r o s e 2 r t a m m m m q 1 r l G d t t e 3 o i i s m o o r G r : e E f 0 e 1 H a u n c c t a , a s . r t V l 0 K , : s ) o c a N p p n t a r d i h h e I 0 n l l e C e e A o l e n t g g i D a a 9 5 R i s - a R b r a o D u D u s 9 l t r i d r d E t r t t o o i B s 1 v a A 0 9 r r r I n i P n e n n y e ( u : h h P e l a - e d e e D b 0 t t r 0 n A . r . 8 a : i d M d 1 0 o , m r m g m g s o s 1 e e i , r r s . i t t l t t n 0 n n g n n g o n a e 6 B e i e a i , r s r c r o o c a a r e d i 0 s p s p 0 r r e t e e e t e e t t i 0 A i i j t r n v a p v a p 0 r r n u h c v t r t o R a a a a 1 0 T 8 o o o e t e r p t e e n e a : a B S I G H d S 1 M T G H d P S S C M S E 2

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Table 2

Collaborative Australian Protected Areas Database 2004. Summary of Terrestrial Protected Areas in Australia by Type

Designation - Protected Area Type Number Area (ha) Jurisdiction % Australia Botanic Gardens (Commonwealth) 2 152 ACT, NSW 0.00 Coastal Reserve 2 13,660 NT 0.00 Conservation Area 178 551,445 TAS 0.07 Conservation Covenant 174 21,603 TAS 0.00 Conservation Park 419 6,753,473 QLD, SA, WA 0.88 Conservation Reserve 65 302,627 NT, SA 0.04 Forest Reserve 404 1,335,946 QLD, SA, TAS 0.17 Game Reserve 22 45,312 SA, TAS 0.01 Heritage Agreement 1203 567,173 SA 0.07 Heritage River 15 138,732 VIC 0.02 Historic Site 1 15,300 TAS 0.00 Historical Reserve 3 7,841 NT 0.00 Hunting Reserve 1 1,605 NT 0.00 Karst Conservation Reserve 4 4,408 NSW 0.00 Management Agreement Area 5 26,249 NT 0.00 Miscellaneous Conservation Reserve 76 300,131 WA 0.04 National Park 544 28,718,187 All 3.74 National Park (Aboriginal) 4 575,814 NT 0.07 National Park (Commonwealth) 3 2,119,278 NSW, NT 0.28 National Park (Scientific) 7 52,181 QLD 0.01 Natural Catchment Area 5 8,170 VIC 0.00 Natural Features And Scenic Reserve 26 24,868 VIC 0.00 Natural Features Reserve 33 448 VIC 0.00 Natural Features Reserve - Bushland Reserve 1471 45,762 VIC 0.01 Natural Features Reserve - Cave Reserve 7 378 VIC 0.00 Natural Features Reserve - Geological Reserve 15 464 VIC 0.00 Natural Features Reserve - Gippsland Lakes Reserve 34 6,714 VIC 0.00 Natural Features Reserve - River Murray Reserve 1 20,883 VIC 0.00 Natural Features Reserve - Scenic Reserve 58 9,646 VIC 0.00 Natural Features Reserve - Streamside Reserve 258 6,489 VIC 0.00

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Designation - Protected Area Type Number Area (ha) Jurisdiction % Australia Natural Features Reserve - Wildlife Reserve 208 75,252 VIC 0.01 (Hunting) Nature Conservation Reserve 160 71,221 VIC 0.01 Nature Conservation Reserve - Flora And Fauna 89 126,993 VIC 0.02 Reserve Nature Conservation Reserve - Flora Reserve 133 22,876 VIC 0.00 Nature Conservation Reserve - Wildlife Reserve 77 14,179 VIC 0.00 (No Hunting) Nature Park 12 25,585 NT, VIC 0.00 Nature Park (Aboriginal) 1 3,108 NT 0.00 Nature Recreation Area 22 64,682 TAS 0.01 Nature Reserve 1603 11,718,288 ACT, NSW, 1.52 TAS, WA Other Conservation Area 19 245,200 NSW, NT, TAS 0.03 Other Conservation Area (Commonwealth) 1 92,600 SA 0.01 Other Park 9 57,128 VIC 0.01 Other Private Protected Area 31 898,183 NSW, NT, 0.12 QLD, TAS, VIC, WA Private Nature Reserve 5 1,091 TAS 0.00 Protected Area 3 12,125 NT 0.00 Recreation Park 13 3,152 SA 0.00 Reference Area 31 18,948 VIC 0.00 Regional Reserve 28 10,830,357 SA, TAS 1.41 Remote And Natural Area 2 22,410 VIC 0.00 Resources Reserve 36 347,858 QLD 0.05 State Conservation Area 78 268,037 NSW 0.03 State Park 30 185,160 VIC 0.02 State Reserve 62 44,495 TAS 0.01 Wilderness Park 3 202,050 VIC 0.03 Wilderness Protection Area 5 70,069 SA 0.01

Total 7,701 67,095,985 8.73

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Designation - Protected Area Type Number Area (ha) Jurisdiction % Australia Indigenous Protected Area 19 13,799,114 NSW, NT, 1.79 QLD, SA, TAS, VIC, WA Total Terrestrial Protected Areas 7,720 80,895,099 10.52

Additional Types (recorded within protected areas above) Heritage River 16 133,086 VIC 0.02 Natural Catchment Area 19 104,950 VIC 0.01 Reference Area 111 92,520 VIC 0.01 Remote and Natural Area 23 279,186 VIC 0.04 Wilderness Zone 19 640,000 VIC 0.08 0.00 Total 188 1,249,742 0.16 Total land area of Australia 768,826,956 % Land Protected on the Australian mainland 10.52 (including Tasmania) Source: CAPAD 2004

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1.4 PLANNING CONTEXT conservation objectives are met. Rather, two basic approaches are recognised both nationally and The physical and biological diversity of the internationally as central to achieving effective Australian landscape, coupled with its social and biodiversity conservation across landscapes. These cultural history, has created a diverse pattern of approaches are: land use and land ownership across the continent. Each of these patterns places different challenges 1. the establishment and management of a secure for biodiversity conservation planning, including Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative reserve system development. They include: protected area system; and • Major cities and towns and adjoining hinterlands 2. the ecologically sustainable management of which may contain important areas of remnant natural resources across the broader landscape terrestrial vegetation, as well as aquatic and for areas that are not part of the protected area marine ecosystems; system. • Readily-accessible regions such as coastal and Biodiversity conservation objectives are best rural areas near major cities often impacted planned and delivered through the development by recreation, accommodation and tourist of conservation strategies that integrate these two developments; approaches across whole regions, catchments or landscapes. To this end the Directions Statement • Major production forest areas on both Crown has been developed to enable the NRS to be and private lands; part of integrated natural resource planning and • The major agricultural regions, such as the management programs operating across landscapes. Murray-Darling Basin, Fitzroy Basin and South The overriding objective of a national approach to West Western Australia; planning and development of a reserve system is • Regions dominated by Crown reserves such as to increase the effectiveness of in situ biodiversity national parks, water catchment reserves, etc or conservation. Retention and adequate protection of Commonwealth lands such as Defence lands and vegetation communities in a manner that ensures airports; natural movement of species, gene flow between populations, and maintenance of ecological • Rangelands – principally in the extensive arid processes is the most effective way of ensuring and semi arid land use zone, but also in some biodiversity is retained in situ. The protection parts of the major agricultural regions; of physical native vegetation linkages across the • Aboriginal lands; and landscape between key protected areas is vital in • Off-shore continental and oceanic islands. order to maximize the resilience of the protected area network. A combination of protected areas The nature of these landscapes relates directly to and complementary land management practices the biogeographic and climatic characteristics of operating across the landscape will enable this to the region, and to historical settlement patterns. occur. A schematic presentation of how various Determining the diversity, status and resilience of conservation endeavors may be applied in native ecosystems and associated biota in each of partnership across the landscape is shown in these landscapes, and measures required for their Figure 2. long-term protection, is the essence of biodiversity conservation planning. In recent years, climate change has emerged as a key issue in biodiversity management and Within this context, this Directions Statement planning, though uncertainty still remains about has been developed recognising that the setting the exact nature and magnitude of future climate aside and managing of areas in a National Reserve change. As such, a landscape approach as described System will not, of itself, ensure that all biodiversity above, particularly linkages that maintain large

1 9 DIRECTIONS FOR THE NATIONAL RESERVE SYSTEM

contiguous habitats or that enable maintenance of Other mechanisms which play this vital ecological processes, especially those across a range complementary role in partnership with the NRS of environmental gradients, provide the optimal include: approach for species and ecological processes • specific programs for the conservation of biota to respond to any changing conditions. Future (including particular species and ecosystems); identification and selection and management of protected areas should be informed by scientific • regulation and management of resource use; understanding of likely implications of future • promotion and planning to achieve ecologically climate change, as identified in the National sustainable use; Biodiversity and Climate Change Action Plan 2004-2007 (NRMMC 2004). • natural resource management strategies; • catchment plans; Contribution of conservation reserves outside the NRS • regional and local government plans; The NRS is a collective group of protected areas for • natural resource management planning which their means of establishment, management • management of pollution; and security of status have been judged as being • management of the impacts of development on at the highest levels of long-term security and the environment; accountability. • other managed terrestrial areas operating at a Accordingly, many conservation areas throughout range of scales for a range of purposes. Australia, for one reason or another, do not meet the criteria set out in this Directions Statement for Even where these other protected areas conserve their inclusion in the National Reserve System. For ecosystems or habitats already included in the NRS, example, some areas may lack the long-term security such replication is highly valued as a means of of tenure, others may lack a long-term effective additional insurance against species or habitat loss. management framework. Often, conservation In some areas also, additional areas managed for management may be undertaken in areas managed the conservation of biodiversity contribute to the primarily for other purposes, such as forestry. establishment of wildlife corridors and provide vital links between key habitats for mobile species. For Exclusion from the National Reserve System on example, in the Top End of the Northern Territory, such grounds should not carry with it any implied tiny monsoon rainforest reserves on both private denigration of their contribution to the achievement and public land have been shown to be vital for the of broader conservation goals. Such areas, whilst survival of a variety of fruit-eating bird species. having less long-term security, nevertheless play a substantial contribution to the collective conservation effort and, taken together with the NRS and other conservation measures applied across the various land tenures, play a vital role in the total of Australia’s conservation endeavour.

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Figure 2: Conceptual map showing a range of conservation initiatives

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1.5 HISTORY OF THE PROTECTED translated into the Comprehensive, Adequate and AREA SYSTEM Representative (CAR) reserve criteria used during Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) processes in the The concept of protected areas in Australia dates late 1990s were initially developed. back to the first Australians, the Aboriginal people, to occupy this continent (Worboys et al 2001). 1.6 BENEFITS OF PROTECTED In the second half of the nineteenth century, the AREAS first non-indigenous concerns about conserving As well as helping to conserve biodiversity Australia’s natural resources were raised (Worboys and contributing substantially to ecological et al 2001). In Australia the first colony to legislate sustainability, protected areas also make significant to protect fauna was Tasmania. In 1860 it passed contributions to local, regional and national laws that protected various game species during economies and the well-being of society. These their breeding season. In 1866 Jenolan Caves contributions have been the subject of a range of in NSW was declared a water reserve. In 1871 international, Australian, regional and local studies. a sizeable area of bushland in Perth WA, ‘Kings Park’ was reserved. The United States declared Direct and indirect benefits Yellowstone, the world’s first modern national park in 1872. The idea of national parks then spread to In looking at the costs and benefits of establishing Australia with the dedication of what is now Royal and maintaining protected areas, the focus is National Park south of Sydney in 1879. Since that often on the direct values of the area, such as the time, the States and Territories have been slowly net economic benefits of having the protected but surely expanding their protected area systems area compared with the net economic benefits and affording greater protection to Australia’s rich of alternative uses such as timber production biodiversity through a variety of formal means. (Worboys 2001). A number of assessments have also been undertaken on the contribution established The concept of a national reserve system took protected areas make to regional economies, notably much longer to evolve and can be traced back to through recreational and tourism opportunities. work undertaken by the Australian Academy of A Queensland study (Driml 1997) estimates that Science (AAS) in the late 1960s. A report by AAS there are 12.5 million visits to National Parks (1968) summarised National Parks and Reserves each year in that State, resulting in spending of in Australia and a further report by AAS (1969) more than $1.2 billion, which supports more than proposed a biological survey of Australia. However, 6,000 jobs directly, and an estimated 15,000 jobs it was not until Specht, Roe and Boughton (1974) indirectly. The study also estimates that for every $1 undertook an evaluation of the conservation status of government funding invested in Protected Area of major plant communities in Australia and Papua management, more than $40 worth of economic New Guinea as part of Australia’s commitment to activity is generated in the Queensland economy. the International Biological Program (IBP) under An assessment of the contribution of Sturt National the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Park, Kinchega National Park and Mutawintji Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), National Park to regional economic development that real interest in a national system of ecological in western New South Wales found that the three reserves gained momentum. parks generated $9.6 million per year (NSW NPWS All of this initial work resulted in a symposium 2001). An estimated contribution of the Tasmanian held in Canberra in 1974 on a national system Parks system of $140 million to the Tasmanian of ecological reserves in Australia (Fenner 1975). economy was given for 1998-99 (Madden et al Here the concepts that would eventually be 2000).

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Non-use values An emerging issue is the need to better understand and incorporate freshwater values within the NRS. Protected areas also provide a suite of benefits, Further discussion is required to establish what known as non-use values, which are often more comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness difficult to measure. These include the satisfaction means for freshwater systems. Focus to date has people gain from the knowledge that biodiversity been on vegetation mapping and identification of and wild and aesthetic places (which many people vegetated regional ecosystems. Additional work is may never get to see or indeed wish to see in the likely to be required to adequately describe and wild) are adequately protected and managed, and map the full range of freshwater ecosystems at an the knowledge that others will benefit in future appropriate scale. Further discussion is also required from the protected area. Non-use values also include on appropriate criteria for freshwater systems, and provisions of ecological services such as clean air, appropriate protection mechanisms, particularly water-shed protection, and climatic stability. those that are multi-tenure. A range of studies indicates that the importance of these benefits should not be under-estimated and that the non-use values of protected areas may be around three times the magnitude of the direct values. 1.7 ISSUES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NRS Issues arising out of State, Territory and Australian Government and non-government organisation attempts to develop and implement a National Reserve System, and the 1999 Mid-term review of the NRS Program, revolve around five main areas: (a) the lack of clear, agreed and measurable national targets for the NRS; (b) the lack of clear and agreed national guidelines as to what types of protected areas comprise the NRS; (c) the patchy and incomplete nature of the ecosystem-scale map coverage for Australia required to implement the NRS (d) the lack of an agreed national plan of action for the NRS; (e) funding for acquisition and management. Other issues include the fact that the concept of the NRS is not well known, understood and embraced by the public. Greater community understanding is needed of these issues and the benefits of the conservation of the variety of ecosystems through a system of protected areas.

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2.0 RESERVE SYSTEM PLANNING AND DESIGN

The Convention on Biological Diversity and the Environmental or biogeograhical regionalisations National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s provide a framework to identify gaps in the Biological Diversity (Commonwealth of Australia protected area system, help to summarise patterns, 1996) consider biodiversity at three levels; genetic, aggregate information and assist in the allocation species and ecosystem. While there is considerable of resources and priorities in nature conservation information on the spatial patterning of biodiversity (Thackway and Cresswell 1995). They provide a at the ecosystem and species levels this information framework that allows for all land tenures within a is inconsistent in its resolution and is by no means region to be managed in a complementary way to complete in its coverage. The information on achieve long-term nature conservation objectives. genetic variation is fragmentary. As such, the goal to establish a comprehensive, For this reason, systematic planning of the reserve adequate and representative system of protected system relies on maps of the landscape which can areas to contribute to the conservation of Australia’s serve as surrogates of all these levels of biodiversity. native biodiversity the NRS will: Such maps reflect the known and unknown • aim to contain samples of all ecosystems elements of biodiversity which are supported within identified at an appropriate regional scale; each mapped unit. Surrogate mapping that is used for this includes soil landscapes, land systems, or • aim to contain areas which are refugia or centres vegetation communities, or combinations of these of species richness or endemicity; with climate, aspect or terrain. • consider the ecological requirements of rare Any systematic approach to planning the NRS or threatened species and rare or threatened needs to use the best available surrogates which ecological communities and ecosystems, in best reflect the distribution of biodiversity in the particular those listed in the Environment landscape, to clearly identify reservation targets, Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 to set priorities to meet those targets and then to and other State, Territory and local government monitor efficiency and progress in building a CAR legislation or policy instruments; and reserve system for Australia. • take account of special groups of organisms, e.g. The priority for reservation of a species or ecosystem species with specialised habitat requirements or is usually assessed in terms of how effectively wide - ranging or migratory species, or species existing reserves might sample and protect the vulnerable to threatening processes that may species or ecosystem, the extent to which it has depend on reservation for their conservation. declined from its initial geographic range and the degree of threat that it may be subjected to from 2.1 KEY PRINCIPLES processes such as clearing, erosion, pollution, The following principles have been developed to salinity or other degradation. provide a strategic approach to meet this goal. In developing a national system of protected Regional Framework: TheInterim Biogeographic areas for Australia, it was agreed that a national Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) provides the classification of ecosystems was required as a national and regional planning framework for framework to develop a truly national system of developing the NRS. Further investigation is protected areas which represented the diversity needed regarding the incorporation of freshwater of major ecosystems in Australia and captured ecosystems within the IBRA framework. the full range of biodiversity (Thackway 1989).

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Case Study: Gascoyne-Murchison Strategy

The Gascoyne-Murchison Strategy (GMS) in Western Australia demonstrates a recent development in strategic broad scale planning for protected area establishment. The 57 million hectare Gascoyne-Murchison Strategy area covers most of the Carnarvon, Gascoyne, Little Sandy Desert, Murchison and Yalgoo IBRA regions. The Strategy was developed to address the environmental, economic and social needs of this rangelands area. A key measure to help address maintenance of biodiversity values was the development of a comprehensive, adequate and representative conservation reserve system. At the outset, it was estimated that about 15% of the Gascoyne- Murchison Strategy area would need to be included in conservation reserves.

When the GMS was announced in 1998, approximately one million hectares, or 2% of the Strategy area, was within conservation reserves. The Strategy area covers some of the most arid land in Western Australia but is known to have high biological diversity. A survey of the Southern Carnarvon Basin, for example, recorded 144 species of indigenous reptiles, 500 species of aquatic invertebrates and more than 2,000 vascular plant species in an area covering only 15 percent of the GMS area. A concerted effort to identify gaps in representation of ecosystems of the region’s protected areas subsequently led to the strategic purchase of nearly 4 million hectares of pastoral leasehold properties. Purchase of these properties was jointly funded by the State and Australian Governments.

Identification of land for acquisition was based in part on vegetation mapping at the scale of 1:250,000 and compiled into a GIS database. At the beginning of the GMS, of the 259 vegetation associations in the GMS area, 74 (28.6%) were protected within the existing conservation reserve system. However, of these only 19 (7.3%) had more than 10% of their area within the conservation reserve system. That is 92.7% of the vegetation types occurring within the region were either not represented at all or were under represented. The focus for the acquisition program was, therefore, on the vegetation associations that were completely unrepresented, and those that were poorly represented. As each new lease was acquired, the database was updated with data on the area of each of its vegetation associations. This minimised the potential for duplication and ensured that as many vegetation types as possible in the strategy area have at least some level of representation within the conservation reserve system. Other information used for planning the protected area system included land system mapping, geological mapping, topographical mapping and information on threatened species and communities.

By November 2004, about 5 million hectares, or 8.8 % of the GMS area was within conservation reserves or had been purchased for reservation as part of the formal conservation reserve system in Western Australia. This has resulted in an additional 74 vegetation types within the reserve system, bringing the total to 148 or 57.1% of all vegetation types in the region of which 83 (32%) have more than 10% of their area represented.

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Comprehensiveness: The National Reserve System All appropriate protection measures should be will aim to include the full range of regional used in regional conservation planning: It is ecosystems recognised at an appropriate scale recognised that regional biodiversity conservation within and across each IBRA region. Increasing the requires a mix of management strategies. These comprehensiveness of the national protected area would include statutory protected areas and system, particularly in those IBRA regions where incentives that encourage voluntary partnerships biodiversity is poorly conserved in the protected for off-reserve conservation. Public and private area system, is the primary focus of the NRS. protected areas would include covenanting arrangements, as well as conservation management Adequacy: The NRS will aim to provide reservation measures and guidelines for ecologically sustainable of each ecosystem to the level necessary to provide land management. ecological viability, resilience and integrity. Public land should be used first for delivering Representativeness: Areas selected for inclusion the NRS where possible: The CAR reserve system in the NRS should reasonably reflect the intrinsic should, where possible, be selected from public variability of the ecosystems they represent. One land, recognizing that key remnants of many way of achieving this is to aim to represent each ecosystems exist only on private lands. regional ecosystem within each IBRA subregion. Integrated decision making: Decision making Ecosystems/Regional Ecosystems: Ecosystem processes should effectively integrate both long-term surrogates, such as vegetation units, together with and short-term environmental, economic, social and environmental information mapped at appropriate equity considerations. scales (regional ecosystems) and species information should be the primary planning information which Consultation: The process of identification and informs NRS planning. selection of the NRS will include effective and high quality public consultation with appropriate Threat: While the focus of the NRS will be on community and interest groups to address current increasing comprehensiveness, the selection of and future social, economic and cultural issues. priority additions to the NRS will also be based on principles of viability and vulnerability to Partnerships: The success of the NRS depends loss. Priority will be given to the addition to the on effective partnerships between the Australian, protected area system of ecosystems where there is a State and Territory Governments, and between high risk of loss which may foreclose future options governments and non-government organizations, for the conservation of biodiversity within the private landholders and indigenous landholders and region. organizations. These partnerships should continue to be built on to ensure the effective on-going Precautionary Principle: The absence of scientific development and management of the NRS. certainty is not a reason to postpone measures to establish protected areas that contribute to Confidentiality: Where private land is being a comprehensive, adequate and representative considered for inclusion in the NRS, negotiations national reserve system. will take into account the owners’ requirements for confidentiality. Landscape Context: The protected area system should maximise biodiversity conservation Indigenous involvement: The biodiversity outcomes through the application of scientifically conservation interests of Australia’s indigenous robust protected area/conservation design peoples should be recognised and incorporated in principles. decision making. Highly Protected Areas: The NRS will aim to have some highly protected areas (IUCN Categories I and II) in each IBRA region.

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2.2 THE BIOREGIONAL effort is required to better understand and assess the RESERVATION FRAMEWORK application of bioregions and subregions in relation to freshwater ecosystems and the identification of The national and regional planning framework for reservation criteria within this context. the National Reserve System is provided by the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia Improvements in scientific (IBRA), endorsed by ANZECC in 1995. IBRA information base provides a broad-level break up of the Australian Delineation of regional ecosystems for their landmass, which has now been refined to identify application as planning surrogates, and of IBRA eighty-five biogeographic regions (Figure 1). regions and subregions as the planning framework The IBRA regions were derived by compiling has progressed in most jurisdictions. NRSP information on climate, lithology/geology, priorities were originally determined in conjunction landform, vegetation, flora and fauna. This included with the development of the IBRA in 1994 by field knowledge, resource mapping and continental Thackway and Cresswell (Thackway and Cresswell data sets, and environmental reports. 1995). In order to provide a systematic framework for Jurisdictions undertook an update of the IBRA identifying the deficiencies in the existing system of framework in 2001 and the development of protected areas, three conservation attributes were IBRA Version 5, which now has a better accord addressed based on IBRA. The attributes were: with the IBRA regional boundaries used by the • reservation status within an IBRA region jurisdictions for conservation planning and utilises (percentage of the region reserved in four new data to greatly improve the definition of classes: <1%, 1-5%, 5-10% & >10%) (Figure 3; regional boundaries in South Australia and Western – CAPAD 2000) Australia in particular. As part of this process, IBRA subregions were also identified across Australia • the comprehensiveness, or level of bias, in (except Tasmania). the region’s reserve system (five classes of comprehensiveness: nil, low, moderate, high & These subregions separate major geomorphic no reserves); and units within IBRA regions, which provide insight into the heterogeneity of the regions; most often • the level of threat to biodiversity within each reflected in differing land use patterns. Thus, the bioregion (in four classes according to how the subregion scale is a useful framework for assessing region’s ecosystems have been modified, existing the impacts of threatening processes as well as a land-uses, known extinctions & abundance of pragmatic means of addressing representativeness feral/weed species). i.e. to consider any variability in ecosystems across Based on the above information each IBRA has their range. Subregions are also likely to be more been given a classification in regard to its priority for useful in setting targets and identifying priorities for the inclusion of land within the National Reserve freshwater systems. System (Figure 4). This priority ranking serves to Several National Land and Water Resources present a coarse level snapshot at a national scale Audit (NLWRA) projects have recently provided of where reserves are needed most. It is important continental data sets at a consistent scale: to point out here, however, that most bioregions, Rangelands, Water Resources, Estuaries, Landscape including “low priority” ones, contain particular Health, Vegetation and Terrestrial Biodiversity. regional ecosystems which are poorly conserved, Other sources of information such as the State under threat and suitable for inclusion within the of the Environment Report 2001 and projects NRS. undertaken by the Australian Greenhouse Office The IBRA framework was developed to apply to all and State Government agencies have also provided terrestrial ecosystems, including freshwater. Further important background material.

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Figure 3: Reservation levels for each IBRA region

Figure 4: Overall IBRA priorities arising from the assessment

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In combination with improved availability of Natural resource management (NRM) continental data, advances in GIS technology allows planning a more explicit review of priorities, strongly based on quantitative analyses. Contemporary GIS also Although actual land purchases under the NRS allows better validation of data, of the assumptions activity of the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) used in developing priorities, and rapid re-analyses Phase 2 will occur with priorities established at as data is further enhanced. a State/Territory and national level, there are opportunities to link the bioregional planning work Assessment for the NRS will undertake a series of being undertaken to complement the NRS and the quantitative GIS analyses with a review of outputs regional planning and delivery of the NHT. Some by NRS Scientific Advisory Group representatives regional catchment management groups developing from each jurisdiction and the NRS Directions NRM plans have recognised that regional target Statement Taskforce. The NLWRA terrestrial setting needs to be based on the status of native biodiversity assessment has provided a finer scale vegetation at a bioregional level. In particular assessment of both bioregional and subregional the IBRA subregions level which are more easily priorities. related to catchment boundaries and reflect land use are considered to be an appropriate approach Improved planning tools to determine vegetation extent for a NRM plan. Significant progress has been made with developing However more work needs to be undertaken with procedures that use GIS information to plan and State conservation agencies, DEH and catchment prioritise additions to the protected area system groups to ensure NRM plans and targets encompass in jurisdictions and nationally. Examples include the bioregional biodiversity planning work available. EcoPlan, developed by Department of Environment and Heritage, C-Plan and Target software packages, 2.3 BIODIVERSITY TARGETS developed by NSW National Parks & Wildlife FOR THE NRS CAR RESERVE Service and CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, SYSTEM respectively. They can be used to assess the status In deriving targets for the NRS, consideration has of biodiversity at a suitable regional scale and assess been given to the Key Principles for developing the priorities for developing national and regional the NRS (Section 2.1) and to current world strategies. practice, particularly the Nationally Agreed Other examples include the strategic approach Criteria for the Establishment of a Comprehensive, to identifying CAR priorities for private forest Adequate and Representative Reserve System for reserve additions to the RFA reserve system and Forests (commonly known as the JANIS Criteria) the regional ecosystem assessment approach in (Commonwealth of Australia 1997b). Queensland. In Australia, the JANIS reserve criteria used in the The Australian Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment RFA process (1996) identified 15% of the pre-1750 (NLWRA 2002) in particular has provided advice distribution of each forest ecosystem as the target on the full range of biodiversity management for reservation on an IBRA regional basis but noted options including reserve and off reserve strategies some flexibility is acceptable and desirable and dealing with species, ecosystems and landscape further discussion is needed on appropriate targets recovery. Vegetation management and integrated for freshwater systems. natural resource management actions will be JANIS also gave priority to the needs of rare, explored by the States and the Audit in undertaking vulnerable and endangered forest ecosystems and these assessments. species and determined that the target for vulnerable ecosystems is 60% reservation of the current area. For all remaining rare and endangered forest

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Case Study – Kanmantoo IBRA Region

This case study illustrates the detailed planning required to ensure that the national reserve system is truly comprehensive, adequate and representative, and that while some bioregions may be comparatively well reserved, finer detailed work is required to ensure adequate representation of all constituent ecosystems.

The Kanmantoo IBRA region in South Australia is a low priority bioregion with an overall reservation level of nearly 19%. The bioregion has two subregions – the low priority Kangaroo Island subregion with 26% of its area in reserves, and the high priority Fleurieu subregion with only 2% of its area in reserves. However, within the Kangaroo Island subregion, despite its relatively high reservation level, there are three environmental associations (regional ecosystems) with less than 1% conserved - well below targets of 15% suggested by JANIS (see Section 2.3). Therefore there are still finer adjustments to be made to the reserve system even within low priority subregions. In this case many of the threatened and endemic plant species of Kangaroo Island occur in this poorly represented part of Kangaroo Island. The native vegetation strategy for Kangaroo Island highlights this area as the most important part of the island for action to protect threatened plants and ecosystems. (see Figure 5).

Figure 5: Conservation levels according to ecosystem classification levels in the Kanmantoo IBRA Region

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ecosystems the JANIS target is 100% reservation or • Regional ecosystems are an important surrogate protection. along with species information for planning the NRS. A rare ecosystem is one where its geographic distribution involves a total range of generally less • Biodiversity conservation objectives are best than 10,000ha, a total area of generally less than planned and delivered through the development 1,000ha or patch sizes of generally less than 100ha, of conservation strategies that integrate these where such patches do not aggregate to significant approaches in a regional, catchment or landscape areas. These criteria should be applied in an IBRA context. regional context. It should be noted that rarity is a • IBRA regions and subregions as outlined in natural phenomenon that does not necessarily imply IBRA V5, and subsequent updates, are the best the ecosystem is under threat. planning framework for the NRS. An endangered ecosystem is one where its distribution has contracted to less than 10% of 2.3.1 Short-Term targets its former range or the total area has contracted Meaningful and practical targets for the NRS are to less than 10% of its former area, or where 90% those that could be delivered within a decade. of its area is in small patches which are subject to threatening processes and unlikely to persist. Comprehensiveness For rare, vulnerable and endangered species and The highest priority needs to be given to progressing ecosystems a range of approaches ranging from reserve system comprehensiveness. This will be reservation to management by prescription as measured by the representation within the NRS of detailed in species and community recovery plans examples of recognised regional ecosystems in each will be needed. Where a recovery plan for a rare IBRA region in which they occur. Whilst 100% and endangered species specifies the reservation inclusion of examples would be desirable, this might in nature conservation reserves of all remaining not be achievable for some ecosystems. For this occurrences then the NRS should attempt to reason an 80% minimum target has been chosen. include all such occurrences.

Principles adopted in setting targets for DIRECTION 1: Examples of at least the NRS 80% of the number of extant regional ecosystems in each IBRA region are to be Based on the above concepts, the following outline represented in the NRS by 2010-2015. principles for setting targets for the NRS. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2010-2015 • Establishing targets based on some relativity with pre-European distribution is seen as a desirable Adequacy NRS reservation objective with some flexibility being acceptable in some circumstances. Adequacy requires the NRS to ensure reservation • Priority attention in planning the NRS needs of each ecosystem to the level necessary to provide to be given to rare, vulnerable and endangered ecological viability and integrity. To assess adequacy, communities and species. the role protected areas play in biodiversity conservation at the landscape scale needs to be taken • Ecosystem mapping at 1:100,000 or 1:250,000 into account. Key concepts in assessing adequacy scale is considered the appropriate scale for include gaps in the protection of key biodiversity planning the NRS. conservation values in existing reserves and the • Ecosystems need to be recognisable in the field, range of on and off reserve measures required to be mappable and able to have their pre-1750 or ensure appropriate protection of the full range pre-clearing distribution modeled or mapped. of ecosystems; measures needed to maintain or

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improve ecosystem function and biodiversity at the Representativeness landscape scale, and factors such as fragmentation, or extent of threatening processes that may affect A first approximation of representativeness (and the implementation of effective management for to some extent adequacy) can be assessed by the reserves. An adequate reserve system within this inclusion of enough examples of all regional context will also assist ecosystems and species ecosystems in each IBRA subregion in which they respond to future environmental changes, such as occur. Again, a 100% target would be desirable climate change. but this might not be possible for all regional ecosystems. For this reason an 80% target has been If the 80% minimum target for comprehensiveness chosen for this criterion. While it is recognized is achieved with the inclusion of areas that meet the that ecosystem representativeness at the subregional adequacy principles outlined below then significant level is not the sole measure of representativeness, gains will be made in delivering the NRS. It is currently it is the best means to measure to report recognised that achievement of this target will on at the national scale. depend on significantly increased NRS funding (see Section 5.2). DIRECTION 3: Examples of at least It is acknowledged that as well as the adequacy 80% of the number of extant regional principles outlined below, more measurable criteria ecosystems in each IBRA subregion are for the assessment of adequacy are necessary to assist represented in the NRS by 2010-2020. with the planning, development and monitoring of Implementation the CAR reserve system. : All jurisdictions by 2010-2020

DIRECTION 2: Adequacy principles such Endangered and vulnerable species and as those outlined below are met by 2010. ecosystems Protected areas are selected and managed to A key goal of developing a comprehensive, adequate maximise the probability of survival of their and representative NRS is to ensure that planning biota through: and establishment of protected areas takes account of the ecological requirements of species and • including replication of sampled regional communities of concern, including those listed ecosystems; under Commonwealth or State legislation. • being of sufficient size and condition to ensure long term sustainability; DIRECTION 4: As a priority, critically • being managed within a bioregional planning endangered and endangered species and context; and regional ecosystems in each IBRA region are included in the NRS by 2010. • optimising opportunities for species dispersal between protected areas. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2010 Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2010 DIRECTION 5: Significant progress is As part of the consideration of long term targets made towards inclusion of vulnerable outlined in Direction 11, particular attention will species and vulnerable regional be given to providing more measurable criteria ecosystems in each IBRA region in the for progressing adequacy. NRS by 2010. Implementation: NRS Scientific Advisory Group Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2010 by 2005

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Identifying gaps in the NRS • Identification and mapping of ecosystems within regions, reporting of comprehensiveness against Best scientific practice is to be used to define gaps State targets in annual reports, and promoting in the NRS and select appropriate areas of land for consistency of ecosystem classifications between reservation. Regular iterative reviews are required to regions; redefine gaps as lands are added to the system • Review of NRS priorities for IBRA regions and This requires: ecosystems; • Review and refinement of IBRA as follows: DIRECTION 9: Priority IBRA regions to DIRECTION 6: IBRA subregionalisation be reviewed and updated for the NRS and IBRA V6 to be finalized for regularly. publication by 2005. Implementation: NRS Scientific Advisory Group Implementation: Australian Government assisted by by 2005 all jurisdictions by 2005 for IBRA V6, then ongoing. DIRECTION 10: State, Territory • In regard to progressing the NRS and freshwater and Australian Government NRS biodiversity: Implementation Plans to be developed for each priority IBRA region. DIRECTION 7: The current understanding of freshwater biodiversity in relation Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2006 to CAR to be reviewed and an agreed Implementation plans would: approach finalized, which may include future amendments to the • test and refine principles underlying protected NRS Scientific Guidelines, to ensure area selection and design; freshwater ecosystems are appropriately • review condition of ecosystems within IBRA incorporated within the NRS. regions, the threatening processes, such as Implementation: NRS Scientific Advisory Group habitat fragmentation, introduced species, and augmented with appropriate freshwater scientists potential changes in environmental conditions by 2005. such as climate change, impacting on their ecosystems and dependent species, and the • Provision of refined ecosystem mapping at the management measures to address the threatening national level, building on regional mapping. Of processes; and particular significance is mapping to assist with planning priorities so that ecosystems reduced to • review bioregional ecosystem priorities as <30% and <10% of their original areas can be identified by NLWRA biodiversity assessment identified. project. 2.3.2 Overall Long-term targets DIRECTION 8: Pre-European vegetation mapping coverage at 1:250,000 scale Practical targets need to be identified if the NRS or better to be completed to assist with Directions Statement is to be useful. In order to planning priorities in the intensive land progress the NRS in the long term it would be use zone and identification and mapping desirable to enunciate in measurable terms the long- of freshwater systems to be commenced term objective. Further discussion is required to at an appropriate scale. establish targets for freshwater ecosystems. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2006

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DIRECTION 11: Natural Resource Policies and Programs Committee (NRPPC) of NRMMC to consider recommendations for long-term targets for the NRS taking into account the JANIS Reserve criteria which apply to forest ecosystems. Implementation: NRS Scientific Advisory Group by 2005

2.4 MONITORING PROGRESS OF NRS DEVELOPMENT To ensure that progress in the development of the NRS can be appropriately monitored States and Territories will need to provide biennial reports. The reports, based on IBRA regions, will include information on the establishment of protected areas. Each jurisdiction will advise how the comprehensiveness of the protected area system has been improved by the establishment of new protected areas, or by acquisition of areas identified for future addition to the protected area system. This will enable priorities to be continually identified at the continental scale. Monitoring and evaluation will need to consider issues such as: • the increase in the comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness of ecosystems on private, public and Indigenous lands included in protected area systems; • the increase in the knowledge on ecosystem distribution, components and threatening processes in high priority and/or poorly known IBRA regions

DIRECTION 12: Biennial reports to be prepared on the comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness of ecosystems in the NRS as per the NRS Scientific Guidelines. Implementation: Australian Government with assistance from all jurisdictions starting 2005 then on-going.

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3.0 ESTABLISHMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS

The range of ecosystems identified across the and management standard, their values are at continent vary in their distribution, quality risk of being lost or degraded, and reserve system and extent to which they have been cleared or planners may well have foregone opportunities to modified since European settlement from the conserve the relevant ecosystems. For this reason extensive tropical forests of Queensland to the a precautionary approach needs to be taken in highly fragmented grassy woodlands of south- deciding what is included in the National Reserve eastern Australia. Agricultural, pastoral and urban System. development has significantly and rapidly altered Australian vegetation and landscapes to varying 3.1 STANDARDS FOR INCLUSION degrees. In establishing a CAR reserve system in IN THE NRS this context, it is recognized that there will need A fundamental requirement of any area’s eligibility to be a range of mechanisms, on both public for inclusion within the NRS is that it must meet and private land, to ensure appropriate levels of the IUCN (World Conservation Union) definition reservation of the full range of ecosystems within of a ‘protected area’. the national reserve system. These range from larger protected areas in regions with greater connectivity IUCN defines a ‘protected area’ as: of vegetation, through to protected area networks ‘An area of land (and/or sea) especially dedicated to in highly fragmented systems where the best means the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, of ensuring the viability of remnant ecosystems is and of natural and associated cultural resources, and compatible management of a series of protected managed through legal or other effective means’ (IUCN areas across a range of land tenures. 1994). As properties within the national reserve system are With this in mind, the following six standards intended to be managed in the long-term for the follow directly from the protected area policy protection of biodiversity, it is important that they and definitions. They are derived primarily from meet a common list of criteria to be regarded as part the ‘Guidelines for Protected Area Management of the formal reserve system. Categories’ (IUCN 1994). The standards may also To provide a meaningful way of measuring progress form the basis of a checklist to be used to ‘accredit’ towards the CAR targets it is necessary for the land for inclusion into the NRS. The standards National Reserve System to operate within an must be met by all owners/managers of private and agreed framework of terms, protocols and standards. publicly owned areas intended for inclusion in the This is particularly important with the movement NRS. of the National Reserve System to include areas The following six standards must be met for an area managed for conservation on private lands. The best to be included in the NRS. way of doing this is to define a set of standards that 1. The area must be especially dedicated for the must be met for a protected area to be included in primary purpose of protection and maintenance the NRS and count towards meeting reservation of biological diversity. targets. 2. The area must be able to be classified into one or All areas currently considered part of the NRS and more of the six IUCN Protected Area Managed all areas proposed for inclusion should meet these Categories (Appendix 1); ‘minimum standards’. If lands included in the NRS are not sufficiently secured with respect to purpose 3. The area must be managed by legal or other

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effective means with effective security of An exception is IUCN category VI; this allows purpose; for a sustainable flow of natural products to meet community needs. Most jurisdictions have made 4. The area must contribute to the use of the category where limited non-indigenous comprehensiveness, representativeness and resource use takes place within a protected area. adequacy of the National Reserve System Where category VI is applied, resource uses must 5. The area must be managed in a manner which is not impact on the primary aim of management open to public scrutiny; and for biodiversity protection, and must be subject to 6. The area must be able to be accurately identified Ecologically Sustainable Development principles. on maps and on the ground. The use should be confined to a small part of the protected area. Protected area management categories It should be noted by way of example, that State The IUCN defined six categories into which Forest cannot be classified as a category VI protected protected areas may be further classified, as area. State Forests are usually multi-use lands described in the following table (definitions are where the purpose for management is generally for expanded in Appendix 1): harvesting of forest products, and not primarily for protection of biodiversity as required for a protected It is important that the objectives for management area. of the protected area are established before a category is assigned to the area. Thus, theuse of the Given the various protected area systems, and the land is the driving consideration. more than 50 protected area categories across the country, the IUCN classification system provides It is also important to closely inspect the nature a means for managers to compare management of any resource consumption uses proposed for approaches. The Australian Government, States and the land. Activities such as grazing, harvesting of Territories have variously categorized all protected biological products or extraction of earth resources area types according to the IUCN category system, are not normally acceptable in protected areas where and there remain a number of issues to resolve to they are not normally compatible with biodiversity ensure protected area criteria are being consistently conservation. applied.

Table 3 IUCN Protected Area Categories

Category Definition I Ia Strict Nature Reserve: Protected Area managed mainly for science Ib Wilderness Area: Protected Area managed mainly for wilderness protection II National Park: Protected Area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation III Natural Monument: Protected Area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features IV Habitat/Species Management Area: Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention V Protected Landscape/Seascape: Protected area managed mainly for conservation of a landscape/ seascape resulting from the interaction of people with nature conservation and recreation VI Managed Resource Protected Area: Protected Area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems.

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DIRECTION 13: Protected areas will respecting the privacy of landowners. The strength continue to be reported on by IUCN of contracts can be enhanced by ensuring the nature categories, in accordance with IUCN conservation agency in each jurisdiction is a party Guidelines, and identified anomalies are to the contract, and is involved in monitoring and to be resolved for CAPAD 2004. reporting on the success of the contract. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2004 and For the purposes of the NRS, this Directions on-going Statement adopts the following standards for “legal or other effective means”: Security of protected areas ‘Legal means’ The notion of security is a fundamental principle land is brought under control of an Act of underpinning the requirement in the IUCN Parliament, specialising in land conservation definition of Protected Area for areas to be ‘managed practices, and requires a Parliamentary process to by legal or other effective means’. extinguish the protected area or excise portions from it; It is considered that the areas in the National Reserve System will have security enough to be ‘Other effective means’ retained for the long term. The term ‘in perpetuity’ for contract, covenant, agreement or other legal is often used in this context, but is difficult to instrument, the clauses must include provisions define. to cover: Protected Areas have a substantial measure - long-term management – ideally this should of security when they are brought under the be in perpetuity but, if this is not possible, permanent control of an Act of Parliament, such as then the minimum should be at least 99 years; national park legislation. Under these circumstances, - the agreement to remain in place unless both assent from both houses of parliament is required parties agree to its termination; to revoke them or reduce their area. Public scrutiny through the parliamentary process is a powerful tool - a process to revoke the protected area or excise in this regard. portions from it is defined. For National Reserve System areas created through Contracts, covenants on title and other legal contribution of public funding, this process instruments on the other hand, offer potential should involve public input-; alternatives to formal public reserves managed under an Act of Parliament and form an important - the intent of the contract should, where potential mechanism to expand the coverage of applicable, be further reinforced through a protected areas. Their use in conservation planning, covenant on the title of the land; and however, is relatively recent and their the long-term - “well tested” legal or other means. security, efficacy, and ‘track record’ is untested, and, to some extent, can often rely on the good will of Delineating protected areas the contracting parties. Furthermore, there may be It is important that it is possible to accurately little public scrutiny of their management or even identify protected areas and their boundaries for a their continued existence. In some jurisdictions, range of management purposes. It is also important however, such as Queensland, the expiry or that, if necessary, the protected area is identifiable cancellation of some covenants requires revocation on the ground. This will also assist in accurate by the Governor in Council, ensuring some level of recording in CAPAD and reporting on the national ‘public’ scrutiny or security of tenure. reserve system estate. Such contracts should be public documents and In developing the standards adopted above, each subject to public processes where possible while

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jurisdiction has carried out a preliminary assessment provisions contained in the legislation, e.g. of its reserve system against the NRS standards and Kosciuszko National Park managed by NSW made a preliminary assessment of where these are National Parks and Wildlife Service. met and where improvements are needed. • Private Protected Areas: These include privately or publicly owned and DIRECTION 14: Mechanisms for leased lands managed by private individuals, protection and management of protected incorporated groups, companies and local areas (both private and public) to be governments, which enjoy some form of assessed in each jurisdiction against legislative protection. Those Private Protected the above NRS standards and after Area sites that are protected by legislation are consultation necessary enhancements often established under a different category of made. the same legislation as the public protected areas. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005 for However, a plethora of other mechanisms can assessment against standards and by 2006 to make any also be employed ranging from legally binding necessary enhancements. instruments on title through contracts, and agreements. A protected area owned by the 3.2 MECHANISMS FOR State can be vested in a trusteeship to a local PROTECTED AREA government or community groups e.g. Bukkulla ESTABLISHMENT Conservation Park in Queensland managed by the Wildlife Land Fund Ltd (Qld). In Australia, it is acknowledged that the existing national parks and protected area system cannot • Indigenous Protected Areas: meet the goals of a fully comprehensive, adequate Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) are owned and and representative National Reserve System (NRS) managed by Aboriginal communities such as the without the additional protection of certain Yalata Aboriginal lands in South Australia. IPAs are ecosystems remaining on privately-owned or managed in accordance with plans of management public lands. To achieve the best possible outcomes prepared by the Indigenous landholders which for a National Reserve System, new partnership set out the stated management intentions of the arrangements are being developed between traditional owners. IPAs may also involve the governments, communities and private landowners, Indigenous landholders entering into conservation including indigenous landowners. agreements with the State/Territory or the Achievement of the National Reserve System will Australian Government which can provide the basis require cooperative arrangements with private for additional assistance, support and protection. landowners (including traditional owners). Private and Indigenous Protected Areas Protected areas can be categorised according to the managing party - either public, private or While the CAR reserve system should, as far as indigenous. The category definitions are: possible, be selected from existing public land in the first instance, private land must ultimately • Public Protected Areas: contribute to the NRS as, in many IBRA Public Protected Areas, sometimes termed regions, many regional ecosystems and vegetation Dedicated Reserves, include the majority of communities exist largely on private land or Australia’s national parks and conservation parks Indigenous land. and protected areas. They are usually reserved A number of strategies are appropriate for under specific legislation (e.g. national park protecting biodiversity on private and Indigenous legislation) and managed by the primary nature land. Such strategies range from purchase and conservation agency in each jurisdiction, in subsequent reservation of priority areas by State accordance with the biodiversity management

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Case Study - South East Forests National Park

The South East Forests National Park case study illustrates how protected areas may be established following reviews of land use within a given region.

South East Forests National Park lies along the coastal escarpment of southern New South Wales between Nimmitabel and the Victorian border, within the South East Corner and South Eastern Highlands bioregions. The park covers 115,534 hectares and includes several sections, most of which are joined to form a long, narrow park with a long perimeter. It is managed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974.

The park was formed in 1997 from several existing smaller national parks, and considerable areas of state forest. These areas of state forest were incorporated within the park following the establishment of a Regional Forest Agreement (RFA). RFAs provide for comprehensive assessments of the natural, cultural, economic and social values of forests.

The South East Forests National Park lies within the Eden Regional Forest Agreement area. Assessment of the natural values of this region identified a range of vegetation types and targets for their reservation. The area of state forest subsequently incorporated into the South East Forests National Park included vegetation types with very low levels of representation in existing conservation reserves, and notably, large areas of old-growth forest. The park is an area rich in its diversity of flora and fauna, and is vital to the long term conservation of regional biodiversity. Several areas are particularly rich in arboreal mammals and hollow-nesting birds, while others are important habitats for threatened animal species. The park also provides an important focus for recreational activities in the region.

PHOTO: Trevor Preston, DEH

and Territory governments to the development of region in which they occur across their geographic mechanisms such as covenants and incentives to range and to meet the special needs of rare, ensure protection on private land. vulnerable or endangered species or ecosystems. The level of protection possible on private land In recent years a number of non-government will be limited by the resources available to achieve organisations have been established with the specific protection and the willingness of the owner to goal of raising funds to purchase and manage participate. Conservation effort in this context land with significant conservation values. Some therefore needs to be focused on priority species and of these organisations have national scope (e.g. ecosystems where there are no suitable options on Australian Bush Heritage Fund and Australian public lands. The two key priorities are to ensure Wildlife Conservancy), whilst others concentrate comprehensiveness so that samples of all ecosystems their efforts in one jurisdiction (e.g. Wildlife Land are included in viable protected areas in each IBRA Fund in Queensland, Trust for Nature in Victoria

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Case Study - Bukkulla Conservation Park

In 2001, the Wildlife Land Fund Ltd initiated the purchase, with the support of the Queensland and Australian Governments, of an 1813 ha property 10 kilometres north of Marlborough in Queensland for the creation of Bukkulla Conservation Park. This protected area represents the conservation of the largest remaining area of semi-evergreen vine thicket and Brigalow scrubby open forest, both of which are endangered ecological communities. It also contains habitat for several threatened flora and fauna species including the Squatter Pigeon.

The purchase of Bukkulla Conservation Park reflects how, under the umbrella of the Natural Heritage Trust, a partnership was formed between the Australian and Queensland Governments, conservation groups and the local community to protect Australia’s important ecosystems. Ownership of the land was transferred to the Queensland Government and gazetted as a protected area on 17 May 2002, with the Wildlife Land Fund as the sole Trustee. As Trustee, the Wildlife Land Fund agrees to manage the conservation park in accordance with provisions of the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992 and Nature Conservation Regulation 1994.

This management agreement takes into consideration the significant natural resources of the Bukkulla Conservation Park, and allows the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service and the Trustee to agree on the specific direction management will take, and establishes the respective roles and responsibilities of the two organisations in managing the Park.

& Tasmanian Land Conservancy). Organisations Given the increasing number of non-government such as these are making, or have the potential to organizations involved in managing protected make, a significant contribution to the NRS, either areas, an opportunity to share ideas on protected through the donation of land for dedication as a area establishment and management and provide protected area, or by covenanting properties in a an avenue for capacity building, is considered secure mechanism that meets the requirements for to be a valuable step in progressing the NRS. It inclusion in the NRS. is anticipated that such a forum would be most effective if such an approach was further built on at In many cases these organisations are working with the jurisdictional level. relevant jurisdictions to target properties that are CAR priorities, and there are significant benefits for all parties in this ‘partnership’ approach. DIRECTION 16: An annual national forum to be convened for managers (both Indigenous Protected Areas are another potential government and non-government) of enhancement of the NRS, and another example of a protected areas to discuss implementation partnership opportunity. of relevant directions in the Directions Statement. DIRECTION 15: An all Jurisdiction approach to be co-ordinated to assist Implementation: Australian Government by 2005, capacity building for the Private Protected then annually. Areas and Indigenous Protected Areas component of the NRS. 3.2.1 Ability to increase covenanting Implementation: Australian Government by 2005 There are key ecosystems for protection under a CAR protected area system that cannot be acquired

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Case Study – Goonderoo Reserve

Bush Heritage, who administer the Australian Bush Heritage Fund, is one of a number of national, independent, non-profit organisations committed to preserving Australia’s biodiversity by acquiring land of high conservation value and managing the land in perpetuity for protection of those values. In June 1998 the Australian Bush Heritage Fund was used to purchase Goonderoo, a 593 hectare property near Emerald in central Queensland. Goonderoo is located in the heart of central Queensland’s Brigalow Belt biogeographic region, where land clearing has been extensive in recent years. It contains nine distinct vegetation associations, including endangered brigalow woodlands and native grasslands. The property is home to 142 bird species, at least ten species of snake and a wide variety of other wildlife including sugar gliders and koalas.

Bush Heritage has formulated a management plan for Goonderoo, the objective of which is to restore the native vegetation and fauna communities and the health and integrity of water courses by reducing threats from environmental weeds, inappropriate grazing regimes, feral animals and destructive fire regimes. To further secure the future of the reserve, the Goonderoo Nature Refuge Agreement, was signed between the Australian Bush Heritage Fund and the State of Queensland in September 2002. This Conservation Agreement protects the land through a secure legal mechanism on the property title and which restricts the activities that may take place there. Some examples of prohibited activities are: clearing of native vegetation or other removal of native plants; mining or fossicking; and off-road recreational use of trail bikes or four wheel drives.

In declaring the Goonderoo Nature Refuge under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992, the property must be managed to:

* conserve the area’s significant natural resources;

* provide for the controlled use of the area’s natural resources; and

* provide for the interests of land-holders to be taken into account.

The agreement between Bush Heritage and the Queensland government includes the following specific commitments regarding management:

* the Landholders will continue to graze the nature refuge area at a low to moderate grazing pressure (for environmental management purposes);

* the Landholders will continue to monitor vegetation dynamics and conduct incidental and formal fauna surveys; and

* the Landholders will be responsible for all land management issues including prevention, spread and control of pest plant and animal species and soil erosion, with the intention of protecting the conservation values of the nature refuge.

PHOTO: Courtesy of Australian Bush Heritage Fund (Wayne Lawler/Ecopix)

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Case Study - Nantawarrina

Nantawarrina was the first Indigenous Protected Area (API) to be established in Australia and was declared on 26 August 1998. Funding for its establishment was provided by the National Heritage Trust, through the Indigenous Protected Areas part of the National Reserve System program. The 58,000 ha property is located in the Stony Plains IBRA region in South Australia, adjacent to the southern boundary of Gammon Ranges National Park in the Flinders Ranges. The title to the land is held by South Australian Aboriginal Lands Trust (SAALT) on behalf of the Adnyamathanha people. Members of the Nepabunna community (near Leigh Creek) manage the Nantawarrina property with which they have traditional ties. The process required extensive community planning and consultations, and drew on strong community commitment to managing the landscape based on both cultural and natural conservation values. Since the project started, community members have been trained in many areas including environmental management, fencing, safe chemical handling, tourism, feral animal control and identifying endangered species.’

The property is managed in accordance with IUCN protected area guidelines, and an agreed plan of management which includes a three-year work plan. A comprehensive management plan was prepared and is now being implemented. Nantawarrina is managed in accordance with four IUCN Protected Area Management categories: Category II; Category IV, Category V, and Category VI. On-ground management activities include weed and feral animal control, revegetation, interpretation of sites and walking tracks, visitor management and maintenance of visitor facilities.

Recent work has included the develop- ment of infrastructure including signage, provision of water supply for camping grounds and huts, upgrading camping grounds, and feral animal and weed control. Goat traps are working well and the number of feral animals is being kept at minimum. Extensive road works have also been undertaken facilitating access onto Nantawarrina. A Tourism Plan is also under preparation.

Nantawarrina was among only three Australian winners of a UNEP Global 500 award on World Environment Day 2000 recognising the significant efforts of the Nepabunna community in managing Nantawarrina as an IPA.

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(for economic and/or social reasons) under a taxation relief through a process of calculating voluntary acquisition program. capital loss by comparing capital proceeds before and after covenant, and calculating capital gain by Covenanting provisions vary in all jurisdictions in comparing capital proceeds between the covenant terms of capacity, scope and the sanctions applying portion and the entire land. to breaches. Some States have well-established trusts with revolving funds specifically set up for Use of revolving funds the purpose of land purchase, covenanting and on- selling (Western Australia and Victoria); others are Most jurisdictions have facilitated or established still in the process of setting up such trusts or are a ‘revolving fund’, which has the potential to actively exploring the concept. purchase and protect land that can be added to the NRS. A revolving fund is a sum of money, usually Properties already owned by individuals, administered by an independent Trust, that is used community groups, corporate entities or local to purchase land of significant conservation value, government and containing significant, verified covenant the land to protect the conservation biodiversity values in viable condition may be values, and then resell the land, thus ‘revolving’ the included as part of the NRS through a process of funds back into the Trust to be used to purchase accreditation, gazettal and/or nature conservation and protect further areas of land. covenanting. In such circumstances the protection mechanisms together must meet the requirements Covenants and revolving funds can be very cost- for management of an appropriate IUCN category. effective ways of ensuring a degree of security is given to lands with significant conservation values. Taxation benefits are available for entering into conservation covenants to protect areas of high conservation value. Landowners entering into a DIRECTION 17: Covenanting and the conservation covenant after 1 July 2002 are eligible use of revolving fund arrangements to be for an income tax deduction for any decrease in implemented as part of the NRS where land value provided the landowner received no appropriate and managers of revolving capital proceeds for entering the covenant (note that funds to be encouraged to give priority to this does not include payments for management). implement NRS objectives. To qualify for a deduction, a conservation covenant Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005 must: a. be in perpetuity and, where possible, attached to 3.2.2 Potential for more direct the title of the land individual and private, indigenous and other groups involvement in NRS b. be approved by the Minister for the establishment and management Environment and Heritage (either directly or through being part of an approved conservation There is potential for more direct involvement of covenant program) non-government organisations (NGOs) in the NRS. c. be valued at more than $5,000 or be attached Under the NRS program, applications from private to land acquired less than 12 months before the groups were only accepted formally from 1998-99. covenant was attached; and The IPA component of the NRSP commenced in 1996-97. Both components have been successful. d. be entered into with a deductible gift recipient Between 1998 and 2004, over $14.6 million or the Commonwealth, a State, a Territory or was provided for more than 50 projects to local local governing body or an authority of the governments and non-government organisations Commonwealth, a State or a Territory. to own and manage a million hectares of protected Where landholders enter into a covenant on land areas. The significant trend over recent years is the they already own, they may also be eligible for increase in the size of NGO acquisitions with the

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purchase by the Australian Bush Heritage Fund the continuation and enhancement of conservation of the 59,000 hectare Carnarvon Station near values of the protected area. Emerald, and the purchase by Birds Australia of There has been an increase in interest and the 262,600 hectare Newhaven Station near Alice applications from local government especially in Springs. Nineteen Indigenous Protected Areas Queensland where collection of an environmental (IPAs) covering about 14 million hectares have also levy is common. Further extension work is needed been added to the national reserve system. to expand the range of councils involved more The potential for greater involvement relates to broadly across Australia. a greater awareness and understanding of the Adjacent landholders are often well placed to criteria of the NRS. In late 1998 and early 1999, provide management services for protected areas the Department of the Environment and Heritage in their vicinity. This is particularly the case in conducted a series of awareness seminars with the remote areas where it is not possible to establish a support of the National Parks Foundation and Ranger presence. Some landholders may undertake the participation of the relevant state/territory management tasks voluntarily through interest in conservation agency. Seminars were conducted conservation and others by way of contract or other in Sydney, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. There form of incentive. was a great deal of interest in the Program but the potential is limited by the need for an organisation Landholders may also be involved in the to raise significant amounts of funds not only establishment of protected area within the National for the purchase but also for capital works and Reserve System by the amalgamation of pieces ongoing management. These costs will generally of land of high conservation value from several limit private applications to organisations that adjacent properties to form a protected area. The have a large membership base and members with new reserve thus formed might be managed by access to significant funds and strong interest in one or more of the adjacent landholders. This nature conservation reserves. There is an Australian option is particularly suitable for areas of extensive Government requirement for establishment funding pastoralism where, often, properties have extensive assistance under the Natural Reserve System areas of land unused for pastoral purposes and of program, for private protected areas to be open to high conservation value. Sometimes these areas are the public, subject to normal permit and access contiguous with those on adjacent properties. There controls. is then the potential to amalgamate them into very significant privately owned and managed protected Further assistance for ongoing management of areas. The use of management skills of adjacent private protected areas and Indigenous protected property holders will be particularly suitable in these areas needs further consideration in the context of areas where integrated fire, weed and feral animal the increasing importance of protected areas and the management can be facilitated across the pastoral community benefits of conservation of Australia’s properties and the newly established parks. There biodiversity. Currently the IPAs receive funding for are a number of bioregions across Australia where development of management plans, consultations this approach promises to be more cost effective and and negotiations, and a share of on-ground to deliver better conservation outcomes than might management costs on a year by year arrangement. be achieved by adopting the traditional model of The potential for partnerships or sponsorships with acquisition by Government and management by a private organisations or business organisations for Park Service. purchasing and/or managing protected areas should Many jurisdictions have introduced, or are be examined. Opportunities may be available for considering introducing specific incentive programs appropriate protected areas which provide benefits to encourage greater private participation in nature to business by demonstrating environmental conservation initiatives. For example, in Queensland commitment and credibility and also providing for

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the ‘Green Rewards’ program gives landholders who 3.2.3 Protected area networks enter into a Conservation Agreement (a form of covenant) a refund of transfer duty (if the property The physical linking of protected areas across the was purchased after 1/7/2003) and/or a rebate on landscape through the retention and management land tax. A Conservation Agreement results in the of vegetated lands between them is critical for dedication of a Nature Refuge, which is an IUCN the longs term achievement of broad biodiversity category VI protected area, meaning Nature Refuges conservation objectives. Such linkages are become part of the NRS. called protected area networks, or conservation management networks. In highly fragmented A considerable number of regional ecosystems are landscapes such as the major agricultural zones found only in small and geographically isolated where lands are primarily in private ownership, locations, meaning acquisition of these small areas there are usually few, if any, opportunities to for traditional protected areas may not be feasible. protect sufficiently large tracts of unmodified native In these instances the CAR system will only be able vegetation in formal reserves. Here, networks to be enhanced by encouraging private landholders become the main mechanism for achieving to covenant their areas of significant conservation conservation objectives across the landscape. value, and the use of incentives will facilitate the addition of these important areas to the NRS. An example of protected area network development in Australia is the Grassy White Box Woodland project in New South Wales in which the DIRECTION 18: As incentives will be conservation of the endangered grassy white box necessary to achieve the NRS, continue woodland ecosystem is being achieved through the to investigate and implement relevant protection of individual remnants using existing incentives. mechanisms such as voluntary conservation Implementation: All jurisdictions – on-going agreements, local environmental planning and nature refuges, supported and linked by an overarching management structure. Leasehold lands Similar protected area networks, where high quality An issue which requires further investigation is remnants in proximity to each other are protected the use of leasehold lands, whose primary purpose through a range of mechanisms across a range of is agricultural production, for conservation. Vast land tenures, are also being developed for threatened areas of the continent are under leasehold and temperate grassland and woodland communities. contain significant ecosystems and constituent biota, particularly in the more arid regions. Some jurisdictions are looking at how legislative provisions may provide for leasehold properties, or portions of such properties, to be managed for conservation.

Case Study - Conservation Management Networks

Conservation Management Networks (CMNs) are networks of remnant vegetation managed under a range of protection mechanisms for biodiversity conservation, usually across a range of land tenures. As such, they involve a range of land managers including government, non-government organizations and individual landholders. Such networks are now being established in Australia in areas where there has been a high degree of modification to the landscape, and vegetation has become highly fragmented as a result. At the core of these networks are areas managed in perpetuity for the maintenance of biodiversity. Cont’d on page 46

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Cont’d from page 45

One such example is the Gippsland Plains Conservation Management Network in Victoria, covering the eastern part of the South East Coastal Plain bioregion. The vegetation of the bioregion includes lowland forests, open forests with shrubby or heathy understoreys, grasslands and grassy woodlands, heathlands, shrublands, freshwater and coastal wetlands, mangrove scrubs, saltmarshes, dune scrubs and coastal tussock grasslands. However, as this is a highly productive area, most of the vegetation in the bioregion has been cleared or modified, and today 21% of the original extent of vegetation remains, mostly in small and often isolated remnants.

The lowland Gippsland Plain was identified by the State government and the non-government organization Trust for Nature as a priority for conserving biodiversity. While a small number of conservation reserves existed on public land in the area, a concerted effort by the Trust for Nature and local landholders saw a rise in the number of linked, vegetated remnants managed in perpetuity for conservation. With funding assistance from the National Reserve System Program (NRSP), the Trust purchased three properties which it now manages as Private Protected Areas (Frair’s, Bush Family, and Billabong West Reserves). At the same time, the Trust was undertaking a strategic and targeted program to sign voluntary, legally-binding conservation covenants over private land containing high quality and under-represented ecosystems (Edwards & Traill 2003). The Trust-owned properties, the conservation covenants and the public reserves all make up the CMN (see Fig. 6). On-going support for management of the network is provided through direct support through the Trust, There is now over 1,000 ha of private land permanently protected and 11,000 ha of public land is part of the CMN. A dedicated ranger conducts and coordinates conservation management activities across all tenures within the network. The CMN has now become an incorporated body with key positions held by landowners.

The NRSP was further involved in the CMN by part-funding the purchase of almost 200 ha of endangered Plains Grassy Woodland in the area, now reserved and managed by the Victorian Government as the Swallow Lagoon Nature Conservation Reserve (Fitzsimons & Ashe 2003). Further details on the history and attributes of the Gippsland Plains CMN, and another CMN – the Grassy Box Woodlands – are presented in Fitzsimons & Wescott (2005).

Figure 6: The location of components in the Gippsland Plains Conservation Management Network (as of January 2002). Source: Fitzsimons (2004). Note: An additional 10 covenants on private lands have since been included

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3.2.4 Mechanisms meeting the NRS DIRECTION 21: Model documentation standards including agreements and covenants will be prepared for use by intending There is a range of conservation mechanisms PA managers and be accessible on the available to each jurisdiction on public and private NRS website. These shall incorporate all land and the extent to which they are eligible for standards referred to in section 3.2. inclusion in the NRS is variable. Many mechanisms clearly do not have the long-term security necessary Implementation: Australian Government by 2005 for inclusion, whilst others fall just short. Overall, at present, the majority of public protected areas in DIRECTION 22: Inclusion of the relevant jurisdictions meet the NRS accreditation standards State/Territory will be sought as a party to while the majority of private and indigenous each agreement establishing a Private or protected areas do not have the level of long-term Indigenous Protected Area. security to be accredited within the NRS. Implementation: Australian Government by 2005 There is clearly a need across all jurisdictions for a and on-going strengthening of many conservation mechanisms to ensure long-term security of protection of the biodiversity for which they are set up to protect. DIRECTION 23: Jurisdictions, and those establishing and managing protected The following directions have been developed in areas, where appropriate, to investigate order for jurisdictions to explore the possibilities for possible collaboration/partnerships with strengthening existing mechanisms which would private organizations including business in subsequently improve protection and allow for regard to establishment and management accreditation within the NRS. of particular protected areas. Implementation: All jurisdictions – on-going DIRECTION 19: A review of current legislation to be conducted in each jurisdiction, including covenanting arrangements and legislation relevant to leasehold lands, and if necessary and feasible action taken to ensure there is a clear nexus between enabling legislation and reserve system objectives. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2006

DIRECTION 20: Processes and legislation will be examined in each jurisdiction to ensure that any proposal to excise an area from an NRS Protected Area is made subject to a process of public notification. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005

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3.3 MANAGEMENT 3.4 MONITORING RESERVE ACCREDITATION ESTABLISHMENT Owners and managers of protected areas require The National Reserve System is a collaborative appropriate credentials to manage protected areas. system overseen by the Australian Government, This may include an accreditation process including State and Territory Governments. It is intended consideration of: there be regular reporting on a set of basic attributes of the system. For the government funded • appropriateness of the body or individual to be a components of the NRS, standard rules of public protected area manager; accountability apply. • skill base; In most cases, reporting will be undertaken by the • capability to undertake continuous improvement protected area manager (of both public and private and training; protected areas). Information should be supplied • access to a revenue stream to undertake necessary to the government of the jurisdiction in which the management works. protected area is located. The relevant government will be responsible for assessing candidate areas Managers of private protected areas would be and deciding on whether such areas meet the NRS advised to establish networks with park agencies to standards outlined in this statement and whether assist with management advice. Many park agencies they will be included as part of the NRS in CAPAD have operating guidelines for protected areas, which reporting. This would then be reviewed by DEH may be very useful for managers of private protected to ensure that the standards are being applied areas. consistently between states and territories. Summary A further consideration is the extent to which statistics for all protected areas are maintained by management of protected areas should be delegated the Department of the Environment and Heritage to another manager such as a committee of and are available as published reports and on the management. Any such delegation should be subject National Reserve System website at to the same accreditation process as for the original http://www.deh.gov.au/parks/nrs/index.html . manager. If a private protected area is involved, All areas included in the National Reserve System then this should be approved as a variation to the are required to report on basic protected area contract. attributes to the Australian Government or State/ Territory Jurisdiction, in the following way: DIRECTION 24: A national code of • Summary statistics would be regularly made management should be developed to available for inclusion in a comprehensive ensure protected area management is of register of protected area statistics (requirements an appropriately high standard. include: area, location details, ecological Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2006 communities represented, comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness and IUCN DIRECTION 25: Nature conservation category assigned by the jurisdiction for each agencies or appropriate NGOs should of its NRS protected areas). These will be encourage partnerships with private maintained in the Collaborative Australian protected area managers to provide Protected Areas Database (CAPAD), by the advice, assistance, and training and Australian Government. support as required. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005 and on-going

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DIRECTION 26: Protected areas in each jurisdiction, which meet NRS standards and which therefore qualify for listing in the Collaborative Australian Protected Areas Database (CAPAD), to be reported on, detailing the attributes of each protected area and its contribution to CAR. Such reports are to also include information on any NRS-qualifying Private Protected Areas to which the jurisdiction is a party, to ensure there is a comprehensive register of all qualifying protected areas for each jurisdiction. The Australian Government will continue compiling CAPAD. Implementation: All jurisdictions for CAPAD 2004 report and on-going

DIRECTION 27: Protected Area managers are to maintain public reporting processes and observe public accountability standards. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2004 and on-going

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4.0 MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS Once protected areas are declared, the onus is on • Management decisions should be knowledge- protected area managers to ameliorate or control based and adaptive to changing circumstances in current threats to the biodiversity values for which response to targeted flora and fauna management they were established and to put arrangements in regimes. place for their long-term management. • Management programs in protected areas There are, clearly, strong linkages between the must be consistent with the primary aim of biodiversity values of the land, the reserve type maintaining biodiversity values and the relevant declared and the assignment of an appropriate IUCN protected area category objectives. IUCN protected area category. • The level of public access, the extent of facility To maintain the primary biodiversity conservation development and all use of the area should be values of a given protected area, and to manage it in related to the objectives of the protected area, accordance with its assigned IUCN protected area the relevant IUCN protected area category, and category, protected areas in Australia are managed be specified in the management plan. (The levels in accordance with common broad management of access are further clarified in the definitions of principles. More specific management objectives are protected area categories (Appendix 1)). developed by the relevant protected area manager in • Protected area agencies should have in place each jurisdiction to address the needs of the specific monitoring and evaluation programs to values of the protected area, the relevant IUCN continually assess management effectiveness and category management objectives, the legislation the extent to which protected area values are under which it is governed, particular circumstances being maintained. of the areas’ ownership, and the regional context. 4.2 MANAGEMENT PLANS 4.1 MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES Management plans contain strategies and actions Protected area management today reflects the that will lead to the achievement of the primary growth in the acceptance by land managers of a management objective and inform the manager on landscape based approach for the maintenance the effectiveness of the actions undertaken. Under of ecological functions and processes. Also the NRS standards, the plan must have performance enshrined in these principles are the notions of indicators and be subject to independent, public intergenerational equity and the application of scrutiny and reporting. It must be authorised by the precautionary principle in decision-making the State, Territory or Australian Government (or processes. Agency responsible for protected areas). There is a series of underlying principles in All uses must be in keeping with the primary relation to protected area management which conservation objective. Uses, including access embody contemporary thinking on protected area for the public and those associated with use or management: exploitation of natural and cultural resources, must • Protected areas must be managed through be secondary to the primary conservation objective. the development and implementation of an These uses must also be specified in the plan. appropriate plan of management. Management planning documents should be • Management plans and management decisions appropriate to suit the nature of the protected should be based on good baseline biological area. Plans should be subject to regular review and information and involve stakeholder (including updating. Public contribution and consultation Indigenous) consultation in the development of should take place where the land has been acquired management options. with the assistance of public funds. The extent

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of consultation should be appropriate to the residential, agricultural and horticultural assets with area. For private protected areas the extent of the increased potential for risk to life and property from management plan and the extent of consultation uncontrolled fire. All jurisdictions are required by should be negotiated in the contract establishing the relevant laws to ensure maintenance of biodiversity protected area. and to ensure protection of life and assets. Fire management programs must take account of the DIRECTION 28: Management plans or, role of fire in the particular landscape, implications where this is not possible, statements of various fire regimes on the region’s ecosystems, of management intent, to be in place the life history and habitat requirements of species for all existing NRS Reserves and for of conservation significance, and the potential any new reserves within three years of impact of wildfire on adjacent lands. establishment unless Native Title Act Protected areas should be managed in accordance considerations preclude this. with fire management plans which address the purposes of reservation and management objectives Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2006 for the protected area and take into account:

DIRECTION 29: Interim management • ecological role of fire, (optimal fire regime guidelines to be in place within nine for the full range of habitats in the protected months of acquisition of protected areas area based on sound scientific knowledge and under the NRS program. cultural knowledge to achieve agreed biodiversity outcomes; understanding of fire regimes on Implementation: All jurisdictions within nine species of conservation significance); months of property acquisition • understanding of implications of fire regimes on catchment processes; 4.3 KEY MANAGEMENT ISSUES • public safety and asset protection; Managers of protected areas, whether on private or public land, face common management challenges • movement of fire across the landscape and to to ensure the long-term protection of the values and from neighbouring lands; and of the reserve within the context of the above • appropriate levels of access for fire management underlying principles. Management must also take within the above contexts. account of the protected area’s role and relationship The outcomes of the 2004 Council of Australian within the broader landscape. Many issues must be Governments Inquiry (COAG) on Bushfire managed within this context. The following are key Mitigation and Management will be incorporated issues facing protected area managers. into fire management in protected areas. Fire Fire has been a part of the Australian landscape for DIRECTION 30: Protected areas to millions of years, more so since climatic changes be managed in accordance with fire saw the spread across the continent of eucalypts, management plans which take into acacias, grasses and other now widely-distributed account the purpose of reservation and and well-known Australian flora. Most ecosystems management objectives for the protected have evolved in response to periodic fires, and since area and take into account issues such as Aboriginal arrival, modified burning patterns in public safety, the ecological role of fire, parts of the landscape. Changes to fire regimes, landscape effects of fire, indigenous use of whether in frequency, seasonality, or intensity, fire and asset protection. can result in significant changes to biodiversity. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005 Land development has led to the development of

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Introduced species Neighbour relations Introduced plants and animals are now a part of Ecological, social and economic integration most of the Australian landscape. While some of protected areas into the surrounding area is species may co-exist with native species without increasingly becoming a determining factor in their significantly displacing them, for the majority, long-term viability. This can partly be achieved by the impacts can be severe. Control of introduced ensuring that increased benefits flow from parks and plants and animals is a legislative requirement in that ecosystem management on parks is supported all jurisdictions and protected area legislation. by the management on surrounding lands. Many In addition, protected area programs should protected areas face problems from pest plant take account of their requirements under the invasion, encroachment of feral and domestic National Weeds Strategy, National Feral Animal animals, altered fire and drainage patterns. Some Control program, and threat abatement plans adjacent landholders raise concerns about impacts for threatening processes, or recovery plans for on private lands, such as, fire and native animals, species or communities, which may require certain emanating from bordering protected areas. It is control measures for invasive species. Given the therefore essential that landholders adjacent to specific values of the protected area, and the protected areas are engaged in a co-operative way nature of the invasive species and their potential with protected area managers. impacts, responses will range from eradication, Management programs must increasingly recognize where possible, to control. Management effort protected areas as part of the broader landscape. The should be based on a sound knowledge base of the Best Practice Report for Stakeholder Management - invader species and its impacts. A standard aim Neighbour Relations (NSW NPWS 1997) identifies for all protected areas should be the prevention a series of best practice standards for protected area of the introduction of new species. Management managers. of introduced weeds and animals must take into account the location of the protected area within Resource use the broader landscape and potential of movement to and from neighbouring lands. The primary purpose of protected areas is the long- term protection and maintenance of biodiversity Tourism/Park visitation and other natural and associated resources, and as such most types of resource use are incompatible A major objective for some protected area categories with this goal. is to provide for the enjoyment and education of visitors, and many protected areas make a significant However, some protected area categories make contribution to the region’s economy. Where these provision for certain consumptive uses. These are occur, a key focus of management programs is to mostly IUCN Category VI protected areas, which ensure recreational experiences are undertaken in allow for a sustainable flow of natural products to a safe and rewarding way. However, such activities meet community needs. In making provision for must be managed to ensure protected area values resource use, it is recognized that the type and level are not compromised. Threats to biodiversity of resource consumption should only be undertaken from recreational activity include changes to water within the primary conservation goal. This requires quality, permanent modification of sites, and an understanding of the impacts of the resource introduction and spread of weeds and pathogens use on the biodiversity values of the protected area. on vehicles. It is necessary to set aside areas from Activities such as grazing, harvesting of biological public access to ensure that the greater portion of products or extraction of earth resources are not all ecosystems represented within the protected normally acceptable in protected areas when they area will continue to remain largely natural and are not compatible with biodiversity conservation unmodified by recreational activity. purpose. Resource use activities would normally

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be confined to a small part of the protected area for the protected area with the local indigenous and must be subject to Ecologically Sustainable community. It embraces a range of government Development principles. - indigenous partnerships that involve various degrees of decision-making power sharing from Stakeholder involvement seeking advice or information at an informal level It is widely acknowledged, both in Australia and to legislated joint management arrangements, internationally, that the viability of a soundly (such as Kakadu and Uluru National Parks). Such planned and managed protected area network partnerships can encourage insights and perspectives relies on public support. All levels of Government offered by indigenous people who have a rich source recognise the value of local communities becoming of ecological knowledge, systems of local rule- involved in decision making and taking a more making and enforcement, and relationship with the active role in managing their local environments. region that is integral to their cultural identity. Governments also realise that community capacity building and the enhancement of social capital DIRECTION 32: A process for can have significant flow–on effects in improving engagement of indigenous communities in a region’s environmental, social and economic well protected area management to be in place being. in each jurisdiction. Public participation is an integral component of Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005 protected area management in Australia. Protected area legislation for all jurisdictions outlines the 4.5 LEGISLATIVE MECHANISMS process for involvement of stakeholders in the FOR PRIVATE PROTECTED preparation of management plans for protected AREA MANAGEMENT areas. Other means of stakeholder involvement are through such arrangements as advisory committees, Protected areas established under State, Territory ‘Friends’ groups, and volunteer activities. Such and Commonwealth legislation have regulations arrangements are variously established through established in law to assist in the management legislation or on a more informal basis. of protected areas. In some jurisdictions (e.g. Tasmania) protected areas may be declared over private land and therefore the regulations may be DIRECTION 31: Principles for key used to assist with the protection and management management issues to be developed based of such areas. However, in some cases these are on best practice standards for protected not currently available to private protected area or area management. IPA managers. This has the potential to present Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2006 difficulties for managers in some circumstances in meeting their management obligations. 4.4 CO-OPERATIVE MANAGEMENT WITH DIRECTION 33: The potential for the INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES application of relevant laws to be Increasingly there are moves to improve relations investigated to assist in the protection with and involvement of indigenous communities of values on Indigenous Protected Areas in protected area management, and recognition and Private Protected Areas in each of indigenous association with, knowledge of and jurisdiction. cultural responsibilities for land. Co-operative Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2006 management, or co-management, describes an institutional arrangement in which the government shares the management power and responsibility

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4.6 MONITORING MANAGEMENT or could make a valuable contribution to the EFFECTIVENESS NRS and the public. To achieve effective performance in the Areas included in the National Reserve System management of protected areas, as outlined in should report in the following way: the Directions Statement, the Best Practice Model All areas: identified by the former ANZECC Working (a) The management of NRS areas to be periodically Group on National Parks and Protected Area and independently reviewed (examples of review Management in its Benchmarking and Best Practice processes for the dedicated parks systems are program (ANZECC 2002) and the IUCN World the Park Advisory Councils and Commissions Commission on Protected Areas Framework for that occur in most jurisdictions). Private and Assessing the Management of Protected Areas Indigenous Protected Areas require a review (Hocking et al 2000) have been adopted. These process undertaken by an independent body models focus on the development of outcome-based and determined by a jointly agreed process. performance indicators strongly linked to the goals This process should be recorded in the contract sought by managers and stakeholders. establishing the protected area. See: (b) For areas receiving public funds for acquisition • http://www.deh.gov.au/parks/best-practice/ and/or management, basic standards of financial index.html accountability must be met and reported to the • www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/pubs/pdfs/ relevant jurisdiction. Private protected areas that Evaluating_Effect.pdf have not received any public funding are not obliged to report. The performance assessment of individual protected areas is the responsibility of the jurisdiction in (c) Protected area agencies should provide a which the protected area is declared, or the owner clearly established location where members of of the land where the reserve is on private land. the public may view and have input into the Consistent processes developed for performance development or review of a management plan. assessment at the individual protected area level will Public or dedicated protected areas only: allow for the collection, analysis and reporting of (d) Reporting for NRS areas (e.g. area, expenditure, performance assessment for the system at any level, works) should be included in annual reports and e.g. for the system as a whole or at the IBRA region websites so that the public can be kept informed. level.

In addition, assessment of management effectiveness DIRECTION 34: A reporting system, will need to consider issues such as: such as State of the Parks report, • the extent to which protected areas are managed which identifies programs to monitor in accordance with World Conservation Union management effectiveness and progress (IUCN) criteria and appropriate management towards achieving protected area plans; objectives, to be in place in each • progress towards the development and adoption jurisdiction. of ANZECC best management standards for Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005 protected areas; and • the level of awareness of, perception of and public support and interest in, the NRS including by landholders whose properties have

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4.7 BEST PRACTICE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM The National Parks and Protected Area Management Network was established under the former Land and Water Biodiversity Committee of the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council to provide an inter-Governmental mechanism for identification and resolution of park and protected area management issues at a national level across Australia and New Zealand. The Network comprises representatives of each State and Territory park service, the Department of the Environment and Heritage and New Zealand’s Department of Conservation. See: http://www.deh. gov.au/parks/best-practice/index.html A series of reports, each one dealing with a particular aspect of protected area management, has been prepared under the program. For those projects completed, each agency is now in a position to check its own performance against best practice standards to determine, if appropriate, how it can bridge the gap. This process is the key to optimising the benefit to organisations in their participation in the benchmarking exercises.

DIRECTION 35: An assessment against ANZECC best practice standards to be undertaken in each jurisdiction as part of the regular State of the Parks reporting. Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005

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5.0 PROGRESSING THE NRS 5.1 FUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 5.2 CORE DATA SETS Implementation of the Directions Statement will be A key component of delivering the NRS will be the dependent on the availability of funding and will maintenance and acquisition of core information require the development of appropriate detailed to inform planning and management and ensuring implementation plans for individual actions information is available to all protected area and and groups of actions and the identification of other land mangers. performance indicators. To achieve 80% comprehensiveness will require DIRECTION 37: A work program to securing for conservation purposes areas of high be developed for the identification, priority on private land. In some cases this may acquisition and maintenance of core data involve purchases for inclusion in the public sets required for the NRS. protected area system and in others financial Implementation: NRS Scientific Advisory Group by assistance to owners to ensure that conservation 2005 and on-going values can be protected through appropriate covenants for at least 99 years whilst the land remains in private ownership. In the latter cases 5.3 COMMUNITY AWARENESS costs will not be as high as outright purchase and AND INVOLVEMENT there will be considerable cross benefits between the Support for and awareness of protected areas in NRS and other national and regional programs and Australia is generally high although this varies strategies for ensuring native vegetation retention regionally. For example, Australian Bureau and sustainable natural resource management. of Statistics figures show that almost half of The achievement of 80% comprehensiveness would the Australian public visit a park each year. A be a major national achievement and contribute Queensland study in 1999 showed a high level of significantly to the overall achievement of support for the national park concept, with 46% sustainable natural resource management. supporting the existing national number of parks and a further 39% believing there should be more National Reserve System Program (NRSP) parks in the state. However, this support should not be taken for granted in a time of rapid social The NRS Program has been an important source change; and a continuing program of education and of funding for progressing the NRS. The NRS interpretation about parks, their values and their program activity has been identified by the appropriate use is required to maintain a wide and Australian Government as one of the ten priority dedicated support base. investments for the Natural Heritage Trust 2 and the grant activity for assisting with the In particular, further education is needed about the establishment of a CAR reserve system will continue role of protected areas in protecting a wide range of under the new arrangements. landscapes and ecosystems, and the benefits that this protection brings to the local communities and the nation as a whole. DIRECTION 36: A joint partnership approach to be maintained for funding While support for protected area ideals is strong, NRS acquisitions and new partnerships there is very limited understanding about the to be considered where appropriate. National Reserve System and the principles which Governments to consider sources and underlie it, even among conservation agency quantum of funding for the NRS. staff and conservation supporters. Increased Implementation: All jurisdictions – on-going

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understanding of this would assist in the future • carry out regional gap analyses to identify development of the System, and in greater regional priorities as a basis for protected area community support for the acquisition and selection; management of new parks. • provide input to national gap analysis by The Australian public is vitally interested in conducting gap analyses based on protected area biodiversity conservation and various government coverage within IBRA regions; and non-government initiatives have created the • identify, select, declare and manage protected desire for public involvement in conservation areas as part of NRS and assist NGOs and planning and management. The two main issues private, including indigenous, landholders to are harnessing community support for conservation manage protected areas as part of the NRS; through the NRS and more active community involvement in management of NRS reserves. • review and further develop IBRA as appropriate; Desired outcomes for community awareness are: • Australian Government/State/Territory, as relevant, assessing candidate protected areas • greater community awareness of the role and against the NRS accreditation standards; and values of protected area systems in general and of the National Reserve System in particular; • review funding arrangements to more equitably balance acquisition costs with the cost of • wider understanding of the meaning and value establishment plus on going management. of a comprehensive, adequate and representative reserve system and thus of the need for park To facilitate the progress of the NRS, the Australian acquisitions in a wide range of landscapes; and Government will also: • understanding among decision-makers, • contribute funding through a relevant program conservation agency staff and stakeholders of the to State and Territory agencies for appropriate role and function of the NRS and support for projects leading to the declaration and adequate resourcing of acquisition, establishment management of protected areas; and management of protected areas. • coordinate the future development of IBRA; • coordinate other technical products that are DIRECTION 38: A communication required to underpin the development of the strategy to be prepared to increase NRS, eg. the terrestrial component of CAPAD; awareness and understanding of the and objectives and achievements of the National Reserve System. • assist with the development of national priorities through gap analysis; facilitate cross- Implementation: All jurisdictions by 2005 and jurisdictional cooperation and exchange of on-going information; coordinate strategic planning for the NRS including establishment guidelines; and 5.4 ROLES AND ensure national consistency in the interpretation RESPONSIBILITIES of the application of the IUCN protected area management categories to the NRS, using the Notwithstanding the particular roles and actions NRS Scientific Advisory Group in an advisory identified earlier, the general roles of the States, role. Territories and Australian Government for the NRS are outlined below. • contribute data to the terrestrial component of CAPAD;

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Glossary

Adequacy The maintenance of the ecological viability and integrity of populations, species and communities. Biodiversity The variety of life forms: the different plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems they form. It is usually considered at three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Biogeographic Region A biogeographic region, or IBRA region, is a region in which the boundaries are determined by vegetation cover, and the earth’s physical features and climate. CAR reserve system A system of protected areas that address comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness (CAR) of all its component ecosystems. Complementarity The need for individual protected areas to complement, rather than excessively replicate, one another in terms of the features they contain. Following the complementarity concept leads to targets for representation of the features in a region being achieved more efficiently (in terms of the number or extent of protected areas) thereby increasing the likelihood of those targets being met. Comprehensiveness Inclusion of the full range of ecosystems recognised at an appropriate scale within and across each IBRA region (see ecosystem). Condition The current state of ecosystems compared to what would be considered pristine. Conservation The protection, maintenance, management, sustainable use, restoration and enhancement of the natural environment. Conservation status The extent to which ecosystems remain in their natural condition in relation to their pre-European distribution. Covenant A voluntary legal undertaking by a landowner registered on the land title for the purposes of protection of some nominated value or condition of the land. Ecosystem A unique unit comprising a recognisable floristic composition in combination with substrate (lithology/geology layers) and position within the landscape, and including their component biota (where known). An ecosystem map unit should normally be discriminated at a scale of 1:100,000 to 1:250,000. Endangered A native species or ecosystem facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future – listed as endangered or critically endangered under Commonwealth, State or Territory legislation. Endemic Restricted to a specified region or site. Genetic diversity Variation in the genetic composition between individuals, populations or species. IBRA Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia; a framework delineating “natural” regions or “landscape pattern” in each State and Territory which reflects the biophysical, environmental and vegetation factors (e.g. climate, lithology, landform, vegetation, flora and fauna and land use).

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Irreplaceability The potential contribution of any area to a reservation goal; and the extent to which the options for a representative reserve system are lost if that area is lost. IUCN The World Conservation Union (formerly known as the International Union for the Conservation of Nature). Off reserve All lands not currently within a gazetted protected area. Protected area An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means (IUCN 1994). Representativeness The principle that those areas that are selected for inclusion in protected areas reasonably reflect the biotic diversity of the ecosystems from which they derive. Regional ecosystems Ecosystems, or a unique unit mapped at some appropriate scale, comprising a recognisable floristic composition in combination with substrate (lithology/geology layers) and position in the landscape, and including their component biota Revolving Fund Land of conservation significance is purchased initially with capital funds, but is then placed under covenant and sold on to sympathetic purchasers, thereby releasing funds for new purchases. Subregion Breakup of IBRA5 regions on basis of differences in vegetation and physical environment (geology; geomorphology etc) Threatened species or A species or ecological community that is vulnerable, endangered or presumed ecological community extinct. Ecological community is the living component of an ecosystem. Threatening processes Limiting factors that threaten, or may threaten, the survival, abundance or evolutionary development of a native species or ecological community. Viability The likelihood of long-term survival of the example/population of a particular ecosystem or species. Vulnerability The predisposition of an area to a threatening process. Vulnerability can be expressed in terms of (1) the likelihood of an area being affected by the process; or (2) the timeframe over which the area will be affected. Threatening processes could potentially include land clearing, logging and rising saline water tables. Vulnerability is a fundamental consideration in conservation planning given that the basic purpose of conservation areas is to separate elements of biodiversity from processes that threaten their persistence in situ. Vulnerable Species or ecosystem subject to vulnerability and listed as such under Commonwealth, State or Territory legislation.

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References

ANZECC (1998) Guidelines for Establishing the Commonwealth of Australia (1997a) Interim National Representative System of Marine Protected Scientific Guidelines for Establishing the National Areas. Australian and New Zealand Environment Reserve System. Biodiversity Group. Environment and Conservation Council, Taskforce on Australia, Canberra. Marine Protected Areas. Environment Australia, Commonwealth of Australia (1997b) Nationally Canberra. Agreed Criteria for the Establishment of a ANZECC (1999a) Strategic Plan of Action for Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative the National Representative System of Marine Reserve System for Forests in Australia. A Report Protected Areas: A Guide for Action by Australian by the Joint ANZECC/MCFFA National Governments. Australian and New Zealand Forest Policy Statement Implementation Sub- Environment and Conservation Council, committee. Canberra. Taskforce on Marine Protected Areas. Driml S and Common M (1997) Economic and Environment Australia, Canberra Financial Benefits of Tourism in major Protected ANZECC (1999b) Australian Guidelines for Areas. Australian Journal of Environmental Establishing the National Reserve System. Management 2(2), 19-39. Australian and New Zealand Environment and Edwards, R. & Traill, B. (2002) Getting beyond Conservation Council, National Reserve System field days: targeting extension to protect Scientific Taskforce. Environment Australia, threatened ecosystems on private land. Ecological Canberra Management & Restoration 3, 229-231. ANZECC (1999c) National Framework for the Fenner F (ed.) (1975) A National; System of Management and Monitoring of Australia’s Ecological Reserves in Australia. Australian Native Vegetation. Australian and New Zealand Academy of Science Report No. 19 . Australian Environment and Conservation Council. Academy of Science, Canberra. Environment Australia, Canberra. Fitzsimons, J.A. (2004) The Contribution of ANZECC (2002) A Review of Current Approaches Multi-tenure Reserve Networks to Biodiversity to Performance Measurement in Protected Area Conservation. Unpublished PhD thesis. School Management. Queensland Parks and Wildlife of Ecology & Environment, Deakin University, Service. Melbourne. Australian Academy of Science (1968) National Fitzsimons, J.A. & Ashe, C. (2003) Some recent Parks and Reserves in Australia . Australian strategic additions to Victoria’s protected area system Academy of Science, Canberra. 1997-2002. Victorian Naturalist 120, 98-108. Australian Academy of Science (1969) Proposal to Fitzsimons, J.A. & Wescott, G. (2005) History and Aust. J. establish a biological survey of Australia. attributes of selected Australian multi-tenure reserve Science 31: 377-382. networks. Australian Geographer 36, 75-93. Commonwealth of Australia (1992) National Hocking M, Stolton S and Dudley N (2000) Forest Policy Statement. Department of the Evaluating Effectiveness: A Framework for Assessing Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra. the Management of Protected Areas. IUCN, Commonwealth of Australia (1996) National Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge. Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s IUCN (1992) Caracas Action Plan: Declaration and Biological Diversity . Department of the conclusions of the IVth World Congress on National Environment, Sport and Territories, Canberra.

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Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas Venezuela Thackway R (1989)The National Index of Ecosystems February 1992. IUCN Programme on Protected of Australia – an approach taken and the problems Areas/CNPPA, Gland, Switzerland. encountered. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra. 25. IUCN (1994) Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. Commission on Thackway R and Cresswell I (eds.) (1995)An National Parks and Protected Areas with Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for the assistance of the World Conservation Australia: a Framework for Establishing the Monitoring Centre. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. National System of Reserves, Version 4.0. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Madden, JR, Thapa, PJ, Giesecke, JAD (2000)The Contribution of the Parks and Wildlife Service’s Canberra. Estate to the Tasmanian Economy in 1998/99, Worboys G, Lockwood M and De Lacy T (eds.) Department of Primary Industry Water and (2001) Protected Area Management: Principles Environment. and Practice, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (2004) National Biodiversity and Climate Change Action Plan 2004-2007, Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. NLWRA (2002) The Australian Terrestrial Biodiversity Assessment. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. NSW NPWS (1997) Best Practice Report – Stakeholder Management (Neighbour Relations), NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. NSW NPWS (2001) The Contribution of Sturt National Park, Kinchega National Park and Mutawintji National Park to Regional Economic Development. NPWS Environmental Economic Series, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Powell R and Chalmers L. (1995) Regional Economic Impact: Gibraltar Range and Dorrigo National Parks: A report of the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, NPWS Environmental Economic Series, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Specht RL, Roe EM and Boughton VH (1974) Conservation of major plant communities in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Aust. J. Bot. Suppl. Ser. 7: 1-667.

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Appendix 1

Summary and objectives of IUCN Protected Area of a type which will serve best the physical and Management Categories spiritual well-being of visitors and maintain the wilderness qualities of the area for present and CATEGORY Ia; Strict Nature Reserve: future generations; to enable indigenous human Protected Area managed mainly for communities living at low density and in balance science with the available resources to maintain their Area of land and/or sea possessing some lifestyle. outstanding or representative ecosystems, CATEGORY II; National Park: geological or physiological features and/or species, Protected Area managed mainly for available primarily for scientific research and/or ecosystem conservation and recreation environmental monitoring. Natural area of land and/or sea, designated to (a) Objectives: protect the ecological integrity of one or more to preserve habitats, ecosystems and species in as ecosystems for this and future generations, (b) undisturbed state as possible; to maintain genetic exclude exploitation or occupation inimical to the resources in a dynamic and revolutionary state; purposes of designation of the area and (c) provide to maintain established ecological processes; to a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, safeguard structural landscape features or rock recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which exposures; to secure examples of the natural must be environmentally and culturally compatible. environment for scientific studies, environmental Objectives: monitoring and education, including baseline areas from which all avoidable access is excluded; to protect natural and scenic areas on national and to minimise disturbance by careful planning and international significance for spiritual, scientific, execution of research and other approved activities; educational, recreational or tourist purposes; to limit public access. to perpetuate, in as natural a state as possible, representative examples of physiographic regions, CATEGORY Ib; Wilderness Area: biotic communities, genetic resources, and species, Protected Area managed mainly for to provide ecological stability and diversity; to wilderness protection manage visitor use for inspirational, educational, Large area of unmodified or slightly modified cultural and recreational purposes at a level land and/or sea, retaining its natural character which will maintain the area in a natural state and influence, without permanent or significant or near natural state; to eliminate and thereafter habitation, which is protected and managed so as to prevent exploitation or occupation inimical to the preserve its natural condition. purposes of designation; to maintain respect for the ecological, geomorphologic, sacred and aesthetic Objectives: attributes which warranted designation; and to take into account the needs of indigenous people, to ensure that future generations have the including subsistence, in so far as these will not opportunity to experience understanding and adversely affect the other objectives of management. enjoyment of areas that have been largely undisturbed by human action over a long period of time; to maintain the essential natural attributes and qualities of the environment over the long term; to provide for public access at levels and

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CATEGORY III; Natural Monument: inimical to the purposes of designation; and to Protected Area managed for deliver such benefits to people living within the conservation of specific natural designated areas as are consistent with the other features objectives of management. Area containing one or more specific natural or CATEGORY V; Protected Landscape/ natural/cultural feature which is of outstanding Seascape: Protected Areas managed value because of its inherent rarity, representative or mainly for landscape/seascape aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. conservation and recreation Objectives: Area of land, with coast and seas as appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature over to protect or preserve in perpetuity specific time has produced an area of distinct character outstanding natural features because of their with significant aesthetic, cultural and/or ecological natural significance, unique or representational value, and often with high biological diversity. quality, and/or spiritual connotations; to an extent Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional consistent with the foregoing objective, to provide interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance opportunities for research, education, interpretation and evolution of such an area. and public appreciation; to eliminate and thereafter prevent exploitation or occupation inimical to Objectives: the purpose of designation; and to deliver to any To maintain the harmonious interaction of nature resident population such benefits as are consistent and culture through the protection of landscape with the other objectives of management. and/or seascape and the continuation of traditional CATEGORY IV; Habitat/Species land uses, building practices and social and cultural Management Area: Protected Area manifestations; to support lifestyles and economic managed mainly for conservation activities which are in harmony with nature and the through management intervention preservation of the social and cultural fabric of the communities concerned; to maintain the diversity Area of land and/or sea subject to active of landscape and habitat, and of associated species intervention for management purposes so as to and ecosystems; to eliminate where necessary, and ensure the maintenance of habitats and/or to meet thereafter prevent, land uses and activities that are the requirements of specific species. inappropriate in scale and/or character; to provide Objectives: opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism appropriate in type and scale to secure and maintain the habitat conditions to the essential qualities of the areas; to encourage necessary to protect significant species, groups of scientific and educational activities which will species, biotic communities or physical features contribute to the long term well-being of resident of the environment where these require specific populations and to the development of public human manipulation for optimum management; support for the environmental protection of such to facilitate scientific research and environmental areas; and to bring benefits to, and to contribute monitoring as primary activities associated with to the welfare of, the local community through sustainable resource management; to develop the provision of natural products (such as forest limited areas for public education and appreciation and fisheries products) and services (such as clean of the characteristics of the habitats concerned and water or income derived from sustainable forms of of the work of wildlife management; to eliminate tourism). and thereafter prevent exploitation or occupation

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CATEGORY VI; Managed Resource Protected Areas: Protected Area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems Area containing predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to ensure long term protection and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at the same time a sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet community needs. Objectives: to protect and maintain the biological diversity and other natural values of the area in the long term; to promote sound management practices for sustainable production purposes; to protect the natural resource base from being alienated for other land-use purposes that would be detrimental to the area’s biological diversity; and to contribute to regional and national development. Source: IUCN (1994) Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas with the assistance of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

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