CENSUS OF INDIA 1961
VOLUME IX
MADRAS
PART VI VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS 10. PUDUKULAM
P. K. NAMBIAR OF THE INDIAN ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE. 'SUPERINTENDENT OF CENSUS OPERATIONS, MADRAS.
1964 CENSUS OF INDIA 1961
Ce.. sus Report-Vo}. IX will relate to Madras~_only. Under this series will be issued the following Publications.
Part I-A General Report (2 Volumes) I-B Demography and, Vita.l Sta.tistics • 1-0 Subsidiary Tables *Part II-A General Population Tables * II-B (I) Genera.l Economic Tables B-1 to B-IV * II-B (II) ., B-V to B·IX * II-C (I) Cultural Tables II-C (II) Migration Tables Part III Household Economic Tables * IV-A Report on Housing and Establishments * IV-B Housing and Establishment Tables Pa.rt V-A Scheduled Castes and Tribes (Report a.nd Tables) V-B Ethnographic Notes on Scheduled Tribes V-C Toda,s V-D Ethnographic Notes on Scheduled Ca.stes V-E Ethnographic Notei'! on Denotified and Noma.dic Tribes *Part VI Village Survey Monographs (40 Nos.) *Pa.rt VII-A Crafts and Artisans (9 Nos.) VII-B Fairs and Festivals *Part VIII-A Administration Report-En.umer8tion~ F ffi· 1 I or 0 CJ a use on y * VIII-B Administration Report-Tabulation Part IX Atlas of the Madras State Part X Madras City (2 Volumes) District Ceneus Handbooks on twelve districts Part XI Reports on Special Studies * A Hand looms in Madras Rtate * B Food Habits in Madras State C Slums of Madras City D Temples of Madras State (5 Volumes) * E Physically HAndica.pped of Madras State F Family Planning Attitudes: A Survey Part XII Languages of Madras State
* ALREADY PUBLISHED FOREWORD
Apart from laying the foundations of demography in this sub-continent, a hundred years of the Indian Census has also produced 'elaborate and scholarly accounts of the variegated phenomena of Indian life-sometimes with no statistics attached, but usually with just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to their conclusions'. In a country, largely illiterate, where statistical or numerical comprehension of even such a simple thing as age was liable to be inaccurate, an under~tanding of the social structure was essential. It was more necessary to' _ attain a broad understanding of what was happening aro:md oneself than to wrap on£:"8el£ up in 'statistical ingenuity I or 'mathematical ~anipulation '. This explains why t.he Indian Census came to be interested in • many by-paths' and • nearly every branch of scholarship. from anthropology and sociology to geography and religion·,
In the last fsw decades, the Census has increasingly turned its efforts to the presentation of village statistics. This suits the temper of the times as well as our political and economic structure. For even as we ha ve a great deal of centraliza tion on the one hand and decentralization on the other, my colleagues thought it would be a welcome continuation of the Census tradition to try to invest the -ciTY bones of vilJage statistics with flesh-and-blood accounts of social stnlCture and social change. It was accordingly decided to select a few viHaqes in every State for special study, where personal observation would be brought to bear on the interpretation of statistics to find out how much of a Village was static and yet changing and how fast the winds of change were blowing and from where.
Randomness of selection was, therefore, eschewed. There wes no intention to build up a picture for the whole State in quantitative terms on the basis of villages selected statistically at random. The selection was avowe:::lly purposive: the object being as much to find out what was happening and how fast to those villages which had fewer reasons to choose change and more to remain lodged in the past as to discover how the more' normal' types of VIllages were changing. They were to be primarily type-studies which, by virtue of their number and dis tribution, would also give the reader a' feel' of what was going on and some kind of a map of the country·
A brief account of the tests of selection will help to explain. A minimum of thirty-five villages was to be chosen with great care to represent adequately geogra phical, occupational and even ethnic diversity· Of this minimum of thirty-five. the distribution was to be as follows:
(a) At least eight villages were to be so selected that each of them would contain one dominant community with one predominating occupation, e.g., fisher men, fores! workers, jhum cultivators, potters, weavers, salt-makers, quar!'y workers etc. A villac;e should have a minimum pop\llation of 400, the optimum being between 500 and 700. iv
(b) At least seven villages were to be of numerically prominent Scheduled Tribes of the State· Fach villa:Je could represent a particular tribe· The minimum popula.tion should be 40C, the optimum being between 500 and 700.
(c) The third group or villages should each be of fair size, of an old and settled character and contain variegated occupations and be. if possible, multi <3thnic in composition. By fair size was meant a population of 500-700 persons or more. The villa.:Je should mainly depend on agriculture a.nd be sufficienHy away from the major sources of modern communication, such as the district adminis t.ra.tive headquarters and business centres. It should be roughly a. day's journey :from the above places. The villages were to be selected with an eye to variation in terms of size, proximity to city and other means of modern cOIPmunicahon. nearness to hills, jungles and major rivers. Thus, there was to be a regional dis tribution throughout "the State of this category of Villages_ If, however a particular district contained significant ecological variations within its area, more than one village in the district might be selected to study the special adjustments to them.
It is a unique feature of these village surveys that they rapidly outgrew their original terms of reference, as my colleagues warmed up to their work. This proved for them an absorbing voyage of discovery and their infectious enthusiasm com- \ pelled me 10 enlarge the inquiry's scope again and again. It was just as well cautiously to feel one's way about at first and then venture further afield, and although it accounts to some extent for a certain unevenness in the quality and coverage of the monographs, it served to compensate the purely honorary and extra-mural rigours of the task. For, the Survey, along with its many ancillaries like the survey of fairs and festivals, of small and rural industry and others, was an • extra', over a.nd above the crushing load of the 1961 Census.
It might be of interest to recount briefly the stages by which the Survey enlarged its scope. At the first Census Conferenoe in September 1959, the Survey set itself the task aT what might be called a record in situ of material traits, like settlement patterns of the village; house types; diet; dress; ornaments and foot wear; furniture and storing vessels; common meaDS of transport of goods and passengers; domestication of animals and birds; markets attended; worship of deities; festivals and fairs. There were to be recordings, of course, of cultural and social traits and occupational mobility. This was followed up in March 1960 by two specimen schedules, one for each household, the oiher for the village as a whole, which, apart from spelling out the mode of inquiry suggested in the September 1959 conference, introduced groups of questions aimed at sensing changes in attitude and behaviour in such fields as marriage, inheritance. movable and immovable property. industry, indebtedness, education, community life and collective activity, social disabilities, forums of appeal over disputes, village leader ship and organisation of cultural life. It was now plainly the intention to provide adequate statishcal support to empirical' feel " to approach qualih.tive chan:;:;e through statistical quantities. It had been difficult to give thought to the importance of ' just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to conclusion', at a time when my colleagues were straining themselves to the utmost for the success of the Ul.ain Census operations, but once the census count itself was left behind in March 1961, a series of three regional seminars in Trivandrum (May 1961), Darjeeling and Srinagar (June 1961) restored their attention to this field and the importance of tracing social change through a number of well-devised statisti<;:al v
tables was once again recognised. This itself presupposed a fresh survey of villaqes already done; but it was worth the trouble in view of the possibilities that a close analysis of sta.tistics offered and also because the 'consanguinity' sched1lle remained to be canvassed. By November 1961, however, more was expected of these surveys than ever before. There was dissatisfaction on the one hand with too many general statements unci a growirlq desire on the other to draw conclusions from statistics, to regard social and economic data as inter-related processes, and finally to examine the social and economic processes set in motion through land rerotms and other laws, legislative and administrative measures, technological and cultural change. Finally. a study camp was organised in the last week of December 1961 when the whole field was carefully gone through over again and a programme worked out closely knitting the various aims of the Survey together. The Social Studies Section of the Census Commission rendered assistance to State Superintendents by way of scrutiny and technical comment on the frame of Survey and presentation of results.
This gradual unfolding of the aims of the Survey prevented my colleagues from adopting as many Villages as they had originally intended to. But I believe that what may have been lost in quantity has been more than made up for in quality. This is, perhaps, for the first time that such a Survey hds been conducted in any country, and that purely as a labour of love. It has succeeded in attaining what it set out to achieve; to construct a map of vil13ge India's social structure. One hopes that the volumes of tillS Survey will ,help to retain for the Indian Census its title to • the most fruitful single source of information aboutthe country'. Apart trom other features, it will perhaps be conceded that the Survey has set up a new Census standard in pictorial and graphic documentation. The schedules finally adopted for this monograph have been printed in an appendix.
New Delhi, 2 ASOK MITRA. 30th J~~ly, 1964. S Regi8trar General, India.
PREFACE
An interesting feature qf 196' Census is the Pi ,~pa(it ion of monographs on 40 villages in Madras State. This is the tent,h report to be presented to the reader. It relates to Pudukulam village in Tirunelveli taluk of Tirunelveil .j IS:' iet. It had a traditional cottage industry-tapping of n, e'-a ;,nd production of jaggery. Of late, cultivation has b<",corne the main economic activity. Nadars form the dominant commu nity, some are: Hindus and others are Christians; but they have the feeling that they form one homogeneous -. '"OUP h makes the stUdy interesting to a socio)og ist_ I do hope th:i.( the reader will find this volume interesting.
Madf'tN. 1 P. K. NAMBIAR, November 13, /964. S Superintendent of Ot;nSU8 Operationll. List of Villages Selected for the Survey
1. /\.vvan~Yarkulam*...... - '':? Chingleput District ., Sucmambukulam ., 3. Lakkinayakkanpatti South Areot District 4. Thadagam* ,. 5. Arkavadi 6. Hasanamapettai North Areot District 7. Paravakkal 8. Arka8allahalIi* Salem District 9. Kannkagiri* .. 10. Pappanaiekenpatti " II. Aladipatti " 12. Iswara.moorthi palayam •• 13. Kumbalam ,. 14. Nellithurai Coimbatore District 15. Hallimoyar Nilgiris Distriot l(j. Kinnakorai o. 17. Vilpatti* Ma.durai Distric't 18. Sirumalai 19. Pariyur " ThiruvalavayanalJur 20. " 21. Tbenbaranadu* Tiruohirapa.lli District 22. 1'hiruvella,rai* 23. Ariyur ,. 24. Kadambangud Thanjavur District 25. Vjlangulam 26. Kunna.lur ,. 27. K odiakkarai •• 28. Go!warpatti Ramanathapuram District 29. Visavanoor ao. Athangarai 31. Ravanasamudram* Tirunelveli District 32. Pudukulamt •• 33. Alwarkarkula01. " 34. Kilakottai 35. Odaimarichan ,. 36. Kuvalaikanni ., 37. Koottumaogalam* Kanyakumari District 38. Kadathucheri .. 39. Kottu tha,lazhamkulam " 40. Kadnkkara " ------~ * Aheu.dy published t The present vQIUlDe (No. 10 of the series) VI LlAGE\ SURVEY REPORT
ON PUDUKULAM
Field study and 'PreliminarY report D. SUNDER SINGH, M. A., Research A.~8i8eaftt.
MISS. OLIVE JOSEPH, B. sc.: RMearc/a. AMiBtGn'.
N. RAMA RAO, M. A., Tabulation Office,..
CONTENTS
CHAPTERS PAGE:
I INTRODUCTION 1
II PEOPLE AND THEIR MATER;t:AL CULTURE 5
III POPULATION 27
IV VILLAGE ECONOMY 41
V SOCIAL AND CVLTURAL LIFE 90
VI CONCLUSION lIS
APPENDICES
I HOUSJIlHOLD SOHEDULE USRD 170::& THlII SURVRY 121
II VILLAGE SOHEDULE USB» FOR THB SURVEY 138
III GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS 147
ILLUSTRATIONS
MAPS FACING FAGE
1 Map Showing the location of the "Village Frontispiece
2 Site plan of Pudukulam village 1
PHOTOGRAPHS
1 Road leading to Pudukulam 2 2 Common mode of tranllport 2 3 Mallakulam tank 3 4 A Nadar couple of the village 8 5 A Nadar woman with ornaments 9 6 A girl of Manalvilai hamlet 9 7 House of a Muslim family 12 8 A well at Mallakulam :!.3 9 A Nadar's house 14 10 Maravars' quarters 14 II A Konar's house 15 12 Pallars' quarters 15 13 A domestic Bcene 24 14 A kitchen scene 25 15 A village vettiyan 26 16 C. M. 8. Evangelical elementary school 27 xii
PACING PAGB 17 A group of agricultural labourers 48 18 Tilling a. piece of la.nd 48 19 Harvesting paddy by a family 49 20 Measuring paddy 49 21 Paddy seedlings being plucked and bundled 50 22 Transport of compost manure 50 23 Paddy harvest 51 24 Threshing floor scene 51 25 Sluices of Mal1akulam tank 52 26 Ploughing 52 27 Irrigation of millet 'crops 53 28 Sifting paddy and collecting hay 58 29 I)ehusking of paddy 58 30 Geese rearing 59 31 A road-side scene 59 32 Weaving of fanoy baskets and fans 62 33 Exchange of goods in a shop n3 34 , l'anamkizhangu' being unearthed 63 35 The deity of Maravars 90 36 ,Sudalaimadasamy and the Amman in.ide the temple 91 37 c. M. S. Evangelica~ church 94 38 Roman Catholic church 94 39 Rahwania 1)urga. 95
SKETCHES PAGE 1 " Kunukku" worn by Paraiyar woman 8 2 Bead necklace worn by Harijan woman 8 3to9 " Thalis" 9,10 & 11 10 A typical Pallar's hut 13 11 to 15 Ground plans 14: & 15 16 to 19 Agricultural implements 52 & 53 20 Granary (mud) 54 21 Ammankoil in Para.iyar street 90
CHARTS
1 Ethnic structure 6 J Marital structure 34- 3 Litera.cy levels at different ages 38 .- Possession of la.nd 49 5 Indebtedness 74 :XII(
LOCATION MAP MADRAS STATE ANDHRA OF PUDUKULAM TIRUNELVElI TALUK TIRUNEL VELl DISTRICT MYSORE ~ ," SCALE I 10 5 0 10 20 MI re. 14M; I Kilometres 10 5 " 10i 210 "
KERALA Pelle Slraii
KERALA
\
REFERENCE
State Boundary
. _D,1~trlct Boundary / Taluk Boundary Railway Line (M . G.) ====:::z National Highways
Stalt! Highways
Other Roads
Gut f of Mandar Cart Track
Rlver With Stream SITE PLAN OF Wefl PUDUKULAM VILLAGE (Not to Sc"le] ...... , ,
Temple_:tft
lEGENO
~ Mara'lat (Thevar)
Paralyar (Hindu)
Pallar (Christian)
Yadhavar (Konat)
Nadar (Christian)
Vanna" CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The Village bed before he reaches the village of Pudukulam. TIRUNEL VELl is 8. southern district in Madra.s If the traveller is fortunate to have a. jeep. he can State bounded on the east and south by the Gulf reach this village more easily by following a oart of Mana.ar a.nd on the west by Kanyakumari district traok bra.nohing off from the main road at the fifth and Kerala State, the frontier following the watel mile-stone !l.nd proceed along the tank beds before I'lhed of the Western Ghats. The hills which form the reaching the village. One ha~ to ca.ution the travel western country of the district are a continuation ler that he will find the jburney to the villa.ge of the great irregular chain of the Western Ghats. uninteresting, the landscape being, dry and mono The hills towering along the western side of tonous, unbroken by any ,'8ort O;t soenery. The the district and visible from almost any .point countryside will lie bare without a. singl~ stalk of of the level country, present for the denizen of the green to liven up the ·atmosphere. One may plains, the most fascinating object of the landll occasionally come acr088 a oasurina 'bush or a cape. Tambraparni, the chief river of the distriot cluster of palms. But even the palms WIll Beem to drains an area of 1.750 miles and from its !lource in be trying hard to obtain subsistence from the dry the Periapothu to its mouth in the Gulf of Manaar soil of the area'i The tank which we have to cross is 75 miles long. It divides the district into two. To in ourJ progress towards Pudukulam is devoid of . the south of the river, we have wide areas of dry any wa.ter. the tank bed cracking under the red sand lands squa.tted with numberless ta.nks and heat of; the sun. But the situation in the tank small patches of paddy lands and broken by the changes because Manimuthar runs about 20 miles steep water courses which drain the area from year to the south·west of Pudukulam and with the to year. Palmyras grow everywhere throughout construction of Manimuthar dam· in 1953, the the traot. In this traot at the junction of Tirunel waters from the project fill the tank and sustain veli and Nanguneri t&luk. is situa.ted the village of the economy of the village. It may be truly said of Padukulam where we have conducted ,. socio Manimuthar C'thy rolling waters to the valleys economic survey. Cultivation depended on the bring a welcome succour with a liberal hand occasiona.l rains which they had. But the situation bestowing plenty to a burning land." has been oompletely changed by the execution of Manimuthar Project in the fifties. The ca.nal Topography taking off from Manimuthar traverses the taluks of 3. If anyone is poetic, he can also appreciate Tirunelveli and N anguneri filling the tanks thereby t·he ideal surroundings in whioh the village is making cultiva.tion in this arear more secure and located. On the north-east. a.bout six miles a.way permanent. Three hundred and ninety eight miles from the village lies a hillock which is known as Bouth of Madras ia :an important junction of the ,. Seventhipatti Parambu ., or " Reddiarpatti South India.n Railway called Tirunelveli which is Parambu" or .. Wolf Hill". On the west about adjacent to Pala.yamcottai, the headquarter. of 20 miles away, there stands the lofty Western Tirunelveli district. Pndukulam is at & distance Ghats on which clouds set in beautifully as if of eight miles to the south of Tirunelveli town. It wings ha.ve grown on them. The" Seventhipatti is situated at the southern end of TirunelveH taluk. Parambu ". however, is a. barren hillock with Beyond AyaIikulam, a hp..mlet of Pudukulam practicalJy no vegetation. The Tambraparni river village, the northern boundry of Nanguneri taluk runs about eight miles to the north of the village of Tirunelveli district begins. . through Tirunelveli town. The village has plenty of tanks. one of them being Ayyangulam, a. private Approach to the Village tank. The names of other six tanks are: Pudu 2. To reach this village, one has to travel kulam, Peria Pudukulam. a.lso known as Thera, along the Tirune]veli-Cape Comorin road for .. va,llikulam, Veeralaperuncherikulam, Mallakulam,. distance of five miles and fin furlongs and proceed Ayankulam. and Ariyanayagapuramgulam. Apart. a.long a. branch road construoted under the Local from these tanks which belong to Pudukulawl Development Scheme towards east and reach the village. the neighbouring villa.ge Konganda.npa.rai village of Kongandanparai. From this Village, he haa also its own tank. Pudukulam and Periapudu· has to trek four furlongs cutting across the tank kulam are adja.cent to each other. Similarly are 1 2 VILLAGE SURVEY
Pudukulam and Kongandanparai situated. Fauna Mallakulam is about half a mile to the south-west 6. The vi11age has the usual types of fauna. of Pudukulam village. Ayankulam is situated found in any village-domestic cows and bulls,· further west about a mile away from it. Ayyan buffaloes, goats, sheep, 'poultry, dogs, cats and gulam and Ariyanayagapuramgulam are two miles donkeys. Though some villagers ea.t pork, pigs and three miles to the south east and north east of are not reared in the village. Ducks are seen in the main village. From the description, it will be large numbers. WhHe cranes are' found in large seen that Pudukulam is located in aHat territory. numbers in the surrounding parts of Pudukulam. containing a number of tanks which depended ou It is a familiar sight to see them build ,their nests rain for walter, making cultivation uncertain until on tree tops. Formerly cranes were found in large the construction of Manimuthar projeot. To-day, numbers only when tanks had water, but at the villager can be sure of getting Borne water in presen!; since the tanks have water for the major tanks, thereby making it possible for him to part of the year, the cranes are seen more undertake cultivation with a greater amount of frequently. A variety of snakes are found in security. Pudukulam. Most important of them are the cobras, russell's vipers, water snakes and the green Cottage Industry vis-a-vis Cultivation sna.kes. 4. This village was chosen for socio-economio survey because it has an important cottage Climate and Rainfall industry, viz., the tapping of neera from the 7. Pudukulam is located in an elevation bet ~a.lmyra and the production of jaggery. In ween 1871 and 157' above sea level. AI the elevation is addition to this, other article:; like boxes are low, it has a definite influence on the tempera.ture manu.factured out of palmyra trees and canvas for of the village; during Bummer it is extremely hot cots from palmyra fibre. This is done mostly by and sultry and in winter, it is oomparatively cool. the Nadal' community. Before Manimuthar The highest elevation is 187' near Pudukulam main Project, manufacture of Palmyra jaggery was the village and lowest is 157' near the ha.mlet Veerala chief means of livelihood for this community. perunchelvi. The climate of Pudukulam can be Other communities of the village like Maravars, and described as hot and dry. Summer commences Konars depended on cultivation for their livelihood. late in February. During Bummer, the heat However, one important project constructed under increases and by early Ma.y, becomes oppressive. the First Five Year Plan, viz., Manimuthar has Thunder showers sometimes occur during summer. altered the economy of the community t.hat The temperature is said to touch 105c F. Monsoon tapping of palmyra has cea.sed to be the main commences in September a.nd continues till source of livelihood. Even Nadal' families have December. Pudukulam gets its rain from north taken to cultivation as their major occupation and ealt monsoon, But its rainfall is not regular. In .instruments used in ta.pping neara and jaggery the past, cultivation operations have suffered remain idle in their houses. because of the inadequacy of rain until Manimuthar water ca.me to the rescue of the villagers. The ,Flora mean annual rainfall of Tirunelveli district is 30" 5. Pudukulam has no rare or valuable I3pecies for the last 30 years. The rain comes mainly from ,of flora.. Palmyra tree is the most common tree. north-west monsoon. Though the Western Ghats Even now it is systematically oultivated. Coconut are only about 20 miles away from Pudukulam, it tree is a rare one and we find a few of them in gets only little rain during July and August. But hamlet Manalvilai. The other species of flora. found the area is cooled by th.e westerly winds blowing in the village are known locally 8.S follows: over the Ghats. The a.verage rainfall of the district has shown a marked decrease, during Vathamadakki, Poovarasu, PuliamaraID, the last 10 years falling from 35.92" to 30". Ava.ram, Udai, Karuvelamaram and Vembu. Their botanical names are indicated below: Communications Poovarasu Thespesia Populnea 8. Pudukulam has no post office. It is served Puliamaram Tamarindull Indica by Reddiarpatti post offic~ which is situated 2 Ava-ram Cassia Auricullltt.l miles to its north. Its taluk headquarters is at Udai Acacia Planijron. Tirunelveli at a distance of 7 miles and firka Karuvelamaram ... Acacia Arabica headquarters at Munneerpallam, 3.5 miles to the Vembu Azadirachta Indica northwest of Pudukula.m on Tirunelveli-Shencottah The Pier road leadi ng to P udukulam
The common mode of transport In Pudukul ~ m is the . bullock-cart The Mallakulam tank
" : ··:-'l " 3
'road. Pudukulam Panchayat Board is a. constituent belong to Nadars except for one solitary Vannan of Pudukulam Panchayat Union with its head household. One Nadar is a Hindu and the other quartan at Palayamcottai, i.e. 5 miles to tbe north 26 households belong ~to the Catholic com' of the village. The Police Station is at Palayam munity. ,cottai. There are three municipa.l towns close to Pudukulam-Melapalayam at a dista.nce of 4..5 Ariyanayalapuram mile;;, Palayamcottai at a. distance of 6.5 miles Thill hamlet is situated at a dista.nce of :U; and Tirunelveli at a distance of 8 miles. mHes from Pudukulam in the north eastern direction. It hall six households belonging to Hindu fairs Nadar community. This is the farthest of thn 9. The nearest ahandy is at Melapsla.yam hamlets in Pud~kuJam village. which is held every Tuesda.y. Cattle. gra.ins and vegetables are the principa.l commodjtjes of trade. Ayyangulam On every Thursday anuther shandy is held at Ayyangu]a.m is Jocated at a distance of Ui l'alayamcottai. Grains and vegetables are the miles to the south-ea~t of Pudukulam. It has only commodities traded. Besides theile, there are two households ocoupied by Hindu Pallara. regular markets in both these places. One Obviously it is the smalles,~ hamlet. important fair is the Sivalaperi Chitrai Cattle fair which is held for 15 days in April. Pudukulam Veeralaperunchelvi villagers buy their cattle from this fair which is This hamlet is three \furlongs away from held 0 miles northwest of Pudukulam. Another Pudukulam towards south-east. In this hamlet cattle fair is held in Tharuvai about 5.5 miles to 43 Maravar households are found. In addition to the northwest of Pudukulam in the month of that there are 2 Nadar households, one Vannan. September. Thus there are adequate ma.rketing household, 2 Kamma]ar households and one facilities for the villagerll. Pillai household. Fifty percent of the Maravar5 of this hamlet are well-to-do oultivators. Maravarl'l Hamlets form a majority only in this ha.mlet. Thi. i. 10. A brief description of each ha.m]et will essentially a Hindu hamlet. help the reader in .underlltanding the village lifa better. Manalvilai Manalvilai isIooated at a distance of one mile Pudukulam to the south of the main village. It has 38 house It is the main hamlet, the biggest and has holds and with a solitary exoeption of a Vannan, 87 households. Six castes reside in this vjJ]age others belong to Nadar community. The Nadan Nadars, Maravars, Pallars. Parayars. Konars and belong to two sects of Christianity, viz., Catholic. Dhobies. Nadars form the majority community. (7 households) and T.D.T.A. Protestants (12 house There is only one Van nan household. All these castes holds). Some Nadars also profelll! Hinduism live in separate streets with separate drinking (18 households). The Nadars of this hamlet are water wells. Nadars, Maravars and Konars have cultivator·cum-tappers and some are engaged solely one well. Parayans have one and PaHara and in tapping industry. Vannans have another. But batbing and washing can be done by all communities in the same tank. Mallakulam From this hamlet, there are cart tracks reaching It is ~ituated at a distance of 1.25 miles to the all other 7 hamlets. The Nadars who are Protestant south-west of the main village amI hal 59 house. Christians belong to two sects-C.M,S. Evangelical holds. It consists of 3 distinct settlements or and T. D. T. A. The Palla.rs are Roman Catholics. ',Kudiyiruppu' occupied by three different castel! -Nadars, Parayars and Muslims. PalJars oocuPY Theravalli two smaller settlements in the east and west and they It is situated two furlongs to the east of constitute the majority in the village. Muslims Puduku]am which can be reached by a cart track. have 14 households and they are found only in this I t is difficult to travel from one hamlet to another hamlet. Their settlement is to the west while during oultivation season when water is let into Nadar and Pa,1Jar settlements are in tbe east. In the fields for irrigation because no regular channels between looated is the Mallakulam tank. Muslim. have been constructed for taking water to the fields. are generally cultivators with 5 households engaged There are 28 households in this hamlet which in mat weaving as a household industry. The 4 VILLAGE SURVEY
Pallars are either cultivators or agricultural is no objection to the communities attending any' labourers. The Nadars are either cultivators or church. Konars are Hindus and have a temple in tappers. the hamlet. AH the hamlets except Manalvilai have tanks (or irri"ation purposes. These tanks Ayankulam are named after the hamlets in which they are It has 62 households a.nd ha.s 3 settlements located. Manalvilai hamlet gets water forirrigation occupied by three castes. PaHars form the majority from Mallakulam tank. The biggest and the in the village followed by Nadars a.nd then Konars. deepest tank is the Pudukulam tank which iii GO' to This hamlet can be reached from Mallakulam by 70' deep at certain pla.ces, especially behind the· walking across the fields for 3 furlongs to the Kakingudaiyar temp1e where there is & deep trench north. It can be reached from Kongandanparai village by treking It miles on tbe bunds of fields Residential Pattern towards Bouth. It cannot be reached directly from 11. The distribution of va.rious communities. Pudukulam main village. PaUars and Nada.rs in in tbe different hamlet!! of Pudukulam is furnished this hamlet are Roman Catholics, each community in Ta.ble No. I below: ' baving a separate church of its own, though there
TABLE No I
Hamlet-wise Population
Number of households belonging t,o
~ _g :; Name of hamll't i;" ... .;; ..... S '0 ~ ~ ~~~~- ~---- Pudukulam (Main) .• 421 182 239 81 13 12 12 1 32 17 Tberavalli 117 51 66 28 26 V ""ralaperunabel vi 264 124 140 49 43 2 2 Ariyanayagapuram 34 15 19 6 6 Ayye.neulam 7 '" 3 2 2 Msnslvilai 162 67 95 38 18 12 7 Mallakulam 280 132 148 59 27 2 l5 14 Ayankulam ------324 163 161 62 10 1 22 26 Tota] 1,609 738 871 331 56 23 27 3' 4 5 3 59 55 43 14 P. C.-Protestant Christian R. C.-Rome.n Ce.thoiio The structure of the main village would, how Mara vars and Konars. On the western side of the ever. attra.ct the notice of anyone in that it village. exclusively segregated are the Parayars has unlike some of the other villages, a la.rge who hold 8. lower Bocial position even among the rectangular plain space, without any sort of Scheduled Castes. To the south-west are congre construction or structure, 140' lengthwise and 80' gated the PaHara belonging to the Harijan commu brea.dthwise. The houses were constructed on the nity and the Christian Nadars. To the north the outer periphery of this rectangUlar open yard. We streets running pa.rallel to the open courtyard are can find, branching off perpendicula.r to thia open exolusivelY occupied by the Christia.ns. courtyard, two streets containing the houle. of CHAPTER II PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE Ethnic Structure look after both the villages. Pudnkulam is more 12. This village is not a separate unit for populous of the two. Its area. is 3384.34 acr••• administrative purpos9s. It is clubbed with its The area of the village site itself i. 35 ..&0 acrN. neighbouring village. Kongandanparai. According It ha.s 8 ha.mlets consisting of 331 household•• to the Resettlement of 1027 which .remaina Table No. II will indica.te thedilltribu.tioD of the unaltered till now. the same set of village officers pnpulation by communities. TABLE No. II Ethaic Compo.ilioD Total No. Total h __ Religion COlBa_ity li.b.CuiejSab-Seet olhu_.,. lIal.,. hold. per_onl (2) 13) I~) (5) 181 (1) (Nadar 27 121 lS3 Gil , Maravaor 515 302 141 1151 Konar 23 119 59 '0· Parayar (S. C.) Sambavar 31} 173 73 10. VanlOan 6 18 , 12 HINDUS ... ~ Kammitlar 4 24- 12 12 I Pallar (So C.) Attapallar 1 2: ' 1 1 KudumbAll 1 5 lh z 1 1 1 I Pillai Saivam I 3 3 I Pagadai (S. C.) Arunthathiyar ••• I •3 2 I LAmbattan 1 J 1 I M S. "ad .. 21 134 18 '78 {c.T. D. T A. Nadar 31 147 71 ,. CHRISTIANS ... .i{. C. Nadar 55 :253 120 133 R. C. PalJar AUapaHar 43 241 105 136 MUSLIMS Muslim Rowther 14 58 31 27 Total 331 1,609 738 871 S. c: Schoduled Caste The main communities living in this village :Lre ~1a.ro.vars and Konars and the other by the Maravars, Konars otherwise known as-Yadhavas, Radjans. Nadars. Pallars and Parayars. Nadars are numeri· cally superior, clos!']y followed by the Parayars. Christian Community PalJars, Maravars and Konars in that order Sooial 13. It was interesting to find that all Nadara segregation is practiFed exclusively in this village have become Ohristians whereas Maravara and as all the communities ha.ve separate living aocom Konars have not been oonverted. .Another modation. One interesl ing feature is t.hat 0.11 interesting feature was that among the HarijanB. Nadars and Pallars are Christians while Marav8.rs. Pallars, though higher in social status to l'arayar. Konars and Parayars are Hindus. There is no have been converted to Christianity whereas exof'ption to this rule. This village can be easily Para.yars ha.ve stea.dfastly refused to be converted. called a Christian village because Cbristianlil out We oontacted a few venerable old gentlemen number Hindus. The village has three ohurches as belonging to both the communities to elioit against two temples. Twoofthe churches belong to information relating to this somewhat interesting the Nadars and one to the Pallara. Among the phenomenon. We were given the following factaal Hindu temples, one is frequented by the a.ccount of their conversion which we reproduee 2 ETHNIC STRUCTURE I'UDUXUL&M 7 without vouohing for itl aocuraoy. The Nadars inha.bita.nts of northern eout of Ceylon have bee&me Chri.tianl through the effortg of Rey. charaoteristics similar to Nadal'S. Firat they Diasill about 40 yearl ba.ck. A. an old Nadar put it, mOTed from Jafi'na., entered Inrlia b, Raman.lb&.· the pl'omile of better educat.ional fa.ciliti"8, free food puram !lnd then mOTed to Tirunelvflli dillirict. and olothing attraot-ed them lIud they dooided to They brought with them the .. eed nut.e of Jaffll& become Chriltians They were all united under one palmyra. said to be the but in the Ea&t and with chure-h, the Diooesan Trust Auooilltion(Protagtant.) tbe permission of the Pandya. King. they converted unt.il tbe year H125. In the. year H~25, the Tiruuel tbe sa.ndy wa.ste lands of Manad in lIouth-east. veli Dioee.e Trult Auociation started introducing Tirunelveli district into Palmy-ra farml. Lllttlr, orosI wor,hip and other forma of ritualilJm. lome Nadars reached TirunelTeli by lea direct In the church thi. did not find faTonr with some from Jafl'na and Ipread themsE>lv... in Tirunelveli among tbe Chri.tia.n CODTerta and there occurred district. These immigration. have taken place in two different leotiona. Rev. Samuel Bagianathan the early pa.rt of the Cbriltiau era. The NadHrt! in and ReT. Arul Manickam alrmg with othera formed Pudukulam &Iso ma.intain that they belong to the t •• Chriltian Church Miuionary Society &nd built anoienf; stock loud ..I auch, cannot recolleet.- when their own churoh. Thil .plit iu the general lIet.up t.heir anee.torl ocoupied the Tillage. Another relulted in the exilteuce of two aeparate ohurches legend states that the Nadau were originally tiller. iD the village. From the latelt aTaiJable ItaUatiel, of the soil in Cauvery hi-ain durine Chola period. ".. find that three familiel worship at Tiruneh·.1i Due to perseoution. they proceedl"d to tbe louthern Dioeele Trud AllooiatioD Killion Churcb where... part of India.. They found the land barren and 35 familie. worship at the Churoh Miill'lionar,. Bandy called • Tedl' Uluuitable for cultivation. Society', church. The Pallara were ftonTerted "II Rain was scarce and ill-dil!!tributed. There wa .. GO Catholiol by .. ReT. Father whos& nam& we could possibility of irrigation. Bllt to their joy. they DDt get. They were oonTerted "I; the sametime ..'t found the palmyra. tree io b.rge number•• tall and Ifada.rI. At tint the Milllionary tried to oonTert IiItraighb. Thi. prond to be their hope. They only the Paray&rs, but al they refused to change eettlad i. the pla.ce and began tapping the pa.lmyra their religion, the Misl!lonariel t·hen awitched on to tree. Another theory il beld that -' adara are the Pallo.rll. All t.he Pa.llarll with th. exception of Kshatriyas who were rulers of South Ir dia. \Vhen I PallaI' famlliel lire now Christianl. But they tbe Nayak kings of Ma.durl'loi per~ecuted lhflm. lhey belong to the Roman Catholic Cbureh and they moved southwards in order to preserve their • elf built a church of their own where they follow the re.pect and independence. They migrattJo 10 Catholic faith. It i. Ulma! to find luch Tillagea in Ta.mbraparni Basin and Ipre.d over I'irunelveli the southern parts of Madraa Sts.te in which, district. One more vel'lIion available ill that Christianll and Hindus live in perfect ha.rmony. the Nadars originally illhabiltd the courllry In Pudukulam also they live in harmony. But around Ma.nad near Tiruchendur. rbey ha.ve one interel!ting feature i. that the conversion of another title Karu~ ku Mattiy.!.' which mea.nl Christianity has not I\ltered the hold which the Karukku-sharp ed~e. matt~j-thfl le.. r Italic of 9a.ste hall over the p~ople. For im!tanoe. a pa.lmyl'tIo, sllgge~tive of their a!llDciation with tree Na.dar Chrilltia.n will he more friendly with a climbing. Ihom ellost, they moved to the wf'stern Nadtu Hindu than .. PaHl\r Christia.n or .. portion of Tirunelveli di!!trhJt. Most of the :\'adara Konar Christian. Th. conversion has, therefore. oC Pudukulam belong to Karupatti group. It ill materially not affected the approa.ch wh ioh the likely that thl"y have come and lettled down in people have toward!! cute and the cu~t,om8 and Pudukula.m from the east. The ~a.da.rll claim to ma.nnerl in whioh thor haTo been brollght up. have been residing in thiiO village for more than I'ix We will be illustrating thi8 in greater detail whell gf'lnerations. The other oommllnities have been we disous. thele communities separately. rssiding for lesl! nun..ber of geneTation.. \VII oa.n be fairly cart.. in that the ~&d&r community Nadan is the most ancient one in tLe village and 14.. The Nadan otherwise ca.lIed Sb~nans are their arriva.l hal initiated the development. 01 generally known lUI t.he palmyra.-climbing and tbe village. toddy-drawing ca~te of Tirunelveli district. A few theoriel! are advanced a.b()ut the occupation of Haravars Tirunelveli district by N IIdars. One is that they 15. The next biggest community in Puduku Jam moved from the northern COa-lt of Cl'ylon. In is Maravars. Their original home is Madurai. support of thi. theory ill urged the fa.ct that the They are found ooncentrated in Ra.manathapura.m 8 VILLAGE $URVBY and Tirunelveli districts. They are ,8 fierce and Saiva. Vellalas a.re considered to be superior a.mong turbulent race who lived by robbery in the pa.st. the various sub-castes. They are strict vegetarian. However, when they moved to Tirunelveli by birth. It is said that thiB family ha9 oome down district., they became peaceful cultivators. 'fhe to the villa.ge, before one genera.tion from Shodiyur Mara,vars of Pudukulam even now show some of the in Tirnnelveli taluk. They are religious workers. qll'l.litie~ of the turbulent feweity, but they culti vate the land p!lILoeflllly. They make ar. effl)rt even General appearance to live in harmony with their age-old rivals. the 19. The major communities living in Pudu Nadars. kulam i.e. Nadars, Maravars and Konars have similar physicai features. Men are sturdy, generally Konars black with sun-tanned complexion. With the 16. Another important community is the Konan. They came after Nadars and Maravars. Their main ocoupation ]s cuit.ivation and their traditional occupation is tending cattle and the produotion and saJe of milk products. The Maravars who were expert cattle lifters were once , the natural enemies of Kanars. But in Pudukulam, they live peacefully, side by side with Maravara. Pkllars 17. Among the minor communities are the PaHars and the PilJais. According to Thurston's • Ca.stes and Tribes Of Southern [ndia', the PaI1ans alias P"llars "are a clalls of agricultural labourers found chiefly in Thanjavur. Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and TiruneJveIi. The name is said to be derived from "paHam t', a pit as originally formed. 'Ihe Pallars con!!ider themllelves superior to Parayars and Chakkiliyans as t.hey do not eat beef. Their ma.rriage and funeral oeremonies are sim ilar to those of the higher castes. They are generally agrirml II K ",,,vIi,, " W01'1I by Pa1'ayar woman. tural labourer,i and their women are sllppo~ed to be partioularly skilful at transplanting paddy". exception of few old men who grow tufts, they have all cropped their hair. Maravars can be distin. "Like the KaHans, t.he Pallans say they are of guished by their permanent moustache. The women the lineage of Indra and that their brides wear a a.re healthy and strong. They gem·raliy hll va a wreath of flowers in token thereof". They are ex" large hole in the ear-lobe in which they wear a heavy cluded from the ordinary temples and have little urnament ., Pambadam". The ornament itself is caste temples of their own. They do not dine with not attra.ctive. Young women do not wear these other castes and they despi~e anrl are nespi8pd by Paraiyans and Chakkili."ans. the other polluting cammunitie~. "Personal cont.act with tbe PaHans is avoidt'd by all rer-pectable men and they are never permitted to dweH within the Ii mits of the village nattam. Their huts form a small detached hamlet, the Pallacheri, removed from a conRi. derlth]e distance from the houses of the respectable inhabitant~ of the villnge." A Berstl Necklace worn by Harijan woman Pillais nowadays. The males of ~lallakulam shave their 18. Now we pa~8 on to the Pil1ai community. hea.ds and trim their beards and moustaches. They Accorciing to Thurston, .. PilIai, meaning child, is in wear a white cap. Men do not wear any upper the Tamil country primariJy the title of Vella-Jas." garment in the viHage except the Muslims who on Tbere i~ onJv one Pillai family living in PudukuJam, return from fields wear a IUIlgi and a "hirt or a. which bdontZs to the sub.sect. of .. Saiva Venala". jiblJa with a towel on their shoulders. When they A Nadar couple of the villag-e ~ Nadar woman bedecked with all ornaments A typi~~al girl of Manalvilai hamlet l'UDUKULAK • go out of the village. they go properly dressed. Kappu and Kolusu on a.nklets and Metti a.nd Peoli Regarding the dress of women. we have to dis· on toeH. Ko]usu, Thandai and PoeH are made of Hilver. Men wear a few ornaments like chains and '~inguiBh between Muslims and others. Muslim Thali (Ohristian Palla,s) rings made of gold. Children ah!O wear some of the a.bove ornaments and Araignankodi round their 'l'hali (KOnar8) loins. The different varieties of ornaments and 'women are Been in skirt, saree, inner garment and a. choli. They cover their head also with their saree. Others wear saree. The older genera.tion do not wear any upper garment. They wear ohappals and slippers when they go out of the village. Children wear little clothes. The Muslim children are better dressed than other children. Ornaments like Pam bad am. Karumal. K unukliu, Lolakku. Pooni, Stud, Kuruthutattu and Sevittu Tha.U (V(Jl'tnans) thattu made of gold ar~ used by women. Among the number of people who wear them show t.hll.t them, Pambadam, Kammal and Kunukku &ore the Pudukulam is a. comparatively rich village. rich in gold and silver jewels . • = Social Customs of Nadars 20. The predominant community of tblt village is Nadars. They are Hindus, C.M.S. Evangelical, T. D. T. A. and Roman Catholics. They consider themselves as KshatriyaB. They are Thali (Hindu Pa.!lars) also known as Shanans, the word sbanan being mOlt common. Mookuthi and Pullaku are derived from the word I saoror • meaning the worn by women in their nose. Some ornaments learned or the noble. There are five 8ub-division. a.re worn on the head and they are slide and Kondai of Nadars-l. Manattan or Karukkumattayan 2. thirukku. They wear Tbali, Attigai. Pathakkam. Menattan 3. Kodikal or Nattati 4. Kaveripurathan necklace and Uruvu ronnd their neck. They wear and 5. Pulukkashanan. Manattan is said to ha.ve bangles on hands. rings on fingers. Thant!ai or come from the leaf stalk of palmyra. Menattan or 3 If) VlLLAG:I: SURVEY· westerner came from Travancore and aettl.d in Ambasa.mudram taluk. Kodikal Shanans are betel nut gardeners. They are the natives of a. pla.ce' ca.lled Na.ttati in Srivaigundam tal uk. Pulukkashanans are the menials serving the other three superior sub·divisions. Of these, the Karupatti Shanan i" the most superior. All these Bub-divisions are found in Pudukulam. We will DOW discuss the Christian Nadars. The Hindu Nadars a.re only a few in the village and their eustoms and rites generally resemble the Marayars Thali (Chr,i8Iian Nadurs) with one essential difference, viz. the dowry system. attends this function. Later banns are published Under this system. the bride's party has to give a in the church according to which those who object ~ood Bum in cash and articles in kind to the to the match can ~tand up in ,the church and put bridegroom's party. The Hindu Nadars found it forth their objection. The banns are read during a great burden, but they are compelled by their three con~ecutive weeks, usually on Sundays. The "US tom to resort to it. The practice is found to marriage ceremony is performed\at the bride's exist among Christian Nadars also, but not to the houle. A bridegroom who is an outEider has to go same extent. Regarding the customs and cere and stay in a different house in the village for this monies, we will find difference among the purpose. ,On the marriage day, the hbuses of both ChriBtian Nadars because they belong to diff~rent parties are decorated with flowers, tho1'an1lms and seetslike Catholics, C. M. S. and T. D. T. A. Ceremonies 21. Two or three months after the birth of a thUd, it is taken to the nearest church and baptized by a priest. It is named by the priest in cODsnl 'ation with the child's parents. The next ceremony is ear-boring whioh i8 done only for girls. Ear TOOli (Hindu Nadar8) boring is performed by a. goldsmith invited to the Tillage for this purpose. In connection with other orna.mental leaves. It mav be celebrated in· puberty, no ceremony is arranged except that she the morning or in the evening. The groom travels.. is given new clothes. A maternal uncle or a in a car to the bride's house and goes to the church. paternal uncle's son, a sma.ll boy, is made to sit by The bride, accompanied by her father is taken in a her side and her pollution removed. It is followed procession to the altar of the church. The priest by a. non-vegetarian feast attended by the close reads out the VOWI! for both the bride and groom rela.tives of the girl. From the next day onwards, separately and Il8ks them to repeat the vow. When she is permitted to move with others. .Both boys this i8 over, the Thali is tied by the groom on the a.nd girls have to undergo a religious ceremony neck of the bride. The priest tells them that the ealled " confirmation ". After this, they become God made them man and wife and man cannot full-fledged members of the church and authorised separate them. The guests are then entertained to· to take part in the Holy Communion in the a feast, usually vegetarian. Nuptials are performed ehuroh. The significance of this ceremony is that on the same day and no ceremonies are atta.ched the children by themselvGs take the vows of the to it. .hurch and made to study the doctrines of the .hurch in which they ate examined orally by the Funeral rites Bishop. 23. A dead person is invariably buried. This is the practice among all Christians of Pudukulam. Marriage Customs A priest will visit the village and after prayers, tbe 22. When the boy attains the age of 20 coffin is carried to the cemetery and buried amidst the boy's parents I'earch for a suitable bride weeping. Some soil is thrown into the pit by the for their Ilon. When a bride is fixed up, the priest and followed by others. The pit is then eqgagement ceremony takes place at. the bride's closed with soil. A tomb is then erected with residence A Bible is presented to the bridegroom stone or masonry or with soil and a wooden cross and .. l1aree to the bride. An ordained priest put on it. Every year on .. All Souls Day". PUDUKULAM 11 November 2nd, the kith and kin remember them and place flowers and wreaths and light candles on the graves after prayers. The ceremonies of the Christian Nadar!! are comparatively simpler and less expen&ive than those of other communities for instance. Marav.rs. Thah (MaravarB) Social Customs of Marava,.. praotice is for the boy's party to approach the girl's 24. The Maravars of Pudukulam can them pa.rents and if both of them agree, a feast is selves Pandyas. The males have the title of arranged. Jewels are then made for the girl. Thevar suffixed to their names. There are Bub- S days or 8 months after the betrothal, marriage is divisions among them like Sembunattu Maravan performed. Usually blood relatives are preferred and Kondaiyankottai Maravars. These sects are for the alliance. Marriage is performed in the not striotly identifiable in Plldukulam. The bridegroom's house. If people are rich, a Brahmin Maravars belong to an ex-oriminal tribe. They eat priest is summoned to solemnise the marriage. meat. They exohange hospitality with Konan. The bridegroom ties one knot of the Thali and the In olden days they lived by breaking houses and other knot is tied by his 8i~ters. The Thali is ma.de cattle lifting, but the Maravars in Pudukulam have by the contributions raised from the sisters of the settled down peacefully and most of them are bride. If a Brahmin priest cannot be procured for eultivators. Their customs and manners which are want of finance, the bridegroom ties the Thali interesting closrly resemble those of Nadars. round the bride's neok in front of a pioture of a God or Goddess and a Kuthuvilakku which will be Birth Customs burning. Th" bridegroom presents his sisters and 25. Six months after child birth. if the close relatives new clothes. Usually marriages are parents have pledged the hair of the child to some performed only in the mornings. Loudspeaker set!'! God, its head is shaved by a. barber. principally and band are requisitioned by rich people for their in Murugan Temple at Tiruchendur or at Kurukku· marriage. Even cars will be hired to take the thurai near Tirunelveli town. The ear-lobes are then bride and groom in prooession in the streets of the bored. A Kuravan bores the ear-lobes of girl. village. Nuptials are performed immediately after (in olden dayli for the boys also) when they are the marriage. 5 or 6 years old. A small piece of inner stem of a corn is dipped in oil and inserted in the holes. Pregnancy This will expand and enlarge the hole. When the 28. When a woman i8 seven or nine months hole has become sufficiently big, a Pambadam is pregnant, a ceremony oalled S~~mantkam is per made and worn by the girl. formed (•. e. for the first child only). She is Puberty rites presented with A gold " valaikappu" by her 26. When a girl attains puberty, a pit of S' brothers who bless her with a ohild. She is taken to 4' is dug_ The girl is made to stand on a. wooden to her mother's plaoe for delivery_ plank inside the pit and 4: or 5 women pour water Death Ceremony on her. If the people are rich. a Brahmin priest is called and an auspicious hour is fixed for this 29. When death ooourSt ohildren are either purpose. The girl wears new clotheii' and she is buried or cremated. Usua.lly the first ohild and made to sit beside a smaH boy of 4 or 5 years those who die of serious diseases like smallpox are (paternal aunt's or maternal uncle's son). The girl buried. Males and females who are below 50 yesls bows to all the elderly women who put ashes on are buried and others cremated. The eldest son her head with blessings. The girl is given delicious will light the pyre. The corpse is given a gingelly dishes for the next 16 days. Beef and pork are oil bath a.nd new clothes. The pyre is made of forbidden. But other kinds of meat and egg are vatbamadakki sticks and decorated with flowen taken in sufficient quantities. The expenses are a.nd white cloth. It is carried by the Marbvan wholly met by the girl's maternal uncle. themselves. The body is placed on the firewood. Cowdung is first put on the body, then Rtraw and. Wedding finally mud. After the burning, the sons get their 27. The marriages are settled by elders in this heads shaved. On the 16th day after death, the eommunity. The betrothal is arranged usually in relatives are entertained to a feast which is vege Thai. Chitra.i, Panguni !!ond Vaigasi months. The t&rian. Before eating. they place & little of food 12 VILLA-Gil SURVEY in a. corner of the bouse for the dead person. new clothes and after prayers, the guests will bo Sandal, coconut, fruits, iddlies, vadai and susiam given a non-vegetarian feast. During the pubertaJ are given to the other neigbbours in the hamlet, ceremony, the girl is bathed and given new clothes The ceremonius described above are followed by and the relativeg entertained to a non-vegetarian other Hindu communities in the village like feast. The boy! have to go in search of a suitable Pallar, Konar, Vannan, Pagadai. Ambattan, bride. If agreement is reached, the Labbais are sell~ PilIa.i and Kammalar. for and after religious citations, the marriage ia pe1'forme~. The bridegroom bas to give a prE' .. en~ Other Communities of Rs. 150 to the bride. The bride's party gives 30. 'rhe Konars give dowry in cash and in Rs. 1O}' the minimum for dress. ,The marriage is kind, Among Dhobies. ear· boring is done by performed in the presence of three witnesses. The elderly women. Post-pubertal ceremony is per groom consents to take tbe girl as his wife in the formed only on the 22nd day. Two or three presence of these witnesses. The bridegroom will months later, post-death certlIDonies are performed be covered with flowers hanging from his forehead. and during this time, the wife gets new clothes The bride will be kept inside the house. During from the deceased husband's relatives. The Palla.rs the ceremony, tbe bridegroom's mother ties the who are Roman Catholics have different customs. tall a.round the bride's neck. This ceremony i. When children are eight to ten years old, they get caned Nikha. People throw sweets and dried confirmation which they call Nanmai :b:ctuthal. dates on the groom and greet him. The bridegroom Head is shaven in St, Antony's Church in Puliyam is hugged and greeted by his friends. After patti in Tirunelveli taluk. Post-pubertal ceremony bowing to his elders, he joins the bride. The is' performed on the 16th day after attaining bridal fea~t is Biriyani. After the feast, the groom puberty. takes the bride to his house.. Nuptials are 31. PaHars are found in MaUakuIam in large performed on the same day. Though Muslims are numbers and also in Pudukulam. When a child is permitted under Law to have four wives, in born. the woman does not come out for 15 to 16 practice in Pudukulam, the Muslims do not foHow days. On the 16th day, after a feast, a string is this. The corpse is generally bathed and dre8~f'd tied on the loin of the child. The child may also in white or red clothes. Men will have five be named at the time. Some people who are different dre!'ses and women three. This will weB-to-do, christen their children in places like consume normally 15 yards. After cbanting Tiruchendur and Kurukkutburai. Within tbree certain citations from tbe Koran. the corpse is years; the child is taken to a temple and its head taken in a. palanquin called • Sandook' by the shaved. The pubertal and post·pubertal ceremonies males. While carrying, they chant • Kalima' and marriage ceremonies are similar to those of and after citations. the corpse is buried, which is Maravars. ,i\larriages may also be solemnised in the only manner of disposal of the dead body. temples by a.ll the communities. Among Parayars, Afterwards, sweets. fruits and coins a~e if the first soh dies, he is cremated. All the rest distributed to the poor and the kjtb and kin are buried. Polygamy is allowed for all Hindus in entertained to a feast. On the 3rd, 7th, 10th. 20th, PuduKulam. but; it is not pra.ctised. Widow 30tb and 40th days after death, feasts are given to remarriage is also common among all the Hindus. ft"latives and poor which are eaten after citations from Koran. Feasts are generally non-vegetarian. Social Customs of Muslims The Muslims believe by these ceremonies, the soul 32. 'l'he l\hllakulam Muslims bave customs of the dead as well as they are made happy and rites of their own. [i'orty days after a mals because birth in this world connotes hardship and child is born, it is given a. name. Two sheep are sadness whereas death COIl[)otes eternal bliss, The slaughtered and the flesh donated to the poor. death ceremony for a Muslim is a costly affair and Their skin will be sold and the money given to Rs. 100 is the minimum required for the disposal Durga.. If a child is a gir 1, one sheep is slaughtered. of a dead body. When a. child is five years old, it is given lessons in Arabic aud other fundamentals of religivus Casteism 'teachings by a teacher who will be prel'ented with 33. Untouchability is not practised in this .a, fow articles and entertained to a feast. After 8 villagE! in its manifest form. But the separation .:few years. the child is sent to a. school. When a of the villages with different castell is rather rigid mal" child attains seveu years of a.ge, he is and even when different castes follow the same ~aravar quarters l?UDUKl7LAJal 11 dominant impulse than religion in their relation Spread of Christianity ship. For instance, Parayars and PaHara of 34. It will be. therefore. intf'resting to recall Pudukulam out of fear of Nadars, Mara.va.rs and the history of Christia.nHy in this villa.ge. Sixty Konare will not even admit that they are being years ago, they were all Hindus. Bishop Carr of discriminated or that there is an innocent form of Tirune[veli Diocese preached the Gospel jn this untouDhability practised among them. No better village and converted them to Christianity. They evidence for this can be produced than the fact became Protestants (C. M. Fl.-Church Missionary that each community has a eeparate well for its Society). In 1924, the C.M.S. Evangelical church use in the village. Nadars, Maravars and Konars came into existence. They introduced the crOSB will take water for drinking or washing purposes on the altar and the dissidents formed the only from certain wells. the use of which ill eva.ng~lica.l church. The origina.l C.M S. called forbidden by custom to Parayars and PaHars. S. P. G. (Sooiety for the propaga:tion of gospel) came Similarly they take water from any well dug in to be known as T.D.T.A. viz., Tirunelveli Diocesan the cheri. Not much social intercourse takes Trust Association). TheravalIi Nadars became place between the different castes in the village. Cathollcs 20 years ago due to tbe efforts of some Economically Parayars and Pallars are backward fathers from Pa;layamcottai. Man alvil ai Nadan. and as such, it is difficmlt for them to claim any became Catholics four years ago. PudukuJam and social equality. The cleava.ge between the Ayankulam Nadars became Oatholics twenty years different castes is muoh more marked in t.he ago. By this conversion, they have gained some Nadar-Maravar relationship. Throughout the thing. They have learnt to dress properly Ilnd main history of South India, Mar8.vars and Nadars have tain a certain amount of decency and tidiness. The hated each other with an intensity which oannot be level of literacy has risen as a result of the establisb· Imen anywhere else. Thi. is reflected in Pudukulam ment of a number of mi!>sion schools in the village also. The Nad&.r housebolds in VeeraJa hamlets of Pudukulam. This has also indirectly perunchelvi hamlet have moved to Manal vila.i benefited the communities in the village. But the hamlet BS the former is predominantly inha.bited fact remains that all the con verts have only changed by Maravars. The hostility between thefi:e two externally. They still continue to believe in their castes is said to be traditional and legendary which old customs and manners and are as much Hindus had its beginning in the Sivakasi Riot of 1899. as Na.dars themselves. There is no harmony or The migration of Nadar households to Manalvilai social relationship between a Christian N9.dar and may have been pa.rtly due to the concentra.tion of a Christian Pallar. So Christianity h.s ceased palmyra trees in that hamlet. The main occupa to be the great leveller which it js said to be as far tion of the Nadar community is climbing the as this village is concerned. palmyra trees to tap neera Ilnd toddy. This i8 considered to be a low ocoupation by the Maravars. Housing Further, the Maravars are the money-landers in the 35. In Pudukulam village the houseB ar~ village who lend money at high rates of interest a.rranged in streets whioh are not quite regular, as and generally the Nadars are their victims. The the streets have not been made according to any Maravars desire to ha.ve the exclusive use of the plan. The concentration of particular castell i8 hamlet Veeralaperunchelvi. It would appear they seen clearly in each hamlet of the village. In 8et fire to many Nadar houses thereby compelling them to migrate from the hamlet. At the same time, the Maravars maintain harmonious relation ship with the other castes of the village, lIiz: • . Konars. Rev. J. Sharrock has written about this community 60 yea.rs ago which has been re produced by Thurston in his book II Castes and Tribes in Southern India ". "Havjng risen enormQusly in the social scale by their eagerness for education, by their largescale adoption of the freedom of Christianity and by their thrifty habits, many of them have forced themselves a.head of the Maravars by sheer force of .haracter ". .A. typical Palla,,'a hut l'4' V!Lr.A.alll~ SURVEY PudukulaID main vjlJage the Nadarl'! and Pallars live together in another portion. In Yeera]aperun~ live in separa.te places while Konars and :Maravars chelvi the concentra.tion i8 by Maravara wherea!! Nadars are to b9 found in a. group in Manalvilai hamlet. Theravalli. Mallakulam. Ayankulam, and Ariyanayagapuram have a. concentration of ftOOJII (I) Nadars (ii) l'arayars, Muslims and Nadars (iii} PaHara, Konars and Nadars (iv) Nadara respec tively. If a concentration of a caite is found, nauaUy all the houses are congested. Most of the houses in Pudukulam are constructed in such a 1IO<:MI way that they do not get sufficient light and ventilation. Except for the pucca houses which are built of brick a.nd atones, all the other houses come under this plight. The mud houses do Dot have any windows doors. ~ or IlIA 11< !IOQIt - Dwellings , 3:3. Three different housetypes are found in Pudukulam 'Village. The mud-walled and palmyra Jeaf roofed is the first type, the second type is the M'~ mud or brickwalled a.nd tiled roof &ond the third ill IiHOP the pucca terraced building. The typical housetype in the village-the mud-walled and pa]myra leaf ,__. roofed one-does not have more than one room, 00 I PW. ~ an average whereas the other two types have more than one room. The most common house type Ground plan of a Naa.lJr's shop-cum-dwdling 1 I!OOJO ROOM. ~ I I --PIAL - CA1l'I.E ~ PIAL PlAt. - PILLAR 0 OPIw.R 1QT0IiN .- PW. ~-'l-t § t I I KI1'OI~H -. , i ROOM : , , r--- PIAl. PIAl i ~ PIN.. ... J I GrDund plan of a Pallar'" "hll' Ground pl",. of a Konar'a ho""e Tiled house of a Nadar family Maravar quarters A domestic scene in a P araiyaI: house PUDUKULAM 11i requires a founda.tion of two feet for walls. First have to oome from outside the villag.. Thus, if a. tihe walls afe ra.ised, then either palmyra beams or tiled house· costs about Rs. eoo a terra.oed bouse hard bamboos a.re placed lengthwise and in Pudukulam may well cost Rs. 6,000 at breadthwise on the top of the wa!l.& and then dried more, depending largely upon the area. of the palmyra leaves are paved on them and firmly tied .tructure and the materials used. Of all the on the beams. This house may cost about Rs. 300 communities in Pudukulam, only the Konars and &pproximately. because dours and windows of Maravars and a. few Nadars. Parayars and Muslims the house for the most part are made of palmyra. live in decent pucca. hou~e8. AU the communities only. do keep their houses in good condition with perio dical repairs, change of roof, white washing and Pucca houses 80 on. Besides the bouscil are cleaned every day and swept all over. Outside and sometimes even 37. Now for the pucca house types in th" insied the houses cawdung with wa.ter is smeared village, namely the tiled houses. the walls are liberally and polished. Palmyra. is the moat usually of mud. Wh~n the walls are ra.ised, the common tree found in the backya.rds of houses, rooms are const.ructed with palmyra beams and .Apart from palmyra; trees like PoovlJ.rasu. ba.mboo or wooden reapers. Even for this house Vathamadakki. and Yembu may also he seen in the foundation need not be deeper tha.n that of the some housell. Cattle sheds are usually constructed most common house. But however. if brick walls inaide the houses and form a. part of the house. are raised. the foundation is dug deeper. Only a For. immediately after entering, the main door. we very few pucoa housos are found in"the village. find .the cattle shed to our lett. or right. These For this the foundation is dug from 3 to 5 feet and sheds are usually roofed with dried palmyra. leavea the ba.sement is raised. All the materials used for a.nd some with tiles. But those people with terraced the construction of these houses a.s well as brioks houses construot their caUle sheds separately. ROOM f j CATTLE SI-l~1) ilOCM CAmE S~ED I ROoM Ii I I ~. i P'Al PIAL ) PIAl. I r PlAt ...... _.. ~OAA PlAL t::::0 ROO .... 1Cfr00Eloi .l(l1"OI£N '----l , ~ J PV4- .. I PIAl; Ground plan oj tJ Maravar'. hOll8e around plan of a Paraya,'sno,," 16 VILLA.GE SUBVBY Roof 38. Table No. III classifies the dwellings of wall, floor etc. The most common roof type in the Pudukulam according to the material of roof, villa.ge is that one of coconut or pa.lmyra leaves. TABLE No. nr House Types No. of houses with walls No. of houses with roofs No. of houses with mad" or built of ----. ,------'------.,,,----- ...o '0 Community '" o '" o..~ <;:l .. $~ ~ ~~ ... ~ I:i "'0 w .. ::;0 a.. ~ Nadar 27 :l 2:1 23 3 23 3 1 Horo.var 66 4 1) ,&7 49 a 49 2 Ii Konar 23 1 I) 16 16 ,'" 16 6 Parayar 39 3 5 31 34 , 35 '4 Vannan {} I) tI :; Kammalat 4 4, 4 , Pallar 3 3 3 3 Pillai 1 1 1 1 Pall:a.dai 1 1 1 ! AmbattaD 1 1 C.M.S. Nadar 2S 25 2 19 'I 2 26 1 1 T.D.T.A. Nadar 31 5 26 29 1 1 30 R. C. N"d"r 55 4 50 53 1 1 55 R. C. Pallar 43 2 18 23 31 6 1 2 2 36 1 4 1 Muslim 14 3 1 10 ., 6 1 8 6 Tota) 331 13 41 266 3 1 276 37 3 5 7 3 293 1 6 29 2 Out of a total of 331 households in the village Floor SO.( percent or 266 households in the village have 40. As for the nature of flooring 293 households cooonut or palmyra leaf roof, 14.1 peroent or 47 or 88.5 percent have mud flooring. 8.76 percent or households have :M:angalore tiles and 8.9 percent 29 households have cement flooring, 1.8 percent or 13 households have terraced houses. Besides or six households have mud and cement flooring, there are three households with roofs made of one household has mud and bricks floor and two Mangalore tiles and also partly terraced, one households are cla.ssified af! "others." Thus we find household having both Mangalore tiles and leaves tha.t tbe most common type of housei in the vmage and another household has country tiles. are those with mud walls, mud flooring and palmyra. roofing. Wall 39. Now as regards the nature of walls. 83.3 percent or 276 households have walls built of mud Building materials only which is moat common in the village. 41. Although the vi11llgers do not have many Thirtyseveu houlleholds or 11.2 percent ha.ve their ceremonies while cOIlstructing a house, rich people walls built of brick only whereas there are seven consult astrologers in the matter of selecting a site households or 21.1 percent who have their walls for building, starting construotion and so on. built of both mud and brick, and }.5 percent or Housing materials for the construotion of houses five households of both brick and stone. There in Pudukulam like tiles, brick, cement, stones, a.re also three households having stone wa.lls timber are all secured from outside the village like Bnd three households classified as "others". Jothipuram. Palayamcottai. Tirunelveli and PUDUKULAM 1'1 Rooms I\felapala.yam. However, palmyra timber and leaves could be had in the village it!!elf, since 42. The following tab1e indica.tes the number palmyra. trees are to be found in abundance. of houspholds by number of rooms and by number of persoDs ocoupying them. TABLE No. IV Households by number of rooms and by nnmher of persoDS Households Households Households Household. Households with no with with four or ... regular room with ODe room wi,h two l'OOmB three roOm. Dlore room• 0., ... o ,---..A..---""\r .. '~r-~~---''-----, ~---"'---,,",", ,t:..."'- ""0 ci. za .. Community p13'il ., _0 "1:1 ., 0 _-0 _0c '" ... .. 0.-;i .,0<: ~ 0<11 ...o Z::l E-< _g (1) --_(2) (3) l-!) (iii (6) (7) (S) (9) (H) (12) (13) (141 Nadar 27 30 121 13 il4 fj 17 6 34 1 I 13 Ma.ravar 76 302 22 116 10 47 13 72 38 • 2, Kono.r 23 49 U9 10 1i0 6 31 HI II It Parayar 39 65 173 4 20 12 49 16 '1 Vanno.n 5 7 IS J 3 16 Ka.mma.la.r 24 2 15 2 D Pallar 3 1 8 '1 1 PilJai 1 6 1 6 Pa.gadai 1 1 Ambattan 2 C.M.S. Nadar 28 134 3 I) 16 11 61 '1 18 T.D.T.A. Nadar 31 147 7 31 3 Iii 17 75 3 19 1 , R. C. Nadar 1i5 I'll to 36 10 I 10 R. C. PILIla.r 43 241 16 82 8 33 10 63 '1 • 18 Muslim 14 35 58 8 1 ., )3 ----- ._-----_-._--- Total 331 473 l.60~ 107 485 65 269 9'1 486 40 232 22 137 There are 1,600 persons in the villaae occupying people in the vill"ge. This is followed by ~9.3 per 473 rooms in 331 households. Among 331 hou"e cent 0r 97 hou"leholds with two room, with a. total holds there are :~2.3 percent or 107 households that of 30.2 or 486 family members. SOID6 households in have no regular room with aO.2 percent or 485 the village a.re provided with more than two rooms family members. The households with no regular as for instance there are 40 households or 12 8 per room form a larger number than the other house cent with three rooms and having 14.4 percent or holds in the village. Next we have 6:> households or 2:12 family members. Finally there are 8.5 percent; ... 9.6 percent having single rooms with 26!J fa mily or 137 households in the village living in tbehoulle& members which works out to 16.7 percent of the having four rooms or more. I:: 18 VILL.4.G l!l BUll.Vl!. Y Size of Household Household size of 4-6 mam hers could be taken 43. The varyi ng lize of hou!!Iehold of differcnt as the optimum size in the village. a. the largest communities is ahown in Table V. number of households are found in this group TABLE No. V Size of Household No. of houFebolde aecording to eize lOmembei.i ~ dingle member 2-3 member. 4-~ member~ . 7-9 member. '0 and over ..cI ,---...... ,---..... ----.,.:--~ • ., ----- ::s "tI• 'tl• "C'" lj, 'tl ::g• .. (D • .. '0 .II> • CO ...._i" ~ '0 .. III "0 .. "0 ., 0 .! ..cI • ..cI .; ..cI ., ., 0;; A CD• II • CD .::: ... .. II> 0;; ~ 0;; -; .. 0 a . ~ a S S .. a • .. IS .. .. ::s )1;1 ., ;:g ::;t . ., 0 " ::s ::.: ::;: 0 0 ~" 0'" r..'" 0 ~ 0'" f:z< !l4 ~ "" = Il:I = = It, (%) (3) (4' c,' (< 'rABun No. VI M edita) Care :\0, of miltel,,"ty ca~e$ UI'dinary medical treatment MEdical consultation Vaccinat.ion Community (1) Nadar 112 17 28 26 3 2 113 Maravar )93 51 49 55 293 Kon.... 71 23 15 23 IlO P8ra~ ar )02 37 33 38 3 164 Vannan 8 4 I:i 5 15 Kammalar 15 3 4 4 22 Palla.r 5 I 3 2 1 1 7 Pillai 2 1 6 Pagadaj 2 3 Amo8ttan 1 1 1 2 C. M. S. Nadar 99 22 25 27 123 T.D.1.'.A. Nadar 90 27 28 :10 135 R. C. N"dar 178 47 2 45 54 240 R. C. Palla. 1 156 43 2 40 4,3 215 ltlualim 3 30 12 14 1:1 55 Total 4 1 ... 1.014 288 5 292 322 8 5 8 1,503 3 The allupathic .. yo-tern of medicine is being few case8 go to the maten.ilY 110spital at followed in a majority of bou~ehulds. Amung the Palayamcottai. Thus there are four cases one ill 331 hOllsehGlds in the village 288 hOU!'tcholds foHow the I{. C. Pallar community and three afllong the allop:l.thic system of treal ment. Finally then.' are 1I1uslim community who were confined in hospital. five household:! in which then' i, a combination of' There is also one case among the C. M. S l'adar more than one medical ~'ystern. two households eommunity. confined at home by a qualified beloHg to the R. C. Pallrtr. two to R. C. Nadars and midwife, brought from a neighbouring t.own. All one hou;;ehold to Hindu Parayars. Regarding the otber eases i.e. 1,014 in all were confined with utaternityaid, except for a handful of cases in or without assistance from women at home. Even Ayankulam and Mallrtkulam (among Muslims) in maternity cases, women preofer to remain at. home children are delivered without any skilled as di"tance forms a bar to pl"Oper medical care and assistance by neighbouring women. No Maternity a.Lten tion • .Assistant visits the village, the first mentioned l'UDUKULAM 21 Medical consultation three households to Hindu PaTayar, one household 49. Medical consultation could be done by to Ambattan community, two to Hindu Nadar and going to the town areas or by getting a doctor to one household to the Hindu PallaI' oornmunity. Thu. the vilhge. The nearest Primary Health Centre these physicians have to be brought to the village to Pudukulam is at Palayamcottai. There is. from the town as there are no doctors available in however. a quack doctor in pudukulam main Pudukulam. As for vaccination 1.503 persons have village who serves the needs of the PfJople in all been reported to be vaccinated at least once the eight hamlets. He is a dhobi in Pudukulam whereas there are only three persons who have been maiD village. Strangely enough people say that his reported all vaccinated during the last six months. prescriptions cure some of the children!!' diseases as he is supposed to be an expert at that. This Native medicines unqualified and unsoientific pediatrioian finds 50. Undoubtedly even in Pudukulam as in work in all the hamlets and goes about the entire other villages people have their own treatment for village at the invitation of thoee who have sick disea~es like common cold and fever. Ginger water children. But medical consultation is more often with pepper and jaggery if! the most common one. done in public h08pitals or dispPDllaries as in this They also taka an €8SenCe (Kashayam) of village 322 households out of a total of 331 go to 'Vishakkodi' whose powder is sold in the villag6 public hospitals or dispensaries for medical petty shops. This medicine ia said to be very consultation. There are eight households who go to bitter. Other patent medicines like Aspro and private hospitals o.r dispensaries for medical Anacin which are sold in Pudukulam main village consultation out of which foul' households belong to are also bought by the educated few to get the R. C. Nadar, three to the Hindu Na.dars and ODe immediate relief from headache, sneezing and hou!lebold to the Muslim community. TheTe are in initial shgeB of influenza.. addition five households who call in allopathf!; of these two households belong to the T.D.T.A. Nadar. Food habits one household to R. C. Nadal', one Hindu Nadar 51. The diet and fC>od habits 'of varions and finally one household to the Pallar cummunity. oommunities in the village are well illustrated in There are eight hOUSFlholds that call in other Table No. VII. physicians, viz .• ODe belongs to T.D.T.A. Nadar, and TABLE No. VII Diet and Food Habits Number of households taking Frequency of meals ..--______..A... ______--_____-. ..-- ____ ..A... ____ -, Community ( I) (:1) (3; (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) ------_(~~L Kadar 27 27 27 4 27 Maravar 56 56 5.6 56 Konar 23 2:1 23 23 Pal'l1yar 39 39 :39 39 Vannan 5 ;; 5 5 Kamm ..lar 4 4 4 4 Pallar 3 3 3 3 Pillai 1 1 1 I Paj1sdai 1 I 1 1 Ambattan 1 I 1 1 C. M. S. Nadar 2S 28 2g 28 '.r. D. T. A. Nadar 31 31 31 31 R. C. Nsrlar 55 5;) 55 65 R. C PallaI' 43 43 43 1 43 MUllimll 14 14 14 14 Total 6 22 VILLAQE SURVEY Out of Do total of 331 households, 330 different communities in the village have mor8 are non-vegetarian huuseholds and only one than three meal" a day. household that belong;~ to the Pillai community is a vegetarian househuld. All the 3:51 households 52. Table No. VIn relates to the types of have rice a~ their sbaplc diet and in addition four food and drink prohibited by the communities household~ of Nadar community and one household inhabiting the village. The types of food of H.. O. Pallar oommunity aiso tako grains other prohibited by the Jarge number of households than rice. Further studying the frequency of are pork, beef a.nd dead animals all may be mt:lals wo find that aU the household~ in the Been from Table No. V HI b~low: TABLE No. VIII Prohibited fO!lds and drinks ]I; 11m ber of households reporting as prnhi bited "0 ..!>l ,.------"------., "C .:= "0 0 ~ g~ .- ;._ CD - ...... ;. "'0""0..,:. ... "C "0 .., ",-0'" ... :;::: a.l ~,j5 ~ ;,.:0 ..:>~ ." -r.:tr>XlC£ TABLE No. IX Furniture and consumer goods acquired in last five years ------Households which------have acquired in last five yeii.r8 Communit.y ,--______..A. ______--, ,--______..A. ______--. Bench Hurricane Torch light Hadio hntern (I) (2) (3) (4-) (5, Para-yar C. M. S. ~~!J.dar Muslim 1 There is only one ParaY'1·r homebokl in the coir or coir made of ma!1ji "talk. Bt:'lIides It few Tillage out of a total of ~l3t bou,;ehoids which t::q1e eanvas cots could also be seen in the viibge. has acquired one OJ:1cb in the la;:;t 5 years. Ji'mnitul'c ale genera):y be.ught and brou._(ht fr,)G} o\:t:;ide the vil.lage-nsu TABLE No. X Posiession of consumer goods Number of hounhold. poaaeuing r------.------..A.. ______._ ------, Community Hurrica.ne Battery Kerosene Radio let and lantern torch light stove Bicyole grl>maphone i I) (2) (3) (5) (0) Nadar 27 , liar&Tar 56 9 6 Konar ~3 3 2 Parayar 37 3 3 Vannan 5 Kammallor 4- P&l1ar 3 Pillai Pagadai A. ID b.!lottall 1 C. M. S. Nadar 27 7 3 I} l '1'. D. T. A. Nad&r 31 3 1 R. C. N&dar 55 3 7 R. C. Pallar H 5 Hi Muslim 14 3 2 Total 326 36 3 45 t According to Table X. we find that 326 During festivals and occasions like marrj3g('~ such households out of a tota.l of !t31 possess hurri lamps are hired and brought from the neighbour cane lanterns. There are ouly two radios in ing towns. Further there are onJy four households Pudukulam. one is in the Panchayat office in the village who have acquired consumer goods in and the other is owned by a school mMter the last five years of which two households belong in Pudukulam .... hich (lan be U1sed as a. transi8tor to the Muslim community and the other two 'on dry battery, charged battery and eleotricity. householda to the C.M.S. Nadar community. Of He belongs to the C. M: S. Nadar community and the two households in the Muslim community. one in adc'itioD, he a1110 owns a. gramapbone. There are has acquired a hurrioane light and the other & 36 house holds in the village which possesil torch toreh light. On the other hand in the C. M. S. lights of whicb 18 belong to the Christian Nadar community one hall acquired a torch light community, 15 to the Hindus and three households and the other household a radio and stove. to the Muelims. Thes~ torch lights are so essen tial for a. village like Pudukulam which i!3 surroun Common utensils ded by palmyra. trees, tanks and fields. There are 56. Earthern ware e'eem to be the common also 45 household. in the village that possess utemils used for cooking in the village. Earthern bicycles of wbich 29 are Christian households, 14 pots are brought from the neighbouring villages bel~ng to the Hindu community and two to the since there are no village potters in Pudukulam. Muslims. Besides there are three households in the Iron-made uten~ils are also used by the Villagers C.M.S. Nadar community who possess kerosene for frying purposes. LaddIes are usuaUy made of' ltoves. Petromax lampa are used in Christian coconut shells which are attached to pieces of ohurchell during church liIervices and festivals. bam boo of about one or one and half feet. The~e Ordinarily hOU8e. do not pOSlIe.l!1l and use them. laddIe. are also mad. of Iteel with many holea A domestic scene in a Paraiyar huuse ::so ...c :;: ;:I o ...c.. '0" Z" c which are ulled for frying purpo"ell. Tbert) art) also ....ter ale ke-pt. ill fantlY loxes made 0 laddies made of aluminium a.nd etainleu steel coloured palmyra leaves which are neatl) whioh are used by about fi Vtl households only. Pudu woven. These are oommoniy c&lled 'PIa kulam C.M.S. Evangelical elementary school has Thuaall we h&vealready leen most of the hi two circular cement porta.ble tubs whioh are used articlea a.nd utensils are a.cquired from out for storing drinking water for 8chool children. The villa-go. One of the houBeholda in the vii] tumblers used for drinking purposes are usually .. wiok .tove and &nOdler ules a. ga.s stove made of brass and also of glasB, aluminium and food occasionally. Ifirewood, thorny bra plastic. There is atleast one household which udai tre~8, w,:ste and dried pa.lmyra le&veE uses tumblers made of silver and a fl!w tumblers common types of fuel used in PudukulaD with stainless steel. Apart from tumblers the one houa.hold in tho whole villa other utensils are generally made of braes, ea.rth or Pudukulam n;tain village has miniature aluminictll. A bucket-like ves8el made of cation done inside a room, kitchen palmyra leaf is used like a bucket for taking water open *pace by charged batteries. Th from wells. Instead a. few hou!eholds usc the however, uled only ocoasion",lly. Modern regular st~el buckets to take water from wells. The furniture a.re yet to be in~roduced in Purl 'plates from which food III ordina.rily eaten are made So far all utensils are concerned the latest I of aluminium, enamel f.liJd braes. Yet another ,teel ware lu:e in use in tli'~ village at leal>t I veiJ~el made of brass from which food is eaten is households. People would tend to buy th. called the Kumba which is deep and heavy. 'This partly due to thoir attraction and ealY I vessel iO:l principldJy used to hold Kanji for eating and washing-even lito vel ate in ule. V or drinking. ASHociated with these two is a kind of eleotrification of the village, it i. boped tlJ brallls tumbler called latta which is a concave all and more people will tend to u • ., radbll. well as convex IShaped vessel. The lower part i. electric cook~rII and .tove•• convex a.nd the upper part is concave. Wooden utensils are also used in tue viUage. Ground 8pices Toilet and chiHies are usually placed on wooden plates 67 _ The habit. rela.ting to material and in some households Bah is preserved in wooden acoording to Bacia-economic Hurvey are boxes. Rice and vegetable. cooked with a little in Table No. XI. TABLE No. XI Material culture-Habit. ------. ._------__ T Number of Number of Number of Number 01 household. hous"hold. th... houleholds that Number of Number of households t} u.... households t~a' houeoholdo tha~ do not send that U80 do not use mosquito mosqUlto t.oilet/washing do notu." tOIlet send clothe8 clothes to I · washing loap to washorma.n w ...herma curtain having 8urtain havin, loap l&Vlng hav:ioa montbly having monthly h .. vin lIlont1 monthly monthly incomo of incom.e of ~~~!~l~f Jncow. of mcom" of inc~m8 of (1) Nadar :: IS 20 2 li 12 2 IS !II Marlilvar 3 20 32 3 20 32 3 20 3~ Konar 6 8 II 6 8 11 ti 8 9 Parayar II 10 23 6 10 :iiI 2 II 10 23 Vanuall 1 4 1 1 :I ... 1 Kamm&l&r I I 2 2 1 2 1 Pa.llar 2 2 Pillai 1 Pagadai 1 J Arnb .. ttan J 1 C.M.S. Nadar l II II) 3 ~ 1 4 3 9 ]5 T.D.T.A. N .. dIJr 2 II ~1 ! 7 1 :I 7 21 1 R.C. Nadar 3 II 4(1 3 11 3 II 36 R.C. Palla, 2 l~ ~7 ! l4 2 14 27 MUSlim (i IS 5 • II • Total '!.7 94 207 27 12 liC 2 33 27 '1 195 'I 26 VILLAGE SURVEY We find none of the househLlJds in the village wa"herman. 94 percent or 313 households of uses mosquito curtains. Toilet and wal>hing soap which 191'; houl'eholds belor g to income group' are used by a majority of households i e. 293 in all Rs. 50 or iesl". 91 households between Us. 51-100 or 88.5 percent, out of which 174 belong to the and all the 27 households in income group Hs. 101 income group Rs. 50 or less. 92 households in and ovor send their clothes for washing. There are income group Rs. 51-100 and 27 in income group Hi households in the village tbat do not send their Rs. 101 and over. There are 35 households in the clothes to the washerman which is most probably viIla.ge which do not use waf-bing 01' toilet soap. It beco.ul'e tho economic conuition!! of these honse is surprising to note that there are thr~e hou~ehold8 holds do not permit them to do !lO, Of th8s6 in the Van nan community thatdo not. use toilet or hou!'eholds. three belong to the Va.nnan community washing soap in the village. A large number of Ilo" they themselves e.till maintain their traditional households in the village send th.ir oloth.s to the occupa.tion, A dllagc ,·cttiyan CHAPTER III POPULATION Population growth A glance at the above Table revea.ls that the 58. The population in Pudukulam village population is on the increase in Pl1dukuJam, according to the Socia-economic survey is 1,609 persons comp0sed of 738 males and 871 females. Natura, increase The exoess of females o.er males has been the 60. Certain other factors like differential birth normal fea.ture of this villag9 fWf'n according to the and death rates are likely to contribute to a C~m~us returns of 1951 and 19tH p.lj indicated in the varying sex ratio. The nat\:ra.l inC1"f"3I1e for both Table below :- males and feLt!aJe9, for va.rious yea.rs i. u follows :- Total Sex YEAR Popula- Males Females Naturll.l increase ratio ,-___ ..A.. ___---. tion YEAR --~ ~---~ "---- Males 1951 1,384 613 771 1,258 Females }961 1,505 676 829 1,226 1949 9 5 HhI (Socio- 1950 8 economic 1951 III 2. ,",lTvey) ... 7:3& 871 1,600 1.180 1952 10 18 ------.-----~---- A ('ontinued plus ra.t.io for female's indinates a 1953 2 9 probablp emigration trend. Bilt 80S far a" PUdll l05i 9 8 kulam is con(l~rned a,vai!lI.ble t'tatistl(ls do not 1955 2 16 indica.te any large outflow of male labour force in 1956 16 8 recent time!>. It is seen that only five heads of 1957 t) 10 household!> have migrated to urban areas, that is fuur to Bomba.y and one ',0 Fenang, in 8t':lrch of Total 73 9!S employmfmt. The large number of femlode births may further Births and deaths Account for the excess of female popUlation . .'59. The following Table gives the number of birthll a.nd deaths for the past ten yean. Sex ratio BIRTHS DEATHS 61.. The following figures give the sex ratio .---...... _-~r-- _.A.-~ with rE'gard to births for various years, which Increase .. further supports the statement. regarding the YEAR iii> ""CI or II!I Ii OJ d decrease na.tmal increa~e of population. Ii'" 8 S ~. _...... __ - CI ce-- CI ';:i;! ::a Sex ratio at "'" "'" YEAR birth* 11)4,9 26 Iii 17 11 + 14, --",-_.- --_ ..- ----.. - 11)50 24- 27 16 27 + 8 1949 61 5 1950 1,125 1951 21) 36 18 12 +35 1951 1.24L 1952 23 32 13 14 +28 1952 1,391 1953 19 26 17 17 +ll 1953 1,31)8 195' 23 24 14 16 +17 1954 1.043 1955 12 31 JO 15 +18 1955 . 2.583 } 956 20 21 " 13 +24, 1956 1,051 1957 12 14. 6 4- +15 1957 1,166 1018 ~O 21 Not .T.n- 1958 1.051 abl •. • Females per 1,000 male•• 28 VlLLAGB SURVEY The sex-ratio in the neighbouring villages almo indioates that there was excess of males in 1950, ,"up ports the fact that this region as a whole bas 1949 and most probably even earlijr. which fa noW" fairly a high sex ratio. The Sex ratio in Pudulmlam rtlflected i:} the low sex-r.ttio in the age group compares favourably with the sex ratio in 10-14 yearll. Thus it appears thl.Ot thcle is no neigb Louring villages. deviation from the normal pattern in all the age groups, except. in the age group 10-14 years which. 1951 Census 1961 Census would be explained by the comparatively low ,-____ ..A.. _____ ~ birth sex ratio in 194,9, and relatively low ~e.x: ratio r------~------~ in 1 %0 wh ich are 615 and 1,125 respectively. The L.C. No. of Sex L.C ~o. of Sex Bex ratio by age groups indicates that in the age villages ratio vlllages ratio gron p 15-44- :VAars t.he sex ratio is 1.322 and for the ----.------.------.-~--- working force in the same grollp the sex ratio i9 119 1,157 136 1.119 1,2i9. No conolusion regarding the extent of 128 1,029 138 1,112 movement of working force i!< pD,,~ibie du(', to non 129 1,063 139 1,141 availaLility of data by age group for 19:a Census. 13! ),] 61 140 ],131 The abnormal sex-ratio can be justified when it is 132 1,157 14l ] ,2()7 compared with the corre'Sponding ta~llk figures ( l'irunelveli Taluk). ' 134 1,257 142 1,226 136 1,109 143 1,179 YEAR Femalos per 1,000 Males A pc>rw!-al of the Table reveals that females are predominant in these vWages. The sex ratio in 1951 Censu8 1,052'35 Pudukulam compares favourably with the 1961 Census 1,040'18 corresponding figures of Tirunelveli taluk. Tirunelveli district and Tirunelveli taluk wherein Sex pattern lies Pudukulam village are Ilome of the recogni8able 62. E'urther, acoording to the Socio-economio geographical tract,s where tbere are more female. Survey count, the same trend is maiutained in all than males. the age groups. Trend of migration AGE GROUP SEX RATIO 63. Immigration and emigration have become a. common feat-ure ill Pudukulam. Immigration bas takp.n place mostly among the hamlet" of the 0- 4 ] ,174 village. Pallan have left Ayyangulam and have 5- ~ 1,175 settled down in Ayankulam. Nadan have 10- J4 858 emigrated to Msnalvilai from Veeralaperunchelvi 15 - 19 1,184 predominantly occupied by Maravars; Parayars 20 _- 24 1.4t3 have come to M"allakulam from Ponnagudi. In 25 - 29 ; 373 Malhtkulam the Nadars were residing formerly 30- 34 1.974 adjacent to the prellent site. 35-44 1,000 Emigration -45 ~ 59 1,202 64. Elli igr!>tion to othtlr countri€1I b&1 a]80 1,2!6 60 and over taken placa fr,1m Puduknlam. There are four household .. in the C. M. S. ·Nadar C~ommuDity It appears from the above that the same trend where the heads of households are away at 1M maintained ill 1:1.11 the age groupll, except in the Bomba.y ancl one at Penang, who have gone age group 10-14, where the sex ratio is only 858, a there to earn their livelihood. They come to ,deviation from the normal pat:em. Ko !'p{'cial their hCllIs(·" on !,,,:,,v6occ8.lIiolllllly. A few Nadar Teason can be assigned for thiR sUdden fall in that ffl.milie" hfl.\"€ leit j riyanayagapuraru hamlet to age group. Rut it can be explained by the fact Reddil1rpatti. abollt three miles away to the "thnt the nat,ural increaRc in 1[)49 was 9 males and ::iort h. Thill was before the Manirnutbar water :5 females, and in 1950, 8 males only. This came to Pudukulaw ..... 0<-11 the ... hole village was PUDtl1i:ULAM in the grip of draught. ThuB, the inter-hamlet place from Ponnagudi village mainly because it emigra.tion and immigrat.ion seem to be more was a. low lying area and the flood were 8. conetant importa.nt and considerable than emigration to or menace to their abodes. Secondly because of theft!! immigration from ouhide. in their settlements. The settlement on the west is suppOli!ed to be theta for generations, but that Inter-hamlet migration of the e!tst is 3. comparatively new one. Some of 65. There are instances of inter-hamlet the KODars also have emigrated to Ayankulam emigration in Pudukulam for which there are from Pudukulam rna,in village jn search of uert&in speeial rCiUODS. As for instance due to prosperity. Forraerly tb" Mallakulam Na.dars dra.ught conditions, some of I,he Pa'la! househ!J!ds occupied a,n area, about two furlongs to the B{)uth migrated to Aya,nkulam and joined the Pallars of the present site. The exact reallon for the shift there. Socia.l incompa,tabiJity led the i"jadars of of the settlement is not known. Veeralaperunchelvi to emigrate to Mlwalvilai. There aI's two settlements of Parayars in the ea8t. 66. The settlement history of .,.arioul!I oc.m and Wf}st and theBe people have 6migra,ted to this munitie8 is indicated in Table No. XII below:- TABLE No, Xl[ Settlement History NO. OF HOUSEHOLDS SETTLED Community I'laces from which the families have migrated during the present gener&tion ..p f ~ (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) .~-----~ ------Nadar (H indl1) 27 1 10 4 12 I. Pappa,ngu!am, Nanguneri Taluk (one household) 2. From Veeralaperunchelvi another ha.mlet of Pudukulam (Ten household!) 3. From Bombay, one year back (One household) M80r&va.r 56 18 26 4 5 1. Samurangapuram, Nanguneri Ta.luk. 2 Kodaikulam (came here 10 yea.n ago) Tirunelveli Taluk (Same Taluk). 3. Kunthangulam (one year back) Nangunepi Taluk 4. Siv&Iapari (It yea.rs b&Ck) KoYUpatti Taluk. .'i. Achiyur (came here a year baok) Nangu- neri Taluk. Konar 9 1 2 1. Thachanallur (came here 30 years agoj 'l'irunelveli Taluk. 2. Palayamcottai 'fown (Came here (j months ago) Tiruuelveli Taluk. 8 3(} VILLAGE SUltVBY HOUSEgOLD~SETT~ED .... II? =:I 0"" ro 1=1 0 ::: 0 '" ... C .~ 0 ~ 00 C';; C·~ "",,0 Places fro m which the families have migra.ted ~.~ II) ~. .e >::A II) 1$ Q)o'l ... c·_ .... d II) .... II) II)~ Community - 39 14 :.! 5 9 t 1. From Pon'na~udi 8 years ago, Tirunelveli Pa.raiyan Taluk, (Saro6 Taluk). 2. From Arasakulam 20 years ago, BriTa,i- kuntam Taluk. 3. From Ponnakudi 8 years ago, Tirunelveli Taluk (Same Taluk): ~. From Sattangulam 20 yea.ra ba.ck. Na.ng- uneri Taluk. \ 6. From Navalknlam 20 years ba.ck, Nangu- neti Taluk. 6. From Ponnagudi 20 years back, Tirunelveli Taluk, (Sa.me Taluk). 7. From Ponnagudi 10 ,ea.rs baok, Tirunelveli Taluk, (Same Taluk). 8. From Sattankulam Hi years back Nangu- Deri Taluk. . 9. From Ka.rkulam. Sriv80ikuntam Taluk. 5 1 3 1 1. Thamila.kurichi (came here 20 years logo) Vannan Tirunelveli 'faIuk. Came here from Theri, Tirunelveli Tnluk. Karnmalar 4, 2 1 1 1. 3 1 1 1 1. From Ayya.ngulam, another hamlet of Pallar Pudukulam 40 years ago. Pillai 1 1 Pagadai I 1 1 I 1. Came here from Tirunelveli Town 26 years Amb&tts.n ago. (Same Taluk). C.M.S. Nada.l 28 5 10 2 8 3 1- From Athalikulam, Srivaikuntam Taluk. 2. Came here about a furlong from Pudu· kulam 2 years back. 3. Sattankulam, Srivaikuntaro Taluk. Kongandanparai, 7 years ago. (Same Ta(uk) T.D.T A. Nada.r 31 7 16 5 2 1. 2. Veeralaperunchelvi (10 yean 80,0). PUDUKULAM 31 NO. OF HOUSEHOLDS SETTLED ~------..... 0", 00 I:) • "0 ,;:: .. !:l'" 0 '" 0 0 := 0- 0 =.~ I:l'_ :;; .::l 0 CD'- ","" coo ""0 ...c ...... , .... =._ Places from which the families have migrated Community -CD ~~ Il.I '" CD CD'" d w ,£:.': CD ~ Q:; +':;:l a: := 0)w'" .... during the present generation CD CD ...,=: ..,= Il.I ... CD o 0 CD CD (I) CD bO 8..::; ~~ Q::l!: - 2. Singanparai 25 yean ago, Ambasamudram Taluk. 3. Keelanatham 23 years ago Tirunelveli Taluk. (Same TaIuk). 4. Pandarakulam 20 years ago, TiruneJveli Taluk. (Same TaJuk). 5. Chettikulam one year back, Tirunelveli Taluk, (Same TaInk). 6. Panangulam 10 years ago, NanguDeri Taink. 7. Pathiniparai 33 years ago, N&Dguneri Taluk. 8. Elangulam 37 years ago. Nanguneri Taluk. R. C. Palla.r 43 27 7 4 1. NattarkuJa.m, Srivaikuntam Taluk. (six years ago). 2. From Ayyangulam 5 years ago (another hamlet of PudukuJam). 3. Nattarkulm 12 years back Srivaikuntam Taluk. 4. From Ayyangulam 5 years ago. Muslim 7 1 I. Came here from Kalakad. Nanguneri Tal uk, 20 year's back. A large number of Maravar hou"eholds have settled neighbouring taluks in the present generation. AI! in the village between 4-5 gemera.tiolll!!. Five for instance among Hindu Nadars twelve house hnuse.holds have settled during the present holds have settled in the village during the present 'generation, four households from different taluks genoration of which ten households are from other like Nanguneri and Kovilpatti of the lame district hamlets their duration of residence ranging from ,a.nd one of the Bame talilk. Four households 3 to 10 years. One head of the household bal ha;ve settled in the first I;eneration, that is two migrated from Bombay a year back. Among the Crom the same taluk a.nd two from Nanguneri Parayars there are nine households which ha.ve ta.luk of Tirunelveli district. The Maravars being migrated to the village during the first generatioft. an agricultural community have migrated to that is seven from the same ~aluk, two from P'udukula.m because of the facilities provided, to Nanguneri taluk of the Ilame district. Nine houAe ca.Try on cultivation; the Manimutnar Project holds have migrated to the villa.ge during the alfords employment to mony people in the village. present generation-three household. from th. Many have migrated from Nangnneri a.nd the 8Bme taluk. two households from Scivaikuntatl'l VILLAGlI SURV.IlY taluk and one household from Nanguneri taluk of generation, from Kalakad of the same taluk. Tirunelveli district. In all the other communitieil Emigration to urban areai is &Iso seen; four heade we find the Ba.me type of migl"ation. KOllln. Dhobi, of houseno\ds have gone away to Bombay in order Kamm&lar. Pillai, Pallar, Pagadai and Ambll.ttan to ea.rn a livelihood. Tbus we find that migration have like the other oommunitiel!i migrAted to thill is a common feature in Pudukulam, and in a village from other hamlets of the villa.ge, obher maiority of oases we find that immigration was villages in the lame taluk and Ia.me district. As due to the Manimuthar Reliervoir Project which for the Christian community seventeen house-holdl! not only irrigates large acres of land but allo yields have settled in the village in the fir!lt genera.tion, gre&ter revenue to the Government. and one hOllilehold in the present gener:\tion. In the Mu.lim community there is one household 67. The classification of families whether whi.h ha.s (lome to the 't"illaie in the pre.enl lIimple or joint fa.milies is Ilhown in table No. XIII. TABLE No. XIII Type of Family No. of hou~ehold" according to t,ype of family Total , ______.A. ___ COMMUNITY no. of house- Inter- I Simpl. Jc>in~ holdo meuiat. Other t.ypu (I) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) Nadar 27 13 7 II Il Mara"ar 33 12 7 4. Konar 23 10 7 :I 3 Paraiyan HI ~ 10 Ii Vannr.n 1 2 KamDlalar 2 2 Pall an :l Pillai Pagad&i AmbaHan C. M. S. Nadllor 28 14 3 4. "1 T. D. T. A. Nadar 31 19 3 3 II R. C. Nadar 30 3 11 ]I R. C. Pallar 24 9 7 3 14 B 2 II Total 331 175 511 10 53 percent or 175 out of 331 houaeholdl in the the parent!!. There are 56 intermediate families village are simple families. A lIimple family is one in the village, the percentage being 16.9. 15.11 which consists of .. husband. wife and unmarried percent of the families in the village are joint ehildren; the moat outstanding in this ciasii ill the families. A household with a ma.rried couple with Christian community with 87 simple fa.miliel married 80n8 or daughters or with ma.rried brother. which works out to about 49.7 peroent. An inter or sisters constitutes a joint family. A large mediate fa.mily is one in which there is a married number of joint families in the vilJage i. due to .ouple with unma.rried brother or sillter and one of the fsat that a ma.jority of householdl depend upon PUDUKULAM 33 cultiva.tion of land both as owner8 and tt'lOants and 01.3 perc.,nt or 420 malel!l and 405 female. are hence help to a la.l·ge extent to supplement both never married. 40.8 percent or 299 males and 3CiS labour aud income. The other families that do not females are married, 7.0 percent or 14 males and 99 oome under the above categories are cla.sified as fema.le. are widowed and 0 9 percent or five male. .. othan" and 1,1';.1 percent or fifty families come and nine females are rlivorced or separated. The under this cateiory. marital structure of the society is revealed by Table No. XLV. Marital status 68. Out of a. tota.l popula.tion of 1,609 per"ons in Pudukulam, tha.t is 738 males a.nd S71 females, TABLE No. XIV Marital Status Divorced Total'Popniatiom Never :Married }l[arried Widowed or separated Age Group r------'--.-----., ,--.... -._...._ .. -.--~ -, ,--__..I....---, r- Per-sons Male" Yemal ... Mala:!ll 'Ftimll.leo 1.1 ..1"8 Female" Mc.le~ Females Males Female. (I) (2) (3) (4) (Ii) (6) (7) (8) (9' (10) ell) {12) _.. - -_-.---.------.------.~~------~------._------All Age. 1,tl09 738 Ii?! 420 405 20,. !!;S it 119 Ii 9 0-- 4 2Zt lO3 121 103 121 IJ- 9 nol. 106 118 1011 118 10--14 171 9~ 79 92 19 11l--1@ H2 U 77 (lj " 3 ~0--2A 111 ~ 64 ~ 12 ,; i1 2 25-!!!I 121 III 70 I) 41 117 :II 3J--34 113 ~ 7l> :00 'HI 3 ~, lOll !l8 U !! U 1I7 II 8 4.l--MI IH 79 9~ T4- ,.!l ~ :15 1 60 & over 133 60 13 49 £1 10 U >_ ,-- - ~~ ...... """,._ .... -~--~.- --.---.-~.-- Ac()ording to n:;::e groupe of nf'·>:cr married and 358 females According to agl' groups, a larger persons 75 percent or6Hl per80ns fall in the aRe group number of III tTried perElon8 are found in age group 0-14 years, 23.1 perc!'llt Of 105 mah~!:' an'186 femaloB 38-44 year8, t 11'11. ib 4:\.(; percent. or 288 pensons-129 in the age group 15-24 yelHil. The rest of the males and 157 females. On the othel' hand there percentage namely 1.9 pf'rcent fallf in diff~rent age is a minority munber of m R.rried persons in age groupG that iii ten males and one female in age group 15-] 9 YMrs, where there is only 0.5 percen' group 25-34 years, three males, in age group 35-59 or only three female", who are married. As for the year... :!Iond one male ill O\) Y<'(1r8 ~rJd abuve. It i. other eAe i:fon[l' there ill! 23.1 peTnent or 47 males seen that peraonA in the marriug"llobfa ego t,hat ill and liS feruHJes in lI~e "roup 20-29 yea.n, 20.~ above 11) yeAr. form a milJ[)rity-25 percent 01' percent or 7 f mal~. Ilnd 5:) females in age group 119 mAles and 07 females out of a total of 825 45-59 years. 10.7 per rent of t,he total number of never married persons. There are as many 8.S 657 married persons in the villa,ge are found in the age married persons in the village, tha.t is 299 males group 60 years and over. 9 V1LLAGlII SUSV:&y MARITAL STRUCTURE MALES FEMALES 100 too 90 80 70 60 ." ::D "'() m SO Z - »-i '"'m l.EGEND ~ Neve, M.n'ed _~ WiJoweJ I'UDUX.ULA.H 35 69. Polyga.my and widow rema.rria.ge are Contravention of marriage rules permitted in the village. Yet we find al5 ma.ny as 70. III all the communities in Pudukulam 113 widowed persons, 14 males and 99 females. 51 inter· caste marriage is neither permissible nor percent of the widowed perwns namely 10 males desirable. They are particular that marriage8 And 51 females are found in age group 60 years and IIhould take place within the caste, religion being over and 33.6 percent or three males and 35 females of minor importance. For instance in Pudukulam in a.ge group 45-59 years. In the age group 35-44 we have a Hindu Nadar male who married & years there are one male and 11 females. Among Christian Nadar' female. Polygamy and widow the 14 persons that are divorced or separated in the remarriage have been permitted among most of village, one male and four females faJI in age group the Hindu oommunities. The following table 20-29 years, three males and three females in age indicates the different types of marriages occurred group 30-44 years. one male and one female in - in contravention of rules. 45-5\:1 yearl! a.nd finally one female in age group 60 years and over. TABLE No. XV Contravention of Marriage Rules Number of eommuuity m.arriagell Typ" of aontrav"ntion in c r 'otra.v8[JtioD of caste law (1) (2) (3) Maravar Th" head of the household has married a Chetti.. r .... oman. who•• husband had died earlier in Munne<>rpaUam. Tirun"lveli Taluk. ParaiyaD The head of the hou.ehold .... a8 foreed to marry a Nadar womao but; now ."parat<>d. C. M. S. Nadar The eister of legally married .... ife hall been taken as another wifo Dot legally. R.C. Nadar Son went to PeDang to .."ro • livelihood and m ..rried .. Mudalia.. girl. Acoording to the a.bove table, certain contraven Schools tions with regard to marriage rules are fonno in 71. The level of literacy is comparatively four households in the village. The first type is high in Pudukulam. This may to a. certain extent. seen in a C. M. S. Nadar houI ----,_-'------..... Nama of Scho ..! Y_r I Std. II Std . III Std. IV Std. V Std. ..--"-..---~ r--"""__--. ,- _ _.I...._--.., ,,---_""_-., ,.--__'_-~ )0["1,,. Females Males Fernllolu Maj,,~ F"'m"'le~ Mill". Fern.. l ... Males Females (1) (2) (3) (5) (6) (7) (S) (SI) (10) (II) (12) C. M. S. Evanaelic&l l 1051 If) !3 14 10 9 ;{ 6 6 2 ~ Elementary S~hool, Puduku!a.m ) 1061 13 II 7 Ii 11 7 S , .{ 'I Pan"haya.t Union Elementary I. 1957 13 8 3 1 1 II 2 School, Veeralaperunchelvi 5 1961 II a Educational facilities Mid-day meat scheme 72. Fortunl!otd.v, Pudukl11am iJi well placed 73. All the four schools give mid-c]a.y m~aI f01" higher education in both High Schools and to thtl children. 130 school childr.. n Ilre benefited Collegei. 'I here is a higher eJernenta:;y r;chaol in bv the ~cheme. 'Thi8 reprc8enttl Ol.6 percent of the tha neigh1011ring Tillage of Kongandanp!l.rai t~tal Dumber of children !ltud."ill'g in the Rchool. managed by T. D. T. A. Chu1"ch. The merlium of Rice with Sam bar or l{ice ICar.ji is !Served in tho instruction ill Tamil. ElIglibh ill taught in t!.e fifth noon. Tho Government of Madras have given a lltamlard and Hindi ill n()t taught in any school. gmnt of (l !JP. per da,y pel' child, tbe condition The C. ~L S, Evangelical Elementary Scliool wail heing 4 nP. per heal fWf d:l,V shonld be ()ontributed started in 1928 with four I.Itllondard&l. In 11)10, V loc:d1v toward:>; the expt\nilituro. The Rcheme was standa.rd wa" added to it.. '{"TO tfachere-nTll' mal" introdnef'd in HHll aud thIH'orr"1'pondents of the a.l1d Oll8 fathale are empio3·ed. The Headmi··.trf"·!i! ~('hnO!6 i],re ;n Ghnrge of tho implementati()n of the is Ilo S(')(I)nd&.ry Grade trainfld-tf ncher. Thi< sehl'me. Tlll:' !'che~ue bas it. advantage namely, it building is--tih'd but looks dilapidah-d. Formerly feed,] 'POOl" children. It ha.!l a di,advRDttl.. ge in the the ~aln.rif'l.! of tfRcher..: wt;re paid by the O. Ill. S. IlNlfl6 'i.h:lt. the atcpntic,n of the teachj~g tltaff is EvangeHcal Church, but of lat.e grant is givl'n by diverte<'i from teaching to the proper mainttmance the Education Departmf'nt. Tbe l'anchayat Union of accounts relating to mid-day meal ilcheme and School a.t Veeralapt>runchelvi was _tarted in tU57. to Reaing tlw.t 10c,,1 contribution i.e railled. It haa five tito.odardo:. It ill homed in a rented Sometime~ the local contribution iJ miRed building. ThEIl'! i8 only one teachl"r for t.he scbooL with extreme diffieulty_ Apart from the~e, the The T. D, T. A, Elementa.ry School, WlI.l started in 8choo1 children get Rava.. milk powder and veg,,· 1952 with three standardB; IV and V were added table ghee under the Oare Programme of the in 1957. The Bchool buildin~ lerYeIl a. a church- U. S. A. A Board hali blillm appointed in each PUDUXULAM 37 hamlet in which villagers are represented. Sepa such nQ caste distinction is now observed in the rate acoonnt books are maiotained by each school school or in the serving of mid-day meal. The with regard to the fnod stuff" recuived and distri feeling of caste among the villagers is, however, buted and these books are al;,.o open to audit at pronounced. In a receflt incident, a lady teacher a.ny time by the Education Depart,ment. There belonging to Nadal' c<)mmunity was ill-treated by are also separate :recount books mainta,ined to show the Maravars of that hapllet and humiliated. The oollectiona and disbuf!lements of money regarding woman had to b~ transferred to some other mid-Jay meai ,"cheme. Statistically, the introduc place. tion of the mid day meal scheme has not improved the strength of the schools in the viIlal;e 8x~ept Literacy level for one lady tt'acher at Veel'a,laperunchelvi 74· The cla.ssificat.ion of village popUlation all the ... even teachers belong to the Nadar by a'.!6 and literacy ~tl indicated in the Table Community and they are also Christiaos. Among No XVI below: .cbool-going children. majority are Nadars; as TABLE No XVI Literacy and Education I,itorate (without Primary or Matriculation Intermediate Age Groups Total Population I1Htara;e education",l Jun lor or Higher or (Yoa~s) sta.ndard) Basic Secondary P. U.C. r----.-"---... ~-- -..., ,--__..A.._.~ r--- -"----, ,--- --"------.. r----"-____ PM F M F M F M F M F M F (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (U) .~--~-----.---- All Ages 1,609 7:18 871 365 708 267 )17 104 45 , 1 0- 4 224 103 121 103 121 5- 9 224 106 118 29 01>1 76 59 10-14 171 92 711 21 ", 34 22 37 10 15--19 142 65- 77 28 t8 14 8 22 21 1 20-:/4 III 46 65 9 53 U 8 15 4 25--29 121 61 70 19 I>!) 2Z 8 I) 2 30-34 ll3 38 '7,) 11 70 %0 4 7 1 35--44 196 98 98 61 86 ~9 6 8 6 ,5-51) 174 19 95 42 92 35 2 :2 60 lind over 133 60 '73 42 73 15 a .----~-.~-----.-----~---.----- According to the above table we find at least one free f-ducation since no fees are ('barged in third r;f the population, i.e, aa.3 percen!, or S36 out elellien buy sehools, but a.lso the implementation of a total of 1,609 persons :lre literatt', the remain uf t he mid-day meal scheme is of great adva.ntage ing 1,073 per.oml being illiterate. Among illite to ;;chool going children especially in rural areas. rates, the females outnumber the males which is There are 10-1, males and 45 females who have characteristic among the fema1e population in rural studied upto primary or junior basio standard. areas, the difference bein~ 343, whereas among The difference noticed betweeil males and females in literates 373 are males and 163 female!'!. Of the this category must be dlle to the fa.ct that females female literates, 71..8 percent are classified under in rural areas a.re permitted to study only upto the literates without eduoational standards and elf'mentary sohool stage after which they are found form a majority am"Jng literatcs; the males to discontinue their studies due to cu~toms in om-number t,be female>! in all the a~e group;; cert.:Jin comm1mities. Further there are only two with a total differenc€' of 150 per~on>l. In this personA, that is one mrd" a,nd one female Who have category there LITERACY LEVELS AT DIFFERENT AGE MAl~S 35 . ~ ~!!ill:J]J] 2S - 34 I~ ~ 24 S· 11 o ro u ~ ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~ ~ P.RCENTAGE OF LITERACY Higher Education iii the educa.tion of fem8.I'~r! comidered important by the vHlager!!. 'They i:rc purm'tted to study 75. Proximity of towns like PaJayamcottai only up to V staniard. ;{ormally. when a girl I!.nd Tirunelveli with faciiities of t'ducati(Jnal aHa.lns lJuberty. she is ready to he mol.rried and ail institution~ has not dOlie a.ppreciable go')d to the Nl1011 ba:; '0 attend to household dutieil. Nor can literaoy st[Lcldard of Pl1du,;.ula.rn. Some of them cio we My "nat the economic Ittt.ndard!! of the people attend" High SchoollS ami Colleges in Ite IdlMpatd a.re re~p,JU"ibje for their indifference to educa.ti(Jn. a.nd rjeighbourillg towns. They are" adari', Paraiyal'lS ..od Pallara. The number of sue I students I1tt('nd~ ing High Schools m!l.y bs put at .50 and colleges Working force at 3. 77 The village har!" popUlation of 1,609, of which HoS persons are workers. Among males 446 General attitude towards Education out of 738 or 61).·1, peroent are returned a.s w nker8. 76. The general attitude of tue people towards 522 women come under the working popUlation out education cannot be laid to btl cacouraging. The of a. total of 871 fem!\le~, the percentage being chillren a.rE) not dresi'wd lir,lperh'; n')1' are the) 51).9. The pruportion of workers a.mong fema.les is bathed bi_,fore. they ale ""n\, to ~chuOi. :\!allY equaily higll; the lar~e number of f,~maI6 workers children Il,l)pear ba,f-u'1ked anJ are covcr~,d with are engaged in cultivation and fal'm labour. The dirt. Attendance is not enfol'eed in any ;;ehool number 01 "110IktH·., and non-worker!! in different during feslhals and ma.rriages. Tbe childrell are age ranges could be scen from the following often diverted to other work by their pareuts. Nor table: TABLE No. XVII Worken and Non-Workers by Sex and Age Groups Worker. Non-worker. Ag. Qrllup. ,- (in ,..an) -----. r------~------~ r------"------~ FOr8on. llale. lI'emalea Feraon. Male. Females Per.on. Yaloa Fomaln (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (0) (7) (S) (II) (10) .11 age. 1.eOi '13S 871 H' "6 iU 641 292 "II 0--4 U4. 103 121 !t4. lOS IU 6-. U4 106 lIB 11 i V 213 101 Hi 10--14 171 U 79 " ~~ .&iIi .7 ~3 34 15-1t 141 66 77 II! il (i' SO lZ 1* 4'; Ii , 1I(}-24 111 5i 101 44-_. 2 S 2fi-U 131 it 70 IIi .. Ii 1 Ii 30-14, JlU 31 Ti 11'10 as 67 I 8 35---44 Illi ts 98 In 117 12 T 1 6 45-1)11 lU 79 ~6 163 711 S4 11 11 GO and over 133 GO 13 93 Sl '2 41) • 31 Non-workers number of non-worken being found 80S ulual in the 78. Out of a. total of 1,609 pereons in the low age group 0-14 years, tha.t is 267' males and vill&ge, 641 persons, that ia 292 males an;l 349 267·females. The na.tuHI of activity of non-workers female. or ag.8 percent are non-workers, a large iii indicated in Table No. XVIII below; T ABLE No. XVIII Nature of Activity of Non-Workers by Sex and Are Groups Nature of Activity of Non-Workers -.A.______-.. Total DBp.ndants, iuf.. "ts .. nd Non-Work..... Age Group. Full time Mtudento or Persona engaged only in ehi!dren no. att~nding (in years) ehildren attending .chool househoJd duties school and persona permanently disabled .A-_____-.., ,--___..A-- ___ ~ r------~ ,- -, p M F )( F 14 F M F (1) (2) (3) ( 4) (5) (6) (7) (~) (9) (1 0) -----~- All Age. 641 202 M(I l4.0 SO :SS 162 z:n 0-4 22<1. 103 121 103 1%1 5- 9 2.13 101 11% 7i lit !IS 63 10-l4. 11'7 (13 lI4 Ii' US 3 7 15 15-111 30 l~ Ii ~ i g 3 .- 20-24. i :: K 3 ! 25-211 • 5 i 1 30-34 I S 1 35-44 7 (I oj, t 4.5-.59 11 11 5 I eo a.nd over 40 9 31 , 10 P.-Per;!onll H.-Males F.-Fem.. le. '0 vILLAGB SURVEY 79. Among the different classifications of non found in the age group 5-9 yeara where there are workers the dependants are outstanding with a 75 males and 59 femaleR, followed by 72 students total of 383 persons, 152 males and 231 females or in the age group 10-14 years, and 14 Itudents 69.8 percent of the total number of non-workers in between 15-19 years. 38 women are returned as the village. Thul among dependants we find that the housewives. Even in the ages below Hi there are, females outnumber the males in all the age groups 3 young girls attending to household duties. with a total difference of 79. In the case of full Besides there are B83 dependants comprising 152 time students the males outnumber the females males and 231 females. They include infants. there are 140 male and 80 fema]e students or 34.3 children not attending school and disabled percent, the largest Dum bel' of students being persons. CHAPTER IV VILLAGE ECONOMY Occupational structur. palmyra industry, ttmding cat~le, imilk selling. quarrying and business. There ar~ also village 80. Each oaste is traditionally associated with officials, blacksmiths. carpenter~, dhobies, barbers, the practice of a pa.rticular occupation and as is cobblers, religious workers, teachers', clerks, road more often seen the occupational pattern of coolies and servants. The total number of workers the village is determined by the caste to a. large in an the communities in the village is 968 that is extent. As for inst~nce the Maravar community 446 males and 522 females. Even among workers we is an important farming community. They are find that the females out number the males. Th~ mainly enga.ged in agriculture, for a very few take percentage of female workes wor~s out to a.bout 53.9 to other occupation.. The predominant occupa and male workers 46.1 percent. The distribution tion of a majority of viIJagere is cultivation. of male and female workerl! in different occupation followed by agricutturlLl III bour, jaggery and is as folhnn :- Oecupation Males Females Total Peroentage to total Cultiv8otion 350 42\J 779 !;0.5 Agricultural labour.. r 42 63 105 10.& Houilahold Indn!try 24 11 35 3.6 Houaahold bnsin.ee 0.3 Other oeeupations 28 18 46 4.B Total 522 968 100,11 The workers included in other occupations are the members of the households, the percentage shepherds. servants, religious workers, cobblers, of workers en_gaged in cultivation being 80 50 barber!'!, dhobis, clerks, teachers, quarrying and road percent. The Manimuthar Reservoir Project halJ eoolies. The cla.ssifica.tion of workers accQrding to helped immensely in the irrigation of it large num the nature of occupation will be Been from Table ber of acres and hencethere is a significant cbang~ No. XIX. in the occupational pattern of the village, for many 81. The nature of occupation of th(' rural of the households have diverted their attention to population. for instance in Pl1dukulam. is such cultivation from tapping and jaggery preparation that a maj orit,. of th. households in the village are which was originally the predominant occupation engaged in eultiT&tion whioh is carried on by all in the village. 11 1IQ\['8}'l co .... •... .. '" '" ... 00 co • ...... - ...... ...... 00 S9[llN -= ...,o ... "" .. 1M ...... - .. .. e- ...... -...... e, ... -...... -...... ...... 0> -...... ... co , ....CD ...... 1ft eft N ...... 00.., ....0 .. IQ ...., ...... ~ o 'iii ~ ..o "' ~ ,,".. ::s ..<::'"..,0 o ;\ ~ ..... I ...... - :1 .. .. ; ! .... ...c:: ...o i:J u ou ..... ""- -..... '" .. ... <=I o ~g- ...... O == II • .. .~ o ..I> r:o. mE-<...... ...... <0 ... ...."" '" ...... ...... o Z .. .,,""0'" 12 46 VILLAGE SURVEY 82. Tke details of occupation and the number in this village changed their occupation to of workers· in various communities are shown in cultivation. This is well represented by the fact Table No. XX. Among the Maravars-a major that the l'iIanimutha.r Reeervoir project offers eommunity in the village, there are 177 wOlkers, 88 employment to a large number of persons in the males and 89 females. Out of these, 60 males and village by irrigating large aores of land. Eor. two 6 L females are owner cultivators, 6 males and 11 years ago the Manimuthar river water was not females are engaged in lease cultivation, 21 available for Pudukulam tanks and hence the males and 17 females are agricul tural labourers. cultivators had to turn to other sources such as it is found that only one male is employed 8.8 rain water and wells which used to be principal a village offioial. Among owner cultivators we sources of water supply_ So cultivation depended find 50 percent fa.ll in age group 15·34, years, entirely on the monsooD. and when it failed culti 25 percent in 35-59 years and the relit in vation proved a failure beca.usB or the poor yield; age group 0-14 and 60 years and above. Similarly the workers in the village were thus forced to among other classes of workers, we find a concen divert their attent.ion to other or-cupations. such as trd.tioll of workers in the age glOup 15-34 and 35-59. ta.pping of neera and prdparation' of jaggery There are L2 workers out of a total of 18 persons in products. But after the execution of the Mani· the Vannau community-4 males and 8 females. muthar Project, cultivation progret?sed a great They cfLrry on the same occupation a8 determined deal in the village for water re80nrcell were made by t.heir caste. Kammalars or the Asari commu· available for cultivation. Thus we find a majority nity comprises of 4 households. with a total of 12 of workers in the cultivation group. :females The Kamma.lars generally take up three Tapping main occupations, blacksmithy, goldsmithy and . 84. As for the Hindu Nadars there are 69 carpentry. Among blacksmiths, there i8 one ma.le work~rs in all. 33 males and 36 females. 69.5 per worker in the age group 15-1.9 years. wherea.s cent or 24 males and 24 females are engaged in among carpenters there are 4 maleworkers, one in cultivation and l2 persons are working as agri age group 15-19 years. 2 in 35-<14 yearoJ and one in cultural labourers. The Hindu Nadar is one of 45-59 years. So there is a total of 5 workers in those communities which still maintain tapping the Kammalar community and as usual all ar8 males. and jaggery preparation as primary uccupa.tion; Here we find there is no 'Vsriation from theoriginBl this wa.s formerly the predominant occupation occupatiolll~l pattern. The Ambattan community of . this community in Pudukulam. There are with one male and One female living in one house seven persoDII engaged in this oocupation. Besides hold, forms a minority in the village. There is there is one male and one female employed as only one male worker engaged in hili traditional servants in thi5 community. occupation. Thus we find that among Maravars, Vannans, Kammalars and Ambattans there is no Harijans devia.tion from the original occupational pattern as 85. In the Paraiyar community there are 4l determined by the caste. There is ~ significant males and 72 female workers which Are classified change in the occupational pattern in the Konar under the four main occupations. In Cultivation (Yadhava) community. Out of a total of 3 i males there are 30 males and 51 females. In lease culti and 39 femalo workers in this community, 83.5 p TABLE No. XXI Occupational Classification of Households NUMBElt OF HOUSllllIOLDS ENGAGED IN ,-- - _____~- __..A.. '" ..., b~ ,i:' ..... '"0 t> ... C..., ;;::....., .. >, 't 0 .s ;; '"C~ z., 0" ~~ :--. ::; .~" 0 ::; "OJ .. " ~.g ...""t:l '" " " " "'"0 "tl"" " D8t!\ils of Dat!\ils of COMMUNITY ..0- ~ ~ v ::J c OJ d ;:: Q '" .. '0" ~ C..., ;::H Industries tiusinesl Sl; § .~ :.... .""C" _ == CD ::;'" ..., OJ "'- ,_§ .5 Q- Cl'" ... '" ~al ,,~ -;;; ;: 0 ~ " " :-:;~ .. " " ~ C " en ..,. ~ 0 :>'" c- _'3" .2..., '" ~ ~ 0 " ~o" d" 'I) "_;;:;; '~,~ '';::~.. '" ;:.;; ., ~.~ ~ ,... ::; ",._ .::; -~ o::r:l :; '" ~~ " .... ::0 ~~ "'- l! Eo; 0 " '" U ::;; _d U :;; ...... ';:!rr.... ~E 0 - h" .:..J E-< O~ "" (1) (2) (3) tt) ('1 ( ;) (7) (8) (ll ( It,) (II) (I:!) (13) Na.d .. , 27 11 ;; ., 8 Tapping and Prepara. tion of Jaggn"y--8 ){aravRr iJR 30 2 15 Shopktleping-2 Konar 13 12 II 1 S~jhng Milk-IO Pa.raiyar :W 33 G Vanna.n 5 Kamm&la.r 4- 4 " tCarpentry-:I Blackemithy-l Pallllr 3 2 1 Pillai 1 1 Pagadai 1 1 CobbJe.-1 A.mba.ttan 1 1 C. M. S. Nado.r 2S 18 \J Shopl.r.ee~:ng-l T. D. T. A. Nade.r 31 \J t 10 7 Tapping and Prep"r". Jaggery Selling-l tion of Jagg&ry-15 R. C. Nadar 55 30 2 11 11 Tapping and Prepo.ra- iSalling"nd Prepara. tlOn of J&ggery-14 tion of Jaggery-t Shopkeeping-l R. C. PallLr .~ 40 2 ... ~ Shopkeeping-l Selling hides-l Mu~lim 14 \0 3 1 Mat Weo.ving-3 48 VILL.. GIl SUltVEY Out of a total of 331 households in the village, them. There are 27 households engaged in both 204: hou.eholds Ilont engaged in cultiva.tion only. cultivation and indul!ltry in the village. Of these 24- This works out to 61.6 percent to the tota.l. The households are engaged in cultiva.tion and tradi perc.nta.ge rises still higher to 75 percent if we tional industy tapping and jaggery preparation)·.. take into consideration those houlleholds who are They all belong to th~ Nadar community whereas engaged in cultivation and in addition household there are three home401ds engaged in cultivation. industry or household business. Among all those and non-traditional industry. These three hOUL'!e- communities engaged in cultiva.tion only. the holds helong to the minority community namely Maravara are leading with 39 houeehold~, followed Muslims, who have all taken up mat-weaving by the Konar community with 12 households. Out as their subfidiary occupation. Another occupa of the remainillg households, Ie; households are tional combination is culti va.tion and business enga.ged in traditional industry only. Here the Nine households are engaged in mi1k business in. Nadar community dominates with 10 households the KomiI' community. There are three households· engaged in tapping of neera and jaggery in the village who have t&ken up shop-keeping as preparation-five households belong to the Hindu their subsidiary occupation ont of'which two house Nadar community and four households to. the holds belong to the Maravar community and one T. D. T. A. Nadar cC)mmunity and one hou.ehold household to the C.M.S. ~adar community. Besides belong to R. C. N~dar community. Next is the there are two h()n!l~holrls engaged in business among Ka.mmaiar oommunity where three householdll the !&. C. PaHars, that is one household haa taken &re engaged in carpentry and one household up shop-keeping and tho other is engaged in selling in blacksmithy; both these induetries are tradi of hides and skins. Thus we have 14 households tional. In the Pagadaj community, there is one engaged in thi~ occupational combination namely household in which the hea.d is enga~ed as n cob cultivation and business. bler. Thus we find tha.t only in the Nadal' commu nity tapping of Ileera and preparation of jaggery is Land ca.rried on as a primary oocupa.tion. As regards the 89. Agriculture is the most predominant types of hU1~iness run in the village there is occupa.tion. Tbe number of households thll.t de 8nly one household engn~ed in business only. pt'uo upon cultivat.ion either as primary or subsi It belongs to the Konar oommunity and the head diary ocoupation, is 75 percent or 248 out of a total of the household is & milk vendor. Regarding the of 331 households in the village. Taking the distri oocupational combiDll.tioDl!, there are three lwuse bution of land according to the different communi holds engaged in cultiva.tion. business and ties, the total extent of land both owned and held tra.ditional industry. Besides cultivation these on lease is divided among the five Hindu commu households a.re engli\s.d not only in tapping of nities-Hindu Nadars, Mamvars, Paraiyara, Neera. a.nd prepa.ration of jaggery but also in selling Konars and Palla.ra. Besides we ha.ve also Christians. of ja.ggery a.nd other palmyra. products produced by and Muslims. .,.. It; ...... '"<> Q ., c;• .,.. co ., .. ,Q .. In 41 .., ~ OJ ... e Community '" ., _., 0 ., ~ g Q _., .. .,... 0 '" ..0 ""~ ., .,. ., 0 01 "1:1 II " .. .., 01 0 IN '" .., '".... -= ..... 0 ~ ., a ;:; ~ A ... .. _.., A ., 0 <> 0 ""., ., ., - ...'" I " •ell .., ... 0 ;:; ~ IQ "" .., Z .. "'" "" ...... ~ -~~------.-, Hi.dull 43 2l! 9 32 31 l~ 7 :W:wilims 2 3 " J ,6 1 23 21 33 Chri.tianB ------41 11 T.t.l 7Q % 2 C7 33 II 76 tIi. !l A group of agricultural labourers Tilli n g a piece of land It.. family engaged in harvesting paddy Measuring of paddy on the threshing floor PUDlJJllJLA.1I The above Itatement clearly indicates the land Muslims. Out of a total of 331 households in holdings either as oWJled, leased or h.ld from Pudukulam 51 pere.nt or IG9 households own land, priTl.te perllons distributed among the three m&jor 6 percent or 21 houleholds ha.ve land held from communitiee namely. Hindu., Chrietianll and private personB or Institutions, wbereaB only POSSESSION OF LAND 100 90 .., c:: :3 80 ~ '"~ ~ 70 ~= w 60 -0 '0 1 50 ~ '0 40 • :! -•..."" 30 ~ lO 10 21 perc.Jlt or 71 hou ••hold. po..... bo'h ••a.d .ad people of yarfou. oa".. are lurAillted is ".111. l ...ed land. Th... .,\aill of poal•• lion of land by No. XXII. 11 50 VILL.lO ••~Y.IIY TABLE No. XXII POlleslioD of Land Number of Household. and E:z:tent .f Land ~------~ 0 Namo of interelt on '1:! I!: 0- COVMUNITY .0 ...... ~• Land 0= ,...,..,o. ~~ liiS. ..,... .;,.. ~~ ~o .. ...d -co .. i-tl ,.J, ".A .,0 ol'l •~ "iii ..,~o • 0" "'1:! $2 .s~ +>~ ... 0 .... " >;' .. .. " ICOd >0" 0" e>" " ...... >Qol ~ ..... IN 0 ." IN: 0'" iii 00 -~ (I) ell} (3) (4) (.5) (IS) (7) (I) (9) (10) (11) (12) NADA.a L".d owned l! 4, 41 2 No La.nd I() VARAVAR L .. nd owned 4, 3 7 10 Land held from private • pereon. or Institutiona 3 Land held from Governmant and taken on 19a19 4, No Land 14 KQNAR Land o .... nlld 2 IS 3 1 3 Land h.ld from priT_t. p"rsonB or IRstHution. Land owned and -tak.n 011 lea.e 3 1 1 NoLand 2 p.UUIYAR Land owned. 6 1 Land hl>ld from privatil • person~ or In8titutioD8 2 Land owned and taken On leal6 1 l! 9 l 1 No Land 4, VAN'NAN No J"300 Ii KAMMALAB No Land 4, PALLAR Land held from p r i VII. t 8 per"o•• or InatHution. 2 No I,and 1 PILLAI NoLand 1 PAGADAI No Land 1 AMBATTAN No Land C.M.S. NADAR Land owned 4 ! 2 1 Land hAld from Privata peTsons or Institutions It J Land owned and taken on lease 2 NoLand 5 'T.D.T.A. NADAR Land owned 3 ~ II 6 2 Land owned II.nd ta.ken on l~age No Land lO R. C.liADAR Land owned S 8 U 4 Land held from p r iva t" pe-rsons or r ostitlltion. lAnd owned and taken on leRAe 1 2 S No Land , R.C. PALLAR Land owned 3 2 i Land held from private persons or Institutions 2 Land owned aud ta,ken on lea." 2 1\ IS l No Land 2 llUI!LUlS Land owned 4 2 Land held from p r i v" t e pereone or Institutions Land owned and taken on Je90.a 1 No Land Paddy seedlings being plucked and bundled for transplantation Compost manure being transported to the fields from the pits Paddy harvest Work in progress on the threshing floor 'Paddy cultivation aro applied to the fields. Afterwards, the crop is 90. Oultivation hal been made pOlsible in harvelted. For the ••cond orop. ploughing start. Pudukulam due to the availability of Manimuthar in March and the crop i. harvested after nearly fiy. water for irrigation. Normally, there are two crops mrmthl. For the first crop, the period is four to 'every year. For the first crop, ploughing starts in five month.. The (}attJe are allowed to graze on Ootober with tank water. Cattle dung is put the fallow land. liberally on the field and aner 80metime lowing Itartl. Oattle-dung along with green manure., oil IrrigationAI facilities cake. etc., i. used for manuring fields. Weeding is 91. Th. de.cript;ion of the nature oflands in the next operation. After weeding, chemioAI Pudukulam il given below;- manures like nitrate, sulphate, phosphate and urea O".upied UIl-o•• upi.d Porembek. r------~------, r-___L_...o_----, Wet Dry Wet Dry Total aevlnua .oaoul1~. (in .ares) SIS 2.'51 38 Ra·sattlemen~ (in ."rl.) , 314 J.O" 2,~ I. .17 Green manures like Avaram, Vathamadaki; included i. the Manimuthar 8,..tem. Thua we Vembu. and Poovarasu leavcli arc used &S ferti oblerve that only the Manimuthar water feedl!l the iisers. Irrigation is done either by tanks or by fi.ldl in Pudukulam for the mOllt part. The total weIll! in the viU&ge. Well irrigation for the firali poromboke lands amownt to 774-.&5 acrel in the -crop i. for 81.15 acres and for the second crop is village and only 3.9' aCl""1 are cultivated out of it. 4.1.62 a.crea. Data regarding the ta.nk irrigation of the village, which is the prinoipal source, are given Crop pattern below:- 92. Area under cultivation of different orop. I Crop li82.84 acres is given below:- II Crop 1. Paddy l,lt5.09 aorel 393.33 " 2. Horse Gram 180.30 III Crop 171.96 .. " 3. Pulses 15.70 Tankwise data. are as follows :- " 1. 4. Dhall 15.63 pudukuh.m 95.07 acres " 2. Theravalli 5. Chillies 67.19 9'.'" " " 3. Veeralaperunchelvi 45.67 6. Cotton 1011.00 " " 4. 7. Maize 6.20 MaUakulam 72.6.2 II II 5. Ayankulam 54.156 8. Plantain 8.3~ " " 6. Ariyanayagapuram 2iU3 Total 1,594.50 .. " ---- Total 300.59 " ThuB we find that Paddy is the chief crop The above ta.ks are rainfed and hence clailli followed by horlegram. (lotton, chillies and 10 fied al third c1&slI Moryice. These tankA a.re now on. But orop. like cotton, pulaea and plantain inol~ded in the Manimutbar irrigation sy.tem. are not grown regularly. If the.8 peopla are Btllildes. there is the Ayyangulam tank-a. private oapable of meeting aU the cultiyation u:pen... t.ank: which irrigatea 41.63 acre. and thill i. not oDly then do tb.ey resort to thele cropl!I, Vegett.'bIt 52 VILLA". SUltTBY gardena &a auch are not to b. found in the village, the sheaves of paddy are nestlfd by iDl!ets sometimel Tegotablel may be secured fzom the thu! they are gradua.lly deiltroyed. But when backyard of & houle. where people might oultivate Kondaika.richan a.tta.ckll paddy, the whole crop is· a sman vegotable garden. d ••tro,.ed from top to bottom by insectl. Apr.r!; from the other crop diseases, rats are also a deadly menace not only to paddy but to other grailll!l Absentee landlordism &8 well. 93. Absentee landlordi.m i8 not a common feature in Pildukulam, although it u:i.t.. The typicll.l exa.mple i. tha.t of .. big land owner from Family labour llellapalayam who has given mo.t of his land on gs. MOlt of th~ agricultural processes aro le&l.. He ha.s .. big bungalow in Pudukula.m ca.rried on with family labour. For it is not where he generally Bt&yS for .. few da.ys during the sufficieJlt for the ryots to resort to permanent harTesting Ileason, in order to colleet the rent. No pa.nnaya.ls and temporary la.bourers, as they believ" inam land. are to bo found in the village. that only family la.bour could contribute to efficiency c1.nd economy. Only a handful have the regular pannayals ; all the rest a.re hired la.bourers, CIoOp diseales who come to Pudukulam from adjacent vilJage& 94. A number of orop dileall.1I Qceur in a.nd then return to their rnpective places after tho cultivation lIe.son is over. Pud"kulam, the common ODell beiDI Senthaudu. Kuruthupooehi, Verpooehi, SUTuttai, Kondaikari ehan. Mainly rats oau.. much damage to the crop.. When Senthandu appeArs, the stem of Alricultural implements paddy become. red before the formation of the 96. Cultivation in Pudukulam village is still grain and the crop dies. In the ca..e of Knrnthu carried on with age-old implements like the panchi, a.nd Verpoocai. inlleota ea.t a.way the tend.r wooden plough, scythes, mammotiel!l and crowbar• • hoots a.nd root. of thct paddy crop rellpMtiYely. ThroBhing fioOTl are usua.lly nho.en near the fiolds. SuruUai another .rop dis.a.se OeO'l11"8 when Sluices of Mallakulam irrigation tank Ploughing with wooden ploughs and decrepit oxen Millets are grown as garden crops irrigated by well water PUJ)UXULAM After ~h. crop i. harvested, ~h ••heavu are taken ground when the paddy ill B epa-rated from the in bunchel in both the handl and beaten on the stalk. Then the stalks on the threlhioi floor are Agricultural Impllmmt ($p(J,i.~) trodden by three buIll tied together which go "Puniyalatbithal " or .. Porathithal ". The straw round and round. This procsss is commonly called is stored and the grains are mealured by Marakh als, Agr~(luLhj,rGl Implement& (Spades) Itored in gUllny bags and then taken to granaries common feature in the agricultural pattern of the in their respeotiv. housel to be stored. Another village is the sub-division and fragmentation; 6f It 54 V1LI..A.GJ: SUltVlIiY land. Not only the plots of land are infinitesimally RB. divided but they intermingle with the plots of one 5. Weeding (20 perlons) 15 a.nother and this serious evil retards any worth while improvement on land. 6. Pesticide 5 7. Harvesting (12 marakkaIs) 25 8. Threshing 4, Tota.l ... 178 Chillies (per acre) RB. 1. Ploughing 25 2. Man~ring (oil cakes) .... 62 3. Saplings 30 •• Labour 12 5. Pestioide 5 aranIJry (Mud) 6. Chemical sa.lt" 15 7. Weeding so Cost of Cultivation 97. The cost of cultivating two important crop. of Pudukulam will give us an idea of the cost 8. Plucking 70 of cultivation in the village. 9. WaterIng ... 400 Paddy (per acre) Total ... 669 Rs. 1. Ploughing (8 ploughs for 4 days) .. , 25 Thus we fiud that the cost of cultivation for 2. Manuring: chillies is thrice as much as for paddy. Inspite of this extra. expenditure, greater profits could be (a) Oil cakes (2 bags) 60 reaped by selling ohillies than paddy because the (b) Chemicals 12 measures) 15 former is a commercial crop which the villagers sell in bulk. The normal yield on an acre will be (c) Cooly 2 about 9 • kottais' or 1,008 Madras measurell of paddy and four' Pothis ' or 8,000 Palams of chillies. With regard to the control of pests on these two Cost of crops (seeds) (6 marakka!s) 15 3. crops, no effective help is given to the villagers either by the Agricultural department or the 4. Transplantation (12 persons for PBDchayat Union. Only when this is done the lot 1 da.y) 12 of the villa.gers will improve. PUDUKULA.M f..and Improvement has altered the rural life in Pudukulam. Table 98. An important al!p6ct in the village is the No. XXIII relates to Land Reclamation a.nd irrigation system-the Manimuthar Project which Developmont measures. As many as 115 out of TABLE No. XXIII Land Reclamation and Development Number of h .. ua"hold. Number of families bsnefited by COMMUNITY development measure" ()wninl land (Manimutbar Reservoir Projeot) (1) (2) (3) Nadal' 17 8 Mar.var • Konar ZI 13 Parayar 18 Vannan Kammalar Pallar 2 Pillai Pa.gadai Amba.ttan C. M. S. Nadar 23 T. D. T. A. Nadar 21 17 R. C. Nlloda.r R. C. Pallar 28 Muslim 13 11 Total 261 115 261 households have been benefited by the intro 39 percent or 46 households have teen benefited by duction of the Reservoir Project. Lands that were the land development and reolama.tion meaeures. once considered as dry lands have now been put to Among Christians 44 percent or 58 households out cultivation due to the Manimuthar water which of a. total of 131 homeholds have been benefited to II ha.s been made ava.ilable for the fields. Among large extent. Among Muslim landholders, 11 out the 261 households in the village that own land of 13 households received benefits from this 117 households or 45 percent belong to the Hindus, project, the percentage being 84.6. The results of I3l to the Christians and 13 to the Muslims. Out our inquiry into the benefits accrued to the culti of 117 households that own la.nd among the Hindus. vators from the development measures are VILLAGE SURVEY embodied in Tabl. No. XXIV below. Out of s:n holds have secured better types of manure, 58 houlloholds in the Tillage, 7' per cent or 244 households ha.ve secured the use of pesticides, 4,8 households hne secured better irrigation ..l facili households more land for cultivation and 10 house~ tiee. During the lalilt 5 yean the method of holds better types of cattle. eultiv.. tion ha.s shown ra.pid progress, 239 houle- TABLE N•. XXIV Activitiel Number of Households who hev" .",mred Tot.l numbel" of .~------~------Househ.ld. Better Morelan.d irrilatiooal B.tter types Better BettaI' B&tter for U.e of laoiliti .. of cattle seeds implementll manure cultivation put.ioid.. (1) {2l (3) (5) (6) (7) (S) ~31 10 239 4' 68 Reciprocal aid agricultural implements from others ali the time of cultivation. As cultivation requires the co-operA ~9. Recipro.a.l aid in a.griculturllo} pra.cticel! is tion of both the cultivators and agricultural s ••n in the hQusehold. pra.otising a.grieulturo!!. 2,,8 labourers, a large number of houaeholda receive houleholda pra-ctis!') a.griculture in the village out ~.si.st.nce froID their neighbours a.t the time of of which 79 percent or 197 houlehold. borrow cultiva.tion a.a ma.y be seeIl from Table No. XXV. TABLE No. XXV Reciprocal aid i. Alricultural Practices NUlllber .f llouuholcilll :Mu.-ber of hou"e hold. that bono ... NUIllj,er of house· that assist neigllboun liumbu of hauee. agrieultural holds that tak. help and r.c.iv. lulp at hC)ld. praeiilinc illlpl.m,mts fro:m "r n.ighb.urs at the th. tim. of cultivation acrieulture othera at the tiro. tim. of sowinc or i. tlo. ••h ..p. harv •• ti.g of of cultiYatioJ1 .anuallabour Nad.t 14 9 • 1 .IIaravar 41 3D 38 Xonar II 21 21 • Parai,..r n 32 32 2 V.nnan X.tn.ltl.r p.n.r 2 PilIai Pa,adai .A.mbdtan C.X.S. Nadal' 1. 11 1. T.D.T.£. Nadal' U 17 17 B.C. Nadal' 43 2i 11 B.C. :Pall.r 41 t'7 ~7 Jlulira 111 Ii 11 .------.------Total %48 191 --190 11 PUDUKULAM 57 SeTentyseven percent or 190 households take help Traders come from neighbouring villages like from th.ir neighbour•• 1!pecially at the time of Melapalaya.m a.nd Palaymcottai t.o procure paddy Bowing and harvGating. 112 households pra.ctiee from the ryots. Paddy is also sent to Nagercoil r.ariculture among the Hindus. out of which 99 get in lorries by the traders The villagers are of the the &lIsietance of their neighbours. The Christian view that very little malpractice is resorted to by community i. leading with a. majority of }23 the traders and middlemen-probably because they households practising agriculture; 63 percent or 78 are ignorant of it. Besides. the price offered by the households take help from their neighbours at middlemen is also said to be reasonable. The the time of lowing and harvesting. Among the current value of paddy (March 1962) is Rs. 45 per Muslim community. all the 13 households that BSg of 56 Madras Measures. Usually, the commis· pra.ctis8 a.griculture take the assistance of neigh sion does not exceed a rupee per bag. bours at the time of cultivation. Apart from theile, there are 11 households in the village that assist neighbours and receive help at the time of Quantum of produce oultiva.tion in term!! of manua.] la.bour. Thus reciprocal aid is B.sentia.} as far as agricultural 101, Paddy 'is found to be the chief crop in practices are cODcernad. the village. There is a large variety of agricultural products due to the irrigational facilities available. Marketing For iustanoo Paddy, Ragi. Onions, Chillies, Sweet 100. The surplus of agricultural produce is Potato, Ginger and Cotton are the chief products. marketed through middlemen in Pudukulam. Table No, XXVI furnishes the quantum of various. TABLE No. XXVI Quantum of Agricultural Produce and their disposal COMMUNITY Sweet Paddy Chilli"" Ragi Onions Ginger Cotton Potato ( L) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) ($) (O) ---,------_- ---~-~--- Me_BUIes Palarnm Measures Palame Palam" Palama Pouada. Annual quantity produeed 11,618 8,000 500 ZOO NADAR Annua.l quantity consumed 9,790 1..650 100 100 i Quantity sold 1,828 !i,3nO 400 100 Annual quantity produced 4fi,802 62.508 560 MARAVAR Annu!!.! quantity consumed 3.1,694 ii,600 ,., i QUlintity Bold 13,108 52,9(JO 560 Annual qUlLntity produced 30,906 6,000 KONAR Annual quantity consumed 14,898 500 { Quantity BOld 16,008 5,500 Annual f)uantity produced 34.800 33,500 PARAIYAR Annual quantity eonsumed 20,600 5.500 ~ (juantit;y .old 14,300 28,0110 Annual quantity produced 155 PALLAR Annual quantity consumed 155 { Quantity aold Annual quantity produced 12,656 9,240 C. M. S. NADAR Annual quantity oonsumed 9,394 1,24' i Quantity sold 3,211: 8,000 An...... l quantity produced 12,.61 21,750 T. D. T. A. NADAR f Annual quantity consumed 10,437 5.0100 Quantity Bold 2,224 16,'50 Annual quantity produced 30.088 21,000 R. C. NADAR Annual quantity IIo11Bumed 2,,636 3,300 f Quautity lIold 5,4U 17,700 Annual qua.ntity produoed 33.176 42,600 2,000 2,000 R. O. P ALLAR Annual qua.ntity consumed 26,610 5,100 !OO ~ QUIlBtity Bold &,616 B7,4,OO %,000 1,100 Anllual quantity produced 16,408 3,500 llU8LIMS Annual quantity consumed ~,O32 1,200 i Quan1ity lold 7,370 2,300 15 58 VILLAGB SURVEY agricultural commodities produced and !loid. The annual quantity of paddy produced is 229,270 FasIi La.nd Sureba.rge Fishery meaBures in the village. Out of this Ion annua.l year R • .,eaue quantity of 159,116 measures are cODsumed by the Rs. A. P. R8. A. P. R8. A. P. producing households and the remaining 70;154, measures are available for sale. These cultivating 13112 2,712 9 0 18 g • hOllBeholds belong to various commllnitiel. In some communities e.g., Pallar, the quantity produced is consumed by ·the producing households and 1363 4,266 13 0 18 9 0 hence these houlil!lholds a.re self-sufficient. On the other hand, a majority of households in different 1364 4,234 2 0 18 9 0 comrnunitie" like Mar&vars, Konan, Nadars, Christians and Muslims practising agriculture !!tr. found to hsve a surplus produce which is available 13.S 3.979 2 0 368 5 0 18 9 0 for sa.le annua.lly. ChiJlies is the next important prod1lct produced by the cultivating Clommunitie. 1366 2.:WO 1 0 161 , 0 18 8 0 'in the village-th,'y are the Nad&rs. Marayars, Konars, Paraiyars, Christia.ns and Muslims. The ',tota.l annual quantity produce& by these house &s. nP. Re. nP. & •. nP. holds is 207.990 palamll, out of whieh only a. Iman quantity is conlumed, which i. about 16 percent 1367 5,61%.05 502.9G 37.12 or\ 3>!,090 palams; the remaining 1,73,000 pa19,ma is the annual quantity available for sale. As UI~S 4,992.33 33M7 37.12 chillies is a. commercial crop a. larger percentale of tl1e produce is available for sa.le. 1369 7,385.96 674.01 37.12 Another important orop is Ra,i, which is cultiva.ted only by the Hindu Nadars. Out of & 1370 8,329.98 7613.63 37.12 total of 500 measures, 20 percent or 100 me&ilures a.re annually consumed, 80 percent or ~OO mea,ures a.re annually available for sale. Sweet pota.to I37l}(in cultiva.tion is ta.ken up only by the Christil\n March 4,517.37 1,989.69 37.12 community-2,OOO lbs. is the annual quantity 1962) produced, 10 percent or 200 lbs. is cOTIl!JUtnod and in Pudukul&m. It is almost double the aven"f. of 90 percent or 1,800 Ibs, is sold annual-Iy. Onioo is tlae preyious rulis. Fish paUa has come to 3ilother important era", cultivated in the village yield from fa.sli 1367 onwards, double tlla.t of the by tile Hindu Nadar community. Out of a total previous fa.llis. Thus 'he Ma.nimuthar Project of 200 palams, 50 pr~rcellt OJ' 100 palams is available helps the people t.o irrigate their fields and yields for sale, wherea,; the remaining 50 percent or 100 greater revenue to the Government ali fa.r &11 palama is ccmsumed annually. The Maravar Pudukula.m is con.erned. Tho a.gri cult ur&l pattern community has taken up cultivation of Ginger has cha.nged to a Krea.t extent in the villa.ge, due to the whole quantity produced tha.t is 560 paJams, is the b&tter irriga.tional {&cilities available .. nd the ava.ilable for sale. In the same way, cotton which use. of pesticides, wbich ha.ve enabled a. large is another agricultural product in the village is a extent of lAnd to b. cultin,ted. The n ... ture of commercial crop and produced by the Christian crops and the quantity produced shtlw ,hat the community. The whole quantity produced, 2,000 method of cultivation ha.s progresaed a. great deal. Palaml!, is available for sale annually. Since even dry land is now put under cultiva.tion, Land Revenue beca.use of the &vail .. bility of ManiD!uthar water, surplus produce ia IMn in all the cultivltting 102. The land revenue for the past 10 years i. is giyen below. hou!eholds, whieh available for aILle annually. ThuB the prosperity brought about by the Mani The table 8h • ."s that there ha.s been a spurt in muthar project can ha.rdly be exaggerated. The the land renl1U. and lurcha,rge from Fluli 1.369 cost per acre of land hefore the M&rllmuthar water onwards beo&ule of the Hanimuth.r water was msde &l'ail~ble wall round about RI. 1,000. whioh iI now anilabl. for the irri,ation of fi.ld. Now it hI.. rillen to Re. 5,000 or &11. 6~OOO. Siftin g paddy and collecting hay near P u dukulam Dehusking o f paddy Geese-reari ng In the \ ilbge A road··side fight bet w ee n two turky (' o ck~ PUDUKULAM 59 ,Land tenures According to the Cattle Census of 19t11, the position 103. Lea.se (lulivation is also done in of the village is as follows :- Pudukulam by owners of small plots of land or as in Bul10ckB 269 80rne casea the landless get land from big la,ndlorde <>n lease and cultivate. In most cases the yield would be just sufficient to p:ty the rent or even Cowa 65 les8 than suffioient to pay the rent, Agrioultura.l la.bourers are to be found in all the communities <>f the village. with a majority in the Nadar community. Those who do not own any land and Buffaloes 39 those with fragments of land usually resort to agriculturallabour to make both ends meet. The normal rate of wages for agricultural labour is as Sheep 611 Jollows :- 1. Ploughing ..• Re. 3 per day Goat. 37 According to Socio-economic Survey Ta.ble 2. Transplanting Re. 1 per day for male No. XXVII the liveliltook statistics for the villa.ge as " whole is as follows ;- or female Bullocks 415 3. Weeding " 0.50 per day Milch cattle 40 4:. Reaping 4 Madras Measures of Cows III paddy for every 8 meaBures reaped Buffaloes 100 (al ways in kind and not in oash) Goats 293 o. Threshing [} Madras MeasUl'es of Poultry 567 paddy for every 8 measures threshed The bullocks are the beasts of burden. The cows and she-buffaloes supply the villa.ger,~ with milk. (always in kind) The Konar or ldaya community are &1so enga,ged apart from CUltivation, in selling of milk and milk produclis of cows and buffaloes. The required catLliJ are procured by the villagers from Melapa layam weekly Sha.ndy on Tu()sdays or from the Cattle wealth annual cattle fair of Taruvai \)r Sivalaperi. Cattle 104. Agricultural yield in a village is based to is well looked after in Puduku1am. They are fed .& considerable extent on the quality of cattle. on straw which is the principal food, Kanji (boiled The bullocks, the beasts of burden, are the com water of riceL oil cakes, cotton seeds and also husk pa,nions of ryots in many agricultural nccupations of dhal!. Although some of the cattle may appear .tarting from ploughing, drawing water from the to be skin and bone, yet they seem to be definitely wells by Kavalais, threshing and finally conveying better than some of those in the neighbouring the paddy bags to the market place. In Pudu villagee. The cattle in the village are owned by .kulam Tillage cattle position is not altogether bad. Pillai and Ambattan communities as may be seen 60 VILLA-G.. 8lrnVEY from Tabl. No. XXVII below. Ther. are 184 hou•• - bullocks. 15 houaehold. in the Chrietian community holds in the Tillage that pOi.ea. "15 draught pOlless 207 bulloekat Hindus in 33 households TABLE No. XXVII Liveltoek Statistici llilch Cattle Draught Bullock Goat/Sheep Cow Buffaloll! Poultry ,-__.A..---,. ,-""____-. ... --A-----. .--_.A..-----" ,....----A----- .---~ ...... , .... ., ...... _- ...... ", <:) 0'0 COMMUNITY 0"0 IIG 0 Q o~ I!fJ 0:g tIC 0 <5 o~ ttl c) "'"0 s:I z ~~ ~ z .. 0 .:l Z .. 0 .:l Z J40 ~ Z "OQ z ~ ....c:I ..... 0.s::::'~ ,.0.,,,G)~ • .-4 1'D.J::l ..... ~~'E -; -; C ji"a C; ,.0 .. Q C Balii' ... S. =: ~ .., s. ~ ~ ] S .. iI' ... II '" Il' ... S.,~ :! :! 0 0 ::I ::I 0 0 10::10 0 ;::1;::1 0 0 ::1=0 ;::1::1 0 ...0 Z,.g E:-< z] E:-< z] E:-< z] E:-< z] ~ zil Eo! (1) (2) (3) (4,) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (IS) Nadal' 2 2 13 28 4 25 2 2 13 Z7 VaraTar 33 74 4 29 II 35 14 26 4" 101 x.on&1' 15 38 5 192 8 24 19 59 \ 20 48 Parai,.... r 3 3 21 53 3 9 13 24 3 6 36 87 Vannan 2 It Kammalar 3 6 Palla. 2 Pillai Pacad.. i Ambat.tan C.Y.8". Nadal' 10 17 8 18 2 2 2 3 23 67 T. D. T. A. Nadal' 15 32 3 3 2 21 44 R. C.Nadar 2 4 32 65 IS Ii 4 6 2 3' SS R. C. PallaI' 4 11 40 92 4 HI '5 8 2 40 95 & 13 4, 8 1 1 13 32 Muslim ------Total ... 23 40 184 415 27 293 45 111 42 100 248 567 possess It5 bullocks. and the 6 households i:n. the aU these, poultry is found in large numbers in the Muslim community pOllless 13 bullooks. The village. 248 households possess 567 fowls. The posS.llsion of bullocks is of great importance in distribution of poultry among the major oom Pudukulam &1 cultiTation il the mainstay of the munith,. is 8.S follows :- village. Thull the dra.ught bullock is absolutely Hindus 271 essential for the cultiTaiion of land. The Christianll 264 majority of buffa.loes in the Tillage are owned Muslims 32 by the Hindus-3' houaeholda pOII.SS 93 buffalo.l, out of which 50 percent or 19 houlleholds in the In addition, there is one household of Vannan Konar commllnity pon'.1 69 buffaloe.!!. Buffa.lo.1 community posle'ling 2 donkey•• whioh h.lp him too, are of immense ule in rural area.. as they are to a grea.t ext.nt to earry out hi. tradition.. l more often uled for the ploughing of land, when occupa.tion, bullocks are loarce. There ..r. "5 hounholds in the Tillage that own III cow.. TwentYleven Poultry honsehold. posless 29) goats-the largest number 105. lloultr)' could be found in large numb.r. heiDI found in the Konar community. Apart from in the village. There a.re Gountry fowl. a. well .. l'UDUKULAM 61 quality breeds. Besides there are also turkeys. grazing. Goats and sheep are mainly ut-ed for Th('l quality breeds in Pudukulam are called" China slaughtering. They also give milk which is con Kozhis" &nd some good breeds are white Leghorn. sumed by the people. In spite of the advancement Rhode Island, Minorca and a mixture of any two of modern medicine in the field of Veterinery of all these. Most, of the households have poultry, ScienCl~ Pudukulam is one of those village!ol least which they use to get a regular supply of eggs and I;>enefited by it, Oat tie distases are treated in an for slaughter. Eggll are used by almost all the hap-hazard and ineffective manner. Some people households in the villa.ge. Ordinari Iy a fowl's in the village use herbal medioines fur the treat egg COHS 12 to 15 nP. and a tUI'key t'gg 25 tu 30 n P. ment of cattle dilleaset'l. Simila.rly wounds caused Hatching of fowls and turkey!! takes place periodi by ploughlil and other wounds are treated by the cally in all the househoUs that possess poultry. a.pplioation of herbal medicine", which often prove Fowls are sacrificed to God .. during festi\'ahJ. to be not mere' y ineffectJ lie but dangerous. The Chicken is a common dish for the people in sad plight of ca"t1e in Pudukulam is due to one Plldukulam village. Them is a vast scop'" tor majdr factor-the atlsene!:l of any kind of scientific improving the poultry 9f the viBage. 'rhe villagers veterinary a,,~i~Hauee. In o1'l1er to get any iScientific can derive immense bepefits from tbe k .. y village vclterina,ry <1Ssi<:hauo c: ttJe villagers have to travel scheme in 'l'irunelveli, where qualily egg>; for a~ far ,• ., Tirulwlvsl. t{Jw", where tnertl is a hatching are avai la hIe. Aillo, there are many Veterinary Hvspical. At times the Veterinary private poultry farms in Palayamcottai from Surgeon tram till,; uv~pit",l 18 br,JUght tu the village. w here eggs and high quality bre~dB could be Puciukulam villagur" are ~hllS keenly particular in. procured by Lhe villagers This iii done hardly by having a Vet.ednary E:L)bpHallleartheir village a few. Neera-tapping Goats 108. :\ext to cultivation. tappil;lg of neera. lOa. Ooals in thi:l village are prinoipally and prodUctIOn ot jaggery and other plOducts is an used fo!' milk and for slaughter. They ure also important household industry in Pudukulam. The sacnliced to Gods daring festivals. rhe;;e goa.ts red Boil in the villagtl. together with the sub·soil are a menace to cropH. OJ here is a current prop Isal Spt·jogs is most Buited for t'a.lmyragrowth (l3orasBus to IBvy It tllX on goats by the Panchayat, Tbu~, Flabellifer). Every scrap of tile Palmyra tree can we find among the villagers it tendency to hide the be usefuL The timber is used for building. young numb~r of goats they possess, They are also green leaves sr" made into water buckets and fine tryi ng to sell their goat!! to other vilL1gers in places baskets; fully matured leaves are used for thatch where there 18 no ouch proposal. ing purpo>it's, the fibJ e of the .. Mattai ,. or leaf stalk is made into nicely cut strmgil to be Veterinary aid woven into canva~5e" f'Jr cots. The fruit called 107. Improved varieties of cattle are to be I, Nungu" il!! delicious. found in the vilhtge. fhe artificial inseminatiol1 centre in the VE'terinary Hospital in Tirunelveli hall 109. In Pudukulam a palmyra grove is called not been effectively utilised by the villagers in order a 'Vadaii '. Formerly the palms were grown to improve the future breeds of oattle. The Key during the Tamil months of Margazhi and Thai, Village Centre is alilo in Tirunelveii, but many of but now it i8 done during the month of Chitrai. the villagers are not aware of I',his establishment. Soil should be fairly fertile for this. Usually it is Even the few who know about it are not inclined grown after a.llowing herds of sheep to stay for to derive any useful benefit fr(,m it. According to several nights in a . Kidai' on the plot, where they the villagers, cattl. could be attacked at leaet by are intended to be grown. Pits are dug in a line. two serious dit;eases, Plague and Adappan. When A parson has to carry a basket of Palmyra nuts Plague occur!!, boils appear on the animals and on his head and take one every time in his right aftor prolonged suffering.they die. Adappa,n, is a hand and put into each pit while filling it with soil dis8"se which suffoca~es the cattle suddenly, saliva with both hill feet. The most important thing ill. flows out freely and the cattle die. This i8 a kind ILS observed by an experienced man. the sower of heart attack for the cattle. Occasionally fits should not bend while sowing or filling the pit with also occur but this rarely kills the animals; soil. If this happens the tree will not grow straight nevertheless it w."kens them considerably and but become crooked somewhere while growing •. disables them to be ui!ed for agricultural operations. This centention it> highly dOll btful. No further. Cattle a.re also driven outside the village for manuring is necessary and the rain water will be, 16 '62 VILLA.GE SU1tVEY sufficient for the tender palms. A paJmyra trt!. la.cerationil while olim bing. The third illi.trument may be~r fruit 12 years after pla.nting and its life i.oalled • ArivaJpet.ti· made of .pathe. of coconut sp;w may be between 80 and 100 y.ars. The tree tree, and thi. i. worn around the hip of the tapper can be tapped only when the s},a..hfls comet out. whiJ6 climbini' Thi. ('lOnt&illS &rI1T&I, lime and There are both maJe and female tree!! in the three wooden plien or ' K.duppu· (for .Paruvam, Palmyra. A female trl;)e it tapped [or juice is c..Iled AI&8U and K.ttuppa.lai .tlpa.r.. tely), The Arm'al , Pe,Tuv .. m' and if allowed to bear fruits is al-U.d petti is called 'Valur&i' by the tappers. , fruit tr4ile '. A male tl'ee 011 the other ha.nd is c~lled 'Alagu' or Kattupp .. lai as I hili 0 ...6 nlay bl. Tappin,-an hazar.ous task A ma.le tr " Panamkizhangu" being unearthed PUDUKU"'A~.l months later in the month of Masi .-'l t first a. Kongandanparai oome to Pudukulam to serve the pit is dug and a bJ'er of palmyra nuts are neede of the people. His wages per annum are paid planted ~nd oovered with soil, then another in kind, paddy and grains. There are four male )ayllf i. pJanted and covered with 80il. This is and eight female dhobies in Pudukulam. They done for aboui , or i5 la.ver~ aft-er which soil is too, are pa.id wa.ges in kind. In the four flchool~ in hoa-ped on the pit and wat.ered di'lily. Six months Pudukllla.m village, there !Lre four male and four later when the pit is dug al1ian, the kizhanga female teachers. Of the~e. two fema.le teachers c.uld be found sprouting from the nuts. 'I'he~e come from I.onganda.oparai village and there is kizhangu. aro either burnt in fire or boiled in one ma.le teacher in Pudukula.m who is employed water with lalt. They have a pleasant smell and in a school at Kongand&nparai. Of these tea.chers taste. After proceslling in the above way they only one ie secondary grade t.ra.ined and 8he is the may be dri6d ..od powdered nicely after taking all He&dmistr6~1!1 of the C. M. S. Evangelical sohool at the fibre out of it and ea-ten With Bpicel! and 8ug1Lr Pudukulam. All the otberr; are higher grade or ja.ggery. The latter is done mostly by oJd trained tMchen only, who are sh'iving hard to people who c.nnot bite the kizhangu. The pit is become S. S. r.;. C. tr,a.ined. There &re two clerks called 'Kizhangu kuzhi ' . who a.re both liviDg in PudukulAm main village One p@flion's principal occupation ie tltat of a Clerk fancy basket making and it is the 8ubliaiary ocoupa.tion for the other 114,. Apart from tapping, which is carried on man. One is employed in S~. John's High Sch9ol, by some of the Nada.r hou8~h(\ldg, knitting canna Pal&yamcotta.i &nd thr other in the Panchayat out of liho leafstalk fibre and fancy ba~ket making; Board of Pudukulam. Few people in the ..,-illage are aJao done. but the!Je are not regular occupations are daily wage earn.rll in quarrying of atones and of any of the hou~eholds in the village ..In the oonstruction work like road repairing. There is ca.s. of fa.ncy ba~kets. dried palmyra leaves &I'e one Pagadai, who is a oobbler in Ayangulam hamlet taken and the mid-rib is removed. Dyes are diluted of Pudukulam villll.ge. He ill enga.ged in minor in water a.nd the dried palmyra leaves are nicely repair work of footwear and 11.1110 of .he ' Kavalais ' cut and boiled in the dyed water Thus the Jeaves of the wells in PudukuJam. acquire different colours, which are then wov.... n into fa.ns. betel bOl:el, fancy baskets and 80 on. Trade Genera.lly the!e &re not sold as they are not made ! 17. Petty shops in Pudukulam are abOut on a commerciI'Ll !!Cale. TheM~ are meant on!y fol' twelve in Dumber, which sell BweetB. grocery &nd home consumption. Ir, ma.ny household~ womcn many other things either for CAl!lh or for .Idnc:l. are mostly engaged in thi~ itt'm of work. Grains are given in exchange for good. a.nd generally in this oasa the traders have & ~hart' All the Village artisans shops a.re managed by the people of Pudukulam 115. In Allakulain and \"('eralaperunchelvi except for one at Mallakulam which i8 manaied by hamlets of Pudukulam villa.ge. there a.re one a lady from Konganda.nparai. The shops are blacksmith and four carpen ten;. Thel'e arti .. ans distrih ,ted in five of the eight bamlilts as foHows:- are most!y engaged in repair work of th.., agricul PudukuJam ma.in village tural implements ot toe ryots, fixing hor?e .boes 3 to bulls 'and so on They ar~ not engaged in the Veeraillreruncbelvi 2 manufacture of any typ0 of furniture. Their implements are com mOll. 'rhe blacksmith hal! a Ma.na.l v il ai hearth, .ledgs hammer, bellowR and !iG on. The Ma.lIakulam {Ja.rpenter has his plier, planer, ohi~el and 80 on. Ayankultbm 2 Miscellaneous workers 116. In \!eeralaperunchl'llvi hamlet t,llere is As the mtlll are usua.lly bUi, with their one rsligiou8 "'orker (Pillai) who performs pujas in principal ocoupation tl1Z. cultivation. tbe shops are the Anga.lea".ri Amman KoiL He Jives on the mostly managed by women of tbe household. offering. made to Amman. There ill one barber The~e shop!! used to ba..,-e roaring business during (Ambattan) in Pudukulam main village. I t is the h&rvest sealion. No doubt the prices ..re obviou! that he cannot eer va the ne"ds of all t·he IIlighdy higher th&n in Tirunel veli or Pala.yam eight ha.mlets in the village. and hence barbers cottai, but this is justified by the fact that the from neighbouring village!! like Ponnagudi and commoditi.. " h .. ..,.a .. ~)..~ '----- , .' -- VILLAGE SURVEY theso places. Apart from these regular shops, street oases small boys are employed for the purpose. vendors visit the village periodically. Vendors These are not paid any wages but boarding and of cloth, oil and bamboo baskets from places lodging are provided for them. Besides there are" like Reddiarpatti, Tirunelveli and Melapalayam 11.180 people. both males and females who work as are frequent visitors to PudukuJam. One Pall an permanent pannayals in rich people's bouses. The in Ayankulam IJamlet is engaged in buying and details of trade in Puduklliam are furnished in selling hides and skins. Some of the children Table No. XXVIII. of the ryots are engaged in tending cattle. In Bome TABLE No. XXVIII Trade and Business Selling of Curd Salling of Hidel and Selling of Sheep General Business ,Jaggery selling and Milk Produots Skins ,-__.A- __---. ~--_..._---, ,.-.A-__-, , ___.A. __.., ,:~_.A_ __ _. COMMUNI'rY ... 10 ... do '"C:oo Ii> ItI ~ 6 "" W C!1 ~'JIro .-0::1'0 Average ..0; Average ..0"",'" "'., Average 1~~ Average E,gc prc,fit So:!: profit so- EC~ S ~:s Average ::;..<: 0 ,,"::: profit "..<: 0 profit ::;"c 0, fit ~o,J:\ ZoO« Z,,:::""" ZOrZl Z'O"c· pro (1) (!) (3) (4) (5) (tl) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) ~~------. --_------Rs~ nP. Rs. R •. n!? Rs~ nP. Konar 0 8 25 15 T. D. T. A. Nadar l6 33 R. C. Nadar 1 Hi 00 6 33 C. K. S. Nadar 12 1'0 Salary R. C. Pallar 7 50 basis llAra,var 15 00 Not. :-(ll General business includes selling fruits, vegetables and other essential articles. (2) One household belonging to T. D. T. A. Nadal' sells jaggel'Y only in throo months in .. ytar. Inland .fishing Mat weaving U8. Though fil:4hing is not a ma.jor occupation Il9. The pioture of the occupational pattern in Pudukulam, yet it is oarried on by almost all the wlJuld not be complete if we do not explain an people in the tankE!, especially by the Parayars of important subsidiary ocoupation, namely mat M.allaltulam hamlet. Two types of instruments weaving which is carried on by a few Muslim are used for fil!hing in the vi Ilage. One is made families in Mallakulam hamlet. 'Korai' or wild entirely of reeds of oocoanut leaves and looks like grass is so(.mred on lease, out and brought home a basket. Once the fish enters the basket it first. They are then dried in the sun. The gras" cannot come out of it. The mouth of this is sccured by the Muslims of MaHakulam from instrument is placed in such a way so as to face Tirunelveli Pettai, which in turn gets it from Karur. the oppD~ite current in a strcam or it is ca-rried It is sorted out and dipped in wa.ter. AfterwaTds slowly under water in the case of stagnant water. it is cut into pieoe9 lengthwise and dried. The The second instrument is like 0. funncl- the rim is grass is then dyed and mixed with uncoloured or made of wood with a. net attached to it with the white korai. Oactus fibre is spun into strong thin bottom closed. If this instrument is oarried slowly thread and fixed in looms and the weaving of mat beneath the water. fish could be caught. If this is done with dyed grass. Sometimes even cotton instrument is also attached to the first one, then a thread may be used. When the weaving is over, large number of fish could be caugM. Besides the borders are nicely cut and then Bent to m&rkets these, rod and line are also used to catch fish. in Tirunelveli and other neighbouring villages for i'vDUK"cLA~1 65 sa.le. Thus the occupational pattern of Pudukulam Occupational mobility has a vadety the most predominant being culti. 120. Change of occupation according to thE> vation. There is also an important traditional (uistiug conditions a.nd facilities available is not un household industry being carried 011 by a minority common in Pudukulam. The nature of occupational of the population, nameJy tappiLg of ne,.ra and shift and th" caulle of change is clearly shown in preparation of ja.ggery. Table No. XXIX. According to Table XXIX as many &~ 45 persons have changed their father's occupation. TABLE No. XXIX Occupational mobility and cause of cha.ge NUlpher of persoll. who Numhu of per.ons who Numher of ch.Dg&d fe.thor's Remarks ch&l'llled th.ir own peuons occupation earlier o • .,upation who are not Cemmunity ,....____ .A.. ___-..,-- ____.A.. ______~,__- ---...... ---~ content Forced by Names of old Forced by with VClluubrily circum· and p~:~oC;:. V.luuh,ril7 circum. -pre.ent .tances ne..... oceupatiQn,s; .tancel occupation (1) (I) (I) (4) (6) (t) (7) (I) HADAR Ii 5" From Cuiti ..... tion ( cultur.l l .. bour i 1 ~ From Arrioultural IlI.bour to I. domestlC .se ..... nt lIlA1UVAR 9 Ch.nge from culti..... tion to Agri. culturallahour 11 G KONAR Fram cultlyation to Agricultural l .. bour PAIU_IYAR Change from cultiv&tiall to Agrl. ouliurallahour 3 VANNAN KAKKALAR Preferred c ..rpQntry t. black_ .mith,- PALLAR AKBATTAN Ii Fro_ cultivation ta Agr" C_ K. S. NADAR 2 4 I_ culturall ..bour ~ From T_ .. oner to Cl".k I. From cultivatiou to Teacher 7 T. D. T. A. NADAR 4 From cultivation to Agricuaural labour From cultiva.t.ion to Teacher R. C. NAD~R (" Chang. from cultivation to ( Agricultllf"J labonr i 13 I" Ch"ng" from cllitivation t" 1 Ro.d oooly \ Change from culti ... ation to "/_ Te.. her 1'\_ C. PALL,\R JfrODl cultivIltion to ...,.ioultural I.bour KUSLIMS Fr"ID cultiVAtIon to Agricultura.l labour fltr whicla 0. variety ofreaQons ha"tI been given-IO \v:\os very poor yield. The oultivators thus have Toluntarily cha.nged their occupation and experienced immeuse diffieulty and hence were 35 pjOrson. were forced by circumst.. nce.. Before forced to sell their Isude and cha.nge tIlt'ir oceupa. the M&uimuthar waters were mad. &..,.ailable for tion. :For instance, many had taken to agricultural Pudulml"m ta.nks, the cultivation of It.nd depended labour as they had no other alternati ve. A tot .. l num entirely on monsoons and welJ~. Due to the failure ber of 45 persons h:ne cha.nged their father's occupa -of monsoons or inluffioient watar luppJy there tion a.nd out of tn,ro, a. many &1 35 personll 17 66 VILLAGE SUJI,Y1tY changed from cultivation to agricultumllabour. there is one Kammalar who has become a carpenter Of thes6, 340 were forced by circumstances and but his father's occupation was blacksmithy. One· only 2 had voluntarily taken up agricultural Nadar has vol!l0tarily changed his father's occupa labour. In the R. C. Nadar community, thf"re is tion from agricultural labour to a servant. in order ODe head of household who has voluntarily Bold his to earn a livelihood. There Me 5 persons who lands and has become 8. road coaly. Among have taken up teaching while their fathers' occu Maravars we find there are 11 persons who have pation was cultivation. changed their father's occupation the shift being from cultivation to agricultural1abour. Apart from 121. Table No. XXX gives an analysis of the these there are other reasons for change of occupa nature of occupational change from father's genera tion in the village. For instance among Hindus tion to the present generation. Out of a total of 'fABLE No. XXX Nature of change from father's generation to present ge·oeration Numbfll' of per.ons whose father's Numher' of perso:lI::; \VllO wa.nt occupation was 80118 ,-_____.A.. __ . ___ _..._ their to Le iu Number ,--~---_..."'----,---....., "f OCCUPATION pf'1'~011S o having t.he '';:;'" occupatlun :. ~ " o o Z Z (1\ (2) (3~) ____(~_) ____(5_) ____(6_) (7) (8) (OJ (10) (U) (12) (i3) (14) Cultivation 651 185 20 lOt) 86 12 Lease Cultivation 124 34 4 16 15 Agrieulturallabourer 101) 10 38 2 30 5 2 Shepherd \) Business 2 2 Religioua worker 2 1 Teacher I> Dhoby 12 5 3 Quarry man Carpentry 4 2 Roa.d Cooly :I Clerk 2 ViUage Official Milk Vendor Blacksmith 1 1 Cobbler , 1 Tapping and Jag&8ry prepa.ration 28 6 • 2 s Ba.rber 1 Servant 7 1 2 1 Total 968 214 2 85 28 1 128 145 23 2 32 PUDUKULAM 67 968 workers in tho village. 214 persons still main cent or 23 households in income group Rs. 101 and tain their father's oc('upation. This works out to over. There are four dep{'udent households. and 65 percent of the households in the village. 85 three of them have no income; they are 8U pportfld by hea'ls of households ha.ve changed their father's others. Even among non.agriculturists 53.8 per occupaticm namely cultivation to different jobs cent or 2l out of 39 hous:lho!ds are in income group Iluch as lease cultivator. agricultural labourer, Rs. 2fi-50, ]0.3 percent or four households in in. teacher. etc. come group Hi', 101 and OVf'r. This conforms to the general tendency in rUfal areas wher TABLE No. XXXI Monthly Income of households by source and occupation Number of hous.holds Total according to OCCUPATION Source of inoom" No. of monthly income households .------"------, or R8. 25 R •. ill. GO B.s. 51·75 Rs. 76·100 Rs. 101 and 1"018 OYer (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Religious workers I T.a.chers Ii 2 ;j I}-Servioes Village OffieeT 1 ...... , Clerks J ~ Business Business 2 Cuai"ation :lO5 ~ ell Ci 15 2i } Land Lease CuHivation ;)(; is .. Shepherd Sfilrvices Agricultural labo ... rer Coaly work.. r 48 44 .Quarry xua.n Services Cobbl.r Blacknnithy 1 Production Carpentry and I manufacturing • } IS 2 II Tapping and JagiOjry i'!ervan'lI 1 Barber iServices 1 Dhoby J i • I Dependent.- ---- Total 328 Ii lIZ n %1 21 PODUlI;UL.. K We find that 'l, larger perot-ntage of expenditure eduoation whi{ h ill!Urpril!!ing became the children b in the food group which eXl!eed.-; 50 EJercent in all have free aceS,,!! to educlttlOll uptu the elemelJtary occllEJatioll~, eXc6pt cul!lValOIl'I where the pel cellt ,tage. .I:<.. .. e.1 allJoug ca'pelJlerll eaucat-ioll form" au age III 17.:::2. All tb.e tlllu>lOhuldll incur eXEJl:llldnure importa.nt item of eXllendiLure. fur all the thrt'e for all the i1611J" ill the foud gloup e.H:t"pt a 1ew. l)()u~ellOlds bave all average monthly expend,ture As for illstance the rellgiou! WOr k",r UOtlOl not of H,e. 1 or 1.41 perctlut. As fvr thO!6 hI,)UI~el.lOld. incur au] e:-tpe\lu;ture oa mea\; ur fbh, as engaKed in taflpmg 8.11d jaggery vrtplI,ratloD there his religion does nut permit him to do 80 ile'ild68 ale t bGu!elloIJ, in illcolLe grUlljJ Hs ;;5 MId Ie». th~re I1re other houBehold~ 1ike the Ihf'phel'd, and 7 hou" .. holds in HI. 2ti-fil) which have ir,cufJed "CJbbler, ~ell VIl."t and fmroer who have !lot incurred an li-verage expenditure of 1{1.0.78 monthly on "any expenditure 011 milk, fUga.r, jaggery, tea ami education, abuut 1.4. pelcl"nt. 'J here are 2 heads "coffee. Thi& i8 b::'cautltl their huu~eholu Illcome faHa of Lou.sholdll, who lOIre clelks the avera~e expl"n in I he low illcome ~roup. There i .. abo one buu.e· dlLure on educatilJll being I{s 3.lIu or 40.;,7 perCl"rlt. hold whtlre the h(,I1IJ i~ a qll"arryman. He incurs 'j hu. we finti tLa.~ ed uClltion formll all. iUlf'ort",nt expf'nditure on milk, but Ilut on sugar, jaggery• item ot expenditure foL' some of the huu!eLoJdli in . tea. and cuffee. .Even thill hOUH!hold ill ill the low tbe village. incolll61 group B,"I. 2l)-.')1,. The avordge expendit ure 011 rice eX(J~e(I. a11 otlt.r item. in Lhe food group, Miscellaneous expenditure as rice form. t.he IItaple foc.d of all the PllOP:", in the village, and cultivation the llla.in8ttly uf the 1:25 .Expenditure ou Dhoby a.nd SOIlP hal vill~ge populatilJn TAuie XXXVl.l iudicate, the heeu incurred by majodty ·of the houschuld .. in the p TABLE No. XXXII Expenditure on fe.tivaJ. Number of household. &ccording to monthly mvome Exp,mditure Total Ii" l'toup"".) A on felt ivaI. No. of ~ {iu l(uv-... ) houaehold. r------2$ ------101 .. nd 26-l>O Ill-H. 76--100 and below over (I) (!J (3) (4) (II) (6) (7). __ NIL JI6 11 13' 48 11 12 B.l.... R •. 0 30 1 Zl a 3 2 6- 10 M S 2! iT 4, 'I Jl- 20 J7 1 2 21- 30 6 •1 1 • 31- 40 • 41- 50 1 1 111-100 J 1 ... lUI 8£ over J 2 Total 328 15 19% ---n 21 --27 PUP171WL4J1 \Ve find a la1"ge number of households with only 5 households out of which 3 belong to income no expel'ditllre on fe~tiv8.I.. Thi:4 is about 6;').:!6 group &8. :.!6-50, and one huusehold each in illcome percent or 216 out of a ~otal of a:H households in group RI. 51-75 and H,8. 76-100. Thus on gtmeral the village. A majority of households wIth n!) perusal of Table No. XXXII whioh relates to the expenditure on fe"tivals is found in income expendit.ure on festivals we find th&t in income group group RI!. 26-~O, 6;.! percent or 1340 out of 216' Rs. 26-50 there are two hou:,eholde. one ill houlleholds. 22·0 percent or 48 out of the rema.ining expenditllre grOllp Rs.41-50 ami "he other in households are in income group Rs 51-iS, 5 percent R,.51-100. The expenditure on festivals ri.6S11till or II households eaoh in income group H,s. 2.'j and higher in income group. Rs. lUI and over, iii below and R;;.76-11)0. Beeides tnereAre 12 hou~e· tw,) households. Although the rural folk iii holda or 6 peroent in inc Number of houaehold. 8('cornillg to monthly income Erpenditur. q'ot&1 (in Kupf)('sl on !io. of -----...... _--- marxi.. ,_ houa.tlOld. 101 61-75 oVllr (\} (1I\ I'Z)'"' NIL 318 11 185 71 :1 ZI SO or Ie .. 1 1 at-lea lOI-2OG 101-400 401-GOO Z 1 fOl-800 1 101-1.000 I :s 1 1,001 and 0.,., 1 1 Tetal 328 H "2 7J 21 ----~7 '72 V!LLoLOB SURVEY Ma.jority of households having expfmditure on cultivation is the main~tay of the popUlation. In IDarrlllge is found in the inc(Jm., group [{Oil 2'i-50, Pudukulam. larJ.(e allloullts of dtobt; Lave been that IS ~even in all Tile expemliLurtt range". from incurred by various cOlJ1muuitic", wllicb are R!!.50 or I.,"s tv R-. 1,001 and over. In inco1lle utilised for productive purp".ell. The Maravars of grllUp !:ts. 51-75, tiler., are 2, hou~ehold$, one with Veeralaperunchelvi ale the principal Dlouey an expenditure Letween H,Il. 4{Jl-liOO ~Ild the uther lellder .. , folJLlwed by Konar" in hId llknlarn village • lb. !:lUI-lUUO. There i;; only une household ill the .BeSIdes the people alolu burrow frolI) ueigbbullrlllg village with an 'xpelld.LUl'e of RII. l,OUl and villagel! like H,'Idrl'arpl\.tti and KOllgalllianpa.rai. over. Thu Community Total No. of Hou8l>hold. Total .. mount l'ilrc,'ntage to households ill d"b~ of ,Iebt Tot .. 1 (H.•• j Hindus 160 109 8:1,215 47.4 Chri.ti",,,. 157 119 41,730 3~.7 14uIIim. 14 14 18,.1.50 13.9 ------Tolal 331 242 133,495 From the a.bove it a.P08t.r1l thltt 71.1 percent or Ohril!tian community. 7;;.8 pl'rcent or JIg JlOu~e 242 hou.ellol.!" in the village lU1.Y1l incurred rl~ht. hold" nut of a. tot.al of 157 hou~eh()l,l. in the The lugest amollnt of d··bt i, ¥een in the Hinliu community. and sbollr. 30 n p&rcent of the total community where nM.12 pt'r~ .. nt or 109 non·ehnld. 1111 III hl"r of households in t.he dlla.l,l;e hlPi" incurnd out ofa total 01 16t) h(ju-ehoids in the com'nunity .. rJilbt of ({,s 517:10. A striking fellture in t.he are in debt. for I'll. 6:12[5 whprea... th~ largMt village j. that all thA !4 h 'lllI, hold" that belong to number of households in debt are found in the the Muslim c .In l!l unity are in debt for lb 18,550. RI. 2,5 and b.,ow RI. ~6-.50 RI.51-j!:J RI.76-100 n •. IO! and uve~ r-.A..--","\ r-- r--J....___,:....._., r-~ r--.A.-~ • '0• "0• ., ':::• "0• 'C. . ~ .. c-ci ...c 'O..l -." ... 0"'; -0.0.. 0:: 0-", c: :::l :::l == .c .. ::l ..:: .. c 7~ ""..0~ .. 0" -;~ COM1W~ITY ~ .. --0 .,'0 <> ~-:l .. " "'-~ " i " ::l ~ . :::l ~ e e ft ~ ::' ~ := .:I O.~ c .~ ~ a -< -< ~.= -< -< II: ,~ ..: !:q :i::':: !:q Hilldus ! 33 .59 24.495 27 19,000 ]0 1i.18i , " 13.0110 Christians i 900 '17 3!,8!10 29 H.l\foO 2 I.COO • 2,400 :Yullims :2 1.!lUQ 8 5,050 J lI,flOO :I 6.0nO ------~-.------.-- Tot .. l 11 2,835 142 62,425 59 40,050 15 12,785 15 15400 l"UDUKUL.l'lll Tbe IIohove table reveal. that a. large number of and R •• 12,78;i is the amount bOTrowf"d by 6.2 'households in debt are fonnd in the low income percent or 15 household". in income group :group~. 5i.7 p}rc,)n~ 0': the h(>u!lehold~ in d,.bt, Us. 76-100. when'as in the high income group namely 142 ho""t'hold,, have inCUTTecl a. del·t· Re. 101 and over, (;,2 perct'nt or 15 bou8ebold~ ha.ve· or R". 62.425 in income gloup Rs. 26-50 and there incurred a debt uf RB. 15,400. ThUl', it is leel] tha.t are 11 h(lU~ehoJd,. or 4.;; percent with a totnl dr'bt I:. maximum amount of debt ill found among the ~f Rs. 2,8'15 in income group Ks. 25 Il[ld below. In low income group". Table No. XXXIV indicatet the midrile income group H.s. D1-75, 2l-.4 percent the prop.)ftion of indebted houaehuld. ..wonl or 59 household~ have incurred a. delJt ofRs. 40,050 different communities. TATILE No. XXXIV INDEBTEDNESS Av ~ra!l6 .tt.lllonnt Totol NUmh"r of P"rc"nt"go Tot .. 1 .. mount CO:tIMU~["rY Income Groupo ntlmh>-'r of h",j .. ehold" of Cnl. 4 to 01 d"ht per huu.o. of d~bt hi 118ehold. in deb' CuI. 3 hold in deb' (1) (21 (:I) (4) (:>1 lSI 171 ns. H •• nP. }\e. nP. NADAR 2, Bn 1 below 2 2 1'10 3~l) on ISO to 2(i to !=\ojl 18 16 88.88 •• [160 00 ~IO 00 51 to 7-> 5 5 1'10 3.1\"0 (·0 7n 110 I" I awl over t Z 100 •• 7.10 00 2.3;0 00 HARAVAR 26 r,(I fiO 3::) 2:! 6'!'7" 7,1IS;;' 00 31H 9:; "I t n 1·; 11 7 6"'fi4- 6,1l10 OG {lli7 14. 7~ to JOr) \I 6 (i6 67 ,1.(:15 01) 6b~ 16 l4q a.nrt QVI'r :~ !l 100 6 •.500 OJ 2.16; 66 Ono hV'H,""ld hal DC} iocome; supported by others. KO~AR 2~ to SO 9 4. ,~·u "./l01) 00 \I.IIM 00 fil tc) 7.~ 7 6 "5'71 2.1I.'iO 00 ,(gl 66 'Iii t,., 100 1 1 WO 400 00 6t.0 tlO 10\ ",q(j over 6 PARAIYAR 2~ to ,;0 2:l 15 R~'22 4.4.'\0 00 !l1I1 117 Ii I t.o 7.) 9 8 88'~1I 6.6;; , 00 '106 ~5 7i to 100 1 1 1'10 I\()() '0 fj'tll 00 101 and o'''' ... r II of, 66'i;7 1,110') 00 .50 00 VANNAN 2,\ ~,n.l helow :t 26 t.o IS' 2 2 }I·O 500 00 2.50 00 !H to 1") 1 1 il'O 10" 1)1) 100 uo KAM}[ALAR 2<> t.o 1\0 2 76 to 1"0 2 2 100 'flO 00 375 00 PALLAR. 2 to ,"0 1 J;I tn n I 0,," hou."hoJd withou~ income. PILLAI 25 to ~o 1 PAG.\DAt 2" and b"low 1 100 7:; 00 75 00 AMBATTAN 2fi and below }OO ~ no 500 00 C. M. B. NADAR 2.'\ "'''' belo .... I ... 2~ to F,O 15 8 113':1:1 2 •• '\(} Of) 30~ 00 Fil 107.; 8 4 50'00 1100 00 225 00 7,\ to 11111 I Fq RU,..J over 3 2 6667 6.iO 00 27. 06 T. D T. A. NADAR 2;' "nd huluw 1 1 ]I,U :lOO 00 3110' OJ 2fj. to, ,~n :0 H 7,. 5 !I.'" HO 391 67 Fil In 7.> R 7 87';;0 2.110" 00 (J~ 29 11)\ ""d over 2 R.C. NADAR 2fi "nn below I :I 7.~ 300 (0 lOO 00 2.6 t.n. 5-lI M :U M'll 14.\\i\I.· ~) 40,3 23 Fil to 7 \ II '7 ~7 flO 4.8"0 00 6,'"5 71 71\ 1n 1I)1) 3 s· 1\11 1)7 1 110" (1) IiOU O(} lill $\.' d "VAT :3 2 66'>7 7l1U 00 300 00 One hO"81'holll haa no in~om .. ; ~uj)porten hyothers. RC. PALLAR "JA Rilli b~low 1 1 .) 100 :If)!) 110 MO 00 26 t,t) :'l t, 2~ 23 ~S·t6 D ;')!iO 00 f'.~ 21 1\1 tn 7:; 13 11 84'62 6,9~O OJ MD 9L 'i6 to 1,,(1 1 Hil and IIVAr 2 2 lIlO t .150 00 /17.; flO lIUSLnr 21\ anrl h"lnw 2 2 iOO 1.0\) 00 50" 00 26 to fill 6 6 100 50m 00 8H 67 ~ I to 70 3 3 JIIO 6 fil)O 00 2.166 67 76 '0,"0 3 S IOn 6.00,) 00 2.000 00 19 74, VlLLAQ:a BUlIIl'EY Debt by income ,.angu RII. 101 Rnd OVf'T, thllll in th .. low income grou~ 132. Regarding Maravarl! among whom a ]Ilrg. H~ 26-.'>0. 'I hNe i - .. gtmeral tenrlency among numb"T of houleholdlls in debt, the !!overage indeb the high income jZroup p~ople to borrow larger tedlle&8 (or tbe vt.rioul income groups i. all folio",.: Il1ml! of money Mum p('(lple with Jo", illcome. '1 his is bo('aul'le of their capacity to repay the ~um Income group Average inrlabtednel8 bo,rowed, This is the mfl.lD reuon why money {{s. 26-50 RI. 3112.9;; lendel'll aTe willing to knd li\Tger ~ums of money R •. 5l-75 RI. 95-,14 to people with high incon}I"I', Thus it i ••een {Oven R.. 76-100 R,. 15891ft among C/lri.tian ... Bnd Mlislims that the average' RI. )01 and onr R,. 2.166.M in'lebtedlle~@ incrl'upa witb the income, which il in 'fhe ahove fi2urel, indicate that the average cOllformity ",ith the genrral tendency, the Ligher indebtedneu ia higher in tho high income group the income. the greater i" the &mount. borrowed. INDEBTEDNESS (00 100 90 C)O 80 SO 10 ... 10 40 ~ 60 ;X ~ :z 50 Q III SO :z; ~ ~ ~ . C) .fIl .. 0 m· 30 30 2.0 'lItI,:Jlj1r( '!;",_'ili,,/,/. iO '11J1;1J1,,;'" \It, I'f.,t, ~¢, II) 7t11,<;/",~ 0 ~I;:?I;: ~ l! .§ 03 :! ~ " ~ ~ ~ i \~~-I,~ .g co ~ ~-' -!! '" ."J#I .l:! ) ~ ~ ,...- ~ " d 6j PUDU][ULAlI 73 TABLE No. XXXV CAUSE OF DEBT !Iluebledueu by Proportion of CaUlS of dobt t1ubt "m, to COJU(UNITY Caus. r--- _..-A... --~ --...... cnuse to the Amount of N'urnner of t(J.t!l18rnOUn' deut Ituniliel of debt ill dob' (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) NADAB (a) Ordinary ", .. nts lFam,l,. expenee.) 74?O :H 54048 (b) Huu• .,hold CUl~lv"~lun CI,~CO 7 45.5:.1 UARAVAR (IJ) 'J'urphue pr land 8,91.'1 5 35.20 (b~ 1-1111l-l-A cnn&t.nw,t ion or r.pa.ir. to exi.tina building 4"0 1 158 (e) Ordinary "a"tl F~mil.1 "xp.n ••a) 1 LI\oO 23 ';-,.8~ (,I) HOll:ol6huhl cultiv"tjon 3,IU.l U 1:1-45 (,,) l'urchaee of Car. and Bullock 1,000 3 3.11. KONAR ("'l Houlle Conltrnotion or repain ;'0 .xilting building 41000 2 61.30 (v) Marrlsg"s 111"0 % \l.1'5 Ie OrdinHr, ",an's (Family exp.n... ) :.7,,0 T 27.M, (o.t) l:'urchas. of Cattl. :100 1 ..O! PAnAIYAR (a1 Purch ••" or land MIl) 1 403 Ib) II ,"uoe "''''81. ud,ion or rep.ira to ,,:xi.ting bnildina 1.6uO 3 1~.911 Ie) Mar1l8gt I 1.51>0 1 Il.IO (a) Ord"""y want. (Fe.mily "xpen••• ) 7,IIUO %-4. 113.71 (tI) Hon."hula ",nltiv.tion 1100 3 7.-11 VANNAN rlJ) Sickn... 300 2 liO.O() (b) Oro ill"'} .... ant. {Fa mil,. "xpen.... l 3vO :I bO.U\) KAMMALAR (a) Ordinary wAnts (Flmily expena,,-,) 750 2 1(;U.JO PALLAR No Debt PILLAI No Debt PAGADAI (a) Ordinary want. (Family expenses) 75 1 100.00 AMHATTAN (a) Ordillary want. (F .. mily sxpenoeB) soo 100.00 C.H.S. NADAn (i1) PLlT<·h ..... 1I of lanfi 2no 1 5.20 (il) House con.tluotion or repairs to exi.tinl building ~5\) 1 11.0 (~) "'tarfl" gel 3 U 1 7.1!l (.,) ~Ickn .... ~!II) 1 0.20 ('I Ord,,,.'y want .. (FAmily expenses) 2,.:10 l~ 6:1.6~ (j) Hon•• hold cultiv .. tiou 4.50 2 11.08 • T.D.'t.A.NADAR (n) Pllrchao " of land ~OO ! 5.47 (Il) S,ekll"x" ] .r)o!» 1 16.:m Ie) O·tlillary want. (Family expenles) II.RiU 21 7~ Sf!; (d) lIou.eholu cultivation ~tlO 1 32:1 R.C. NADAR (a) Purch" ... of I.n') 1,001) 1 ~ ..~9 (b) Hon,e construotion or repain to existing buildin, ~O(} 1 0.92 (e) .\larJ'l"gea 2.o(J1) : 9 .• 8 (d. To cl<'ar outot .. nding d"bt. 1,3 0 ! 1\ 117 (,.j O,rlillsry wan.s (Family expens•• ) 13.03U ~I 698:t (J) Houleh"ld culLivatlOn 3,~11I) 10 17 gO Ig) k:duclltion 350 1 1.61 R.C. FALLAR (al PIlT('hasft of land ~OO 1 177 (b) Hou ... conatruction or repain to exi.tiDI buildiDI 1,2~O 1& 737 (e) J\lar ... gea 9'0 a lUll (d) Si,kne.. (1(0 1 2.\l5 (0) Ordinary ..... nta (Family up.n... ) lU.~O 33 117.-'5 (I) Houaellold culti,,,,tion J,300 II l.I •.57 (,,) Bu.ine.. run by the hon•• hold 2VO 1 1.18 MUSLIMS (n) Purchu. of land I,M)1 1 8.09 (I)) MHri~ges '.1 (10 I 10.71S Ie) Ordin.r.y ..... anh (Famll,. exp.. n ....) 15~o:~n U 81.la 76 VILLJ.OE SU;RVBY C.use of Debt marriftge~ according to the major rommunitics is. H1. The cau"e~ for debt ~~re many and varied as follows;- in Pn,lllkula.m. The villa.g'·rs gftneraliv borrow 1'1,t.al Amo1lnt monev ['ir producj,,1'1 pllrpoi'es. The largest amount community hf,usl'holds of debt of debt wa.~ ill(lIlrred for family t'xpenl:'f's. Thit' is ( Hupee.) dUfl tl th" farlt that, hetnr8 !\l,tnimuthar water WIIS ITinrius 3 2,.J.OlJ made ava.iiable for 1 Uliukulam lands, per,ple we.e Chri"tians 6 3,250 living a very miserable lif~. ALject poyert:- rulf'd MUlilims 1 2.COJ evelvwhere. Helice Ihe villHgt'rs Wt'Te f,.reed to borr~w money at very lli)!h rate!' sillce they COil d Tota.l 10 7,f 60 not cultivate t h"ir I ,nd:;. ~ iril,mt a pnenninl wllter Buppi.v, Among the hOIl~eh, lriR 1 hAt have incurred ne~i')e" t.hHCe, in the R. C. N!l.dar community dl:lot,;>, f . and thi. could be done only by a proper lup.rvi.ion 'ndie.. of prosperity bv Governlneut a.1 well al Co-operat.he autboritie. 138. The eoollomic .tandardl of the people in that the 108.11. obtained .hQuld b~ u.ed for tbo~. PudukuJarn is now tendmjo( toward. an era. of .pecified pllrpolle. only and not for auy uther proltpedty. !'rior to the M.. nimuthar Project, purpo"e. It i. reasollable Lhat agricultural whien has made water a'fail.ble for Puuukulam 'opf'ration. at times d~ruand extra Il:lpelldll,ure field. the vllla.gers were in the glip of POVtll ty &rld "wbich oould be me~ onl, by loanl. lIov.ever, thil aqualor. Belidel, the "orl "" DOl. rei tile alld -doe'! not mean that lo .. n, ohtained for agricult ura.l r .. infall insuffioient lAnd ill-di.tributed. EXcep' purp0!'le. Ihould be millu~ed or there .. bould not be {or pa.!myra tapping. jllggery preparation and that mentAlity among 1 he people th,tl ftxpenditure cultivation to a very Iimi' ed extl-nt. there wa. could not be controlled and loau. lor. IiLblolutell DO other meane of livelihoud in the village. There Allaentia!' were a leriel of farninftl in the district Which affected Fudukularu 101150. The price. loared too rRates of interest hiuh that the people could not afford it.. The 131. The rates of inter.lt vary widely. and people did not have eYen rice or any other in most ca~elJ they are limply eX0rbitant. Further foodgrlloin to eat. Except for a few garden crop. mnch dt'pend~ upon the reldtiombip hetween tbe lilte ngetablell (Brinjal, Plantain, Tbadiyangai and prut'pective creditur and dehtor. In ca~e tbe Pool!&ni) which were watered by well!!, all the other debtor happen~ to be a friend of I he cre'litor the crop. wit.hf'!red. Only the palmyra, stood out. intere"t ia very luw Simil&rlv if the creditor and providinllopporlunity for the Nadar community to ·df'bt.or belong to the same c&"te the rat... ot interest. exploit them profit~bly. T. e p~ople were lorcf'd .()b&r~pd ill the lowelt p'~~l!ible one. But lin the to elLt fried plantains and plantain IItems and ~the~ hand the two largtst corn",unitie'l! in the drink ooffee or tea with jaggery but no milk. Some village namely Marav8n and Konar" who are pf'!ople 11.1.0 ate . Panarnkilangu' eit her broiled 01' aJmo-t aJ,.aYl! on friendly term I WIth eAch other . boiled. dried, powdered and flJ.voured with lalt. • h·)w cmsiderationl! to each other in the matter of ·giving loans Tha rate of jntere~t ranges from Benefits from Manimuthar 61 fJercent to 72 percent, the 72 percent intere~t 1:i9 The ..,ailability of Manimllth&t' watt!r being the most oommon one, which,. gen .. raJ1y watt the harbinger of Ii Dew era of prollperity in the e.xp'e".('d by the vill~ger. &:l I anna per rupee village This dam affords a perennial water ~uppl1 per mensell. Similarly the ratell aTe ! anl,a. for the fields and h&l!!enabled even 3 crop, [ler fal!li p"r J U fJee per mf'ntleru and als(I 1 lion nil. pH IU pt'e in the village. Rice i. the Itsple food of the pl'ople. per JDtHl!lem w h icll work. out til 36 pNCtlnt alld and three meals are available for them everyday. l~' percent respectively. On the olher hllnd, Prior to the availability of Manimutbar wILter, Co·operative and Uovt'rnmf'nt loans clUry atl m }~~ of the villageril neither knew the name of the inlertl~t rate of tii peroent Intert'st could alllO be river nor "hat the Ma.nimuthar pa... ed through their paid in kind. fur instllflce, if a man hilI< mortSZlged di,trict as & tributory to the Tambraparni. ]\0"". his Lnd fur a loan, the interellt ill thl'n paid in at le&~r. 101lle. if not all, know 10rneLhing abou*, kind which u"nally amount!! to nine-t.ellt hI! of hi. Manimuthar river and the d!Lm built. aorOl1l it. produce Intf'rf'stcuuld be pa:d 111 kiJld III two way"_ ThUll tni" i, the mOllt important and perceptible paddy and jag~ery. The laHn i. pHoid 011 Iy by the 'ign to sho"" the tendency of the viHllge ecollom1 Nadar" who art'J eJljZ61led ill tappi ng &nd towards pru~perity, The detaill! of lavingtll, &cqui . jlA!!gery prt'paratlun &!lO paddy by t h01le ~nga,ged in litlon of property by different lIectionl of peopl. cu:tivatioll. The exchllnge III tllt! Nun ber ..I houPflholrls NUJlI ber of houee. Numb 1" of hl,u~ehnld8 which Total Tota' which have a"quir"d boills Whl(lh have h,.,loIe JlIlHI~ :;;;avingll in nlJIllber en1.l)unb property Community of hllu!'!e .. c["ared dE'hts of debt ,-_____ ..A.____ -., h .. hla duriI'~ th" palt ciear"d r------.A------~ 10 }ear.l Land HOU."5 Both Cash Ornan.ent. Insuranco (2) (3) (I) 10) (6) ,'7, (l() N .. dar 27 2 "arava' 66 20 2 13 2 KanaI' 23 I) 12 Paraiy .. r 12 2 3 7 V&nnlln 1 Kammalar PallaI' 3 l'illai Pa,ad.i 1 AmbatteJl , c. Y. S. Nadal' • T. D. T. A. N .. dar 31 I R. C. Nedat' Rio 1,050 8 , • • R. Co Pall&l' 43 RI. UOO , D s ------,------Total 331 1 R .. o 2.650 65 11 2 56 Reqervoir Sohl'me, there wa! Material culture and sliced but now it is niel'ly Ilrilled and perfumed. 140. Another feature which h noticl'able in Similarly r he chul!am was white and not I!cented the village is the cha.nge in dre8s of both males and but n. w the people demand red alld Ilcented females. ):i'orUltlrly the men u"ed to wea.r on Iy a. chuna.m. Men smoke cigars alld bldis. which 1hey dhoti a.nd a 10m cloth. They used to hav6 a. towel furmerly oould not afford to buy; at present a few OV6r their shoulders. whi\,h they utili~t'd to , men !;moke cigarHtes which i" indeed a luxury to oover tht-ir heads flom the bf'at of the &UII, or the villagers. However, we mll~t note that moat to cLean their hands or face after washing. Now, of the lIIen smoke lJidis only. not only bec'ause oC they wear a Olean dhuti, a banian or a itbLa and a their comparative ch,aplje~s but ~I~o for it!' strong shirt, whenever they leave the village for towns flavour. TraveJlilJg by bus was cODside:ed a like Tirunelveli. t'alayamootLai or Melapalayam. luxury in oldell days. J'eople walked ali the wa.y Although all do Dot wear them, at h'a.st 80me do. from J'udukuJam to Tirullelvl'li Tuwn. Another Similarly the chappals made of It'athtlr or foam reawn for this is that they had to wait for the bUI rubbe-r have replac6d those with palm)fa leaf fur quite a long tiille and they cuuld !lot carry any . st.alk with no strapi. Tbe~e indicate the general 10lld to markets to I'(·li or to bring tl,e gouds that prusperity 01 the villag,:Ts Years ago the women they might h'we bOIl!!bt in Sllandys or marlier ... wore no upper gtrments. but used to cover the Hl'11Ce tlley prt'fernu to wall;. or travel by bullock upper pa.rt!! of their body with the ",aree they wore. ca.I'L8. At pre"ent, goil g to Tiruneheh by bu" liRe Now, except thol"e who are old, all wumen wear becom .. as common as travelllllg by bulkck cal h in a bodice and a blouI'e, some of them even embroi· olden. daJiI. The people all' prepsled to PIl) alo'nlllch dered. Costly clutbes made of n;ylon are ah40 worn as 25 IJaya pail'le pt'r trip pel' l'er~ou. alld wait lor by some women in tbe village. They al"o wear the bUI! eVi'll for hours togetl.er. '1 hUll 'We fiI.d in ohappal. which wa.. a hu.ury denied to thew for ]'udukulam & ttcndelJcy t(JwardM·a nJlJre l,rol<1 erou& merly. life, l\hith is 8ure ar:d celtaiu bLt d"w. .FUlther. this telJdency towards prOl-perily is furtber blolJ~M. Habit of chewing out by the !l8i; of waljhiug or blJthing SOBPS, radius, 141. Most of tbe villagers both men and g·Ang to the ClnemllS, educa.tion of cJlIJdren in womt-n are in tbe habit. 0; ohewing which comi~ts placeg like Palayamcottai, the COllstlu(;ti(,n of of beteillut. perfumed tobacco and perfumed rl'd costly houses like teulu;eu aDd tHtd LOUHII and chunam. The last two RTe perfume-d with tuilet so on. water or 'Panneer' Formerly. tobacco wa. hard VILL..llllli SUBVJ:Y TABLE No. XXXVI[ Averale monthly expenditure per household by iDcome groups and occupations ---~------All ~ ii NUmber of houlehold with a ro,mthly income of hou.eh"ld. ~ ~ '-R.-.-.-2-~-a:~·------.A.------.-.-IO-I-a-~ ,-_..A.~ R " ." RB.26-50 RI.61-75 R •. 7,} 100 over ..~ il III.ml of .xpenditure ..... ",,," ~0=i e ...... iii c .. o-e ...• IIIlZ "0 .. ,~ oil •• !; ~ .. -e l"i "'=-" <. '1:- c; " ~~ ...... :> ~ " p; o .., " < .. Z.a <"" ~ ""' .." ~ (I) (2; (4) (6, (10) tIl) (121 (14) CULTIVATION 1. Food Group R •• DP. R •. nP. BI nP. RI. nP. RI ...:P. R. nP. (a) Rice !05 17 -&0 1'7.111 I 12 17 99 14. 61 M 11' 12 lei 20 -35 II 28 33 (b) Oth~r Irain. E06 II 01 6.111 IS 4 60 99 4 III IJ 6 25 15 6 IilI 2.1 11 ~. (cl \l "ietabl.... I 9:l 3.00 I 7~ 119 2 39 CIS 3 16 15 3 gil \ U 4 02 (dJ M~d, fish 01.-0. 3 '70 3.8l 3 2 68 1111 3 20 6S 3 911 15 4. S2 22 4 63 19" 3 01 3.10 2 Cl3 all 2 4~ 611 3 01 US 3 63 22 4 77 UJ Ghee, oil. !OS 4 13 4.2S 3 67 " 3 IS 611 "41 15 6 02 .22 (v) Condiment. 3 10 3.111 3 75 Sill 2 114 66 3 33 15 S 68 2t (11) Sugar or jeggery 2 3, o 7.~ 83 I 24 65 I 27 15 2 80 21 2 73 ('I C·,tJ.... "nd ' •• 18-& III 1 o 10 13 0% 65 23 15 1 52 20 1 63 (i) Tnb&eco. Bmokins and eh... ml!; tOl t ()'7 !.l3 1 13 911 1 so IS I. Eduo.tion 86 3 31 3.41 '6 10 33 S 24 :S. Dhoby or loap 203 o II 0.83 o to 118 0 '76 GCI 0 86 16 0 III U 0 87 o 74 0.'7~ • • 1i0 15 0 01 " 0 '73 II 0 ~1 n 0 al ~. Tta"ellmg 1117 Ii 1.1'7 o 83 9l 0 1111 6' 1 II 15 6a 2J 6. of. lrediMI (efO. and Dledlcin,' 311 12 • III • 0 83 -' 1 88 14 "4 o 4'7 ,4 • 35 37 0 40 11 0 ~ H 1 01 I. ADluoemeoh 1 US II 1.15 t' 0.1 SI 1 %8 13 16 111 1 »- •• 8.";01(1 tpro,ddent Jo'uudl 1 30 00 30.18 1 :110 00 1112 • 11 UI 3 ! f(I '711 • 11 11 • 76 III • 81 al. R"m;tt,"n.·... to d.p.. n. dent. [i"intr .t...... ht;r. 11. Other it~m. 701) II 3~ 11.57 4 no 911 I 01 6' • 44 Hi '7 '711 :II 11 '70 Total 17 14 PUDUKULAM 81 TABLE No. XXXVII-(Oontd.) Average monthly expenditure per household by income groups and occupations All Number of households with a monthly income of ~ a ,-___,,______A ______-, households z ., ;; I!:i g .. Ra. 25 and Ea. 101 and leB~ Ra.26--5() Ra.51_75 Rs 78--100 over '".: .,5 Items of expenditure ::=~ 00- ...... , ., c 0"" 0;S .~ "'0 .. 0 ..,: ::c "..<:: .,~ ,Do> .c., ..... ~ ~ 8 .. 8 .. o :! 0 ., 0 ::0 '" = " Il-I I'< zll Z,g (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (U) (13) (14) ------~------LEASE CULTIVATION 1. Food Group Ra. uP. Rs. nP. Ea. nP. Rs. nP. Rs. nP. Re. nP. (a) Rica 36 15 97 27.7-1, 15 75 28 15 46 5 16 75 25 00 17 00 (b) Other grains 36 4 80 8.34 4 25 28 4 56 5 4 90 I 10 00 1 6 50 (c) Vegetables 36 2 55 4.43 87 28 2 42 2 97 2 75 1 4 75 (dl Meat, fi.h. (e) Milk 33 2 61 4.53 26 2 39 5 3 42 3 00 1 4. 00 (j) Ghee, oils 36 3 39 5.89 75 28 3 28 5 4 {)2 3 50 5 00 (g) Condiments 35 2 82 4.9(1 7' 21:1 2 64 5 3 60 4 50 4 C() (h) Sugar or jag gary 31 82 3.16 25 67 4 2 12 3 00 3 25 (i) Coffee and t"" 31 15 2.00 25 10 4 16 75 75 (j) Toba.cco, smoking and chewing 36 86 3.23 1 25 28 64 5 2 83 1 4 25 25 2. Eclueation 19 42 2.47 15 20 3 33 5 00 3. Dhoby or soap 34 o 77 1.34 1 o 50 26 o 72 5 () 85 25 5(1 4. Barber 35 () 65 l.l3 o 50 27 o 62 5 o 75 o 75 1 00 5. Travelling 36 1 04 1.81 o 75 28 05 5 o 97 1 00 50 6. Medical fees aLld medicines o 98 1.70 o 25 o 37 o 75 5 00 7. Religious observances 18 o 45 0.78 15 o 40 1 o 62 1 00 o 50 8. Amusements 27 o 93 1.62 21 o 8li Ii 05 2 00 9. Savings (Provident Fund) 10. Payment of debts 25 5 10 8.81 12 75 18 4. 10 4 8 38 6 00 1 60 11. Remittances to depen' dents living elsewhere 10.18 3 87 28 5 50 12. Other items 36 5 86 5 8 55 6 00 Ii 00 50 Total ---5757------4660-5331"--68-6-.------7%80 08 ... 82 VILLAG. SU&TJ:Y TABLE No. XXXVII-IOontci.) A verage monthly expenditure per household by income groups aDd occupations All Number of hou.... holds with .. monthly income of households ,------~------.. r---.A._-, Rs. :115 and Rs. 101 and lese nl 26-50 Ri.51-75 Ra.76-100 over r---.A.----.r---..A..--y---.A.----.r--..A.---,,---"-----l Items of expenditure (1) (2) (5) (6) (7) (8) (I) (10) (Il) (12) (13) (U\ _ _:_.:___.:_.:. AGRICULTURAL LABOUR 1. Food Group Ra. nP. Ra. nP. Ra. nP. Rs. nP. Rs. uP. Rs. nP. (a) Rice 48 12 23 29.19 , 7 69 44 12 14 (0) Other grains 47 3 85 9.19 3 83« 394 (c) Vegetables 48 2 17 IUS 4 1 2S 44 J 2:5 \ ... (d) Meat, fish, etc. 48 2 94 7.02 2: 19 44 3 01 (e) Milk 36 1 93 4.61 2 00 35 1 93 (J) Gllee, oil. ~ :I 39 5.70 4 25 « 2: 49 (11) Condiments 41 2 III 6.23 4 1 6. 44 2: 70 (h) Sugar or iauery 20 33 3.17 20 33 (il Coffee _d tea 19 e 95 2.27 19 o 95 (j) Toba.cco, smoking and 47 iii 360 4 1 13 43 64 ohewing; 2. Educ .. tioa 11 44 3.44 17 3. Dhoby or aoap 45 o 67 1.60 2: (} '71. 43 o 67 •. • .. rber 3' (} 60 1.43 2 o 63 34 o 60 5. Travelling 41 o 82 1.96 2 o 88 39 o 82 6. Medieal feea ·... d ..edioines o 26 0.60 o !5 7. Religious observanoea 17 (} 36 0.86 o 25 16 o 37 8. Amuse_en til 16 o 77 1.84 IG o 77 9. Savings (Provide.; Fund) 10. Payment of deMs 21 1 71 4.08 2 1 00 19 1 78 11. Remitt>ances to depen. dents liviog.laewhere 12. Other ita",.. 48 3 37 8.04 2: 60« 3 45 41 !l3 ------Total 90------2504-..-. -42 PU D UKULAM i3 TABLE No. XXXVII-(ConU.) Average monthly expenditure per household by income Kroupa and occupations All Number of houB"holds with a monthly income of households ,.--______..A. ______-, ,-._..A.. __-, Re. 26 and Re. 101 and les8 R".26--50 RB.51-75 R". 76--100 ()ver Items of expenditure ...o (1) (2) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) TAPPING AND JAGGERY PREPARATION 1. Food Group Re. uP. R •. nP. Re. nP. Rs. nP. Rs. nP. Re. nP. (a) R.ice 13 16 29 3Q.Ol 2 15 25 11 16 48 (b) Other grains 13 5 04 9.29 2 4, 75 11 5 09 (0) Vegetable. 13 2 24 4.13 2 2 25 11 2 24 (a) Meat, fish. etc. 13 3 04 5.60 Z 2 50 II 3 14 ·(e) Milk 10 52 2.80 50 9 53 (J) Ghe .. , oile 13 :I 38 6.23 2 J 75 11 3 50 '(9) Condiments 13 2 14 3.94 2 2 1:1 11 2 14 (h) Suear or jaggery 13 55 2.86 2 o 75 11 1 61 '('l Coffee and tea 13 o 39 1.64 2 o 63 11 o 94 (j) Tobacco. smoking and chewing 13 1 59 2.76 38 11 1 52 '2. Education 9 o 78 1.44 2 50 , o 57 '3. Dhoby or Boap 13 o 67 1.23 2 o 75 11 o 66 4. Ba.rber 13 o 61 1.12 2 o 63 II o 60 5. Travelling 13 Q 31i 1.68 2 o 88 11 o 86 .6. Medical fees and medicines o 25 0.46 o 25 '7. Religious ob"ervances 8 o HI 0.35 8 o Hl 8. Amusement. 8 o 55 1.01 8 o 55 9. Savings (Provident Fund) ... '10. Payment of deMs 6 86 12.65 3 50 10 1 54 n. Remittances to depen. dents living elsewhere 12. Other items IS 92 10.91 2 3 '15 11 i '2 Total 53 2.8 44 90 55 73 84 VILLAGE SURVEY TABLE No. XXXVII-(Oontd.) Average monthly expenditure per household by income groups and occupations ----- All Number of households with .. monthly income of households ------.,.. ,-_.A.--. Ea. 25 and Rs. 101 and, le8s Rs.26-5() Rs.51-75 R ... 78·1()O over Items or expenditure .....0"" '" ~o .,QA S ~ ZJ:::> " (7) (10) (11) TEACHER I. Fooa Group R •• oP. Ra. nP. R8. nP. Rs. nP. Re. nP. l!.s. nP .. (a) Rice .5 18 60 20.59 2 10 GO :I 21 OU (b) Other grajR. 5 6 50 7.20 2 .5 13 3 7 42 (0) Vegetables Ii :I 82 4.23 2 3 38 ,3 4 12 lel Milk 4. 6 19 6.85 6 75 3 6 00 (j) Ghee, eile 5 4. 80 5.31 2 4. 50 ~ I) 00 (g) Condiments 5 2 92 3.23 2 2 25 :I 3 37 (h) Sugar or jal!!!."ry 3 13 3.47 2 2 69 3 3 42 (il Coff.e ",nd tea 5 1 65 1.72 2 36 3 67 0') T"b."8o, smoking and .h.... ing 4 19 l.32 o 50 3 42 t. Ed._tior 4) 00 1.64 I) eo 3. Dhoby or soap Ii o 83 6.92 2 o 83 3 o 83 4. Barber 5 o 70 0.77 2 o 63 3 o 75 5. Travelling 5 55 1.72 2 1 88 :I 33 6. Hadi... l fee" anft ...dieilles 2 4 75 5.26 8 00 1 50 '1. R.ligieus ehservanaee Ii o 45 tll.50 2 o 38 a o 50 4. 16 1.28 (I 87 3 1 25 D. Savings (Pravident Fund) 5 00 5 00' II. Remittances to depen. d •• t. livial! ehewher. 1 10 to 11.07 1 10 00' It. Other iiem. 5 t.e8 7 00 3 9 00 Total 90 33 64 SO •.• 92 9!J PUDUIULA1l 85 TABLE No. XXXVII-(Gott.tli.) Average monthly expenditure per household by income ,roups and occupations Number of househ"ld. with a mOIl~bly inoome of All ..'" '"Ii households ...,:: ., r------'------.. ;a H ,-__.A._-, ., Re. 25 (Iud RI. 101 and " les9 Rs.26-50 Re.51-7i RII.76-100 over " '" .,"0 '"0'" I'l.'" "" r---.A.--,,-__A.---,r-._Jo_-~__y_-.A.___.. Itema of expenditure .,"C " .. 0 .:=~QO= II) "'.::: ",0.. - ...... , co ...... , ..... & ...... c., ..,.::: .. ~ 0"" 0'"0 " O"C ., .. <3~ • 8 .. .~ '" ... '" .. ...::0 tal.., 0"" '"llO::O .. .. I>II~ ~E "'''~ ::0 ::0 "0" ...,Ii "0 ~ "0 dI'- :;0 cS~ ~o ... ~o tI.~ eo<: ... "'.<: ,.<>..<1 ...... <1 ..c& "'0 .0", "''0 .0'<: Z_g eO.. '" d i III .. ., 1:1 .. "" Co": ., ;0- :>","'iii a~ :>."''''' a:i .. "" ... il a .... ::>8'" ;::l ;;s= '":>'" " .:: 0 M ... 0 ::> II) nHOBY I. Food. Group R8. nP. Re. nP. R8. nP. R8. nP. R8. nP. Rs. nP. (11) Rice 4 11 7. 24,3' i 00 :& III it Ii 00 (") Other grains 3 i %6 10.8' 2 5 83 4, 50 (e) Vegetables 4 2 38 4.92 I it 2 2' 75 2 lit (d) Meat, fish, etc. 3 3 67 7.5'ij 2 3 75 1 3 50 (.) :Milk 3 67 3.(.5 2 75 01 (f) Ghee, oils " 2 51 5.29 1 Q 7i ! :I ~5 1 3 00 (,) Condiments 2 60 5.38 1 1 '7 :& 2 .~ 1 3 26 " '. (Tt) Sugar or jag!!ery 3 .2 3.97 2 1 IS 1 :I 60 (il Coffee and tea 3 01 U3 2 00 26 tj) Tobacco, smoking and ehewing 4 ! 31 4..92 :2 50 2 2. 4. 50 2. Education a 00 6.2Q 3 O. 3. Dhoby or soap 4. Barber 2 0 sa 1.12 0 71 1 1 01 6. Travelling 3 17 2.42 2 13 25 ll"dical fees and •• msdicinel 7. Religious observances 3 • 42 0.87 J 0 25 • 75 •• Amusements 00 :il.07 1 1 00 9. Savings (Provid9l>t Fund) 100 Payment of debt.s 3 a 00 6.10 J 3 lit 2 00 ." 11, Remittances to depen' dents living else.... here 12. Other items & a G3 '1.61 2 3 32 J 3 10 4 10 ..... Tela. --4IJ 36 If If f. 27 55 00 n 86 VILLAQK ~V.T.Y TABLE No. XXXVII-(Oo.... ) Ant'age monthly expenditure per houaehold by income grORPI and occupations A.II I'! NlllDollr of hou... olds with & monthly income of I' ho".. hold. .. ..i r- -. ,-_..A._-. ::a .... I'< R •. 25 a.nd R8. 101 an. .. '" les. Rs.26-50 R •. 51-75 Re.76-1oo ~ 0 over ~ '"<> '"II ,--_..A.__ ---y-_..A.._---y- __ .. ~ ..A..----v---'-__-,,-_.A.____, ." Items of e:x:p8fldituro <>"C ...., ~.'" "0 ~ 00= II ., ~ ...... , ,c/.,.. pO ...... ~ '" ...... ~ ...... ~ ., .. .. ::l O"d ., ;; O"d .. ;:l o~ e P 0'; '" S· .~ <> III 0'" t:() ... til..,_ II> " c!!.~ ...... ~ .". .. ".. ~o "''0 lilo :.~ ...... ,0... - "" ~ " ::> ,,"d Ol~ .. "Ci .. .<1 ...... "'I' ... ,o~ ....Ol .0.<1 ..." .0.<1 Z_g .0 .: ii co -= ., Q ..., ""Q .0" .0.. "" ... ill ;. ., iii • II> ...... <:; ~ a .. ., p:;a: :> e .. :'"' Sill :... II'" 0 It <>'" 0 I' ::l - l. Food Group Rs. nP. RI. nP. RII. .P. R8. nP. R8. nP. Re. nP. (a) RiM 3 19 Hi :17.1;1 1 16 00 2 21' 25 (io) et"r gr&ine II I) '7 I.H ,( 20 :I «I :as (0) V.set .. ltles 3 2 75 3." !I 7i 2 2 7th (d) lIe.. t. fish. etc. 3 :3 1i8 fU4 ~ to I: 3 88 (e) llilk , 2 75 3.95 it 2 3 31 (f) Gkll•• oil. :I 3 33 4.711 2 to :I 4 eo (II) COlldirneuts 3 3 89 4.« 2 6() 2 3 3. (h) Sligar or jaggery 3 :I HI 3.10 50 :I 2 110 (i) Coffee and tea 3 ()jj 1.67 0 60 :I 38 (j) Tob.cco. smoking and. chewing 3 " 2.28 ~ 2 63 2. Educ ..tion 3 GO 1.44 1 1 00 2 00 3. Dhoby or soap 3 0 67 0.96 0 50 2 0 75 4. .arber 3 0 67 0.!11l 0 1i0 2 0 75 5. Travelling :1 10 1.44- 0 75 :I 1 13 6 .. Medic ..1 feos rind ..edicines 2 33 1.91 2 13 7. :Religious observance. 3 0 42 D.t() 0 25 2 0 50 8. AmuB8mlilntil 2 U 1.79 2 25 9. Ii.vings (Provi.en~ Ftmd) 10. P.y.ent of deltts 2 12 13 17.42 2 12 IS ll. Re_ittance. to dapall_ d.nts living .l.e.... h ... r. 12 ... Otlter ite._ ------S .,• 110 1.12 ------1 2 60 2 7 75 Total 64 ... 4. •• 76 '2 PUDUXULAll 87 TABLE No. XXXVII-(Oont41.) ~yer.,e Dmonthl, expenditure per household by income group. and occupationl Number of households with a monthly income of All •... .. ,-__. ______.A. ::I a houB.hold. ... .. 0"0 0"0 ....0"0 '" 0'0 co i:! 0"0 ._~~ ., '" e>:l ",'2 01).., .... tot "'~ OI)~ bt'" ..::l I'! • 0 .. 0 C ." ,,'0 .... o. ,"'_tot"" .,;'_ "0 "0 ",'_ 'tim C'- :l" ._.. - "'..Q "'"0 .. ..Q .. "0 "'.<:I .'_ .. "0 ... - ,,'ti "'..0 .. '1:l ::ii A", ,0 .. .1'>", ."> .. Z,.g .,0 c:: .... ., c:: " c:: ., OJ '" " ~ '"~ I'i am ;.. IOJ '"> ...: a .. :> '" a ...... "".<:l ..'" 0 a'" . ::Ill ':P. :> " 0 M ':1), :=" .. 0 :=" .:~ " :I (b) Other grains 2 3 76 (i.~ 3 00 4 110 25 00 (el Vegeiables 2 3 63 5.29 3 4 50 (i) 'Coffee snd taa 2 lie 2.18 50 1 1 5. (j) Tobacco, smoking and ehewing 50 2.l8 1 50 2. Education 3 00 4.37 3 00 00 3. Dhoby or so.. p 2 10 1.46 eo 0 50 00 4. B ..rber 2 0 75 1-09 6. Travelling 2 I 63 2.37 1 25 2 00 6, lled,ieal fees and medicines 0 25 0 7. Religious ohaerve.nces 2 0 38 0.65 60 8. AmuBtlments 15 00 9. Savings (Proyident Fn.d) 15 00 21.85 riO 10. Payment of debts 50 :.18 1 ll. RemiUances to> depen. dent!! living eis6W"h"re 12. Other itcme ------_._---_------% 1 38 11.38 :I 25 1 5 5f) Total 68 65 50 00 liS 2S 88 'f'ILL.&.QB SUBVBY TABLE No. XXXVII-(Contd.) Averaze monthly expenditure per household by income groups and occupations ., All OJ Number of households with a monthly income of :; households .p" .,S r------~ :.a ...>-I r--~-_, .0 Re. 25 Ilnd R8. 101 .,.d ....0'0 " 0'0 ...... '"0'0 O"tl Q'tl • ~ .. ., ~::s " ...W)::I S '" ;a~ al .!i fD_& ...... "'0 '" " ,,'0 bC'" ::s ::s ..., "0 ~o oI'~ CI~ cc~ "0 G~ "'.<: c'" ..0..0 ... "tI "'.<: '".<:I "'.<:I zJl .,0'" 0 0 ....__:a ..0 • '"'0 ..0" "'0 ..0 .. "''0 ..0", "'0 p.,..o '0 OJ S: ., = ., = Sill .... <.i 13 '" >.,= S::s .,'" > .. 13'",,::s "> =., ~ ~ M "h OJ BUSINESS I. F.od Group lb. nP. 1'1. •••P. lt9. .P. It.... P. It••• P. l'I. •••P. (.) Rice 2 21 00 30.al 16 00 1 ~6 11:0 (.) O~h.r Crai•• 2 5 7G 8.46 5 00 6 50 ('1 V.Cllti.bl•• 2 ~ ~l 4.14- 1 2 50 3 12 \ ... (If) Keat. n.h, .ie. 2 2 U. 2 75 1 2 ~4 ~ (I) Kilk 2 2 "%5 3.31 75 1 2 75 (f) a ..... • il. 2 3 50 5.15 3 2i 1 3 75 (,l CQndi..... ! n 1:.110 1 87 2 06 (i) lIacar .. jauuT 2 'II> :1.58 1 2 00 60 (i) Cotl.. and. t.a S • ~4 1.38 12 0 75 (j) T.ba.. o. Imoki., a.d eh."'iac 2 (J :>'.10 1 4,11 87 I. Bd•• alion 00 1.4.'1 1 eo S. DhobJ' or leap ! 0 31 1.111 0 75 0 87 ,. Barb.r 2 0 II O.~3 0 50 • 75 •• Trayeliiac 2 50 %.!l 50 50 f. K.di... l f ••• an~ ••diliae. Q 50 0.'14 0 50 T. R.li"i()us ob•• rvalliu B. AmUBem8nt. 2 1 00 1.47 0 75 1 2@ ,. Sayings (Pr.yident Fund) 10. Pay.... ' .f d.M. 2 9 13 13.44 II 00 7 25 11. B.mittaB.c•• 10 dep.n. d.B.b li,..in, .1I.;Wh.re II. Other item. 2 !) 13 13.« 7 50 10 75 Tot.1 61 45 59 73 74 61 PUDUKULAM 89 TABLE No XXXVII-{Oontd.) Average monthly expenditure per household by income groups and occupations All Number of hnusAholda with a monthly in60me of houoeholds r------"- .------.------.~ Rs.25,and Ra. 101 and les8 R8.26-50 Rs.51-75 Rs.76-100 over Item. of expenditure (l} (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (IS) (H.) MISCELLANEOUS 1. Food GrGup Ra.oP. RII. nP. Ra. nP. RI. nP. Rs.oP. Ell. IlP. (0) Rice 9 11 47 35.3' 3 10 83 6 11 79 (0) Other g .... in. 9 3 41 10.55 3 3 00 • 3 63 (0) Vcgetabl61 9 2 2l! 8.86 I 50 II 2 58 (d) Ke.. t, fish ••to. 8 2 78 7.11' a l! 41 1$ 2 92 (e) Milk 5 30 1.23 5 30 (J) Ghee. oil. II 2 29 7.08 3 80 6 II 6l (g) Condiment. (I 2 19 8.77 3 1 62 6 2 48 (h) Sugar or jaggery' 4 25 1.71 4 25 (i) Coffee and tea 4 o 88 1.20 4 o ~8 (i) Tobacoo, 8lDOklog aod ehewiol!f 9 1 21 373 3 1 12 6 2. Education 1· ()O 0.34 00 3. Dhoby or soap 7 t: 61 1.46 o 50 1\ 4. Barber 7 o 54 o 50 5. Travelling 7 o 66 l.Ss o 63 5 II (:7 6. Medical fecs and medicines () 50 0.17 o 50 7. Religious observances 3 o 75 0.26 o 25 2 o ~5 8. Alllusemeu W ;) () 7? 1.24 o 87 4 9. Savings (Provident Fund) 10. Payment of debts 3 1 83 1.88 1 50 11. Remitta.nc~B to depe". dents living elsewhere n. Other iteme !l B.71 3 2 79 6 2 84 Total 38 42 29 89 39 24 23 CHAPTER V SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE Hindu tempi •• this deity. Once in t",o years. u.ually in the Tamil 142. Eaoh of the hamlets of Plldnkulam with month or ' Adi ' there will be < Kud.. i' festin} for the exoeption of Ayyangulam and Thera." .. lli hal! a thi. temple. whion would lad for three oon.ecutive few temple. of its own. In Pudulml .. m main d ..ys. Ouring these days goat., sheep ..nd poultry Tilla.ge, there are three important Hindu temples. are sacrificed to the deity. whioh i ...Iso ealled Sud.. laim .. d .....my t.mple is situated on .. n elnaied • Sathan'. Y... n "\1:0 th. number of animals sacri plot of ..bout 625 sq. feet, in the midst of paddy ficed amounted to 50 or 60, but now it is only about fi.ld., aboui a furloni to the llOuth-welt of Pudu 15 or 20. The 'Kud&i' may ..pproximately cost Rs. 250 kulam main vill.. ,.. Three eommunities, namely, and this cost i. met by the three oommunities Konars. }{a.raT ..rs and Sambavarl'l (Parayars) Konars, Mar ..vars and SambaTar•• Saorifices are wOllhip in this temple. Thie temple Was built offered to Suda}ai to lop pea•• him and to bel!eech many gen.r.. tions ago and is ill-ma.int.. ined at him to bestoW' mor& and more pro'perity on these present. Ii is briok-walled and houses a. many as communities. Anothf"r important temple in the main twenty-one deities eleven Goddesse. and ten Gods. village ill th ..t of Muppidariamm.. n Goddess. Only Th. prineip.. l deity appears to be a four-sided Sambavars (P.. rayars) wor.hip this deity. A brick pyramid, to a height of about 6 feet, to the east of and mortar building is being built for the temple; the tempI.. The place il!! ideal with the eool shade this building is ha.lf "'&y now, and is situa.ted in the of portia (,l.. p.,'a popv.lnea) and t .. marind Par.. eheri facing the north. Thi. temple hal!! an (~.ar'''du, ",,'Ie_) tr•• s. Sudalaiamman i. imlide annual • Kud.. i' festival usually in the Tamil the tempI., bu' d ..ily pujas are not performed for month of 'Karthiiai' or • Margazhi'. During this fel!!tinl. .acrifices of goats a.nd .heep will be with brick walls and pillara. It ill maintlLined well offered to the Godde5s, and the Cll:'proximate by proper flweeping and white washing. Inside expenditure for this festival is Re. 200 which will the temple, there are stone pillars and a.bout be shared by the Sambavar honeeholdll of the seven God. a,nd Goddeues, the principa.l deity being village. The third important temple in Pudukulam Kakingudayar. Evety evening, 'Fuja.' is done by a ia that of' Kakingudayar' which is also known as Vellf,f from .he nei6hbour;ng TiJlage of Kongandan~ • Sathankoil·. Thi. temple is eituated on thd eastern parai. This templtl ha.s .. ' Man,~-· or property of bund of Pudukulam tank, about two furlongs to about fiTe ..ores 01 l ..ud and the income from this the south-west, beside the Reddiarpat.y-Malla i. used both for it. maintenance ..nd for paying the kulam TilI ..ge road. This is a terraced building Vel .. r. Th e deity of Maravars, Sudalaimadas"mi is represented in this high mud pillar Sudalaimadasamy and the Amman inside the temple PUD17IULAlIt 91 ,Pan&uni Uthiram festival cured disc!'.s.s or performed Any miraore. This 143. The most famous festival in this temple is .temple h~8 a • Manyam' of 76 oentll of land Deepavali Panal'8. Parayars. Konar., Kammalar•• VannaDB, 149. DeepaTali i, an important festival a.ad Marava.rs and Ambattanl. It is surprising to note is oelebr.'ed by .11 'he Hindu, in Pudukulam in tha.t a.t times when a.ll the Hindu communities oommem"r.tien of th. Tictory of Lord Krishna. in the village join ha.nds to eelebr",te ,. J)articular over the giant, Nara.ha,ura who wa. ulmblesome to Hindu festival commonly, the Hindu Nadars , &ishill' and oth.r people. At their requelltl~ the Lord usually fAU out. Thill ill beca.use of at leallt three killed him in a battle. On thi. day, the people ~et r.a.ons: they han the spirit of individuality, the up early in the mornin~, take oil-bath and put Oll traditional incompatibility between th.ir calte new elotb... The,. I.' varion. di.bell during th" and the Maravar. and Konars and the di.t.. noe day whioh compri.1 of both ..reet and savoury, from Ariyanayagapuram hamlet. ali mOlt of the and th.y .110 lilM fireworlnl, 'parlderl,ora,oklra Hindu Nadarl! re!;ide in this hAmlet and some in aod so on. It il a day of joy and merrimeat, Manalvilai. ~XOIP' for the Nadal' community especially for ohildl'R. and the Mu.lims of the village aU the ota.r eommu.itie. are cent peroent Hindu.. MUllims of Other '.,ti".ls Pudulr.ulam Village are (ound 001,. in M.allakulam 150. On AYlldba Puja day all 'he houllehold hamlet. They have two mOlquea whioh are quite artiolea ar. ,iTln a .andal ' t.i1ak· and 011 neal' 'hei.. own .e1.tlemelli. Pudultulam THlatle that .. reG. • Ililak. ' T.ln, puja i. performld conuina ~ .hurc.e. in all. before Goa. aDd latabll' Hk. coeollutll. plant.ailll and ...ee" are di ...ributed to all t.ho•• pr8•• nt Christianity during the puj.. Thi. i. te r.mlmblr and liT. 15'. In g.n..... l, t.h. Prot.dan' Chri.ti.ns are thanb to thl ..rTie~.. of thl i •••rnm.nts and diTilied into C. M. S. Enng.lieal and T. D. T. 4. goode which had h.lped them throughou, the y"ar Th. laUer forms a majority, tbat i. about 80% in their ...rk, aad i. lpecially eellbrat.d by tbe of the tot.. l Pro'.ltants in the vill.. ge. &1 dare K am m a II. fa (oarpenter'). Enu ",.0.' dlJ aoaUered in different ha.mlets name'L,., Pudukula.m Pvja. to th.ir agri.ultural impllment. on tbi. day. main viJlage. Manalvj}aj and Mo.llakulam, wher8&1!1 One or two day. aftlr Ayutlha Puja. Saralwathi the C. M. S ETangelioal are found onl,. in Pudu Puja i. celebrated wben prayera ":r. offered to Im)all1 main village. Only Nadar. form both thele Sa,rsl'!wathi, 'he Godde.. of learnin" and wi.dom. ..ct. of Protestanti. The Ca'holio Cilri.,i.. ns are All book. and allied article!! are neatly du.ted and t.o b8 found in Pudukula.m maio village, 1'hllrIloYalli. reverently plaoed b.fore thl Goddle. and Puja. Manal"ilai and Ayankulam, and oomprise of are offered. Ayudha FujII. i. mOllt wid~ly obsto.rTed Pall.. r. and ~a.darl!-the Pall IUS forming about 60% tha.n Saralwathi Puia bec&u•• moat of the literat.. of the total Ce.tnolicB in 'he village. belong to the other eornmunitiell like Chri.tianity. Ckurches 151. Saorifioe. of animal. and birds ar. given 164. We .hall desoribe the chri.tian Churchel! only by the Hindu!! in th.ir temple., as thl a.nd the mode of prayer first. Of tbe nine Church•• , Muslims and Chri.r.ianll do not give ...crificea of 3 are io Pudukulam, 2 each in ManalTiJai and any kind The Hindu community rarely secure. Aya.nkulam and one each in Mallakulam and the lIerTice! Qf a Brahmin pried even for Puja. in TheravaJli. the temple-at be.~ the Brahmin priests are securld for marriages b,. one or two Ma.raTar and Kona.r Tb. ba.mlet-..ise distribution of .hurches in houl'leholds. In the oalle of C'hri!!t_ians a.nd Muslims, Pudukulam is giTeo as f{Jllows: marriagel can be liolemnised only by priests, unleas Roman C. H. IS. E",a.. - T. D. T • .&c. it is done legally with the help of a. Regiatra.r; Catholie g A oO!1Centration of Roman Ca.tholics is in Pudu It is worthwhile to note that only the school boys kuJam main village. Tberavalli a.nd Ayankulam and a few young girls and women t.ake pa.rt in all hamlets. C. M. S. Evangelical Protestants are the services except on Sunday.. The average fouDd oDly in Pudukulam main village, and T. D. attendance for eAch sen-ice will be a.bout 25 persons, T. A. Protestants mainly in Ma.nalvila.i and MalIa a.nd on Sunda.ys it wdl be about 35. Men rarely kulam h,... mlets with 2 households in Pudukulam go to church. for only one or two Itdults attend the main village. There are no churches or the church. On llmt days oommencing frem Ash Christians in Ayyangu]a.m. Veerala.peruDchelvi a.nd Wednesday and lasting till Easter. the da.ys when Ariyanayagapuram hamlets. Jelus Christ fasted, pra.yera are ..id both in the early morning at about 4-30 a. m. and at 6-30 p. m. C. M. S. Evanlelical Church in the e ....ning. Offerings a.re colleoted only on 155. TheChri.tian Mission Society E ... angeliea.l Sundays or on .psoial occasion. lilts festival8. Church wa. built ,in 192'.· This housed the elemen Offerings ar. given both in calh a. w.lla. in kind tary school fir.t. which was shifted to an a.dja.cent and they are Uled to maet the ohuroh u:penses and building tmbsequently. The priest in-charge is their maintenance. Generally. after harvests . . Rev.: Rajama.ni who rellides in 'he neighbouring each household gin. offeringl of few mea.sures of viHage of Marudakulam in N anguneri Taluk. which paddy, whioh after lome time, il dehusk:ed, cooked is about ~ mile. to .. he sou.. h of Pudukula~. He and eaten by the congregation .8 a whole. and villits the' church ocoasionally to conduct the a.lso distributed to the poor people. It i~ like a. ceremonies of baptism. oonfirmation, marriage And .ommnnity fealii. Another important feature of death. It il \1e who gives Holy Communion to the ihi. C. M. 3. ETangelical Church ii, it. doel not have p.ople of the Pa.rish. Ordinarily. the senile! are .., ima,., not .ven the orOII. This i. one of the mai.. conducted by t.he elementary .chool male teacher. differ.noel b.iween C. M. S. E ... angelioal Churoh. The church is .. puck. building wit.h .. Mangalor. and the T. D. T. A. and Cat.hoJio Churohes. Cottage tiled roof. It hal.. ha.ll, ... erandah and 'h. only prayer meetin,1 are d.o h.ld in Pudukulam. furniture being a table, a ch&ir and .. few mate for If in a particular hou.e, it will be announced in the congregation t.o sit on during .erviee.. Ther. ihe ehureh. Ins'iead of ve.per. that evening, the i. 8. bapti.mal font but no pulpit. It allO coD\ains congr.gation .....mble. before t.he church and a clook and & plate bell whioh will be rung twice start with pray.n. song. and accompa.niments to after which the pra.yers will comm.noe. B.fore the hou.e where the prayer me.ting i. to be held. the cburch. and hoisted on .. rock pillar ie .. hurri There if. a r.gula.r pra.yer followed by a short. The Roman catholic church for l 'aHars The Rahmania Durga mosque in Mallakulam Muslim quarters 'simi1ar to that of the C. M. S. Evangelical. But marriage and so on. In Theravalli hamlet, there there are differences. The church belongs to is a. Roman Catholic Church called St. Antony's Tirunelveli Dioees6, with the Bishopric at Church which is a pucka. building with Ma.ngalore Palayamcotta.i. An orda.ined priest comes from tiled roof and brick walls. Almost all the Nadal'S AlwanerL a place in Nanguneri taluk, about 5 miles of Theravalli are Roman Catholio Christians and to the east of Pudukulam, which is in Alwaneri they form the congregation of this church, whick eircle. The priest visits the hamlet once in a is the biggest of aU the Roman Catholic ohurches, month or once in two month8 to administer the for that matter all the Christian churches of sacraments, namely to baptise or give communion Pudukulam. This church comes under the Bishop' and 1i0 ,on. The Bi.hop of Tirunelveli give. of Madurai i\nd a Jesuit priest Tisits this churek eonfirmation to adultl, by which they beoome full once in three month. to perform baptiam. marriage fledged memben of the church. The offerings and aJitd so on. Strictly speaking, there are two Catholie dona.tions are giTen to the dioc•• e from which churches, in Mana.lvilai hamlet. One is the eld. money ma.y be obt&ined later on to carry out mud waf led and palmyra lea.f thatched one, and iii repairs to building!! and other such improTements. known a.i!J Madhakoil named after the BIe.sed Virii.' This church bas only hurrioane lamps. Another Mary. Only lay people condullt S6l'Tjce. teacher who residet! in Pudukula.m but works in daily and O'l!. Sundays. The Padri visits ihi~ K.ongandanparai. usually conducts tbe prayers in chul'eh once in 3 months. Apart from this, t1tere the church. There if! yet another churoh belonging is a. new church under con'struction, whioh is a to the 'r. D. T. A. community in Manalvila.i hamlet strong bUilding 'being built of mortar and rubbles. of Pudukulam village. This ohurch also .elves a.. It is not fully complete, yet Mass is said in that T. D. T. A, elementa.ry school when services are not church, which is known as 'Yagappakoil '. EveD conducted. This church is bric~-walled and doors and windows are not affixed to it, hut it is tiled with windows and a verandah. The local expected to be complete in another six months. sehool master also conduct!! prayers regularly in About four or five families, aU N adars belonging to ihis church, which 8011'0 belongs to Tirunelveli Manalvilai' hamlet, a.ttend the Mass in these Diocese and Alwaneri circle. The priest comea from churches. Ayyangulam has two Catholio churohes. Alwaneri ail in the ell!"e of Pudukulam main one in the PalJar settlement and the other in the village. There i. yet a third T. D. T. A. Churoh Nadar settlement. It is a common practice among which is built in MalJakulam hamlet a.bout 50 f ••, PaHars to attend the church services in the Nadar to the west of the Nadar settlement of that hamlet. lettlement, whereas Nadars rarely attend a.ny Male, It it! & new building which was built a.t a COait of said in thia church in the Pallar colony. The latter Rs. 3,000 met by Tirunel ....li Diocepe in ) 959 Ii i. is caUed St. Anthony's church, which is a Jow exclusively uled by the .\ada! community of the palmyra leaf-tha.tohed and mud-walled one. village. a.lthough it HI "pen to all. In P.ople sit and kn ••l only on grass mats. Tho MallakuL.m hamlet, only the ;";adars are Christian •. church contains a chair uied by the man -who says Thi. cll!Hch is a.lmost a model'll bUIlding with the Mass, a table, a crucifix and many image. of lIangaJc.re !'ilea al!l roof and brick walls It belong8 saints, that of saint Anthony being the most ~o the I'irundveli Diocese and AJwaneri oircle like important one. The church in the Na.dar settle the other two T. D. T. A. Church •• in PudukuJam ment is known a.s St. Saba8tians' Church. It i. a TillagE'. pucka building with a. tf1rraced dome and roof, and brick walls. and does not contain any furniture Catho,ic churches apart from a table and a chair. Only oil lamps 15' We IIhall next dt'~crlbe the five Roman are used. A Jesuit priest occasionally vi8its these Catholic churches in Pudukulam village. There ill churches from P&la1amcottai. The offerings made one cilun'h kl;own al! 'Se"\Hathar Alayam' in in these churches are used to meet the expenses of Puduk"larn main villagf" "h"Ie U e Pallar. who the churches suoh Il!! buying oil for lamps, candles 00. are 111(11' ( Iy ('atholic8 "tlp"d \ hi ohurch. This and so church i .. a. mud-wallen tiled I)"ilding which was built wme yea.rs ago. Til"" e are the image!! of Christian festivals Borne "aint8 with the Ble""t·d Virgm Mary and the 158. Fe.tival. in Pudukulam are celebratea -crucifix. Thill church belollgs to Madurai &8 pompously as possible by people of livery Diocetl6 of the Roman Catholic ('hurch. A Jesuit community. As for insta.nce, Christian. 'he prie8t v i" t~ thi. cbur,·h t,h riee UI four ['imes a year majority community in the village, celebrAte to COllrt,wt important cerellJoDit's like baptism, Christmas, New Yea.r Day, Good Fridaya.nd Ea..ter VlLLAOB SU.VEY which ar8 mOlt importa.nt for th.ro. spart from in the .venin, at ~ p. m. Darin, 'his ti me, no. many others which are .oatly .bserved in a conoh i. blown, no bell ie tolled and no drum is religIous m of the m()nth of' Dulhaj' (May). The MUlllim. In Sodal and economic processes the village celebrate Bakrid in commemoration of 162. The Bocial and economic processes are the obedience of prophet Ibrahim Alyins8alam to not known to many 8. Tillager in Pudukulam, 8S Allah. When Ibrahim was about to slaughter his for instance. the recent land reforms and the social lon, Allah sent ths angel Girgyeel A byhirssalam legislation on the dowry system. But the with a sheep, which was sacrificed instead. This legal system on tenanoy is scrupulously followed sacrifice is called • Gleeba'. During thi. month though it has not led to a.ny feud so far. Urban the Raj pilgrimage is also underta.ken. On Ba.krid, influence is great in Pudukula.m due to its pro:d. people wear new clothes, a.nd there a.re also feasts mhy to Tirunelveli and Palayamcotta.i, and this ie with non-vegetarian dishes a.nd I;w",ets. Moharam olearly manifested in dress, manners, diet. enjoy iii celebrated on the lOlih day of the month of ment of luxuries. recreation and 80 on. Yet. Pudu Mobaram (June) by the Muslims of Mallakulam. kulam is not an urban area; but probably if this This festival is celebrated in commemoration of an influence become!! more intense so as to cover more important tfvent in Arabia. When Yageeth spheres of life. then it may be considered as Was the Caliph. Hazarath Iman Hussain, the an urban area. It may be further accelera.ted by Prophet'l! grandson refused to owe allegience t(J the development of tranl'port and communication him. Iman HU!'lsian and hiB compatriots were in the village. As for industrialisation in the uefeated by Yageeth'. men in a battle and thus village, it may not he possibl0, as there are no raw attained' Shaheed' (Heaven). Another important materials worth mentioning. a.nd neither is there festival celebrated in the :Vl uslim .. ettlemflnt is the power ta run the wheels of any industry, though. birthday of the Prophet-that is on the 12th day however, the (,:tpitai requirements may be met by in tho month of RabinJanal (August). 'i\1auiudu' many rich people eBpeciaJiy Maravars a.nd Konars. or the life history of Prophet Mohamed is said by Regarding developmental measures. the villagers the Muslims at night!! for the first twelve days. are aware of the improvements ma.de by the Pancha ..fter which there is distribution of Bweets and yat. and beside" they are particulMly' aware of on. a. [MOlt is eoffee. On the twelth day. arranged. of the recent improvementE! which ea~ed their 'Ihis festival is known 38 • Meeladi Sabi '. economic struggle, namely, the M:animuthar Projec~. The villagers from Pudukulam have praotioally no cultural contacts with the people from outside, except for a few artistes who visit the village on Durga occa8ions like festivals and marriages. At times, ]6). Apart from the a.boTe festival., the noted Christian preachprs come to the village Muslims of Mallakulam hamlet have two local Kongandanpar&i 01' to any other neighbouring oelebrations. A function is a.rranged on the 18th vjJ1age when people attend the meetjng. of Jariadulaval (October) in the old Mohideen Anadavar Darga., a. mosque which iB in the west. Crimes This il in commemoration of the works of Sheikh 163. Prior to the introduction of the Mani Sind.madar Avulya, a local saint and nobleman. muthar t)roject the most predominant occupation The piety and charity of thi. saint are responsible was the tapping of neera. After prohibition. the for the celebration of this festiVAl. The next day. toddy shops w.hich used to have roaring business .weets and dinner are served. About 10 bags of lost their very existenoe a.nd fabulous fortune. paddy are dehusked into rice and the di?ner iB Formerly, ma.ny of the villagers used to drink very principally served to the poor people and the mfirm. hea.vily, but now they ha.ve substituted it by tea • Mayya Va.di' or ' Adakk:asthala.m· is the Muslim or coffee. People are not found squandering their eemetry lituated to the south-wesl; of Malla mODeyon toddy or any type of liquor nowaday.; kulam. about half a mile away. A celebra.tion is got but still a few drink. The crime .ta.tistic. in tIt. up for the dead pef8~nB OD the .10th da.y of the Tillage from 195L ia given below. month of Shabban. Fruih, savounes and sweets are laid for the dead with prayers; and later, they I).re Theft seems to be the most common orime in IIhared among all the people who have assembled. the village and includes theft of bra.s 'Vessel., The Muslim festivals, though not AI numerous a8 ca.ttle, wrist WAtches, caeh and even trees, theft by 'he Hindu festiv&ols. are 80S colourful &ond carefully houeebreak being the ulual method. Only 2 prohi observed. Thu•• the Mu.lima of Pudukulam are bition cales have been recorded 80 far but during tradition loving people wb.o .erupulou.)y observe all the years 1951-1958 nothing has been recorded with their religion. fe.. iTal •. regard to prohibi~ion offence •. It is rather intere"tir.la 21 98 VILLAG. av.YlIY Year and frequency Nature of crime 1951 '52 '53 '54 '55 '56 '57 '58 '59 '60 '61 -_.. __ -- Theft 1 1 1 1 2 Homicide Prohibition I I Others 1 to Dote that homicide cases are not found third ward 4, contested and only 3 were returned in the list. There was another orime in the village all member!!. Only 5 cli.stel h&ve been represented whioh was a faction fight in the year 1955 and thil!! in the panchayat and the Muslims, Kammalara. waft amioably ",attIed. From the aoove crime stati!!· Pillais and Dhabi..,. have not been represented. As tics we find th~t the years 1951 to 1955 are free :& result of mutuaJ agre~ment betw.eliln the Ma.U.· from crime. According to available records there kula.m Muslims and Parayan, the Muslims have a.re seven c.x-convict!l in Pudukulam. given up their claim. for representation in the panchayat. The other houseboldi form only & Village panchayat minority, Amounting to about 10 houl!!ehold. in all. 16!. Pudukulam has a panchayat of it. The strength of each of the repre!!ented commu' own which is apparently a harmonious bl@n' nities in Pudukulam panchayat is a. followi :- ding of opposing principles. MOlt of the cast,e. Na.dara 4, Parayar 1 are members of the panchayat in the village, with the exception of Muslims. Pillais, Kammalars and Konar. p .. llar 1 Dhobi~s. Thougb their inherent differences and Maravar. I a.ntagonisms are not manifested in any outburlit or open enmity against one another, still they Thus the Nadar community is the most predo permeate the discussions and resolutions made, minant community in the village which has 3.8 mltny Pudukulam bas a minor Panchayat which is a as 4 pane hay at mem bers followed by Konars with statutory one. Prior to the institution of this 2 memben and Ma'ravara, Pa.rayars and PaUars ~tatlltory panchRyat. the factions in the village with one member each. It may be ohserved were settled by village ebers and inter-caste dis that tbe repre!ent&tion given to Konara and putes by the leading people in the castes jn~oIved. Nadars is more th&n what is required to .I!'urther. each ca.ste had its own sanctions for t,hose safeguard the interests of their respective who -disobeyed or disregarded tile verdict of tbe communities, and this is more 80 in the ease of village elders, and in most ca:;es. it j" ostracism of Konan as there are only 25 Konar households in tbat household, which is rarely imposed. Criminal the whole of PuduKulam villitge. The and civil Cal'e8 were intimated to the village officials Parayar6 are as numerous, if not more, as the wbo generally took prompt, action 011 them. But Pallars in tbe village, and hence the representation now with t.he institution of the statutory panchayat of Parayars and Maravare ~hould be increased by since first June, 19(10. all communal and fiocial at least one more in the panchayat. The viJlaf,(ers disputes a1'e referred to it.. have decided otherwise, a.nd thus the exil!ting reprc!:lentative method would have to continue Composition of Panchayat till the next. pimchayat olections. The President 1(\5. The Panchayat cnmprises of the President, of the Pan{\hayat i8 Mr. Raja,mani ~adar who w&s Vice-Pretlident, one woman member and 7 male elected on 1-6-196) by the elected members of membors_ Tbese memberR except the woman the Panchayat BOl:I.rd. The woman member Mrs. member were elected bv universal adult suffrage Elizabeth Jot,hi was elected on ~4-1-19i)2, asthe and gecret ballot- Ea-~h of the 8 hamlets in the only woma.n member, by the elected members of village was treated M a ward, and thus the whole the Panohayat Board. Both ordinary &nd extra village was divided into 3 maifJ wards for electing ordinary meetings a.re held by the Panchayat B()ard members to the panchayat_ In two wards 6 Office, which is housed in a rented building in members were returned unopposed, and in the Pudukulam main Tillage at. .. rent. of Ra. 3 per It ~enlem. It il a Manga,lore tiled .nd '\Iud-....ll.d Taxes building. with pa.lmyra. leaf-thatched portico. ThiB R •. building belongs to the President hilllseif. To. 1. House Tax 175 -office 90ntaill8 an a.lmirah, a table, two cbairs and !!. Vehicle. Tax ~wo benches. Before thi~ place wa.s engaged, the 15 meetings were held in the C. M.. 8. Evangelical I. Profellllion Tax 50 Elementary ~ch.ool in PllduKUlltm mILin village. 4. Libr&ry Oe.s 7 The Fancb&yat Board Office ha.1I a. Clerk. to main i. O.hera tain the books .nd attend to corre.pondence, and 56 he is paid RI. 20 per menl'lem. All the meetinge ar. Tota.l 303 held periodically, the time and the subject. to b. discul!!ed are intimated to eaoh member by mean. Government loure•• of a circula.r. by thl:'J clerk. The m8mberll are 8ca1o it.red in dIfferent hamlets in the village. Th. RI. ,President and the woma.n member are from the 1. Stamp dllty 1,1500 main villa.ge to,ether with one member from !, Land COSI 180 the Palla.r community and the other from the Kona,. I. A.dditionalluroharge oommunity. Another member, a. Nadal' hail. from or hou.e tax %,(0 . The rayall i. The only MerElvar member comell from V •• ralaperuncbelyi. Beeidea there is a Nadal' mem Tota.l 2,320 ,ber from M:lnalvilai, and the only Pa.ra.yan memher is in Mallakulam. The Vice-President who belong. It is intereating to obBorye that OOT.rnment to the Konar Community Itnd one Konar member sources oon.titute the btdk: of th. reT,nue hail from Ayangul&m. ThUll all the mem bera or Pudukulam Pancha,.., which worb out to a.bout residing in the other hamlets of the village han t. 81;1 percent of the total revenues. ThUll depending go over to the main. village to attend the Board on their oill'n resouroes the Panchllyat c.nnot meeting., where they Ilign in 8. book to aho ... ]tope to execute any projeot. worth mentioning. their presence ..nd also in the book: conta.ininl the resolutionl made in tha.t meeting. Expenditure of P.nchayat 167. The approxima.te expanditllre of the Pa.chayat is ginn belo ... for h.lf 8. year: -Sources of Income Ha. 166. The Panch_yat deriTes its income frOM 1. Administration 200 tho t"o main lources, namely the ta.xa. le ..ied by .!. Travelling 480 the Pancbayat it.elf and from Goyernment. The 3. Education 80 taxes lnied by the P~nohayat COD silts of thro8 types: 4. Publio Health 300 (l} Bou,e·Ta:t. Levied at the rate of 37oP. 5. Well and Pump 150 per RI. 100 .f the capital 'Yalue of the houle 6. Contingencies 100 ·twice a year. Total 1,310 (2) Vehicl.s-Ta,:;: At the ra.te of RI. 1-~2 nP. per bandy for half a year and RI. 1-12 nP. per cycle lin If a JMr. A mere gla.nce of the above revea.ls the fact that (:~) Pro fu,ion·7'ax." O~l the baai. of but for the souroes of income from the Government qua.litioation a.nd 8&lary. 'fIJi", i~ fixod a.t 50nP. for the Panchayat clinnot stand on its own legs, as it higher gra.de trained tea~heT" for ha.lf year and spends nearly four times as much as its own resour Re.l for seconda.ry grade trained teach era and also ces. The mos1o unproductive of all expen.es of the in other professions. Library ('e~1!I is also levied for Pudukula~ Panchayat is travelling which forma half year from all people. The second source of the bulk of the expenditure. This works out tQ income consiHtl!! of E-tamp duty, land czss, and about 33t peroent of the total expenditure. The additional eurcharge on house taxes. They are not low8st amount of expenditure about 6!- peroent of fixetl, hut "ill vary as the taxes collected vary ill tb.e total is spent on education. Th. expenditure .a.mount. Income from PlIdukulam Panohayat for incurred on tra.velling is rataer hilh-but thill doea ~h. fir.t half year 1~61·'62 ill given al follow.: llot maan tha.t no expenditure .hould be incurred 100 on tranJIing; it i. e'HIlt:ial bb' could b. mini· light night.. Although tbue lliokering fig&ta. de, milled. Another item of expenditure whioh conau not give any light worth mentioning. neverth.le•• ' mel a large percentage of revenue i. public hea.lth. it. i. the fir.t II.tep toward III the eleotrification o~· It is doubt.ful how 1;his expenditure ia incurred &1; the village. Another rellolution which was paned OD< aU 8.8 apart. from Iweeping the .treets there ie no 15-11-'til that eleotricity should be brought from other improvement in thia direction such a8 public Uteri village, which is about L5 miles to the ealt l&Ta.tori_. dra.ina.ge, protected water lupply and of Pudukulam il yet to be implemented. A fa.r 10 on. reaching rellolution was made on 24,-1-'62 when the members decided tha.t the Boa.rd should consi,~ of a woman. Accordingly Mrs. Elizabeth Jothi, a Actiyiti ... N~da.r lady of Pudukulam main villa.ge wa., eleeted HS8. Pudukulam PAnchaya&; hal it.. Cl ..n by them. Thill clearly .hows the a.ttitude of the progressive idea! a, manifelted in many of it. villager, toward8 the uplift of tbe socia.l condition. intereet.ing and noteworthy resolutions, which bear of the women of the vill8lge. At .. meetini held on on the well-being of the villagers in all aphere. of &--3-'62 the members of tbe Boa.rd resolved to: life. AI! for instance the tax-collection which -.va. p:urcha,e pe.ticidee 'prayer " BOEe ploughs and formerly done by the Panchayat i. to be 1;ran.fer fruit. .eedling of gua.va, mango and lemon at haU red to the. Revenue Officia.ls. of the village, namel,. COlt, from the Panchayat Union. This will not 00.1,. the vHlage MUD.iff and Karnam. A number of improve the agrioultural yield in the village but reiolutions were pUled by the Panchayat Boa.rd at al,o increa.e the numbel' of fruit treee which are 110 diff.rent meeting. but many of them are dill on leaz;ce in t.he village pa.per. A relolution on 30-7-'00 requests the po,tal authoritie, for opening a POlt office in the Sochal Education vi1la~~. and thi. i, yet to be implemented. 170. Sopial education is another activity which· hal been recently ta.ken up by the Panchayat Board. The Committee eonajlts of all the mem 169_ At .. Board meet.ing on 27-8-'60, the bera with the President &'" Chairman and village Board resolyed to leyy taxes on Buch danger-ou, Munsitf 101 Vice-Chairman, and the Secreta.ry ill the, vocation. ae butchery, Hme kilns and 80 on, Local School malt.er of Pudukulam main viJIage. and allo to put up bu. stops on the Benar.e The Socia.l Eduoa.tion Committee hal not sta.rted C~pe National Highway about half .. mile to wor;k; it. is dormant and it is hoped it would sta.ri the Welt of Ayaokulam hamlet of the village. its .... ork early and achieve the objects namely to Further, there ar. proposal. to con8truct impro edueate the rural folk in social condition. of th., .ised bUBlltopa to be converted to masonry la.ter present world, and the role they have to play in on. The renovation of village road8 like the one them. The Panchayat has its own National Ecko from Reddiarpatty is to be taken up shortly by the radio, operated on Eveready Minimax dry battery. Panchayat Union. From 1-10-'60, a sweeper WK. This was bought in Septem ber 1961 a t a cost of employed to clean the .treet. in all the hamleta in R •. 750 together with two batteries. Generally it the village, and hence he naturally cleans one is tuned in the evenings for programme relating to hamlet at laa..t once a week. On 19-9-'61 the market position. weather foreoast and other rura.l Board resolved to build an ea.rthen bund which programmes of TiruchirapalJi station. It is kept would prevent the water of the Mallakulam inside the Pancbayat Office with an extra louds Tank from entering the Harijan Cheri in Malla peaker attached to it placed outside the office ku.lam. Thia has been implemented. Prior to uilding. The following table indicates the number September 1961. the whole vilJage wa, engulfed in of heads of households who are aware of th.' darkneas except on moonlight nights.. So on 29-9-'61 existence and functions of village Panchayat. the Board re.oIved that 61 kerosene lamp. ,hould be installed in all the 8 hamlets of the village and Out of a total of 331 houlleholds in the village. I., to be kept in the reserve. Tbie resolution too 89 percent or 292 households &f. ..wa.re of it. wa. implemented by the purchase of lamp. from a existence. These households are also in a. position tinker in Tenkali. mount.d.on white ,tone pillar•• to tell the period of existence of the Panch&YAt Koroleof) ia brought frDm:Pal.yamoottai in tina and eorrectly. For instance in the Ma.ra.var community, ....ry day ,the P.nchaJa~ sweepe:r tak•• korolono out of. tot.l of 56 bouseholds, 51 households Were with him. fills in;all the. .Iampl in the village aDd able to tell the period of exi,tence correctly, Iigl!.t. _th,D). a. alao .roplaeea broken chimney.. ..herea, in the Pallar community which compriae. "io.kt,aU 10.00;, Th•• ,pellot li&\lted 00 moo... of thr•• hou•• hold •• two. were unable to tell th.· l'UDUKULA1l4 101 TABLE No. XXXVIII Information about main functions of Panchayats Number that could tell the Number that could Community Number of hous.holda period of existence describe the ma.in iunctioal!: of Pllonchayat correotly of the Panebayat- (1) (I) (3) (4) Nadar 27 23 21) J,laravar 56 61 46 23 H) 20 Paraiyar 39 34 27 Vanna.n 5 3 2 KaIllmal .. r 4 4- :> Pallo.r 3 1 1 l'illai 1 1 1 PAc·dai 1 I. Amb ... ttan 1 C. 14. S. Nadar 28 24 22 T. D. T. A. Nadar 31 30 26 R. C. Nadar 55 45 43 R. C. Pallar 42 43. Muslim 14 13 8 Total 331 292 268 period of existence. But in the Christian like lighting and construction of roads. 62.2: Community 141 out of 157 households, and among percent or 206 out of 331 households in the village> the Muslims 13 out of 14 households could tell the say that the main function of the Panchayat is to· period of existence correctl.y. As for the functions provide amenities to the people, 29 percent or 96· of the Panchayat. 80.7 percent or 26S households households state that taxation fl1rms one of ther were able t·o describe the functions of the main functions of the Panehayat. whereaa. 13..'}· Panchayat. The main fU'lctions of the Panchayat percent or 45 households say that one of the ma.in as revealed by heads of different com mum tIes in functions of the Pa.nchayat is to provide civic the village, are that it helps to settle disputes amenities to the people out of whioh 33 homehold& between villagers, it p"ovides all types of belong to the Christian comllluni t.y. Settlement amenities to the villagers. ~nd also the welfare and of disputes is another important function, for out uplift of the condition of the village in aU aspects. of a total of 6 households. 4 belong to the Christian and holds discussions on topics of common interest Community, one Parayar and one Konar household." 26 102 VILLAGB SUllVEY The oplllIOns expressed by the villagers regardjng Panchayat have been furnished in Table the improvements or harm caused by the No. XXXIX below:- T.A~LE No. XXXIX Opinion ab~ut improvement through Panchayats Numbor Number 8ceording to w:aom Nu_ber ...cordin&, to accol'ding to "fter establi.hmeBt of IIt.. tutory whom after .,.tabli.hment of whom after panch.yllt there has btteA stil.'l.utory pancha.YI't tt•• rs edablishment Number i fl1 p:ro vemeH.ts h ... b .... 11 harm of atatutory Community of panchayat there hOlluholds ,-----...... ---~ r------.A.----, h ... been neither Street Street Domination. Har... ment Radio improvement of Nadars of Peopl~ lighting cleaning nor har_ {Il (2) (3) (4) (iJ) (7) (8) Nada.r 27 27 Kal'&va.r 55 ii6 21 1 Konar 23 23 11 Paraiyar 39 39 11 V&nna.n 1} 1} Kammalar 4, 4, Pallar 3 3 2 Pill .. ; 1 Pe-gad... i 1 1 Atnbattan 1 C.M.S. Nadar 28 27 1 T. D. T. A. Nadar 31 31 25 R. C.N.dlu ~~ 55 13 Ro. C. Pe-II .. " 43 43 13 Muslim U 14 8 But as for the improvement.s after the establish between these two clLstel, namely the wea.lthy ment of a statutol'y Panchayat, all the hou!;eholds moneylenders, the Mara.varl, and the pa.lmyra state that street lighting has been one of the major tappers existed from ea.rly times. Hence there W8.S improvements of the village. 4.0.7 per cent or 13.5 CODst&nt conflict between the two ca.stes; yet households hold the opinion that street cleaning another type of harm revea.led by two households is one of the main improvements. Two households in tbe Pe.llar community is tha.t there has been in the R. C. Nadar community state that the haru61ment of the people, the principa.l means of Pa.nchayat has e3tablisbed a radio set in the haraslment in the village being taxation, village. \Ve find that some opine tbat there has been harm after tho establishment of Welfal"e activities the panchayat. One household in the Nadar l71. Thul the panchaJat which wail eBtabli~ community states that since the Nadar com shed on lilt June 1960 ha.l _howed 80me progress in munity dominates the panohayat. they do not the past two Yf"ars, whioh i. seen by the number of conta.in educated people, and hence they are not improvements in the village. The panchayat of .s &otive a.s they shQuld be. Moreover. enmity Pudukula.m is of .. locial. educa.tional and PUBUXULAM 103 recreation&! value to the people of Pudukulam. the Pancbayat, whioh most probably would have Socially it confines itself to the general welfare of been the case, if Borne othor community had the the people at large. Educationally the' people have majority in the Panchayat. Of all. the M&ra.vara benefited by th6 esta.blishment of a P&neh&yat have tbe greatest grudge o,...r the Nadars; probably .ohool, by which the children ha.ve free a.cee .. to it il due to the inborn haLred of the former for tlducation uptoo the elementa.ry Itage. Finally it the llttter. Sinoe Pudukulllm Panohayat cltmlt il of recreationaJ value, as by the eltablillhment of into exi@tGnce only two yea.rs ago, the capacity a radio let, the people of the villAge are not only of the Panchayat cannot be judged hy ita kept well· informed of the day to da.y probleml, but achievements in such .. short IlpllCe of time. But, also haTe an opportunity of Ii.tening to mU5icAI still it has made many far reaching resolution. programme». 'Gnm& N ..lam' i. the ollly Tamil and implemented a f.w suooessfully. It is hoped magazine obtained by the pancha.ya.t office and this that the Panchayat would bury aU oaste differences has been .ent by the Panchayat Union of Pal&yam· as time goell on &nd striTe to improvs the villa.ge oott&i. It oontainl .. lot of uleful information as a whole, without any di.crimin~tion on &ny relating to agricultur., pelt control and even loci 1.1 b&sis. prolrammos like birth control. Quite a. min.rity read this m ..gazine and now the Panchayat hail Community development .ugg•• ted to lIublcrib. toward. the magazine "Mezhi Chel-·,am" which i. Tery muoh .imilar to 173. Pudukulam panchayat i. a oonat.ituent but more oomprehensive than ., Grama N .. lam". of the P",layamcottai Panch&yat Union, which oame int~ existence on 2-10-11161. with the inaugu. ratIOn of the Panohayat Raj, all over Tamil Nad. ,Cast. rivalry At present this union oonsist. of forty village 172. Calte and political party f.eling. do play pltDchayata and two town P&nchayats. It is .. lome part in th. Panchayat programme. of Pudu· • shado..... block', which i. expeoted to b.oome a kulam. In 19t12 general eleotions the villag_ ",a. fnU-fledged ono. The Panohl\Yat at Pudukula.m olearly divided by the influence of the COD3'." and oame into existenoe on J -6-HHIO a.nd the S".. tantra parties. TAe Kona.r!!, ThoTara and it joined the union on 2-10-1911. it is only .ome Pallll'ors had inclination. to",ard. the 5 months RincR it joined the Union, and henee no Swatantra party. The MaraTan had b.en on 8ub.tantia.1 progre•• can be made in such a Ihort intimate termll with the Konars. Further. they span of time. It mentions e.bo12.t the absence of oppoled the int.relt. of the Nadara who .toutly eleotricity in the 'Village, whioh i. 1.5 milett &W&y to lupported the Congr.... Thu. on the whole. the the Olut in Uteri vill .. ge of TirunelTeli Taluk and Konar. aro economically better off than any ot.h.r in Reddiarpatti Tillage which i. two mil •• to the OGmmunit.y in the villag., as they diilCo'f&rtd that north of the village. We}] ...re not in suffioi.nt thsir interelts b.y "ith the Swatantra &nd not with numbers in the village. There are only fonr school. the Congresi. There w ... caste riv&lry durin, the exi.ting in Pudukulam. Measles and small pox are pa.ncha.yat eleetion. in Pudukulam. Concentration the most COmmon epidemics of the village, u.ually of certa.in oommunities are .een in .ome of the prevented by va.ccination. There are lome hamlet. in the village, al! for in.ta.nce in Veer.la proposal I to improve the well-being of the villagers perunchelvi a.nd Therava.lli, Manvar. and NAdars of Pudukulam. In the field of public works, there are found respectively. Hence it did not take 8. ill a echeme to b. implemented ~hortly to met.. 1 the .tlriou. t.urn during the time of eJectionl. NeT.r. road from Reddiarpatti to Pudukulam at an t;htllell, olfICtion of President. from the members eltima.ted 0091; of Rs. 2,000. There ill & similar wIn a difficult problem. But on the other hand proposal to imprOTe the oondWon of Jothipuram the iogeniou. Na.darll wore able to gain lupport to Kong.. nda.npa,rai Road a.t II. OOit of Rs. 1.500. from Pallar and Paraiyar llommunHy. In addition. Further in Ma.nalvilai, a. hamlet of Pudukula.m a to this the faot that there were more Nadar well ill to be dug shortly at &n e.timated COllt of members in the Board than any other community Rs. 2.100. There is a. propoeal to conltruct • helped the N ..d&r member to beaome the Pr@6ident. Pa.nchayat Board office at a,n e.timated cost of A Fallar member by name Mr. Sw&mida'OIl from RI. 3.000. At present it it! houled in & rent.d Ayangulam hamlet becawe tb. Vice-Pr.lidtlot. building which pays Ri. 3 per mensem as rent. AI The Nada.r cl)mmunity forms II. majority and hence we a.Il know, t·he introduction of the Community take» " lndinl part; in the disouillioni of the Development Scheme "'nd the Na.tional Ext.ension Paneha-yat. In .pite of the fact that the Nadara Blooks is to provide for inertla.ed employment and form a maj orit,. yet the,. do Dot tyr.nnil. or rule to inltil in the people a.n ambition for higher 104 VILLAGB StrnVEY sta.nda.rds of life a.nd o.lso ma.ke them realise the relating to the awareness of people on the existonce Deed to wake US8 of unutilised time and energy and usefulness of the block are embodied in the for constructive work. The results of enquiry Table below, TABLE No. XL Nature of benefit from National Extension Service Block Number benefited in the manner Number of Number as b"low Number households whQ benefited Community of are aware of r------.A.----. by Road from Road from hous.holda existence of N. E. S. Block Illock Reddi"rpatty PathlDlpuratn to Pudukulam to J(onga~dan' para.l (1) (2) (3) {4} [D) (6) Nadar 27 Maravar 56 Ii 1 Konar 23 Paraifar 39 Van Dan i K8mmalar Pallar 3 Pillai 1 Pe.gadai 1 AmbattaD C. )1. S. Nadar 28 T. D. T. A. Nadar :n R. C. Nadar 1 1 1 R. C. Pallar 43 Muslim 14 But bere in PudukuJaro village only six households remammg 325 households are aware of the arc aware- of the existence of all N. E. S. Block in presence of these two roads. for it is the only the villagel. In the Marilvar community five house meanR by which the villagers have access to holds lind (me household in the R. C. Nadar the next villa::e; on the other hand they are commuuity have benefited by the N, E. S. Block, not a\El'l:) t hat it is one of the contributions of the tIle nature of vei:e.fit being a road lr.id bet.ween National Extension Block in the village. Kone Reddiarpatty und l'udukuhm and anot,nH road of tbe households in the village is aware of between Paphinipurarn and Kongandanparai. The grama sevak. PUllUK ll"L-'.K l~ Co-operative society neighbouring village namely, Kongrtndanparaiw 174, According to Table No. XLI we find It comprises of members from both "he villages.. that there ia a co-operative society located in .. he and as fa.r 88 Pudukulam is concerned, 24 heads o€ TABLE No. XLI Co-operative Society Oommunity Number of IDaJlllbers who have joined co·operative society ------~-~------~---- Paraiyar 4 T. D. T. A. Nado.r R. C. Nadar 3 R. C. Pallar 12 households belong to thill society out of a total of increase the agricultural yield of their lands. It_ 331 households in the village, that is 12 househ0lds hardly six months since the statutory p:mchayat. belong to R. C Pallar. three households to R_ C. at Pudukulam has joined the Union and hence th&=' Nadar, five households to T.D.T.A. Nadar and four attitude of the villagers towards block development; households to the Paraiyan community. 'The would Le too premature to be judged at present.' co-operative society is of great adv&ntage to its Nevertheless, we can observe that ~he villa.gers. members, as it affords loans for productive although keen on adopting improved methods in an, purposes like cultiva.tion. Thn8 only 7.3 percent spheres of life, do not have sufficient time and of the householdS' belong to the co-operative encouragement to achieve them. The primitive society, out of which 6.1 percent belong to 1the methods which they follow in their day to day life Christian community. make them work from dawn to dusk with little leisure available to think about adopting auy improvements. Though they work 80 hard Agricultural development yet, they live a. hand to mouth life. Further, only; 175. In the agricultural sphere. improvement!'! a few could adopt any improved method~ have heen envisaged a.nd the extension officer for Realising this fact, the Union has decided agriculture and the grama sevak are entrusted with to meet half the cost out of its own fllnda.' the work. It has been decided by the Panchayat. Although there is no encouraging response from, Union to supply the following agricultural the villagers at present for the above mentioned' implements at half cost. proposal of supplying implements and seedling at.' half cost, yet we hope that they will not fail to. Rs. nP. seize this opportunity to improve their lot. (1) Pellticide sprayers 73 00 each (2) Bose ploughs 5 00 Role of officials Mango seedlings 0 '15 (3) " 176. The attitude of officials towards villager.. (4) Guava seedlings 0 75 is as important as villagers towards officials. Th. " i1UCCeBB or failure of any developmental scheme (5) Lemon seedlings 0 62 " under the auspices of tbe block development. 'rhe ryotl!! of the village would have to programme lies ill the proper liaison between the. meet this COlilt. and the fest by the Pancha.yat villagers and the organisation of the block. Thia Union. It may be observed tha.t the demand for depends upon the energy and enthusiasm, of BOle ploughs is more olea.rly perceptible in the offioials who should make frequent visits to, the village than any other implement or seedling. village, and move about closely with the villagill'8 This olearly shows that. the ryotll are anxious to thereby grasping their requirements and local adopt new technique. and implements in order to conditions. The extension officer for agriOililturk 27 106 VILLJo.GB SURVEY Bnd the grama sevak do visit the village. Besides Recreational facilities .they must also try to understand the villagers and 177. The people of Pudukulam play Buch games help them sincerely by imparting the latest like' Silambam ' and' Cbadugudu '. They 801110 have wchniques in cultiva.tion by the simplest methods a. crude form of wrestling called "GhellilckaUu". possible. The liaison work has to be properly It ia performed after Mattu Pongal festival in the planned and cO'ordinated mainly with the conside month of Thai by the young men of the village. Bulla ratioBs based on local oonditions and the people of are decorated with colours and horns painted bright, the village. The block development programme Then, bulls which are excited will run in different has no proposal for any Key Village Scheme or directions. Young men try to control these unruly maternity ward for Pudukulam village. There are bulls and one who can control the bull can take the certa.in apbeTes in wbich }'e801 improvements can be new clothes and money placed on the bull as his made in the near future. First is in the matter of hooty. Thill is a dangel)ous game because there is ihaving compost pits for storing cowdung to be used the risk of bein~ gored to death by bulls. This game .as manures in the fields. At present the hOUl'le ha.s pra.ctically disappea.red. 'Silambam' is a game lholdi have pits dug quite near their houses in which giv-es good exerolse and can also be useful to which they dump cattledung to be used later on. protect one self from enemies. Genera.lly. two men This can be done in a. more I!Icientific manner now, are required to pla.y tJ;lis g&we. Ea.ch one takes a by the block officials. Same i, the cas. with cattle strong I!tick, usually,. ha.rd ba'mboo which is urine. Seoondly, facilities could be pro Tided for 7 feet in length. Ea.ch one swings the stick at the improving the cattle breedll most suited to the other in different ways a.nd the other hal to ward olimate of the village and the nature of work to off the swing which needs consideraMe tkill and whioh the cattle are sUbjected; the quality of cattle. pretence of mind. This game has also been certainly determines the quantity of the yield of practically given up. In' Cbadugudu " two teamB of land. Thirdly though co-operation ie a lIubject 5 to 6 people are formed. A central line is dra.wn. where no headway hal yet been made at all in the A member of one team recites a proverb without village, the villagers a.re keenly particular in inhaling. crosses the central line and enters the having a co-operative credit society of their own, zone of the opponent. If he touohes anyone in the in spite of the fact that co-operative credit is opposite te 110m , that person iii considered 'out' available for the Pudukulam villagers from the a.nd be should leave the court. If the player is Kongandanparai Co-operative Credit Society. There pulled by the opponent, he must come back to his is great scope for a. Co-operative Marketing Society own without inhaling 80S otherwise he is treated in Pudu"kulam, as most of the people are enagaged 'out '. The game needs considerable strength and ·in household indu.tries like jaggery-making by provides a. good eXfjroise for lungl!l. 'rhiB game haa Nadars, mat-makin~ by Muslims and fancy-basket &160 been practically given up by the villagers. ma.king by most of tbe castes in the village 'especia.lly Nadars and Muslims. Although the Games played by women third cannot be a full Bcale commercial proposition, 178. Women of Pudukulam prefer feminine 'the products of the first two could be co-operatively games 80S "Thayam" (dice). • Pa.llanguzhi' and ma.rketed. Besides, these co-operatives could help • Thiri Thiri Bambakka. '. Small girls may play these members to procure raw materia.ls required , Chillakku '. • Thiri Thiri Ba.mbakka ' is Ii. ga.me for their respective products at reasonable rates. played by two or more women on sa.nd. They sit At present both jaggery and mats are sold only oppo~ite to each other, heap sands a.bout 2 feet with 9, little profit margin, which hardly permitil long and 3 inches high. One ta.kel a small object the producer to enjoy any rea} comfort. Thus if like a stone and conceals it by saying 'Thiri they are sold through established co-operatives. the Thiri Bambakka' in the Band heap. The other producers will get reasonable profits and the should place both the palms with fingers inter pUNhasers will get the products at tea.s{}nabl~ twined wheIe the object is hidd~n. If it is fonnd prices. These products can even be exported by the at the place indicated by the opponent. the role is Marketing Society itself to different districts. The reversed and the game continued. 'undue i::lfluence of middlemen. especia!ly in the jaggery trade would be removed by this method. Games played by children Hence real effort in the right direction is what 179. Children, play gamea such a8 'Hide and is required of the block development schemes, if it seek', 'Nandi', and Skipping; 'Chadugudu', . ha.~ to instil the desirs of self-help and progress 'Pachai Kuthire.i' and ' Killithandu I a.re also _into the minds of the Pudukulam villagers. other games. The game of • Hide &nd seek' is PUDUKULAM 107 pla.yed generally during nigbt!!. Mpecially on 182. Some of the villagers read Tamil papers moon-lit nightl. The eyes of one child &re oloaad like 'Dina Thanthi ' and' Malai Mura.su'. They and others hid. in different pla.cel. After a 8i~nal allo read magazines like Anll1lcio Vikatall, Kumudllm i. given, the child hal to find others who haTe and Grama Nalam .. magazine illlued by the hid them lei vea. Pancbayat Union, Pal&yamcottai. Seeing film. is common. They go to tbeatres in Melapalayam a.nd Tirunelveli. In Melapalayam, there i. a tour 180. (Nondi' is another game pla.yed by ing cinema.. Cinema. posters cion be found in a.ll -children. A square is marked on the ground and the Ihops at Pudukulam, The shop-keepers a.re two teams of 5 to 6 are formed. One team will paid for exhibiting this. Tirunelveli ba.s theatrel stand on one side and a member of the other will which are modern and wen·equipped. Radio pn,g hop with one leg and catch those who are inside and rammel are relayed by the Panchayat Radio in the who will try to evade him. He should not relt Pudukulam main village. The other .even village. hill other leg. If he does so, he is disqualified. do not derive benefit by this. houlehold in If he sta.nd!! on one leg and takes re.t, _hey will One Pudukulam main villa.ge owns a t.ransil1;or·cum throw sa.nd on his legs. Persons who dodge should electrically opera.ted radio. One other household not &:0 out of the line and if they do 110, they in Mallakulam Paracheri ha.d a ra.dio but it hal are coneidered 'out'. Skipping is another p!l.l!time been sold. The private radio. are tuned to Tamil for girls, 'singly or collecti vely. A single girl ta.~es newa programmes and mu.ic, e.pecia.lly film mu.ic & cotton rope of about 5 feet in length by both Ita from Radio Ceylon. ends and adjusts it. length aooording to aer h.ight a.nd then jumps. She then Iwings the rope Family planning -overhead and beats it on the ground from the front. 183. The attitude of the villa.gers towa.rd. This can also he played by more girll. family planning is rather hostile. Many of them are aware of the measur •• a.dopted by the Government for restricting the liz6 of the fa.mily but none of Other games them is in favour of it. The attitude of the 181. Another ga.me pla.yed is ' Killith&ndu '. people tow&rdll family planning is welliubstantiated n is popula.rly" known IJoB Indian Cricket. Two by T&blel No. XLII to XLVI. According to things are used, a round IItiok of 1.5 feet and a Table No. XLII on1]' 3 headll of households in small peg of about 4 inchel! long chiselled at both Pudukulam, namely 2 Parayar and one Christia.n ends a.t a. fixed place. The peg if! placed and is household are aware of a family planning centre. lifted with a stroke by the longer stick and then Studying the attitude of the people towards family hit. It will fly lIome feet and fall down. The pl&DIling with reference to the number of 80DS and other will take the peg, stand on the I!Ipot, a.im daughterl in houleholds, the~ are as many as 125 on the bat and it is hit. It oan at timell be hea.d!!. of households or 37.7 peroent of the house dangerous because they can catch the flying peg bolds who want more children. On the and get the other boy out. It may some times other hand 12 households or 3.9 percent aay that bit their eyes. 'Pachaikuthirai' is another game they do not want any more children out of .. t ota} of played by small boys. One boy stands, bends his 331 households in the village. Among the house· body and touch~8 his feet with hiB hands. The holds that want more children 38.4 percent or 48 -other bayl! come running, place their ha~ds on his households have both. sons and daughters, and back, spread their legs sideways and over JU::UP also all the 12 houlleholds that do not want more him. The boy who is bending graduaJly mcreases children have both sona and daughters. There are the hei..-ht and the jump becomes more and more 33 households or 26.4 per cent who have no Ilons and difficult: when he attains his full height. 1f a.ny 144 percent or 18 households in the village haTe boy touches the bady of tue Kutfl.ir.i, he will have no children. Besides 20.8 percent or 26 householdl to t&ke his plaoe. No modern games are played in have 1-3 sons :and they all state \hat they wanl Pudukulam except throw ball. Cards are played more children. Among those households that in the village but rarely No recreation centres can want more children, the Christian community i. be found in Pudukulam. A few Christians know leading with 58 households. how to play Harmonium and other indigenous instruments like 'Ja lIra '. They play it only a.t People's attitude Church Services and on festive oeca.ions. There 184. Ou t of a total of 58 Christian households is only one person who can play on Mridangam, 1( or 24.1 percent have no aons, wherea.s 7 house_ ~h. Ion of a 108.1 dhabi. holds have no children. Among the houleholds 108 VILLAGB SURVEY that have both sons and daughters 10 householdll community, the Muslim, cornel! next. 28.5 percent belong to the R. C. Pallar community, 6 houee or 4 households out of 14 want more children, that holds to the R. C. Nadars, 5 households to C. M. S. is 2 houleholdl5 have 1-3 Bons, I household hatJ Nadars and 2 households to T. D. T. A. Nada.r!!. no sonl. and 1 household has no children. Among Thus we find a majorit'y of 58 households who the Hindu and Christian Communities we find a. want more children fallio the Christian:commuoity. many as 48 families who want more children as it is the general tendency among Ohristians to in spite of the fact that they have hoth sonB and beget as many children as possible even though daughters. their economic statuI!! may not be very high; but Bocially and educationally they are the most The table below indicates t.he num bel' of house forward community. 'l'akingtbe Hindu Community. holds wanting more children, baTing both sons and next, 50.4 percent or 63 households out of 125 daughten, aegording to different communities. households Itate they want more children. AmonjZ Quite an insignificant number of households in the the 27 Maravar households, 12 have Bons and village state that they do not want any more daughters, 5 houaeholds have 1-3 sons, 6 have children, that ill 12 out of 331 households or 3.9 no BODS, Bnd 4, hou~eholds have no children. percent. Among the 12 households that want more As is Been from the table below a majority children in t.he Paraiyar Community 4 householdR number of households, wanting no more children have no children, 5 have no sone, a.nd 3 households having both soos and daughters, is in the Christian have both BOOS and daughters. In households in Community. It is found tha.t in the\ Christian the other communities that want more ohildren, Oommunity there are eight households in all 11 belong to the Konar Community, 10 Nadafll, wa.nting no more children, which is quite contrary 1 Dhoby, I Kammalar and 1 Pallar household. to their religion in the case of Roman Catholic. So it is the custom among Hindus and more Pallars and Roman Oatholic Nadars, for according elpecially among the rural population to beget to their religion they are forbidden to practise children especially sons who would help to family planning. augment the family income. The minority Household,. wanting more children having eons and daughters .A. ______, .,... Community '::'0 ~'" ...... £~~ ""C'l Na.dar )(aravar 4 2 Konar 1 2 raraiyar 1 Kammslar PallaI' 1 C. )(. 8. N .. dar 1 2 T. D. T. A. N&da.r 1 R. C. Nadal' 2 2 n. C. Palla!' 2 2 I Total 2 1 6 8 I 11 II I 1 Household. wantinc no mar. childran havin" both ••no and dauihtera ,-______.A. ______-. Community Nadar ..,. Varavar 1 Kammala. 1 C. M. S. Nadllor 1 T. D. T. A. Nadar R. C. Nada. 2 1 R. C. Pdlar Total 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 Family planninl centre the boulileho1d, we find that family planning 185. So on a. general perulilal of the ta.ble wit.h which has been introduced has not been givelll reference to the number of Bonl and daughten in wid. publicity. There is a family planning TABLE No. XLII Attitude towards family planning with refereace to number of children Numbar w&nti.c more ehildren Number .... Ilting no mo.e cnildren r------"------,. r------.A.------,. ., ;:: to I!ti, Numb.. r ... u ... 0 .. ... " .. " " ~ 0 01> .. •...'" '" ... ""...o ..'" ...'" ... aware 8"<:: .. I., • ..<'1"'" a", .. ;:: ",A '" 0 .. -", • C >111 >,-;::; "'''0 ..'" S"<:: .. 1 .. > brJ ~~ ..'" "0'" Community of family .,. " "> • "_ i=:0 .. p. "._ .,,,.J!I I>'" ..0 .. = ~ ;~ '" plaaninc : ; ~ ... 1I1~ ~ .. ~ ::0 ::; ;: : ~ 1I1': 1I1~ >" ~ .. oS;:: .. co 01 centre ~ 0 0 II1.." 0 0 ~.. ""... 1:1 1:1 ~ 1:1 1:1 "0 " III .... " c (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (l~) Na.dar :I Maravar i 6 4 12 !l: Konar 3 ! 2 4 Paraiyar 2 6 4 3 Vannan Kamma]&r 1 1 Pall&r 1 Pillai Pag&dai AmbattaD C. M. S. Nadar 3 jj 1 T. D. T. A. N .. da. 2 2 2 R. C. Na.ar 7 4 2 • 4 R. C. Pall ... 3 i 2 10 1 Mu.lim 1 28 110 "ILL"'''. SUll.V1I:Y 'Centre in Tirunelveli town. Only three house village who are quite indifferent, that is. they are holds a.re aware of a family planning centre. not particular whether they have or do not have About 37'7 percent or 125 households out of & any children. total of 331 households in the village state that they wa.nt more children; out of thia 125, Attitude with reference to age 48 hou!!eholds have both sons and daughters. On 1~6. According to Table No. XLIII which the other hand, there is only 3.9 percent or 12 relates to the attitude of the people towards family households in the village wanting no more children. planning with reference to the age of the head of All these 12 households have both 80DS and the household, the number of males in the age daughters, whereas there are 194 households in the group 31-40 years forml a. larger number among TABLE Ne. XLIII ,AUitude towards family plaDniDg with reference to age of the head of the household Numbar wanting more ehildren, t.he aga of the Number ....D5iD8 110 mora childun, *he age of the h ..ad of hou.ehold (mala) bein. b..ad of hou.. h.ld (male) b .. ing Communit.y ,..------_..,._------, r------.A. AboTe 21 or AboT. 20 or 31----'0 21-SI :n-40 !i-SO 5. y ..a:ra 'I-GO 1••• 110 y ...n "1-50 Ie.. (I) (2) (I) (.) (5) (.) (7) (a) lit) (1,) (11) N.d .... , 3 1 II_OVA.. 5 11 11 Konar 6 I JPaNyar 1 3 3 'V,wluan Ilta.mmalar 1 lP.ll"", 1 lPilla.i 'Pa.C·dat Amb.. tt .. n ·C. M. S. N.da.. 1 ·T. D. T. A. N.d&r , "! 1 lB. C. Nad.r 3 8 6 ! I R. 'C. \PaIJar 1 2 11 • lr1uelim I 1 ------~------ Total 6 Ii 5:1 :15 Ii Ii ;those who want more children. There are 53 group 21-30 years there are 35 ma.lel or 28 percent :matM in this age-group, which work!! out to 42 who want more children, followed by l4, percent ]per.cent, whereas there are only six males in the or 15 males in age-group 41-50 and 4'8 percent or marne age-group among those homebolds who sta.te six males in the a.ge-group a.bove 50. But; a.mong that t1i.J.ey do not want any more children. In age- tholle who do not wa.nt any more children. there Pl1l) UJ[ULAH 111 ,are six ma.les in the age group 41-50. Out of 125 households ranges from 21 years and above whereas household!! who want more children, 16 households among those who do not want any more children ha.ve their male memhers a.wa.y from the Tillage. the age-group ranges from 31-50 years. Going The number of households aooording to ea.ch ca.ste further into the attitude towards family planning is 80S follows :- (Table No. XLIV) with reference to the age of the child bea.ring women, 31 percent or 40 female. Ca.ste No. of houleholds a.re found each in age-groups 21-25 and 26-30 Paraiyar I) wan Ling more children. and form a. larger number than in other a.ge-groups. Among those wanting KODar 2 no more children there is one female in age-group Nadar 2 21-25 and two female~ in 26-30. Then in age group 31-35, ] 6.8 percent or 21 femdes wAnt C. M. B. Na.dar more ohildren and 5.6 percent or lIeTen female. say that they do not want any more children, whereall R. C. Nadar 4,.8 percent or six fema.les want more children in age-group 36-40. and "two fema.les state that they Total 16 do not ",ant any more children. Fina.lly, 8.8 percent or It females above 4,0 yean state that ThuB it il seen with referenclI to the age of the they want more ohildren. So this feature. viz., head of the houl'lehold. a.mong the hou8eholds to beget children, is found in all the oommunities in "wanting more children the age of the head., of the rural area•. TABLE No. XLIV Attitude towards family planDing with reference to age of the child bearin, womeD No .....antinl more childr.n, 'he 8C.!of the No. wantinc _ore children. the ale of 'ha ohild-bearinl woman beinl .hild-bear;... woma.. b.;nl ,- - ..... Community r------___....._ ~ • <:0 0 co ... I>e~ _ 10 <:0 ...... oN ... 1>- .. oe ... "" ...... • c $ ... • "" . 1 '" C> • .. .. ·c ,.Q~ I ,.Q~ I I ... 1 l 1 • • OlD 1 ..., 001 A ~ l ;;; ~.:! ~~ '" ~= <~ ...... ~ .> (I) -(~) (I) «() (5) (6) (7) (a) (I) (1') ,11) (12) (11) (14) (15) ••dar 2 3 i 1 KaraTar ! 2 2 g 8 i 1 )(ol1ar :I i .. Par.i),ar J 2 4 :: Van.an 1 1IO:ammalar 1 1 Pallar Pillai Pa,adai .l..mbat$an C. K. S. Nadar 3 3 4 T. D. T. A. Nadllr 3 3 :I R. C. N.dar ( 2 6 15 a R. G. Pallar 1 " 7 1 1 K.,.lim I :I ----- Total 11 6 21 4O 40 7 2 1 2 112 VILLAGJ: SURVEY Duration of marria,. children, a. majority of households fall in the group i yean or le8l, tha.t is 52.8 percent or 187. Table No. XLV relates to the 66 hou•• holds out of a total of 125 household., a.ttitude of the p.ollle towards family planning A. for the remaining 59 households the duration with reference to the duration of marriage. of marriage is al follow8: 30 percent or 315 Among those households who want more TABLE No. XLV Attitude toward. family plaonins with referene. to duration of marriar;e • Number ...... nting more cbildren. duration Numb.r wanting flO mere cbildren. duratio.. of marri .. ga b~illi of rriarriaSfl being , ______.A. ______-") r------'_.A. ______-, Communi~y 15 y.an tl-IO Ov"r 16-20 11-15 6--10 ' ),e&r. 16-20 11-15 or lele8 20,ean or Jews (t) (J) (2) (3) (4) (6) (t) (7) (II) (10) (11) ---- NlLdo.r :I 4 Maravar 9 11 Konar 3 6 Faraiyar 3 4 Vann ... Kammalar Pall .., PiIl.. i Ambattan P .. gadai C. M. S. Nad .. r (; '1'. D. T. A. Nadar 6 B. C. Nadar 6 8 3 R. C. Pallar 2 13 Musl;;", 3 ------Total 1 6 35 group 5 years or less four households in 6--10 laouleholdsin 6--10 yea.rs, 40.8 peroent or six houle 20 holdi in ll-IS yean, one hou•• hold in 16-20 yean and one houlebold in above years duration. Among the Beven houleholds in the duration yean and another houa.hold in 20 year. and OTero A larger number of houfiehold. are found 5 yea.rI or les., five household. belong to the Chriltian commlilnity anti two to Hindu eommunity. in the Hindu community in the dura.tion 5 In the group 6-10 yean, tw.... householdl belong to year! or leu, that is 33 boufi8bold., and the remaining 33 hou.eholdll belong to the Chri.tian the Chriltian community and two to the Hindu community. Similarly in all the other groups. the community. Finally there ill one Christian houlle Hindu households form .. majority. A. regards hold in the duration group 20 y.arll and a.bove those 12 households who etate that they do not which states that it does not w!!'nt any more wa.nt any more children, seven fall in the children. PUDUIULa..M 113 Attitude with reference to income in the income group &s. 51-75. Regarding buutie 1SB. 'fable No. XLVI rela.tel! to the attitude bold>! wanting no more children. there are seven lU or the people t.owards family planning wHh the income group 1:{,s. 2tJ-5\1-nve belong to the reference to the monthly income of the houo:leholds. Christhl.n COlllllluHity and two to the Hiudu:;. A majority of households among those who want In the income group Hs. 101 a.nd over, there is only more children are found in the income group 011e household which belongs to tbe Christian RII. 26-50, that is. 82 household. or 65.6 peroent. community. Thus we find tbat there is a Jarger out of which 44- houl!leholds belong to the Hindu number of households in the lower income group oommunity. 36 to the Chris'ians and two to the Rs. 25 and below and a minority of households in Muslims, whereas 7.2 peroent or nine houaeholds the higher income group Re. 101 a.nd over. This aye found ea.ch in income groups Rs. 76-100 and clearly indicBotes the fact tbat persona with high RI. 101 and over and 18.2 perceDt or 23 houlleholds incomel!l wish to have leseer number of children. TABLE No. XLVI Attitude towards family planning with reference to monthly income of household Number wanting more children. having Number wanting ;10 more children, having' monthly income of monthly income of ,-______.A. ______, .A. ______---, Community RB.101 RR. RR. R •. RB. 25 Rs. 101 R8. R •. Ra. Rs.2J alld aoove 76---100 51-75 26-50 or les. and above 76---]00 51-70 26-50 Or 1{l5fl (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (al (9) (10) (ll t -.-~---.------ Nads.f 9 Marav&r 4 4 19 Konar 3 6 Para.iyR.l' 3 II Vanna.. Kammal .. r Pall ..r Pill.. i ... ragadai ... A.mbaUQn C. M. 8. Nad.... 3 (I T. D. T. A. Nadar 2 S 1 •. C. Nadar 2 4 U 3 R. C. Pallar II ]3 Ilullim 2 ------Total !I 23 82 2 1 2 2 7 .29 lH VILLAGE SU1l.VEY Social awareness oppose the levy of any new tax or increase in the existing ones. ThUll they are wilfully blind to the 189. Social awarenf'lss is not widespread in fact that they are incompatible. The villagp,rs Pudukulam village. Thtl villagers do not realise must be made to reali~e tbat apart from voicing that programmes like the Panchayat Bchemes and their grievances and criticisms they should community development are only instruments to co-operate with agencies like the Panchayat 00 used for a better life in the village, and they Uniun and help build up a new Pudukulam must be made to feel that t,hese agencies are village. intended primarily to inculcate the desire for progress into the village community, and they 190. The picture would not be complete if we should strive hard to achieve that object. It must do not mention some gerleral aspects with regard 'he observed that most of the people in the village to ruml life in Pudukulam; for instance acc-ording ;;;!tiiJ do not know that community development got to Table XLVII, only 36 households or 10.87 merged with the Pancbayat Union activities and percent. of the households in the village read the they still think that both these are separate daily newspaper and listen to radio broadcast, entities by themeelves. 'l'his is due to the fact that whereas only two households read the daily propaganda. to this effect by the members of the newspaper. Listening to radio broadcasts has Panchayat la.cks both vigour and publicity. The been made possible' by the iniltallation of a people in Pudukulam are ready to pour out their radio set in the Panchayat Boarol.: There are as grievances and criticisms of the programme!! many as 12 households in the village the undertaken by the Pancbayat Union. They are memben of which work for the eocip.l uplift of keen on demanding ma.ny improvements in the the village. Only one member takes a.n a.ctive village, but at tbe same time they vigorously part in politics. TABLE No. XLvn General Details Number of households Rea.ding newspaper only 2 New.papers and broadcast 36 Members working for social uplift 12 MelnLers taki ng ant ive part in politics M~rnber. d wllich have joined Co-oPGratl\"e Society 37 'Besides, the co-operative ~(>ciety which was societ,y. The mem bers of the co-operative society established in the nElighbourin;; village has 50me have benefited a great deal. Table No. XLVIII of its membeJis from PuilukuJam. About Il.I indicates the general awarenesS of people. percent or 37 household:> are covered by this PUDUKULAM ll5 TABLE No. XLVIII Extent of awareness Number of households, heads of which know the name of Total r------.A. -. Community ~o. oi houoehoids Distrit T ..luk P"tl~hayat Poliee station Principtll riv.ers of H.Q. li· Q. l3lock H. Q. th .. distnct (1) (2) (3) (4) (oJ) (6) (7) )fada.. ~7 13 U :! 23 14 Varavar 66 28 23 14, 53 54 Konar 23 16 16 3 23 19 Paraiyar 39 18 18 7 33 28 Van nan 5 2 :: 3 3 4 3 , , I.mm.l... '" 4- Pallar 3 :: Pilllai 1 Pagadai 1 Amb.tt.n 1 O. M:. S. Na.dar 21 \I 9 8 22 lil T. D. T. A. Nadar 31 16 16 " 30 27 R. C. Nada .. 55 2i 24 8 'Ii 39 R. C. Pallar 41 28 28 14 40 30 )(ullim 14 13 13 15 14 13 ------_. - Total 331 113 171 10 295 153 A majority of t.hem Feem to be well informed. 5Z.2 persons out of a total of 232 persona interviewed in peroent or 173 heads of housebold .. know thfl name the village. The extent of awareness in this regard of the district headq uarters, whereas only 51.66 per will be seen fl'om Table No. XLIX. cent or 171 of them know the taluk headquarters. The Panchayat Hlock which was established in the village as early as 1st June 1960 is only known to Hindus form a larger number, as 10.62 percent 2l.14 percent or 70 heads of households. 89'12 or 17 persons in this community are aware of the percent or 295 heads of households are aware of Untouchability Offence. Act. But among the the police station in the village. The names of the Christians out of 158 personl!l intc,rviewed, ten prjncipal rivers are known by quite a number of persons or 6'32 percent are aware of the Act. people-about 71)'4:3 percent or 253 heads of Among Muslims, out of 14 persons interviewed hou.ebalos. The Untouchability Offences Act is only one is aware of prohibition of untouohability known to quite a few i.e., 8'43 percent or 28 under law. 116 VILr.AGB SURVEY TABLE No. XLIX Awarene•• of UDteucbability Offenc8s Act Numb .. r of penon. ,.ware of prohibition of Number of p"rsons illtervitn"ed untouchability under law ----~~~~- ---~. Nadal' ::1'1 Marava .. III i KODar 2 Faraiyar 39 S VanDaD Iii Kawmalar 4- 1 Pallar :I Pillai Pagadai Ambattan c. M. S. Nadal' 28 ;I T. D. '1'. A. N"ade.r 31 2 R. C. Nad"r 55 R. C. Pallar 43 4 Kuslirn 14 -~------.------Total 331 28 Village organisation KammalaJ'8 and one Konar and Ayyangulam has 191. The orga.nisational pattern of the village PaHara, Na,dars, Konars, Dhobies and Pagadais. and its neighbourhood does not ha'veany speciality. Next we have the various oocupations which deter The organisation of the eight hamlets shows Bome mine the nature of the hamlets in the village to difference. In the matter of religion, Hindus are some extent. As for instance, we find cultivators to be· found in all the eight hamlets, lluelime are in aU the ha.mlets, and the Bame is the case with to be found only in Mallakulam hamlet, while Dhobies also. Tappers and jaggery makers are Roman Catholics are found in Pudukulam main principaily found. in Manalvilai, Mallakulam and Tillage, Tberavalli, and Ayankulam, with oneor two Ayyangulam ha.mlets and a few in Theravalli. houlleholds in Mana.lvilai. Christiltns (Protestants) Mat weaving is done only by the Muslims in are found in Manalvilai and Mallakulam with two Mallakulam hamlet. ThUIIl, thelie are some gf the households in PudukuJam main village; C. M. S. principal occupations in the 'Village. Finally, Evangelical christians are found in Pudukula.m considering the economic conditions, Mara.vars and main Tillage only. As far as communities are Konar. are better off than other eommunities and clOneerned, there il some difference. Pudukulam are to be found lnPudukulam ma.in villa.ge, Veerala main village consists of Na.dars, Maravafs, Konarl'l, pernnchelvi and Ayyangulam. Some of the Mara Paraiyars, Pallar8 a.nd Dhobies. Theravalli hamlet Tars of Veeralaperunchelvi are money-leDder•. eonsists of Nadari and Dhobies. Ayyangulam They lend money to other castes at high Tates or conlists of Pallara only and Ariyanayagapuram, interest. NadIne only. But in Veeralaperunchelvi, Marava.rs outnumber every other community. Besides there are Na.dars, Dhobies a.nd Kammalars in this ha.mlet. Inter-hamlet ,elationship IbnalviJai has Nadars and Dhobis8 only, in 192. We allo find that the Tillagers take Mallakulam there are Parayars, Radars, MuslimI', ~o 'VarlOus occupations, to suit loeal conditiona PUDUKULAM 117 and also their aptit.ude. Thus, tapping of palmyra village iii concerned, for voluntary organisations and jaggery making are conMntrated in Manalvilai, of any kind, sohool improvement boards, reading Mallak\;lam and Ayyangulam because althe greater room~, night ,",choolR ('ommunit,y hall!', etc., are all concentration of palmyra trees in these parts of conspicuous by their absence. Except for the Pudukulam village. The rivalry or unity among midday meals scheme for school children there is the hamlet~ in the village largely depends upon the no other vhilantbropic effort worth mention;ng in oa5t'36 in the different hamlets. There is no apparent the village. The inter-hamlet relationship cannot rivalry among the hamlets in Pudukulam. On but be cordiaL at least in one respect, namely, the other hand religion is a unifying force among letting out water from one hamlet's tank to another, hamlets, as for example, during , Panquni for it is an absolute necessity as it is a matter of Uthiram' a Hindu festival in Kalungudayar life and death for the villagers. For instaDce, the Temple near Pudukulam, almost all the Hindus surplus water frum itlallakulam feeus Pudukulam, give offerings and take part in ita celebrations. which in turn feeds Peria Pudukulam or Theravalli Besides, the inter-relationship of occupations kulam which ftleds Ariyanayagapuram kulam. is another unifying force in the village at least to The hamlet Ayyangulam does not get Manimuthar some extent. All the castes depend on Dhobics or water whereas Veeralaperunchelvi tank gets water Kammalars. The latter do carpentry or blacksmithy. direct from Puliankulam. Ayyangulam gets The Nadars sell jaggery, Maravars lend money and water from Ponnaglldikulam-a tank of the· the Konars !!ell milk and milk products to all other neigh houring village of Ponnagudi. ThuB, most of" castes. the hamlets are dependent on one another for supply of water for tanks. There seems to be a common understanding a.mong the villagers in aU 193. A great deal of improvement has to be the ha:nlets to this effect, as then~ is no apparent earried on as far as the social organieation of the dissension among them. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION 194. In cOIlclusion, Pudukulam pre.ont. an iii a proposal to oonstruct a. uew building for the interesting picture with its countryside lying ba.re Panchayat Board Office. . The only good feature of ,and brown without a stalk of green to liven up the the Panchayat Board Office is the possession of a. 1tnmosphere; a clm:ter of palms is t.Q be found brand new radio set. It hu,iI ,however, sent in scattered here and there The life, customs and detailed proposals to the Elect-r;icity Board ha.bits of the various communities inhabiting the for bringing electricity to Pudukulam. There village form a striking picture. There are as many are no primary health centres nearby, but there i8 38 eleven communities in the village, the main a Local Fund Dispensary at Reddiarpatty which is (lommunities being the Maravars, the Konars freq uented by the people of this village. Drainage (otherwise known as Ylildhavas), the Nadars, the and sanitation facilities are non-existent. There PaUars and the Paraiyars. The Nadars are numeri· being no proper ba.throoms, people ad6pt age-old cally larger, closely followed by the PaHara, methods of personal hygiene. Paraiyars. Maravars and Konars in that order. Social segregation is being exclusively practised in 197. Regarding ocoupation, In spit. of the fact this village as all the communities ha.ve separate living accommodation. One interesting feature that We find olusters of pa.lm tr.el dotting the of this village is that the Nadars and PaHars landsoape, yet the Nadal!! and Ma.ravars do not tap are Christians whilst without exception Ma.ravarB, palm juice for the ma.nufacture of neera. or palm .Konan and Paraiyars profess the Hindu faith. jaggery by which at lea3t they could be aS8ured of a steady source of income. )bjority of the villagers are agriculturists having no seconda.ry ,195. A notable feature in the village is the occupation. Even though the Mara.var8 are il1tel'eat evinced in education by the HarijallB, higher in the socia.l scale, they arB all agricul ·especially the Paraiyars, among whom there is large turists, owning a small acreage of land, and in the 80ale a.dult illiteracy. The villagers are increa$ingly absence of any secondary occupation they even 'beooming aware of the need for improving eduoa work for wages 809 agricultural labourera. Among tiona.l·needs and with this in view. they are sending the N a,dars too, we find tha.t most of the people are their children to Bchool. Improvement in female agriculturists. Of all tho cemmunities, the Nada.r& educa.tioo is alao evident; again among Harijana, are relatively well·to·do owning a. large extent of the girls outnumber boys on the rolls f)f land. The bulk of tb agrioultural la.bour is the Pudukulam School. With the grant of provid(ld by the Pallar a.nd Para.iyar. They are scholarship and other concessionli extended to the also agriculturilts. Among the Konars, in addition Rarijan community, the Paraiyars of the viIJag;e to agrioulture, nine families pOISes. buffalo.a, are eager to take advantage of the amenitiliB offered tbe milk of w hioh they sell to surrounding and are sending thair littl~ ones regularJy to villages and to such of those Maravals and Nadar. 8chool. in the village who like to purch•• e it, The predomina.nt occupa.tion in the Tillage for & 196. Pudukulam can boast of a Panchayat majorit.y of workers is cultivation. The Hanimuthar Baa.-rd. This comprises of 10 persons of which Reservoir Projees hal helped immensely in the there is one woman member belonging to the Nadar irrigation of a large number of acre. and henoe community. The income from the Panchaya,t is tbere is a. significant cha.nge in the occupational derived from the houle tax. the vehicle tax, the pattern of the villagers, for, many of the profes8ion tax a.nd matohing grants from the households have diverted ~heir attention to Government. Even though the Panchayat was cultivation from tappin, and jaggerl preparation formed on 1-6-19~O, t.he achievements for the which was originally the prodominant occupation last two years bave been rather negligible. There of the village. PUDUI(ULAM 119 198. The picture would not be complete if an era. of prosperity in Pudukulam. we find a ",e do not mention here the attitude of the people tendency towards a more prosperous life which is towards family planning. The attitude of the Imre and certain, but slow. Thus the Manimutbar villagers in Pudukulam towards family planning is Reservoir scheme has given the village a pro rather hostile. Finally, with the availability of gressive outlook. t.he Manimuthar water which is the harbinger of APPENDIX I CENSUS 1961-S0CIO ECONOMIC SURVEY Hou.ehold Schedule Name of village: House Dumber: Serial number: 1. Person or persons interviewed: 2. (a) Name of the hea.d of the household: (b) Sex: (c) Age: No.3. Statement Po I .~ .... "d I 1:1 ! >. 0 "=0_ R >. >.0 I ... 0 I 1>.", ho >, ''''"._ 0" I 0 !! ..,WI" ,",- b", "._ ;>,J4 ¢o~ g~ ~'"O _g M i ., cO.!!! ",'" : ...<:i 8 "d+> ::38 ..,,, " i .~ 0 I .... -Po Name .....o "Q,; III.. :~ ... '" 1::1" "0 ..p Q".1:<1 a I -:S ~~ g ! -;;; " 8~ (jj '" ...... , .;::: :l 0"" ,,,,I rIII!!='''tj 1-+ <=i " ft; -:;;.Q ::s I -< ;<;:: " '" '" I 0,;<=i " I 0" ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ _0 0 '" <" p..,g ~ g Q., HoGliG Il< I ... 8 ~ ::.i'- ::>l'_ F-< g 13·- C) .. ~.,..= : rng 0 <0 0 ... 0 , R I I I ~" I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I \ I I I , I i ! I i I I I I I .. I I i I I I I I I I ,r I i .j I I I I I 31 12Z VILLAGE SURVEY A. DURATION OF RESIDENCE: 4. (a) For how many generations. counting from head of the houllehold backwards. baa the household been residing in thil!l village ~ (b) If the head of household has migrated to this village, together with the houle hold, where was his ancestral home ~ iSpecify taluk, district and state). lJ. -RELIGION: Ii. (a) Religion: (b) Sect: (c) Tribe or Callte : (d) Sub-tribe or .ub-caste: ~. (a) Is there & deity or object of worship or .. sacred pla.nt in the house ~ (An.wer Yes/No). (6) If • Yes', where is the deity or object of worship located in the house ~ (c) What is the name of the deity or object of worship or sacred plant and what ia the form of worship 1 (d) Other than this, what is the principal deity of the household 1 .7. Do you know that untouchability in any form has been prohibited under Law? (Answer Yes/No). C- '}Ij!RRIAGE: 8. (&) (1) Has any marriage in contravention of caste or tribal Law taken place, in this household ~ (Anllwer Yes/No). (2) If such a. marriage has taken place, give details about the marriage. (b) With what castes or tribes other tho.n the caste or tribe of the household is marriage (1) I'ermisaible. (2) Desirable. -(c) Was dowry given on the occasion of the marriage of the son 1 (Answer Yes/ No. If lye.'. mention amount calh and kind.) A!'l'l!llHnX 123 (el) Was dowry given on the occasion of the ma.rriagll of t11e daughter? (Annrer Yes/No. If' yes' mention amount.) (e) Are you aware of the fact that the tlloking of dowry hss been prohibited according to a recent piece of legislation. 9. Have you a.ny objeotion to contract marriage!! for perllons of your household with persons of sa.me locial and economic status as' yours but belonging to the following communities. [Mark with a (V) the names of the communities against which you have no objeotion] (communities to be li.ted in the village) :- D. INHERITANCE: 10. (a) Do you know t.ha.t there h&ve been changes in reoent years in Hindu Adoption Act! (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yel, what do you think !lore lI1te salient features of recent chan~el ~ (List of I ..lient feature. to be prepared.) n. (a) Do you think th&t there ban been change. in recent years in Hindu Succelsion Act 1 (Answer Yell/No.) (b) If yefJ. w.ba:1; do you think. are the aalient features of such changel! (Lilt of aalient fe&$urea to be prepared). HI. (a) What relatives, including male mem bers and widowil and daughters, married &nd unmarried, inherit pro perty on the death of a. married male perlon belonging to the Bame cast. as your household 1 (6) What iii the .hare of each suall member ~ 13. Are you in favour of inherit&nce of pro perty by daughters equally with .onl ! B. PROPERTY: L5••. 14. If the household pon•• lell Iud fill up the following :- (CI> (1) Own land •. 124 VILLAGE SURVEY (2) La.nd held direct from Government under tenure less substantial than ownership. (3) Land held from private persons or institutions. (4) Land given out to priva.te persons or institutions. (5) Land held on laa.le. (6) Others. Total (b) Total area under cultivation: (e) Area comprising homestead: (d) N awe of crop Quantity obtained Quantity Quantity lASt y~.. ~ conllUmed Bold, (i) Paddy (ii) Wheat (iii) Chola-m, Ragi, Cumbu (iv) PuJiles including gram (v) Sugarcane (vi) Ba.rley (vii) Vegetable (viii) Jute (ix) ChilJies (x) Tobacco (xi) Oilseeds (xii) Cotton (xiii) Ginger (xiv) Fodder or bamboo or ca.ne (xv) Fruits (xvi) Other agricultural crops (Maize, Jowar, Bajrs, etc). (.) Wbat is the organic manure used! (j) Do you use chemical fertilisers ~ (g) Do you UBe any new agricultural imple ment which has b4len taught to you for the first time in the last fin yearji~ APPENDIX l~ (h) Do you borrow a.grioultural implement. from others at the time of cultivation ~ (i) Do you take help of neighbours at the time of sowing or harvesting? (i) Do you assist your neighbours a.nd receive help at the time of cultiva.tion in the shape of manua.l labour 1 15. How muoh did your father own at the time of his death? (.) Land in acres. (b) Houses and other property. 16. (a) Do you own any oattle or poultry? Give numberts. (i) Milch cattle. (ii) Draught bullock. (iii) Cows, goats, sheep, pigs, duck/geese and fowls, buffaloes. (b) How muoh milk or milk produot. do you sell ~ 17. Fishery : (a) Does the household own any tank? (b) If fish is reared, was a.ny quantity sold last year ~ (Answer Y eslN0.) If' yes', mention quantity. F. INDUSTRY: 18. Do you conduct an y industry 1 If yes, is it traditional? (a) What are the products? Quantity produced and quantity sold last year. (6) Which of them do you sell to neigh. bours or in the market? (0) Have you taken up this industry for the :first time in the course of the last five years 1 (d) Have you adopted any new tools or instruments for running thisindustry~ If so. name the details of the tools and instruments. 19. Name the art or craft in which you have earned proficiency? 32 20. When and how did you l.arn ~he art or craft concerned" (.) Do you eon aider furiher iraininc neces.a.ry ~ (Anaw... Yea/No.) ~n. (a) Wha.t was your fa~her'l! oecupa'toion ~ (6) If you haTe chang.d your father'. ocoupation, why have you den. 80 1 It. Have you younelf changed your occupa.tion from another kind to this on.? (Answer Yea/No.) (6) If yes, expla.in why you haTe changed your own ocoupation ~ (c) Are you oontent with the present oceupation ? (fi) If not, what other work you are doing! 23. (a) Are you content with the present occupation'! (Anl!lwer Yes/No.) (b) If nOJ what other work you are doing r 24. What kind of work would you lik6 your eon to do ~ 25. (a) If you are engaged in trade or bUl'liness, mention the commodities dealt in. (6) How do you get your finance? (c) What is your approximate profit? 01 INDEBTEDNESS: 26. If head of household is in debt- (a) Mention amount of debt outstanding. (6) I. the household in debt 1 If yes, :fill up the following: ~PPE1fDZX 11"1 Amount (8) Cauee- RII. nP. 1. Pur.bas. of land. 2. Hou.e oonstruotion or repair. to existing building. S. Marriages. 4. Funerals. 5. To liTe dowry. 6. To elear outstantiing debts. 7. Sickn.al!. S. Confinem.nt. 9. Family day-to-dILY expen•• iI. 10. Hon•• hold cultivation. n. Industry run by household. 12. Business run by hous.hold. 13. FeatiTals. 14. Othell. (b) Souree of dobt--. Amount. 1. RelatiT.a. 2. Friend! or neighbour•. 3. Village money-l.nder•. 4. Prof.. sional mODey~lend.r8 from outside. 5. Government in.,it.t.ionl. 6. Co·op.l'a.ti .... Cr.di~ Sooieties. 7. Land Mortgage Banka. I. 0.h8r Co-op.ratiT. Sooiei;ie•. 9. Others (Specify). H. EDUCATION: 27. (0) Hol'l" muoh did you ilpend la.t 7ear on t.he .duca.tion of your cltildl'en ! (b) Doe. any member of the household regularly read .. aew.pap.r or li.ien to neWI broad••• t ! I. COMMUNITY: 28. (a) Does the head of the household know headquarters of district. taluk. Pan·chayat Union council and Block Development Office; location of the Police Station under the jurisdiction of which the village is '? (b) Does the bead of the household kno'W the names of the principal rivera flowing through the distriot '? APPLICABLE TO ZAMIN VILLAGERS AND THOSE RECENTLY SETTLED: 29. (a) Do you think that abolition of zamindari and illtermediary rights ha.s resulted in any good to you'? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, indicate how you haTe benefited. (c) If no, why have you not been benefited? 30. (a) Have you benefited from any scheme of land reclamation or land develop ment or any other form of La.nd Reform? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, explain how have you benefited. 31. (a) Is there a Co-operative Society in your village ~ If yes. how many are there '? If no, do you desire to have one '? (b) If yes, are you a member'? (Give the name of the society or sooietios.) (c) If no. why are you not a member '? 32. (0) Is your villa.ge cov~red by the Commu nity Development Project '? (b) Do you know what are the fnnetio.a of Gramsevak ~ (Answer Yes/No.) (c) If yes. describe hiB function •. 33. (a) Have you benefited frOID the Block Development Office? (AnswerYesjNo.) (b) If yes, how ha.ve you benofited 1 34:. (.) Is there a Panchayat in yunr vill&~e ~ (Answer YesjN 0.) (b) If yes, how long has t.he Paneh&yat been in your village 1 A.PPENDIX (c) What are the main functions of the Panchayat1 (d) What are the main partie:!! in your Panohayat a.nd which ca.ste is leading the Panchayat ? (.) Has tllere been any improvement in your villa.glil sinoe the Pancbayat walil established 1 (Answer Yes/No.) (f) If yell, what have been the improve ments? (g) Hits there been any harm after its establishment ~ (Answer Yes/No.) (1l) If yes, what were the evil;; ? 35. (a) Has any caste or trillS of your village got a "ep'irate Panchayat of its ow:} ? (Answer Yes/J'~o.) (b) If yes, what {i,re the main funetions of this Caste or Tribal T'anchaJa\, ? (c) Since the Strttutory Panchayats are functioning do you think these Caste or 'l'ribal Panchayats should still continue? If yes, why should tiley exist? 36. (a) Is there a Family Planning Centre in your area? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) Do you know that man and wife ca.n pre vent conception of a child by deli· berate means, if they wish to do so ! (c) Does the head of the household wish that no more children were born 110 him; or doe~ h~ wish for more; or is he indifferent 1 J. DIET: 37. (a) How many times a. day do the memb8rlll of the h(,ul!ehoJd take their meab ! Are they vegetarians or non-vegeta rians ? (b) What are the ulual item. of diet at .aoh meal? (Specify whether rioe. wheat, graml, roota, etc.) (c) What are the food. or drinks pro hibited 1 (II) Doelil the houilehold i&ke sugar/tea. or coffee 1 33 K. UTENSILS; 38. (a) What utensils are used for preparine food and for storage of drinkinJ!: water' (b) Of what materia.ls a.re import&nt utensils made? (1) Earthenwa.re. (2) Aluminium. (3) . Copper. (4) Brass. (5) Eversilver. (6) Silver. L. FUEL: 30. What fuel is ordina.rily used for eookin~! ... How do they procure it '? K. FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS: 4:1. (a) DOBS the household pesse.u a bedsteadJ cha.ir f'table jmi t"ror/bench/local cotfwa.1l shelf/almirahlstool. (Crolls out tho•• not found.) (b) Is the household using Any new kind of furniture for the fint time i. the last. five years '? (e) If so, what are they? (Ii> Does the h.ullehold u •• me.quito D.ts 1 4.. List all the ornaments us.d by (_) men and N. HOU5ES: 43. Give detail. about the aouse ma.terials. 1I.oJ- (1) Mud reof. (2) C01!lntry tiled. (3) Mangalore tiled.. • (4) Terra.ce. (puc8a roof). (5) Zinc s1aeet. (8) Tin roof. .t. T'PIl!rDIX. (7) Asbestos roof. (8) Corruga.ted iron roof. (9) Wooden roof. (10) Stra.w or gra.ss roof. (11) Leaf roof. (12) Others. Wall- (1) Mud wall. (2) Bam boo wattled w&Il. (3) Mud pla,stered bamboo wattled wall. (4) Wall of twigs and bra.nohes. (5) Wall of twigs and branches plastered with mud. (6) Reed wall. (7) Mud pla.stered re.d w&11. (8) Wooden wall. (9) Briok wa.ll. (10) Straw or grass wall. (II) Leaf wall. (12) Stone walL (l::l ) Others. Floor- (1) Mud floor. (2) Coment floor. (3) Wooden floor. (4) Stone floor. (5) Lime and mortar floor. Number of IIlopes One. Two. Three. Four. Five. Six or more. Without slope. 182 VILL.l..G. I!JtTBVBY 44. (.) Give a plan of the hou•• a.nd com. pound showing the main pla.ces, the material of the roof, walls and doors. (b) Total number of rooml'l in the houlile. Note-Give sketches a.nd phot,ograph .. wherever possible. O. CONSUMER GOODS: 4.5. (I) (a) Does the household posselS!!! hurri cane lanternJpetroma.x or hazakJ battery torchlight/kerosene stovel bicycle/gramaphonejradio set '1 (CroBs out -those which do not apply.) (ll) Has any of the items been acquired for the first time in the last five years 1 If yes, which are thel!!e articles ~ (c) Does the household use toilet soapi washing soap ~ (d) Are ('lothes sent to washerman ~ POSSESSION: (2) Does the household pOSiless- (a) Car. (c) Jutka~ (d) Ponies. 4ti. (A) Materni.'y ca&e&: (I) Cases hospitalized. (2) Number of ca.e8- (a) Confined in hO.!lpital. (b) Confined by bringing doctor home. (c) Confined by qualified midwife at home. (d) Confined by unqualified • Dai' a,1; home. APPBNDIX (B) Medical treatment: What is the medical system followed! (1) Allopathic. (2) Ayurvedic. (3) HOID90pathic. (4) Combination of more tha.n one of these. (5) Others. (C) Medical consultatio1l. 1 Where do you go for medical coa- 8ultation! (1) Public hospitals or dispensaries. (2) Priva.te hospita.ls or dispensaries. (3) Priv&te doctors. (a) Allopaths. (b) Homeopaths. (e) Others. (D) Vaccinatioft: How many memben of the family have been vaccina.ted t (1) At least onee. (2) Within the pa.st six months. 47. I'I&comc- Total family income per mensem from (a) Land. (b) Ipdustry. (0) Business. (d) Occupation. (e) Others (specify source). 48. AtI.rage monthly expenditurc What is expenditure on- (A) Food- (1) Oercal .. and puZ.u (IS) Rice. (b) Other grains. (c) Dhall. (4) Total. 134 VILLAGE SUBVEY (2) V€getables- (a) Potatoes. (b) Tapioca. (c) Onions. (ft) Coconut. (e) Others. (/> Total. (3) N on-vsgetari.an- (a) Meat. (b) Fiflh. (c) Egg. (d) Others. (4) Milk. (5) Ghe~ and oils- (tI) Ghee. (b) Oils. (c) Total. (6) Oondim.ents- (a) Chillies. (b) Tamarind. (c) Others. (d) Total. (7) Sugar- (a) Sugar. (b) Jaggery. (c) Total. (8) ODffee and Tea- (a) Coffee. (b) Tea. (c) Total. (9) Liquor. (10) Pobacco- (a) Smoking. (b) Chewing. (c) TotaJ. APPENDIX {Il) Other foods inc]uding refreshments. Total 'Under food .- (B) llJducation (1) Fees. (2) Books. (3) Uniform. (4) Others. (C) ~lot"'ng., (D) Fuel. (E) Marriage. (F) Festiv,"8. (G) Mi8cellaneou,8. q) Dhoby or soap. (2) Barber. (3) Travelling. (4) Medical fees a.nd medicines. (5) Religious observances (6) Amusements. (7) Provident Fund and other COlD pulsory savings. (8) Payments of debte. (9) Remittances to dependents resid ing elsewhere. (H) Other8. Total. 49. (a) Has ..he household secured during the last five yea.rs '? (1) Better irrigation facilities. (2) Better types of cattle. (3) Better seeds. (4) Better im.plements. (5) Better manure. (6) More land for cultivation. (7) Use of Pesticides. 136 VILLAG:' SUJI,VEY (8) Improvf!d method!! of cultivation like Japanese method. (9) Land improvement measures like land reclamation, soil conservatiol!l and consolidation. (6) Have you received demonstration in improved agricultura.l practices '? (0) Have you pa.rticipa.ted in activities of . Community Projeot by contribution of land. labour. ca.sh or material ~ 50. ProapeTi'lI Indcx- (1) Have you oleared any d.bt which existed prior to 10 years :from the income of the household! (2) If yes. specify the amount 80 cleared. (3) During the last, ten years- (a) Have you a.cquired any property'? (6) Have you ma.de any savings in cash or in the shape of ornament.s, etc. 'l (c) Have you invested capital in any new undertaking or building ~ (d) Have you opened a voluntary account. in any po;;t office savings bank or any other bank? (e) Have you invested in N S. C. or prize bonds or other forms of rural saving campaigns '? 1) Are you a member of any chit fund or other indigenous funds except where it is wholly from any debt inourred for the purpose and/or the proceeds of any sale of property ~ 51. Extra-curricular activitie8- HaB any member or members of this household- \a) Worked for social uplift. (6) Taken active part in politioll. (c) Joined any Co-operative Society. (4) Joined any oiub, library. dramatio party or other cultural or.:anisation in the villag•. APPENDIX ,SOCIAL DISABILITIES: 52. (A) Do you ha.ve free access 1;0- (1) Shop, hotel or restaurani;. (2~ Temple or place of wor.hip, (3) Any ot.her plaoe .f public rellort. (B) Do the following render you their services- (1) Brahmin prie.t. (2) Ba.rber. (3) Washerman. (4) Any other village .ervant. (C) Are you avoided by Cast. Hindu in rega.rd 00- (IJ Touoh. (2) Serving cooked food. (3) Serving water. 36 APPENDIX II CENSU~ 1061-S0CIO ECONOMIC SURVEY Village Sohedule Na.me of Police StationjTaluk: Name of District. Name of village: L. O. No. of villa.ge. Area. of the village: No. of households. Wh8.t is the religion which majority of the villagers profess? Name the caste to which the majority of the villagers belong: 1. Topography of the village: (a) Is the village situated on a plain/on an undulating surface/on a plateau/on a hillock/or at t.he bottom of a depression ~ (b) The system of grouping of houses average distance between two clust.rs of houses-reasons for such grouping e.g., whether on account of the nature of the surfaee of land or on account of the socia.l customs. (c) Internal roads-Tanka-Village com mon-any stream or other extensive source of water-proximity or other wise of any jungle-Approximate number of shade- bearing trees and bow they are arranged. 2. What is the looallegcnd about the village~ 3. Detailed description of average hOUFW of the members of each Caste/Tribe, religious group, occupational group in the village. 4. Name and distanco of Hat or Hats to which surplus produce of the village is taken for sale. 5. Name and distance of the nearest railway station and bUB route. 6. Distance by road from Thana. and sub division headquarters. 7. (a) Distanee of the Post Office from the village. (b) Distance of the Telegraph Office from the village. (e) Can money be sent through that POlt Office 1 APPENDIX 139 8. Religious practice followed by members of each Ca&t1!J, Tribe l\ud religious group in the village. The description of the religious pr~ctice in each case should begin with the na.me or names under which the Supreme Being i/:l known and then proceed from ceremonies that might be observed in respeet of a person from sometime before he is born and end with the funeral rites after his death. 9. Give details of places of common religious worship, if any. 10. Describe community festivals if held in the Tillage. ll. Dress commonly worn by the villagers with special reference to peculiarities on account of Ca.ste, Tribe or religious sanction or economic status. 12. Number and types of schools in the village. 13. Describe Social Recreation Centres, if any. 14. State of Co-oper&tive movement in the village. (Number and names of Co·ope ratives). I5·A. Details of crime statistics for the past ten years. Year Place ef crime No. and na.ture of crimes Rema.... ks I5-B. Prohibition Offences. Year PIso" of "rime Number Remarks 140 VILLAGE SURVEY 16. DII~&il8 of births and deathl for th•. lalt ten yea,rs. Births Natural inoreala Year Month r------~------~ ~----'--~ Kales Females Males Females Kales Female. A brief note on the 0&U8e of death. 17. Deta.ils of villa.Ce la.ndl clarified by creps: Year Name of crop Extent of land II. Total population of the village in IS:l I, 1941, 1951 and 1961. 19. Is the village electrified ~ 20. School statistics in deta.il. 21. What are the common diseases in the village 1 22. Give your impressions of cleanlinees. 23. Drainage and sanitary facilities-A note. 24. What is the source of drinking water 1 25. Is outbreak of epidemic freql:ent and what are the preventive a.nd curative effects taken to combat them 1 26. Is there B Prim&ry Health Climtre or Maternity ward ~ Which is the nearest hoapiial ? 27. Is widow remarriage allowe~ by different castes? APPENDIX 141 28. What are the sources of irrigation in the village 1 Give number and types and brief note thereon including the Dumber of pumpsets. 29. Give the number of temples/mosques! churches in the village. 30. If there is any Co-operative Society in the village. give a detailed note on it_ :31. Total livestock in the village aa per the. 1956 Census and the present position. :32. Is there a. Key Village Centre in the village ~ If no, which is the nearest Veterina.ry Hoepi tal? . 33. Is there a Cattle Pound in the village? 34. Do the villagers ta.too their bodies? 35. Do they fovour female education ~ :36. Are there Any ancient monuments in the village ~ If yes, give a. note on them. 37. GiYe the current proverb! in the village. 38. Give a note on the Panchayat. 36 142 .. .!ol - am'"'.. = p:; ~~ ~ . .: c :-; : 00::::: IS ...~ 0 0 1> ~~] Q).-~ ..<:I...... = ,..• o·~ • .,~ 1'18=* .. ~ ..a 8~ .. II) ~ f:-= .~ tt: 0 '0 ~= .. .~.,-- 0 ..a• IIIO.~ 0 ~ ~ - o~ II:! ."a --- III <1 ] ~: ...• '".. ~.e a:! ~ .,'1:1 0 .~-... 'S C,)o~ c.. - • ~.s=-p )f III ;:.. - •~ ..aIII u c "'" III Co = .... .Sl.... 0 ~ ::I'" ,. " ..c-tJ 0" a I I) ..,., :!1 '" ,; I '" C).. j_:_ ." III I> I ., -~ 110 8 III I =: z'" :> - I ..... 0 .-.... OJ .. I iii _.,'"0 •I:: 0 ., ~ " 0 . ..- >. • .. ~-p .;:;'" 4> S ..... ~ O! II 0<> 0 ... '1:IrI.!! 0"" i C ~ ...... III ., '0 .. .. 01> <:I ~ ., ...... ~:s ~ .g S ~ b~ ce ~ mP-. Z .. III ...!1 ,..0 0 Po." '" .., ct .s"" i» -;0 ..=.. <> ;a" .... <=l CI .E.:C +> Po "Cl o os ol~ I» .., ~<1O = "0 .~ ~..., I,------i -~ I .,...... > .,'" !--~i ,.Q'" - I E.sQ+' I ., C ~! a:l'" 0 ~ 0'" 8'" oj Z ---1------1..,1'1 ~.~ ~ I" oS;:l := I It> 0..0 - i~ 5 ~l '~i3---\------I ~rn ' ~~ ~ 01 it:~ i:5~ ------_--- - APPENDIX 14i ...::: :> -s: ...=..GI ...=;... :>- ." ..>...... o ------..1:1 .!..'" :E.. uas .~...... :: ...as ." c as ci .~ .p ,.,III ,.Q CD...... " 0 Q 0 •..'"01 '0 >I ..01 E 05 c: 01 .., ... .: :>, '" .... l''" "' C ....'" I'l til 01 ~ ·0"" .Q ... <> <> ...'" :.; =01 = >I ...... '" A '"p. S'" fool 0 ..., P. <:I ::! .;; p. S .:i P. -P " '":>, iii ;; ... I'-t t!I ::;! .e. ...CI II> .. oIil .p.. os OJ .. ",' = ... a III 1 .. .. S '" ... ~ OJ 0 •<=I .@ .~ .Q s:o...... , ... <:i".l ~ 0 ~ fit< fit< 0 _; cO ...; ...; ItS .0 ~ 37 APPENDIX III GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS Local terM Meaning 1. Adi Tamil D)onth corre.ponding to July-August 2. Araignankodi A wa.ist cord worn by children 3. Aruva.lpetti Box for .ickle. 4. Attigai Cixcular neck ornament 5. Biriyani A preparation made out of rice and mutton 6. Chitrai Tamil month corresponding to April-May 7. Durgr. Muslim tomb 8. lddly A popular South Indian dish made out of riDe and black gram dhal 9. Kalima. Verses from Koran 10. Kammal Ear stud 11. Kanji 12. Kappu An amulet 13. Karthigai Tamil month correspondJng to November-December 14. Kidai Fenning 15. Kolam Floor designs 16. Kolusu Gold/silver chain for the wrist or ankle 17. Kondaithirugu A kind of head ornament 18. Kumbabishekam Consecration of an idol 19. Kunukk. A lead ornament worn in ear lobes 20. Kuthuvilakku A lamp of five wicks 21. Lolakku A suspending ear orna.ment 22. Mammoti A corruption of the term' Manvetti' meaning a Ipade 23. Margazhi Tamil month corresponding to December-January 24. MeUi A ring worn on the toe by women 25. Mookuthi NOli. screw 148 VnLAGE SUBVEY 2~. Neera. Unfermented toddy 27. Nikha Muslim marriage 28. Pamba.dam A heavy ear ornament 29. Panguni Tamil mont,h corresponding to March-April 30. Pannayal A farm labourer 31. Pathakkam Necklace 32. Peeli A ring worn by women on their toes 33. Rishi Hindu ascetic 34. Sundal A kind of stewed food 35. Thai Tamil month corresponding to Ja.nuary-February 36. Thali Marriage. badge tied around the neck of the bride during wedding 37. Thandai Tinkling ankle rings 38. Thoranum Floral festoon 39. Vadai A fried preparation made out of dhal 40. Vaigasi Tamil month corre_ponding to May-June