Volume 18, Number 1 Spring 2001

Evangelical Neo-Marxism in

In this issue ? 3 From the Editor’s Desk Ralph D. Winter Do we quit or can we more soberly and realistically widen our vision to take in new, crucial frontiers? 5 GuestIndia Editor’s Page D. M. Burke Mistakes made by the Christian West may now carry a much higher penalty than in the past. 7 Why Are Christians Persecuted in India? Roots, Reasons, Responses Herbert Hoefer Why is violence increasing against believers in India and what opportunities does this situation hold? 15 The Dalit Situation in India Today John C. B. Webster Four strategies the oppressed peoples of India have adopted on their way to “Dalit solidarity.” 19 An Indian Constantine? Vishal Mangalwadi Will history remember the Deputy Commissioner of Income Tax in New Delhi as India’s Constantine? 23 Fatal Hindu Gospel Stumbling Blocks D. D. Pani Is our Western rights-orientation keeping Hindus from considering Christ?

33 Submission to Oppression in India: Lessons from History D. D. Pani Indian believers facing oppression should take their cues from the Early Church, not the Reformation. 42 Renewing the Call to Reach the Hindu World Institute of Hindu Studies Report on the Rethinking Forum held this summer at the US Center for World Mission. 43 Message to the West: India Needs You! Satya Shodhak Like Moses, the Church must help free the Dalits from Brahmin bondage. 47 The Conversion Confusion Herbert Hoefer Is it conversion—or church membership—that’s the trouble in India? 50 Between September 11 and November 4 H. L. Richard What is the only appropriate biblical agenda? for mission? From the Editor’s Desk

s the International Journal of Frontier Missions nears its two-decade mark, a bit of a crisis has loomed and IJFM IJFM now has a default editor. (How deeply we are indebted for all the January-March 2001 Volume 18:1 A years Hans Weerstra has served us.) Depending on how we Editor react, things can go down or up, but they are not likely to stay the same. Ralph D. Winter

Guest Editor In the fi rst place, there is nothing out-of-date about frontiers in mission. D. M. Burke Nor is it a case of old-age senility. Our nearly two decades of history Managing Editor certainly has less to do with the number of those years than with two facts: Rory Clark First, we have just crossed an enormously prominent historical date, the Contributing Editor Hans Weerstra boundary of the third millennium, and thus the steam is now gone for work toward that date. Indeed, in the founding purpose of the associated Secretary Barbara R. Pitts International Society for Frontier Missiology, the initial purpose included, quite understandably, the question “What can we do by the end of the Publisher year 2000?” But that kind of steam is now gone. Bradley Gill

Second, not only are those frontier goals (hastily assembled in order to Editorial Correspondence IJFM take advantage of the prominence of the goal date) now no longer borne 1539 E Howard Street aloft by the aspirations of reaching them by that very special date—an Pasadena, CA 91104 almost unrepeatable date—also, the idea of gaining a “missiological break- Tel: (626) 398-2108 through” into every “unimax people” by the year 2000 can now be seen Fax: (626) 398-2185 Email: [email protected] as never more than an intermediate goal for most of us. But it was a Web: www.wciu.edu/ijfm strikingly concrete goal. However, now the relevance of an intermediate goal that might be reachable by a terrifi cally prominent date has lost a lot Subscriptions One year (four issues) $15.00 of meaning, and must now fi nally be recognized as intermediate. Two years (eight issues) $28.00 Three years (twelve issues) $40.00 OK, so we quit? Single copies $5.00 Payment must be enclosed with orders. Or, do we now fi nd ourselves forced into a highly productive review of Subscriptions are automatically renewed mission frontiers in general? And, now that we are released from an artifi cial and billed each year unless we receive instructions to cancel. Please supply us with goal date, can we now more soberly and realistically widen our vision to take current address and change of address a great deal more into account? when necessary. Send all subscription correspondance to: There certainly would be no good reason to continue with either the IJFM International Society for Frontier Missiology, or the International Journal of 7665 Wenda Way El Paso, TX 79915 Frontier Missions, if there were no more frontiers. Startlingly, now that we Tel: (915) 775-2464 are released from a possibly reductionist pragmatism (which was intermixed Fax: (915) 775-8588 in some people’s thinking about “reaching peoples”), a whole host of both Email:[email protected] related and unrelated but genuine, crucial frontiers now cry out for our IJFM (ISSN #0743-2529) was established attention. This is not the place to list some of those (however, see the in 1984 by the International Student tentative description on page 32), or at least not the issue of IJFM in which Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. to do so. This particular issue, however, breaks new ground in several ways. It is published quarterly. COPYRIGHT ©2001 International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. PRINTED in the USA

4 From the Editor’s Desk

But back to the future. As a default editor I can promise you that every Startlingly, now that we are released from a possibly article in every issue from now on, and perhaps for the past, will be reductionist pragmatism (which may have been intermixed available for downloading from the Internet (www.wciu.edu/ijfm). It is in some people’s thinking about “reaching peoples”), a whole already clear that the Internet nicely host of both related and unrelated but genuine, crucial complements the printed page. But it is apparently not likely to replace the frontiers now cry out for our attention. durable and handy sort of thing you hold in your hands.

We are not for the present going to revolving the “good” oppressed class, Indeed, we expect a web site will continue with the four-color splendor so it will now be on top, thereby jus- enlarge our hard copy subscription which only a larger subscription list tice and peace will be automatically base, not reduce it nor compete can justify. The same goes for metic- achieved. But in fact few of the with it. Ever try underlining on an ulous prepress copy editing. When articles deal directly with this eye- Internet screen? our number of subscribers grows suf- catching heading. In this issue are Hard copy you can take with you fi ciently we can go back to that. astoundingly different points of view, where computers cannot conveniently all helpful in certain crucial ways as The contributions to this issue are go. But once a hard copy article cap- we approach an equally astounding the sole responsibility of the authors. tures our attention, we may wish to mountain of complexity. World history has turned a corner download it for interleaved comments now that all our writers have spelling The degree to which the world’s to be sent by email to the author and to checkers. We have in this issue, due largest democracy has been slighted friends. Furthermore, the Internet will to the time constraints of major events by the mission movement in general shortly function as a breeding ground in India, been unable to impose our is hard to understand and evaluate. for future issues, attracting additional normal “style sheets” which require Now, however, major forces far beyond contributors to article-themes which more thorough referencing than some anyone’s control are poised to transform will focus on a series of frontiers. contributions this time have. India possibly beyond recognition. This We already have planned two-years of is potentially even far more signifi - issues by guest editors focusing on spe- Speaking of unusual time constraints, cant than world terrorism. We can cifi c arenas of thought. On our web site read carefully the editorial of the guest think of other nation-states desta- you will see posted these themes and editor. His years of residence in India, bilized almost without warning due you can ponder your own contribution and his appreciation for the massive to gradual awarenesses and sweeping to them. and portentous events unfolding there convictions. in these very weeks are the catalytic Now, make sure in the next few weeks force bringing into existence IJFM’s It is very late but not certainly too you fi nd two friends who will join our fi rst issue wholly on India. late for even a hastily assembled group growing subscription list! of papers to focus our attention on He is not to blame for the slightly the immensity that is India, and the Ralph D. Winter mischievous theme I have concocted: forces there which are moving ever Editor “Evangelical Neo-Marxism in India?” more swiftly, almost like fl ood waters That is in part a teaser, but only in in this amazingly advanced and yet part as you will see as you peruse these surprisingly and dangerously troubled signifi cant articles. collective giant. I have to congratulate What I mean by “neo-marxism,” with our guest editor for including such an tongue in cheek, is the simplistic idea arresting, scintillating and diverse set that there is a good class of people of earnest and informed perspectives. and a bad class of people and that by

International Journal of Frontier Missions Guest Editor’s Page 5

n the history of the IJFM there have been a number of special editions. The need for an edition However, this particular edition is unique in several ways. First of all, Ithe need for an edition devoted to the issue of the West’s response to devoted to the issue of oppression in India has arisen from several current and potentially explosive the West’s response to developments in India. Thus, this is the fi rst time that a special edition of the IJFM has been devoted to a real-time crisis. I might add that because oppression in India has of the urgency related to this edition, the authors were only given three arisen from several current weeks to submit (from the time of invitation). Secondly, this is the fi rst special edition devoted to the Hindu world. Thirdly, this is an edition that and potentially explosive comes directly from the fi eld. All of the selected authors have worked or are developments in India. currently working very closely with the problem of oppression in India at the grassroots level. And, as you will see, most have been wrestling very deeply with the missiological issues related to this topic.

As you will soon see also, there is no convergence of view on how to best deal with the oppressed and oppression in India. Yet, in light of several of the developments unveiled in this edition’s articles, there is a greater need now than ever for convergence. The West must now quickly determine and adopt a united approach in this highly volatile matter. Mistakes by the Christian West in this matter may now carry with them a much higher penalty than they have in the past. For this reason, we are adding one additional novelty to this special edition: a request for feedback and input. During the next three months from the date of this issue, we invite 500 word maximum responses. These may be either reactions to any of the seven articles or the editorial contained herein or additional input related to our overall topic for this edition. We intend to include some of these responses in future issues of IJFM. These responses should be sent to our regular edition editor, Rory Clark. He can be reached via e-mail at [email protected] or via fax at 626-398-2101. Any who would be willing to expand their input into a full-blown journal article should so indicate along with their submission. Thank you.

D. M. Burke Guest Editor

18:1 Spring 2001 Why are Christians Persecuted in India? Roots, Reasons, Responses by Herbert Hoefer

e reap what we sow.” (Gal. 6:7)

“I have not come to bring peace but a sword.” (Mt. 10:34)

“If they persecuted Me, they will persecute you also.” ( Jn 15:20)

The fi erce attacks on Christians in India have been reported nationally and Winternationally. Both Christians and Hindus have been taken by surprise by the breadth and ferocity of these recent developments. What are the roots, reasons, and responses? Roots Pre-Colonial Mission Work If one surveys Christian mission history in India, it is remarkable how little violence missionaries faced. Fierce attacks were a fact of life in most mission work around the world, from Asia to Africa. However, Christian missionaries and converts were generally absorbed into the Indian society.

(In this article I will be referring to mission experience among the 82% of the Indian population that is Hindu. Mission experience among Muslims is entirely different. The Koran explicitly mandates the death of apostates from the faith.)

The Syrian Orthodox Church of Kerala has a strong tradition that Jesus’ own disciple Thomas came to India and founded their church. His place of Dr. Herbert Hoefer is a former martyrdom and grave site are still publicly identifi ed in Chennai City, Tamil missionary to India, having Nadu. We know for certain that there was a Christian community in Kerala, as served from 1968-1983 with reported by Syrian traders in the 4th century. Some theorize that these traders the Lutheran Church, Missouri founded the church. Synod. He currently is professor of theology at Concordia For our purposes what is noteworthy is that this Christian community thrives University, Portland, Oregon. till today. It has been accepted as one of the castes of that region. Generally, This article originally appeared they do not do much evangelistic activity outside their ethnic group. A reform in Missio Apostolica, movement, the Mar Thomites, split off in the late 19th century under the November, 1999. infl uence of Protestant missions, and they are evangelistically active.

International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 8 Why Are Christians Persecuted in India? Roots, Reasons, Responses For several centuries from the 8th cen- within the political and social structures, accepted by many Hindu religious and tury onwards, the Indian subcontinent which accepted them as contributors political leaders. Mahatma Gandhi is was in upheaval because of the Muslim to the general welfare of the society. renowned for his attempt to elevate the invasions. One of the cardinal principles Conversions did not spread across the outcastes in their own eyes and in the of Islam is the removal of idols. They society so as to become a threat to estab- eyes of the society by naming them attacked and destroyed Hindu temples lished structures and leaders. “Harijans” (“children of God”). as they conquered the land. Of course, Hindu leaders fought back and even- Colonial Period Harijan caste leaders sprang up around tually regained some hegemony in the Just as the Hindu community resisted the society, demanding social and reli- land. When the British arrived and con- the conversions associated with the gious reforms. A famous leader was quered in the 19th century, they dealt Muslim invasions, so resistance devel- B. R. Ambedkar. He decided that the with both Muslim and Hindu kings. oped during the British colonial period: Harijan community would never gain 1800–1947. Local peoples around the respect within the Hindu community. Even during these tumultuous times, world resented how white missionaries He debated whether to lead his mass several Christian mission efforts went came in and gained the trust of the of followers in Maharashtra State into on peacefully. The great early mission- people. Then other white people came in Buddhism or into Christianity, since ary of the Jesuit Order, Francis Xavier, and exploited their trust. The expression neither accepted caste. He eventually converted fi shing communities all along of colonized peoples around the world chose Buddhism, primarily because of the southwestern coast of India, and was “The Bible fi rst, then the guns.” its roots in Indian soil. they remain as Christians to this day. Another famous Roman Catholic Of course, there was high tension However, especially across southern missionary was Roberto de Nobili, between the missionaries and the India, masses of Harijans converted to who presented himself as a Christian exploiters in all these countries. Christianity. It was a social protest Brahmin in the 17th century and Nonetheless, missionaries also used the movement of liberation, which also had taught among the priestly castes around protection and advantages of the colo- economic benefi ts within colonial India. Madurai and its ancient temple. His nial governments to advance their Converts would often get educational work ran into much more opposition activities, including their conversion and employment benefi ts from the mis- from rival Roman Catholic orders than activities. People converted because it sionaries. The missionaries also pro- from Hindu leaders. was economically advantageous in the vided most welcome social services to colonial empire. these neglected and oppressed parts of Finally, the Protestant missions entered the population, through schools and the India scene on the eastern coast Missionaries were no longer vulnerable hospitals and economic uplift efforts. of South India through the work of and powerless. They were politically Ziegenbalg at the beginning of the 18th secure and economically powerful. Hindu reaction was a mixture of guilt century. These Protestant missionaries Conversions increased, especially among and resentment. On the one hand, learned the Tamil language and trans- the marginalized in the society, but so they could hardly defend their millennia lated the Bible, gaining the respect of also did resentment and opposition. of mistreatment and disrespect toward all levels of the society. William Carey’s these citizens of their land. On the other Missionaries also carried an aura of cul- pioneering work around Calcutta in hand, they felt they were being lured tural superiority during this era. Just the north similarly was accepted and into an unwitting partnership with their because their governments were mili- respected by social and political leaders. country’s enemies. We’ll fi nd these same tarily superior to other nations, they Carey’s group also worked in Bible mixed feelings evident in contemporary viewed themselves as culturally superior. translation and education. India, as a historical root of current vio- Easily, their teaching of Christianity lence against Christians. A common thread here absorption and spread into a moral critique of the local accommodation. The Christian missions culture. In India, the major moral attack Hindu Revival did not seek to change the Indian society was on the caste system, particularly its The Christian critique of Hinduism but to add to it. Conversions were not hierarchical character and the practice provoked a good deal of honest a major issue, as the converts remained of untouchability. soul-searching and rethinking among within the traditional social structures The latter issue of untouchability (out- Hindu leaders. When India achieved of the land. The missionaries worked castes) struck a nerve. The critique was Independence in 1947, the Hindu polit- International Journal of Frontier Missions Herbert Hoefer 9

During the Independence struggles against the British, very few Christians sided wholeheartedly with their fellow countrymen. Many dalits felt quiet glee that their long term oppressors were now getting oppressed themselves. ical leaders enacted many social reforms total, over 50% of the population now attend Christian schools for the sake of derived from Protestant social critiques. qualifi es for these government benefi ts the excellent education through dedi- Entry to temples could no longer to some degree or another. Of course, cated teachers, but very few would ever be restricted, except to non-Hindus. there has been some resentment among convert. Instead, they would accuse mis- Untouchability was banned, as was any higher caste youths, but the program sionaries of “getting their numbers” by discrimination on the basis of caste. In has basically remained in place. preying on the less educated and enticing keeping with traditional Hindu toler- the poor with “inducements” to convert. As Hindu leaders set about cleaning ance of religious differences, the new house, they also rebutted the religious Furthermore, Hindu revival leaders Constitution’s approach to secularism critiques. Hindu religious leaders like accused Christian missionaries of con- was to encourage all religions equally. Ramakrisna and his disciples Vivekanda verting their people to Western culture For example, even today the state gov- confronted Christianity’s presumption as well. Religion and culture had ernments pay the salaries of teachers in of superiority and assertion of exclusiv- become so intertwined over the millen- all schools, whether run by the state or ity. Instead, they argued the traditional nia in India that the simplest day-to-day by any religious group. Hindu concept of universal salvation: activities could be viewed as “Hindu.” In addition, the government set about “All rivers lead to the same ocean.” The easiest solution was to instruct con- remedial work among the historically verts to reject all these “Hindu” activi- These arguments found ready accep- oppressed sections of the society. ties. Women had to dress and decorate tance in the liberal philosophical cli- Roughly 16% of the society are themselves differently. Converts had to mate of Europe at the beginning of outcastes Therefore, the government give up their “Hindu” names (often this century. Max Mueller’s translations reserves 16% of all seats for higher edu- the names of different gods) and take and explanations of Hindu philosophy cation for these applicants, as well as new names (usually Western or Biblical gained a large, infl uential following. The stipends during elementary school, free names). Hindu converts had to eat beef Western world’s affi rmation of basic high school hostels, and scholarships. and Muslims pork before they would be Hindu tenets, also in the spread of Similarly, 16% of all government jobs accepted for baptism. Theosophy by Annie Besant and even must be allocated to this section of soci- in Christian Science by Mary Baker Especially in the North where isolated ety. It is a highly courageous and gener- Eddy, strengthened Hindu leaders in individuals converted, converts were ous “affi rmative action” program which their assertion of Hinduism back home brought to the missionary compounds elevates the oppressed economically— as well. for their physical and spiritual safety. though it does little to change social There they adopted Western ways attitudes, of course. Another 6% is allot- The Hindu critique extended also to and became known disparagingly as ted to people from tribal backgrounds, Christian conversion activities. If all “compound Christians.” These converts as they also are oppressed and neglected religions are different approaches to the were lumped together with the Anglo- populations. Together, these populations same Reality, then why are conversions Indians (converts from Indian-British have given themselves a new name: necessary? Indeed, Hindu leaders would marriages and relationships), as cultural “dalit,” a title for all the long-oppressed point out that the vast majority of victims and fools. peoples in the country. conversions from Hinduism took place only among the culturally weak sections During the Independence struggles In 1980, this uplift program was of the society. Missionary work hardly against the British, very few Christians expanded to include over 3000 low caste dented the castes. Caste Hindus would sided wholeheartedly with their fellow groups (called “backward castes”). In

18:1 Spring 2001 10 Why Are Christians Persecuted in India? Roots, Reasons, Responses countrymen. Many dalits felt quiet glee was done among the poor of the aged to elect dalit-dominated state gov- that their long term oppressors were society. They were the ones who were ernments. In these states of strongest now getting oppressed themselves. How responsive and in direst need. Whether Christian infl uence, there is little expec- could they “bite the hand that fed they converted or not, they gained a tation that the Hindu-dominated, tra- them?” Many feared for their safety new self-image through the proclama- ditional parties will gain hegemony in once the British left the country. Their tion of the Gospel and the critique of the foreseeable future. These socio-polit- allegiance was seen to be with their Hinduism. The formerly untouchables ical effects of Christianity are not unno- missionaries and his people, rather than now were “harijans,” children of God. ticed by threatened political powers in with their own people. To this day, that the land. This new self-respect resulted in social stigma remains. and political movements against their his- One current counter-reaction by Hindu We see that distrust of the Christian toric oppressors. Part of the movement landlords, especially in the North, has population yet today in the central gov- was religious, as noted above. With a been to forcibly put down dalit socio- ernment’s profound uneasiness over the democratic form of government in the political movements. They have orga- mass conversions of tribal populations in newly independent country, came the nized their own armies like Middle Age Northeast India. This remote, vulnerable possibility of new political power. No feudal lords in Europe. If any dalit leader area borders China and Bangla Desh, longer would the oppressed quietly accept or group rises up to assert their rights, both countries with which India has that they deserved their plight because these armies attack some remote dalit had border disputes and wars. American of bad karma in previous reincarnations. village away from government scrutiny Baptists have publicly urged their church The mission work had sown seeds of or police intervention. Dozens of men, members to fi ght hard to preserve their social revolution. Those in economic women, and children are indiscriminately faith and culture. But some local tribal power in the land had reasons to oppose killed, simply as a means of intimidation. leaders, deeply resentful and suspicious the spread of this “dangerous” thinking. Of course, the dalits claim that the gov- of their longtime mainland oppressors, ernment does nothing to protect them With political elections conversions have moved beyond that and called for because they are controlled by these same were no longer just a religious matter. outright secession. Hindu landlords. Conversions changed constituencies. A Would Western church leaders try to per- convert from Hinduism would be As we will see, Christians are known to suade the US government to support such far less likely to accept his previous be peaceful and non-violent. However, a movement? In the event of border con- Hindu political leaders. Politicians do the spread of Christian teachings and fl icts in their area, might these Christian not want changes in the constituency critiques does have revolutionary socio- tribal groups move to provide a sympa- which elected them. They had political political ramifi cations. Perhaps this is thetic base of operations for an invading reasons—though couched in religious what Jesus had in mind when He said, army in hopes of gaining independence? terms—for inhibiting conversions as as noted at the start of the article: “I No wonder the government tries to curtail much as possible. have not come to bring peace but a Christian conversion activities but allows sword.” These broader effects are very People with new self-dignity and new nationalist Hindu groups freely to work diffi cult to control and direct. One can urgency for social justice organized for reconversions. understand why those in power would themselves politically. One can note want to stop Christianity’s spread. Reasons that the areas of the country with These historical roots shoot up stems, the longest history of Christian pres- Religious Movements among which bear fruit even today. Politically, ence (Bengal and Kerala) are the ones Caste Hindus socially, and religiously we still have with the strongest Communist infl u- Of more signifi cance evangelistically, these historical tensions. These are the ence. The Christian Gospel gave the are the anti-church religious movements reasons cited today for persecution of new sense of dignity and urgency, and among two-thirds of India in the Hindu Christians in India. the Communist Party enabled those caste system. I have intentionally used aspirations to be realized politically. Socio-political Movements the term “anti-church,” as these pious among the Oppressed Similarly, dalit movements, primarily in religious seekers make a clear distinc- tion between Christ and the church. As As noted above, most mission work— the South—where Christian infl uence described above, the church is seen to be both evangelistic and social service— once again is the greatest—have man- a product of the colonial period with all International Journal of Frontier Missions Herbert Hoefer 11 the despised vestiges of Western culture to recognize a very signifi cant “Hindu” attitudes and the reasons for the present and infl uence. pattern of turning to Christ. persecution of evangelists are clear. One of my major research efforts while This Hindu pattern also involves a very Hindu Nationalist at the Gurukul Lutheran Theological strong rejection of the church (there- College and Research Institute, Chennai, fore, the rejection of Baptism). I hope Movements was among what I termed “non-baptized to publish my several experiences in this Such deep feelings will also produce believers in Christ” (published as matter from this last visit to India, but political expressions. Just as the historic “Churchless Christianity,” 1991). I inter- let me share a couple of items from grievances and religious tensions in viewed 83 NBBCs around Tamil Nadu, the one group discussion. An itinerant Northern Ireland have spawned the and we did a random sample statistical Jesu bhakta who shared the three princi- IRA in Irish Roman Catholicism, so survey of Chennai City. We found about ples he advocates as he meets his fellow has the religious history of India. 200,000 people For more than a millennium—ever (mostly caste since the Muslim Hindus) in the invasions—the city whom we One will even fi nd pictures of Jesus in Hindu vast Hindu pop- identifi ed as ashrams and temples, especially those associated ulation of India NBBCs. I has been fi ghting would refer with the Ramakrishnan movement. to maintain their you to the culture. book for The Hindu atti- details of this believers around the country: tude is one of tolerance and non- research. 1) If anybody asks, tell them violence, rooted fi rmly in their basic At this point, I want to highlight how you’re a Hindu (understood doctrines. However, they have had to these people intentionally desire to keep culturally in this case). fi ght fi re with fi re, against often over- themselves separate from the organiza- whelming military powers. Therefore, 2) Never go to a church (they tional church. They want to identify the militant nationalist groups of today will come after you right to with their families and their culture. are directly linked historically with the your home, embarrassing you As long as this cultural commitment guerilla heroes of India’s past. and your family). is clear, there are accepted within their These groups were the ones who families and castes. If they would take 3) Do not go into full-time reli- worked the streets on behalf of the baptism, however, they would most gious work (stay within one’s Hindu nationalist political party, the likely be excluded. family and carry out one’s BJP, which currently heads the coalition social responsibilities as a wit- national government in Delhi. They I was back in India for two months ear- ness there). lier this year, and I had the opportunity have protectors in high places, also to meet with a group that is working Furthermore, the group listed 20 spe- at the state government level. They now with such NBBCs. These people cifi c reasons why caste Hindus feel are generally identifi ed as the perpe- call themselves “Jesu bhaktas,” devotees uncomfortable with church life and trators of the church burnings, attacks of Jesus. Within Hinduism, one is free want to stay away from it. on seminarians and nuns, murder of to choose the god one wishes to missionaries (until recently only Indian The point for our purposes here is that worship, so such Jesu bhaktas are missionaries), harassing of evangelists, Christianity in India is popularly viewed simply accepted as such devotees. opposition to church constructions, etc. as repugnant to Indian culture. Baptism One will even fi nd pictures of Jesus is viewed as an allegiance to a group and These violent activities are justifi ed by in Hindu ashrams and temples, an organization allied with the West. their leaders as necessary to stem the especially those associated with the The vast majority of India lauds spiri- tide of conversions in the country. They Ramakrishnan movement. Of course, tual training and social work, but con- publicly warn that soon most of India from the Christian standpoint, we versions are opposed. The roots of these will be Christian and the great Indian would have questions about such reli- civilization will be lost. Such warnings gious syncretism; however, we do need

18:1 Spring 2001 12 Why Are Christians Persecuted in India? Roots, Reasons, Responses strike a tender spot in Hindu thinking, 1998, a Christian leader in Gujarat (a for example. Do we promote patriotism in as one can imagine from the history state where churches were burned and our schools and congregations? recounted above. As much as Hindus Christian workers attacked) is quoted: There also was self-critique concerning are repulsed by the violence, they also “They are going after us because we are some missionaries’ evangelistic tech- are sympathetic to the goals and fears an easy target and unlike Muslims we niques. The criticism I heard was these groups express. don’t riot.” directed primarily at the independent In addition, this Hindu nationalist Western countries also do not band Pentecostal Indian missionaries, who thinking has been expressed in offi cial together to protect fellow believers often have very little formal education. government policy ever since abroad, as Muslim countries do. Such Their public sermons can be harshly Independence. No new foreign mis- nationalist movements must have an critical—often quite ignorantly—con- sionaries were to be allowed into the enemy to fi ght. “The heat is off the cerning Hindu religious practices. country, especially for evangelistic work. Muslims; it is now on the Christians,” We are not called to ridicule others, but Government benefi ts made available to states a scholar from the Jawarharlal to proclaim the Gospel. Ridicule can only the dalits were denied to Christian Nehru University in the article. build up defenses against the message. dalits (on the basis that they do Responses Ignorant and offensive ridicule deserves to not observe caste; therefore, cannot be At the beginning of the article, I quoted be resented and opposed. Jesus said we listed as one of these favored castes). three Bible passages. The passage from are blessed when we are persecuted and Nationalist groups use these govern- Galatians 6 is intended to summarize maligned when it is “because of Me,” not ment inducements to promote recon- how the mistakes of the past, primarily when it is because of our arrogance and versions to Hinduism. Informally, at by foreign missionaries, have reaped belligerence. (Mt. 5:11) the village level, Hindu landlords treat serious consequences for the life and Christian fi eld laborers as “the last hired witness of Christians in India today. I also found a far greater respect and fi rst fi red.” The above historical summary has illus- for the non-baptized believers in the country. When I fi rst researched and Political commentators have observed trated how past roots have reaped cur- advocated a sympathetic relationship with that the upswing in violence against rent reasons. them, I experienced strong opposition in Christians has coincided with the ascen- What is remarkable, however, is how Christian circles. Now I found the most dancy of the BJP also for international Indian Christians have risen above the sympathetic were the Indian missionary strategic reasons. One of the fi rst actions consequences of the past. Already at organizations. They have accepted that of the militant Hindu groups after the Independence, Christian leaders refused Western church structures are alien to tra- BJP’s election success was an attack on to press for a reserved minority repre- ditional Indian culture. They are looking Muslims. They dismantled a mosque sentation in the central parliament, as for a positive proclamation of the Gospel, built centuries ago by Muslim con- the Muslims had insisted on. Those which enables people to follow Jesus while querors at Ayyodhia, then the site of Christian leaders admirably and coura- affi rming their cultural heritage. a Hindu temple commemorating the geously committed the small Christian birthplace of the god Ram. Muslims Opportunity for Witness community (2%) into the hands of around the country rioted, and the the nation. They wanted to disassociate These developments have thrown the international Islam community (with all Indian Christianity from the colonial national spotlight on the Christian their oil power) rose in protest. The BJP past and identify themselves whole- community. They welcome this. They soon experienced national and interna- heartedly with the national cause. agree that no one should be induced tional repercussions that jeopardized the or forced to convert, and they welcome whole Indian economy—and their frag- Opportunity for Self-Refl ection that such alleged abuses be investigated. ile hold on power. Similarly, these recent attacks have caused They argue that none can be found. some soul-searching among Christian Soon after that the militants turned church leaders. The accusation of disloy- Indeed, throughout the past decades their attention on the Christian com- alty to the nation has deep historical roots, when the inducement is rather against munity as the archenemy of Indian as we have seen. During my recent visit, I converting—and for reconverting— culture. In an excellent article on heard leaders question why we don’t play Harijans still join the Christian commu- these developments in “The Christian the national anthem at church gatherings, nity and very few ever have reconverted. Science Monitor” newspaper of Oct. 5, The Hindu community realizes the eco-

International Journal of Frontier Missions Herbert Hoefer 13 nomic sacrifi ces the Indian Christians Christians, they prayed: “Now, Lord, “Those who feel threatened by make for the sake of their faith, for consider their threats and enable your mass conversion should ask what higher education and government jobs servants to speak your word with great they have done for the tribals and are the one clear way out of over- boldness.” (Acts 4:29) downtrodden other than exploit- whelming poverty for a Harijan family. ing them and denigrating them That prayer was answered remarkably The Christian Harijans’ religious loyalty as untouchables. At least in the in the public witness of Mrs. Gladys draws clear attention to the meaning name of religion the missionaries Staines. Newspapers across India and strength they receive, and Hindus have provided such people with reported her answer to reporters when are strongly drawn to authentic spiritual they phoned her at home the very day opportunities for education and experience. she heard the news. She witnessed that health care. The solution for Similarly, I was discussing with a Jesus taught us to forgive our enemies saving Hinduism lies in retro- Christian leader who had gone to and to pray for those who persecute you. spection and not in employing Gujarat on behalf of the National She also thanked God for the many violence.” Council of Churches of India to show years her husband had been granted to Christians have bonded together in solidarity with them and to pressure the serve the needy in the land. response to their hostile environment. state government leaders to give them As mentioned before, Hindus resonate However, they have gathered to pray protection. He said the Christians’ ada- wholeheartedly to deep spirituality, and and march in silence, rather than to mancy and resilience were remarkable. they immediately acknowledged Ms. riot or retaliate. They have carried the They are simple tribal people, but their Staines as “a realized soul.” “She is an Gandhian mantle in this situation, to faith is an inspiration to all: “God is example of divinity in a human being,” the admiration of the Hindu popula- with us; what can man do to us?” wrote one Mr. Hanumantha Rao in tion. Ironically, in the name of pro- During the time I was in India, the a letter to the editor printed in “The tecting and preserving Hinduism, the tragic attack on the Australian mission- Hindu” daily newspaper of 28th January descendents of those Hindu nationalists ary, his two sons, and companions took 1999. The spotlight of the nation was who assassinated Mahatma Gandhi place. In fact, I was in a meeting with on her, and the Holy Spirit used her continue to desecrate their own heri- Indian Christian leaders of the organi- to proclaim the Good News clearly tage, while Christians enact it. zation Graham Staines served. When and powerfully. To the great credit We pray that through all of this God’s the news of the murders came, I was of India’s Hindu population, their lead- Spirit can bring a new reputation for the fi rst of all struck at how matter-of-factly ing religious spokespersons immediately Indian Christians in the land. We pray it was announced. Such attacks, espe- praised the Christian and condemned they can be accepted and respected as cially on missionaries in the north of their own misguided Hindu thugs. the pre-colonial Christians were because India, had become commonplace. Many These events also raised to national of their vulnerability, sincerity, and spiri- of their Indian missionaries had been attention Christian work on behalf of tuality. As in the original Jerusalem con- attacked and some killed; now it was the poor and needy around the country. gregation, they will be seen “praising a foreigner. I was reminded of Jesus’ Once again, Hindu religious writers God and enjoying the favor of all the warning to His fi rst disciples, as I cited came to the defense of the Christian people, and the Lord added to their at the start of the article: “As they perse- workers and their converts. One should number daily those who were being cuted Me.” not be surprised, said editorialists, that saved.” (Acts 2:47) IJFM I was also reminded of the early church’s people who have been oppressed by response to the attacks of the Jews as Hinduism for millennia should convert recorded in Acts 4. The leaders here also to the religion of those who serve them did not pray for protection or escape. so devotedly. For example, Mr. Dhiraj They knew that persecution was inevi- Kumar wrote in his letter to the editor table in mission work. I’ve recounted in the “India Today” magazine (February above how even political movements 22, 1999) the following call to fellow and repercussions are an inevitable Hindus to introspect rather than attack: response to the new self-dignity which the Gospel brings. Instead, like the early

18:1 Spring 2001 The Dalit Situation in India Today by John C. B. Webster

ccording to the 1991 Census there were about 138,200,000 Dalits in India a nd they constituted about 16.5% of the entire population of India. The 2001 Census has now been completed. The total population as risen to over one billion, but we do not know yet what the Dalit total is; however, if past trends continue, we may safely assume not only that the Dalit population Awill also have increased but also that the Dalit proportion of the total popula- tion has risen as well. Dalit “Dalit” (Oppressed) is the name which the people belonging to those castes at the very bottom of India’s caste hierarchy have given themselves. Formerly, they were known as Untouchables, because their presence was considered to be so polluting that contact with them was to be avoided at all costs. The offi cial label for them has been Scheduled Castes, because if their caste is listed on the government schedule, caste members become eligible for a number of affi rmative action benefi ts and protections. Dalits have chosen the “Dalit” label for themselves for at least three important reasons. First, the label indicates that the condition of the Dalits has not been of their own making or choosing; it is something which has been infl icted upon them by others. Thus, secondly, there is an element of militancy built into the label; Dalits seek to overcome the injustices and indignities forced upon them so as to gain the equality and respect hitherto denied them. “Dalit” also indicates that all these castes John C. B. Webster is editor of the Dalit International (Pariahs, Chamars, Mahars, Bhangis, etc.) share a common condition and Newsletter. The subscription should therefore unite in a common struggle for dignity, equality, justice and address is P. O. Box 932, respect under a common name. Waterford, CT 06385. His The Dalit Political Strategy latest book is Religion and Both historically and currently Dalits have adopted four strategies, singly or in Dalit Liberation, which is combination, in order to attain these ends. The fi rst and most dominant has available from Witnessing Ministries for Christ, 4717 been the political strategy of gaining power either as an end in itself (if you have N. Barton Ave., Fresno, CA power, others come to you and you do not have to go begging to them) or as a 93726. means to other ends (e.g., greater economic and educational opportunities).

International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 16 The Dalit Situation in India Today

However, Dalits have been divided over Their Economic Strategy unskilled labor, earn more money, and whether to pursue political power inde- The second strategy has been economic. so gain greater respect. The other is pendently of other castes or in alliance Not only are Dalits extremely poor making life-style changes which get rid with those members of other castes and (almost half of them living below the of those practices considered especially communities whose interests and ideals poverty line as compared to less than “low” or “polluting” and substituting are close to their own. one-third of the rest of the population) those of the “higher” castes instead. For example, they should give up eating cer- For example, there are at present Dalit but they are also almost totally depen- tain meats and cease working at certain members of Parliament and of State dent upon the dominant castes for jobs (e.g., cleaning latrines). The aim of Legislative Assemblies, as well as Dalit their livelihoods as agricultural or urban education and life-style change has been party workers, in virtually all the major labor. Thus many Dalits have sought to remove some of the more obvious political parties, including the Prime greater economic independence, both as reasons for anti-Dalit prejudice. Minister’s Bharatiya Janata Party, which an end in itself and as a means to other in its traditionalist Hindu ideology, is ends (e.g., political power, educational The social strategy was adopted by the Christian missions over a century ago and it still dominates the churches’ Over the past 125 years, so many Dalits thinking about improving the Dalits’ have converted to Christianity that today lot. Today there are churches which are not only giving special priority to Dalits the majority of the Christian population of in some of their institutions of formal education, but are also developing job- India is Dalit! oriented, nonformal educational projects to enhance skill development. The social strategy has also undergirded much of quite anti-Dalit. There are also exclu- opportunity). During the past decade a the affi rmative action policy built into sively Dalit political parties at the good number of international develop- India’s constitution. The assumption is regional level and two Dalit-led political ment agencies, both religious and sec- that if Dalits get educated, get better parties, the Bahujan Samaj Party of ular, have also adopted this strategy jobs, and earn more money so as to raise Kanshi Ram and Ms. Mayawati as by funding a variety of grassroots their class status, then their caste status well as the Republican Party of India, Dalit organizations engaged in a range (measured in terms of mutually respect- have members of Parliament as well. of community development activities. ful and friendly relations with members The Dalit debate within and between These activities focus on such things of “higher” castes) would improve also. the various parties over whether to get as small-scale industries, teaching new The problem has been that the gov- whatever share of power Dalits can skills, educating Dalits on how to take ernment (controlled by the dominant through whatever alliances are most advantage of government development “higher” castes) has never fully imple- expedient or to maintain pressure from assistance, developing cooperatives. The mented all the progressive affi rmative outside on those in power by maintain- task is enormous. Over 75% of the Dalit action legislation it has passed into law. ing some ideological and programmatic population is still rural and so these This is a source of great resentment, unity, at least among Dalits themselves activities have to be carried out village especially among educated Dalits. if not with other disadvantaged groups by village. They also face opposition (tribals, religious minorities, women, the within each village from members of The Religious Strategy poor in general) as well, has yet to be the dominant castes who want to keep resolved. As this brief description sug- Dalits as an impoverished and depen- The fourth strategy has been religious gests, there is little political unity among dent source of cheap labor. in nature. Its moderate form involves Dalits at the present time and many are reform from within one’s own religious wondering out loud whether the politi- The Social Strategy tradition. For example, some Hindu cal process can deliver what Dalits have A third strategy, which can be described sects have renounced caste hierarchy every right to expect from it. as social, has two components. and some Hindu reformers, Gandhi Education is one. If Dalits become liter- being the best known, have sought to ate (10.2% in 1961, 37.4% in 1991) or “uplift” the Untouchables. The more even educated, they can move beyond radical religious option, however, has

International Journal of Frontier Missions John C. B. Webster 17 been conversion to another, more egali- Christian Dalits thus have a dual social tarian religion. For example, over the and psychological identity, Christian as past 125 years, so many Dalits have well as Dalit, and have to live with the converted to Christianity that today the tensions built into that dual identity. majority of the Christian population A second trend is an increasing assertion of India is Dalit! Following the induc- of Dalit identity as a positive thing, a tion of their great leader, Dr. B. R. source of pride rather than of shame. Ambedkar, into the Buddhist Sangha In this they (rightly) challenge pervasive in 1956, several million Dalits have cultural norms. One expression of this become Buddhists. assertiveness is Dalit Theology; another What a new religion offered to the is a harsh critique of those missionary Dalits was a new identity defi ned by and Indian Church leaders who, in their religion rather than by caste, as well efforts to “Indianize” the Church, have as a more egalitarian religious counter- equated “Indian” culture with Brahmanic culture. This has been only partially instead of Dalit culture. (One reason why successful. No matter what goes on Dalit Christians have resisted a lot of in Christian or Buddhist circles, most efforts to “Indianize” the theology and Indians still think in terms of caste liturgy of the Church is because they and so simply assume that anyone are fed up with the Brahmanic culture who is a Christian or Buddhist is a which they converted to get away from!) Dalit. Moreover, both Christian and Perhaps most obvious of all are the per- Buddhist Dalits were denied the affi r- sistent efforts to “raise the caste issue” mative action benefi ts and protections and exorcise the demon of caste dis- granted to other Dalits; in 1990 the crimination (which is “Legion” and takes Buddhist Dalits became eligible and many forms) within the churches them- Dalit Christians are still ineligible. selves. Until this is done, the churches By denying these to Christian (and cannot embody much “good news” for Muslim) Dalits the government is in their own Dalit members, let alone for fact providing strong economic disin- other Dalits. centives to conversion and strong eco- Finally, there are Christian Dalits who nomic incentives to Christian Dalits to are staunch advocates of each of the return to the Hindu fold. four Dalit strategies described above and are working hard at implementing those The Christian Dalits strategies. I see no evidence that one As this brief analysis suggests, the pres- strategy, or even one combination of ent situation of Dalits in India is com- strategies, has become clearly predom- plex and confusing. There are no obvious, inant in Dalit Christian circles. What agreed upon solutions to the problems does seem evident, however, is that over which the Dalits face; the way forward in the past two decades Christian Dalits are the Dalit struggle is by no means clear. working more closely with other Dalits However, there are a few trends visible to achieve common aims and objectives among Christian Dalits which are quite than was true earlier. “Dalit Solidarity” important for Christian thinking on is an end and means much desired this subject. First and foremost among but diffi cult to achieve; yet many Dalit these is a growing acknowledgement that Christian leaders have come to the con- they are Dalits and that conversion to clusion that their Christian hopes for Christianity has not really changed that their own people cannot be realized signifi cant fact of their lives, despite in isolation from the realization of the hopes and promises to the contrary. Most hopes of all the Dalit people. IJFM

18:1 Spring 2001 An Indian Constantine? by Vishal Mangalwadi

ebuchadnezzar was God’s servant although he was sent to destroy God’s temple ( Jeremiah 25:9). Cyrus—a pagan Emperor—was God’s “anointed servant” who directed and funded the demoralized Jews to rebuild God’s temple in Jerusalem (Isaiah 4:1, Ezra 6:1-12). Cyrus (or Darius) was moved by Daniel’s fasting and prayer. He was stunned by Daniel’s dramatic deliverance from the lions’ den, but N he also had political reasons to appease religious minorities. Constantine the Great (AD 274-337) began experiencing the Lord Jesus in a vision in 312. He co-issued the edict of Milan (AD 313), which legalized Christianity and made it acceptable and respectable in Europe. He had probably become a believer in Christ by the time of the Council of Nicaea in 325, but Vishal Mangalwadi (b. 1949) he still tolerated Paganism. The man who played a historic role in Europe’s studied philosophy in Allahabad Christianization did not himself become a baptized Christian until May 22, and Indore universities, Hindu 337, shortly before his death. ashrams and L’Abri Fellowship None of these leaders fi t our normal conception of “God’s servants.” It is not (Switzerland). An evamgelist surprising that many Indian Christians cannot make sense of Mr. Ram Raj, a and lecturer, Vishal has authored ten books and worked as a socio- Deputy Commissioner of Income Tax in New Delhi, who is planning to lead economic and political activist a million Dalits (“oppressed”) to abandon Hinduism and become Buddhists. If on behalf of the poor in India. you meet Ram Raj in person you might be tempted to ask, “Can anything good Currently he is making a seven- come out of Nazareth?” Some Christians are suspecting, if not rejecting, Ram hour documentary, “The Book Raj. However, I believe historians may judge him to be India’s Constantine. Of The Millennium: How The Bible Changed Civilization.” In order to appreciate Ram Raj’s signifi cance we need to understand the current Vishal’s trilogy on missions are: ethos in the North Indian church as well as the mood of the lower caste “The Legacy of William Carey: Hindus. A few years ago three Hindus, who called themselves Ambedkarites, A Model for Transforming A went to my (evangelical) pastor in Madhya Pradesh. They asked him to disciple Culture”, “Missionary and baptize them. Later they met me and told me that the pastor had said, “I Conspiracy: Letters to a don’t care for Ambedkar. If you want to become Christians, you’d better fi nd an Postmodern Hindu” and “India: evangelist. Converting someone is not my job. I am a pastor.” The Grand Experiment.” For more information visit Last week our son-in-law and his associates received serious threats from mili- www.VishalMangalwadi.com tant Hindus for baptizing 21 people in one village over the past year. The fi rst

International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 20 An Indian Constantine? His crowd of one million Neo-Buddhists, Raj says, will stand there to defend the Christians’ right to liberate those most oppressed by the Hindu society. reaction of some pastors in their town— Observations (1792) that “light is the insuffi cient to liberate him from the some of them “evangelicals”—was to true cure for darkness.” Grant had lived indignity associated with having been distance themselves from the frontline in India long enough to experience its born a “low caste” Hindu. Consequently evangelists. Eventually 50 Christian darkness—spiritual, moral, intellectual, he made his famous declaration: “I was leaders met together to affi rm their soli- and social. Yet he had experienced God’s born a Hindu; I had no choice. But I darity, though some argued that conver- power to enlighten the darkness of his will not die a Hindu because I do have sions ought to be stopped. own heart, and had witnessed the power a choice.” of the Gospel through John Wesley’s Happily there are still courageous After India gained Independence in work to reform a nation as corrupt Christians left in North India who 1947, Dr. Ambedkar was appointed as England. Grant believed that there will risk their lives to disciple and Chairman of India’s Constituent was hope for India, and that this baptize seekers. Sadly however, numer- Assembly. He helped write India’s dem- hope was in the Gospel. As a member ous threats, beatings and murder by ocratic Constitution that “abolished” of the Clapham Sect, a Member of Hindu radicals have prompted even untouchability and codifi ed human Parliament, and the Chairman of the “Bible-believing”, “evangelical” theolo- equality. He then served as a minister East India Company, he worked with gians like Rev. Valson Thampu to in India’s fi rst government under Prime Wilberforce to promote the cause of publicly call for a “Moratorium on Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru— missions in order to bless India and to Conversions.” My guess is that a major- only to fi nd that neither Constitution, lead Hindus from darkness to light. ity in the North Indian Church would nor democracy, nor political power were agree with that proposal. Dr. Bhimaro Ambedkar became the fi rst suffi cient to liberate India’s oppressed “untouchable” to receive a Ph.D. (in people from Hinduism. It is this climate of fear and compro- Economics) from Columbia University mise that makes Ram Raj so fascinating Four decades of public life and refl ection in New York in 1916. He returned a character. He is asking—and in fact, drove Dr. Ambedkar to conclude that to serve as a minister to Maharaja challenging—Christians to baptize at Grant and Wilberforce were right: more Gaikwad of Baroda. Dr. Ambedkar least 20,000, if not 200,000 Hindus than anything else what India needed found that his education and profes- in his rally. His crowd of one million was conversion. He explained his posi- sional status did not earn him the Neo-Buddhists, he says, will stand there tion in his little book, Annihilation of respect that he deserved. He could not to defend the Christians’ right to liberate Caste. He argued that Hindus do not ill- even rent a room in Baroda. Those of those most oppressed by the Hindu society. treat their fellow Hindus because they his caste had no rooms to rent and are worse then other human beings. Ram Raj is reminding the Church of a the upper-castes refused to rent out They are as good or as bad as any truth it brought to the Indian sub-con- their rooms to him. They even had him other people in the world. They practice tinent, that conversion is the most evicted from a hotel room rented to him “untouchability” because it is central to effective antidote to oppression. It by a Parsi gentleman. their religion. Therefore, the only way was the British politician William In disgust Dr. Ambedkar left for to annihilate caste is to get out of Wilberforce who injected this truth into Bombay (now Mumbai). He then went Hinduism. In 1956, shortly before his Indian consciousness during the battles to London to study law, returning to death, Dr. Ambedkar publicly led over in British Parliament (1793-1813) to India with a second doctorate. By 1930 300,000 of his followers in abandoning permit Christian missions in British he had become a public fi gure. By Hinduism and becoming Buddhists. India. Ram Raj subsequently learned 1932 he was the undisputed leader of this truth from Dr. Bhimrao Sri Kanshiram, the founder and pres- the “depressed” classes in India. Yet, Ambedkar’s writings. ident of the Bahujan Samaj Party, by 1935 he realized that the highest revived the cult of Dr. Ambedkar in Wilberforce was Charles Grant’s education, employment, money, social our generation, being inspired by mouthpiece for India, who argued in his activism and political infl uence were the book Annihilation of Caste.

International Journal of Frontier Missions Vishal Mangalwadi 21 Kanshiram began his public life by book “Touch Thy Neighbor: Stories establishing the “Buddhist Research and Refl ections on Untouchability.” Foundation;” he subsequently concluded (Please preview the text at that Buddhism was inadequate to help www.VishalMangalwadi.com). Ram Raj India’s oppressed. is also supporting the plan of Bibles For The World to distribute a million copies Kanshiram therefore chose an exclu- of the Gospel of John in his rally. He sively political path to “salvation.” He has asked us to bring as many reporters, succeeded in awakening the lower intercessors and volunteers as possible castes, but his path led them into a dead from all over the world to publicize, end. As a result many Ambedkarites pray, distribute the Gospel of John, and have been knocking at the doors of my book in his rally. Churches, often to be disappointed by fearful shepherds, concerned for Ram Raj’s appeal has a vital component their own safety, rather than caring that deserves our support. For two for Jesus’ sheep. As a consequence, centuries Christians have spent their Ram Raj is now mobilizing a million resources on educating the upper Dalits (“oppressed”) to follow him from castes—many of who are now opposing, Hinduism into Buddhism. if not persecuting Christians in India and propagating Hinduism in the West. The lower castes in India (including Ram Raj is therefore urging the Church “Scheduled Castes”, “Scheduled Tribes” to launch a vigorous educational effort and “Other Backward Castes”) are at for the lower castes, including establish- least 400 million people, of which about ing a Christian university. Incidentally, 200 million are often called “Dalits”—the this was the very goal for which Charles most oppressed. They are victims of Grant and Wilberforce had worked. It Hinduism and have no reason to remain took them two decades to get the British Hindus. About four million of these have Parliament (1813) to force the East been educated and employed by the cen- India Company to spend Rs. 100,000 tral, state, and local governments but per year for educating Indians. continue to face humiliation because of their birth. Many of them agree with Ram Raj’s rally could trigger India’s cul- Ambedkar that they need to convert. tural revolution, launching a tidal wave of Dalits and lower caste Hindus out of However, many also agree with Hinduism. Many see the potential for Kanshiram that there is no salvation in conversions at an unprecedented scale. Buddhism. Ram Raj says to such people: To me, Ram Raj’s movement offers the If you cannot live without wor- possibility of turning a cultural revolu- ship of God or rituals then you tion into a “Reformation.” India’s cul- should choose another faith like tural revolution will fi zzle out as did Christianity instead of remaining the Chinese. Lasting blessings can only in the caste system. come from rebuilding our nation on biblical foundations. The question is Because Ram Raj represents a politically would the church respond with vision, infl uential group many politicians are wisdom, speed and sacrifi ce? IJFM supporting him hoping to encash his appeal, or at least to divide dalit votes between Kansiram and him. Recognizing that many Dalits are already inclined toward Christ, Mr. Ram Raj has endorsed my evangelistic

18:1 Spring 2001 Fatal Hindu Gospel Stumbling Blocks by D. D. Pani

he Western Missionary Movement (WMM), in its zeal to impact India for Christ, has inadvertently placed unnecessary obstacles in front of the gospel, tripping up many who might otherwise have sincerely sought Him, and turning away far more than have been reached. One high caste Hindu (who was eventually able to turn to Christ) has traced these Tobstacles to the fact that members of the WMM: [have been] totally unable to distinguish between the cultural religion they tried to preach and the unadulterated Gospel of Jesus Christ as seen in the New Testament. … Because of this … all the arduous labors of expansion by a humane Christendom were frustrated beyond measure and the impact of Western Christendom in its religious terms remained quite limited.1

Yet the labors of the WMM have not been in vain. It has been observed that due to their great efforts, “most Indians accept Christ as the greatest manifesta- tion of redemptive love.”1 However, because of the many ways the WMM has violated the culture of India, most have been prevented from personally embracing Him. The Indian Church (the major offspring of the WMM) has for the most part continued in the example set before it and has itself become a major source of hindrance to the Hindu in his search for the true God.

Dr. D. D. Pani is an associate Consequently, the gospel is currently advancing far more slowly than it should of the Institute of Hindu Studies in India. Several major reasons exist, the most signifi cant perhaps being the (USCWM). He is the author failure of the western effort over the last three centuries to properly engage the of one textbook and a large culture of India. Rather than unleash the power of the gospel on the Hindu number of international journal articles. During parts of the establishment, the missionary movement has helped to re-ignite, reform and last three decades, Dr. Pani revitalize Hinduism. Incredible as it may seem, while seeking to free India’s has spent considerable time in masses through the regenerating power of the gospel, this movement has actu- India. Though he and his ally strengthened the grip of Hinduism on the hearts of many. wife are currently residents of Pennsylvania, he continues to During the 20th century, various elements of the 19th century Hindu renais- travel extensively in the Indian sance movement evolved into militant forms of Hinduism. And these fanatical subcontinent. brands of Hinduism have merged into the most powerful political force in the country today.

International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 24 Fatal Hindu Gospel Stumbling Blocks

Under their rule, there has been a Western Christian infl uence, to make generations also carried with it an air of signifi cant rise in the persecution of these same changes. self-believed cultural superiority.2 Only Christians. Most recently this force has rarely did Western missionaries truly At present, the West’s greatest need for begun to mount an extensive and sys- seek to meaningfully engage the culture. wisdom lies in how it should deal with tematic effort to eradicate what is left Furthermore, except for the fact that the issue of the repression of minorities of the WMM (along with most all non- its “air of superiority” stems more in India. We (the West) also need to see technical Western infl uence). It is also exclusively from its pride in coming and understand the unnecessary offenses now seeking to minimize the Indian from more technically and materially caused by our past and present actions. Christian Church. advanced cultures from those found in During my second tenure in India, I India, the current generation of mis- For all its failures, the Western mission- identifi ed fi ve of the gospel stumbling sionaries is no different. To the sensitive ary effort in India has been herculean, blocks facing the Hindu, obstacles that Hindu, these attitudes neutralize the involving immense human energy and still remain nearly invisible to the “demonstration” effort of the WMM sacrifi ce on the part of many. The Western eye. Many (including a number and almost totally negate the Gospel. vast majority of these missionaries have of non-believing Hindus) have written Such attitudes have also stifl ed the will- been extremely sincere and have left on the various problems associated with ingness of many Hindu intellectuals behind much better material lives in the missionary effort in India and made to engage in dialogue with Western order to obey their callings. In most all valid lists of items offensive to the Christianity. Thus, this arrogant cases, they ministered in the ways they Hindu. We would do well to study these Western mindset has been and is one of thought best. Many suffered great loss, works and humbly learn from them. greatest barricades to the Gospel in the yet continued undeterred. Most, if they Hindu world. could have recognized their actions as However, it is not my intent here to a source of stumbling, would have been attempt to summarize even a small por- It is amazing to me the number horrifi ed and would have immediately tion of these works. Instead, I want of Indians who have gone through chosen to change. to unveil just three particularly serious Christian schools (both Protestant and stumbling blocks that are not so easy Catholic) without seriously considering It is not our place here to judge these to discern and to explore (in somewhat Christ. It is also amazing how little it great people of the past. Instead, for a limited detail) their origins. takes to discredit one’s witness in this better future, we must learn from the culture. One small display of anger—no Hindu reactions to the passionate but I. The Problem of matter how justifi ed —will terminate culturally fl awed efforts of the WMM. one’s witness, irrespective of the degree Even today, the Western eye cannot Superiority of Culture of demonstration that preceded the dis- easily see many of the obstructions that Whereas in Paul’s time, the Jews play. In such anger the Hindu sees arro- have been created, as these impediments were best reached through signs—and gance (in the form of putting down the fl ow naturally out of subtle but fatal the Greeks through logic—the Hindu god-hood of another). fl aws in Western culture itself and in world was (and still is) most infl uenced Western Christendom in particular. by demonstration with humility. The advance of the Gospel is signif- Though admired worldwide for his gen- icantly threatened by those who have India today is a nation in great tension. eral attribute of tolerance, the Indian been preconditioned to believe in the Though a form of stability remains for Hindu has little-to-none for arrogance. superiority (and universality) of the now, many strong forces are at work that Western form of Christianity and in could at any time cause the situation Since the Portuguese, there has certainly the relative inferiority of Indian culture. to rapidly decline into anarchy. More been much demonstration of Christ in Unfortunately, this includes not only than ever before the WMM and the India by the modern West. Sadly this most of India’s missionary forces (both Christian West must strive to be more demonstration has been accompanied Western and Indian) but also the bulk sensitive to Hindu culture so that they by attitudes of narrow-mindedness and of the Indian Church. By listening to can act wisely in their future dealings lack of teachableness. These attitudes those who advocate such demeaning with India. To accomplish this, we need extend not only to the various Hindu views, the West continues in its cultural a set of major paradigm shifts. Similarly, philosophies and religions, but to bias. Tragically, most of these spokesmen the Indian Church must be encouraged, Hindu culture itself. Thriving in the were then—and are now—unable to through the remaining channels of wake of imperialism, the bulk of the distinguish between Hindu culture and Western missionary effort of earlier International Journal of Frontier Missions D. D. Pani 25

Hindu religion. As a result, Hindu cul- the rights of the younger ones. I did to radiate his personality, I had created ture is viewed as evil, because the Hindu not however repeat their “injustice” by a negative witness. religion does not bring salvation. chasing them off. My son watched and A great tragedy today is that much of then listened in the local language to the the WMM work (both past and cur- II. The Problem of Rights discussions that followed among these rent) among low caste and no-caste older boys. Some greatly appreciated and Rebellion Hindus represents “rebellion move- my chastening and further admonished After I had spent two and a half years ments” against the Hindu social order. the others, but most felt that the little serving professionally at an institution Both the Western “protest” mentality children were not important and main- in India, a very perceptive friend and co- (which in the West has made tained their privilege to chase them laborer told me why I was not having Protestantism itself a movement that off. Their beliefs followed from the cul- a greater impact in the Hindu commu- cannot be united) and Western imperi- ture of the home life that had reared nity. He related it to the attitudes this alistic attitudes have worked together— them—as did my son’s. community could see in my eleven year- and are still working together—to build old son. Until the 14th century, the personal a Church in India that is “liberated” At fi rst I was taken aback, but I rights of the common Western from Hindu society. In some cases listened and strained hard to understand European and common Indian alike directly and in other cases indirectly without being defensive. My son was were still heavily subjugated to the (unintentionally), Indian Christians are well behaved and a very good student. needs of the community. Thus, the taught to abhor Hindu culture and to treat He was well immersed in the activities individuality and personal creativity with contempt what is considered to be and social life of this community, as were of most remained greatly suppressed. the normal social order. Soon, however, the combined and my wife and I. But because of the culture Providing “liberation” is sometimes jus- interactive energies of the European of my home, he had become an intense tifi ed based on a belief in the injustice Enlightenment and the Protestant individual and his strength of personality of the oppressive control and exploita- Reformation set in motion forces that “exuded” from him. And this, my friend tion of the lower castes by the higher. began to “liberate” the individual in explained to me, was the problem. There is no denying that the caste Europe. In the West, the pendulum system is unjust and exploitative. The In Indian culture, children normally began to swing from the priority of lower class peoples are being subjected remain very docile in the presence of community (in moderating one’s own to much injustice. However, this justifi - adults and exhibit little personality in actions) to that of the individual (i.e., cation is in no way in line with the the presence of youth even just slightly from what is best for the whole to what spirit of the early Gentile church. older than themselves. In the company is best for the part). For a time, this Here is where the dogmatism of the of adults they behave as if they have brought balance, and was accompanied Western Church and the reactive nature no rights and are very submissive to by rapid advances in Western culture. the unspoken social pecking order. On of the Protestant movement make it the other hand, I had taught my son Currently in the West the pendulum extremely hard for the preconditioned (through the way he saw me react has swung to a new and far more dan- Western Protestant missionary to exer- to others in the society) to respect gerous extreme. Yet in India (despite cise wisdom. For both similar and dif- those who proved themselves worthy of the invasion of values from the secular ferent reasons, the same is true to for respect—and to express his personality. West, community) what is best for the Roman Catholic missionary. the whole still moderates most of The oppressed of the early church were In Indian culture age, position, caste and the actions of individuals, even in taught by their leaders to accept suffer- gender form the basis for respect. When the major metropolitan centers. The ing and loss at the hands of the culture a boy one year older than my son was vast majority of Indian minds are still (and its norms) for the sake of their bullying him because of his “seniority,” I shocked by the rebellion of an indi- faith and witness. The early church taught my son to stand up for himself. vidual (or group of individuals) against did not challenge many of the evil prac- Once, my son and his friends were play- the social order, because such behavior tices of the day (such as slavery) but ing cricket when a group of older boys is out-of-sync with community. What taught its followers to be pro-active chased them off the fi eld and began to they would see as rebellion, we in the when trapped in such oppressive cir- play. Upon learning this, I went and West would see as the expression of cumstances. The real power of their rebuked these boys for not respecting individuality. Through training my son witness lay in their radiance in the face 18:1 Spring 2001 26 Fatal Hindu Gospel Stumbling Blocks of unjust suffering; this was the cutting people) is losing the war (involving the III. The Problem of edge of their witness. Martyrdom was vast majority). common and persecution and oppres- Control In some regions in Northern and sion were the norm for many in various When I fi rst came to India, I didn’t Central India, where larger pockets of parts of the early Church. immediately mix with many Western low caste and no castes have been missionaries, because I wanted to form Focusing on their great status as chil- enticed to the gospel through the independent opinions of the culture. dren and heirs of the creator God, they free provision of money and com- However, I did seek some associations. were thus free to give up their rights modities (and liberation tactics), the The one I became most fond of was for the sake of their witness. They regions themselves have become polar- an individual about my father’s age. could choose with joy to be true fol- ized against the gospel. Even many Over the next several years I came to lowers of a Master who “like a lamb from the same social status as those appreciate this man’s great vision and that is led to slaughter…. did not open being liberated are sickened at seeing burden for India. During his tenure— His mouth.” their own kind separating from and and with almost no Western fi nancial defying the social order under the infl u- In contrast, the liberation effort in support—he had raised up one of the ence of foreigners (or South Indians). India today is reactive (rather than pro- fi nest Christian institutions of its kind Of equal concern is the faith response active) and is resulting in the polariza- in the country. of those being “won” under such cir- tion of Christians and Hindus. What cumstances. Most are responses to a However, as my years of association the community-oriented Hindu sees soft gospel. Such a faith beginning does with this good friend continued, I as “the social order,” the reactive and not often lead to deep commitment. became convinced that he should have rights-oriented Protestant (and Roman retired much earlier. In time I con- Catholic) sees as “subjugation and des- In a land of one billion, mostly without cluded that his retirement was more potism.” What the Hindu sees as Christ, the progress of the Gospel than ten years overdue. For the sake of assisting in “rebellion,” the Western needs to be accelerated, not hindered. her health, his wife had left the fi eld and Indian missionary sees as assisting There is a need both to consider an many years before to prepare for their in “liberation.” Because of the present overall strategy that is appropriate and retirement. I became unsettled when I day Western Protestant and Roman sensitive to the masses, and to subjugate fi nally realized that he was never going Catholic rights-orientation, submitting these “short cut agendas” (that can so to join her. Despite a generation differ- with joy to unjust oppression is not effectively win the few for the glory of ence in age, I began to gently probe this a viable or even possible option. the WMM) to “reason” for the good of concern with my friend. Eventually, I Consequently, in the face of the whole. Because utopia is not for this realized two things. The fi rst was that persecution in India today, Bishops life, the early church was focused on the he could never let go of the institution protest and Christians march. liberation of the soul, not the exercise of he has raised up; the second was why. Meanwhile the Western Christian personal rights. In their spirit of humil- community attempts to exert forms of ity, the Roman Empire was rapidly con- Besides being a typical Western con- external pressure. quered for Christ. trol-freak, he had raised up an institute that required a Western administrator The Hindu, who might have become Although we could, we will not take to keep it going. It was a Western insti- a seeker, becomes permanently turned time now to consider the degrading tution running on Western principles. off upon seeing such displays. When effects of the problem of rights and Though he’d already hired a series of Western intrusions turn small pockets rebellion on the effectiveness of the Indian administrators to make the insti- of the lower castes against the ancient Western Church in reaching the West tution “look” Indian-run, he still had to order, the high-caste peoples of a itself. I’ll simply state that, in part remain on site (behind-the-scenes) to region become appalled. While tem- because of this very problem, the ensure its function. Though a man of porary strides are perhaps being made Western Church (though it is not yet great faith and commitment, he knew among those groups being “liberated” ready to admit so) has lost its cutting deep inside that soon after he perma- by the WMM, the progress of the edge in its home terrain. nently left the scene his work would Gospel is being impeded overall. The begin to decay. expense of winning these intermediate battles (with these small pockets of His institution was bearing much fruit. But to me it became a symbol and mon-

International Journal of Frontier Missions D. D. Pani 27 ument of the failed strategies of the pre- reducing one’s attachments to desired However, despite all the noise about vious generations. Such strategies have outcomes. In the Western Christian contextualization and Church planting, resulted in dead-end institutions that system, the focus (despite the rhetoric) I continue to see new ministries spring- can neither be sustained nor replicated. is really on self-expectations. Further, ing up that are operating from Western These only enhance addition (rather than in the Western system, the burden for motivations. From the reference point multiplication) in a country which now sees a desired outcome ends up resting (in of faith, the “control” emphasis of the practically the population of Canada added reality) on the agenda holder(s)—not West continues to involve degrees of to its ranks every year. God. One system teaches people to unbelief—especially the emphasis of expect less of God, the other to expect control through the use of Western I began to ponder the reason why more of self. The end result is the same fi nancial support. so many of us in the WMM (myself for both systems: reduced faith. Yet, the included) have remained so committed Today, with the tremendous emphasis intermediate results are very different. to strategies that continue to fail in placed on church planting in India, In the West, for example, the intermedi- India. This, in time, lead me to come to Western organizations need to com- ate result is the propagation of control- the following observations. pletely rethink their strategies in light centered structures. of these realities. Time is too short and One major characteristic of the West These are gross generalizations, and in the task too large for us to continue to that distinguishes it from the East is light of the advance of Western culture invest in structures and methodologies its need for control. The fatalism of and technology into many sectors of the that are foreign to the mental processes the East stands in stark contrast to East, certainly lack universality. and cultural inclinations of the Indian the aggressive self-determinism of the disciple. Continuing down the current West. The Western mindset is focused The failure of the Western missionary paths will only sustain the present mar- primarily on the need to attempt to movement to fully (or even partially) ginal “addition” rate of adherents to the control the external—leaving little to appreciate these great fundamental dif- faith in a land were a decisive “multipli- chance. We Westerners attempt to con- ferences between East and West is a cation” rate is instead needed. trol our own environments and time major hindrance to the progress of usage, our security and health, our the Gospel in India. This failure helps Solutions involvements and theology, to the extent explain why the West continues to try In the previous three sections, we that we don’t really need God. We ana- to establish institutions and movements explored some of the less easily per- lyze Him to the point where He no in India that require their own struc- ceived reasons why the Western mis- longer has many mysteries. tured and control-oriented mindset to sionary movement has failed thus far to maintain and why, in most cases, these By contrast, the Eastern mindset is entice the core of the Hindu masses to works fail miserably when turned over focused primarily on the need to embrace Christ. Again, because of these to Eastern stewardship. There is also the attempt to control self—leaving the and other reasons the missionary move- problem of replication. Most of these external to chance. For this reason, the ment has fanned the fl ame of Hinduism works, even if they do provide some suc- culture of the West is far more struc- and greatly strengthened it. Thus, in cess, prove to be ends in themselves. tured and systematic than that of the many regions of India, the gospel is not East. India, for example, has not chron- Fortunately, I see a new breed of making measurable progress. icled most of its own history. Indians Western missionary coming to India Though it is important for us to under- are far more relational, spontaneous and that is no longer focused as much stand the cause and effect sequence that open-ended. Hindu religious practices on raising up Western institutions. has produced these catastrophic devel- are far more individualistic and ascetic. By contrast, Westerners are more rigid in most aspects of their lives. The failure of the Western missionary The outworking of both the Eastern movement to appreciate these fundamental (fatalistic) and Western (aggressive-self deterministic) systems have fatal fl aws differences between East and West is a major when it comes to faith. Simply stated, in the Eastern Hindu system, little is hindrance to the progress of the gospel in India. expected of God and the focus is on

18:1 Spring 2001 28 Fatal Hindu Gospel Stumbling Blocks opments, it is more important to make frontational letters (II Corinthians, In India, after many fruitful years of the changes that logically follow from Galatians, etc.), and prayer reaching high castes, E. Stanley Jones, this understanding. To have any value, (Philippians). In time, his efforts—com- exhorted the West to let go of its con- this paper must now investigate not only bined with the efforts of like-minded trol-based reformation agendas and to plausible solutions to the problems out- apostles and leaders—prevailed, infl u- again simply unleash the power of the lined briefl y above, but must also inves- encing the whole of Christendom. One gospel, by letting it go free.4 tigate ways to accommodate some of the generation after Paul’s death, Mathetes Jones was distressed by the work of Western and Indian cultural tendencies could write to a seeker: his fellow missionaries because he could that have served to produce these prob- For the Christians are distin- see the difference between regeneration lems. The alternative approaches sug- guished from other men neither and reformation. Because most Western gested below may at fi rst prove hard for missionaries in his generation were not the West to implement, but being com- by country, nor language, nor the able to distinguish (in their own experi- patible with Indian culture, they should customs which they observe … ence) between what was scriptural and ultimately serve to accelerate the Gospel and following the customs of the what was cultural, they were hindered in India. natives in respect to clothing, food, and the rest of their ordi- in communicating the Biblical Christ. It may be of some comfort to know that nary conduct.3 So they, for the most part, proclaimed the problems we face in India today are a Western Christ instead. Without (in very similar to those the Apostle Paul So the Church grew like wildfi re in both many cases) even realizing it, his co- faced during the early days of the Gentile the East and the West. Everywhere the workers—and those who had preceded Church. Though Paul’s preliminary cul- Way went it adapted to the cultures of him in North India—had taken on a tural and religious experience had led him the peoples; it did not take on a dis- job description not given to them: social to murder Christians, it was primarily tinctive culture of its own. Kingdom reform rather than gospel regeneration. to him that the task of forging the subjects were to stand out—not by cul- To properly unleash the gospel, one foundation of the European Church was tural distinctives—but by the fruit of the must live in proximity to those people assigned. Not only was he chosen to Spirit and by lifestyles of commitment with whom the gospel is to be establish many new paths, he was given and character. unleashed. This means living in sub- the task of spending much of his time Paul had a proper view of culture and of mission to the culture, not trying to fi ghting the preconditioning of the Jewish his responsibility to it. He did not judge outwardly reform it. With such an Christians. Because of their cultural roots, the cultures of the lands he lived in, nor approach, the missionary cannot offend. these brothers had been programmed to did he attempt to reform these cultures The gospel carried by the missionary believe in the superiority of Jewish Culture externally. Instead he lived to regenerate may offend, but certainly his life should and were thus seeking to export their cul- individuals and to train them (as Jesus not unnecessarily offend. Certainly also, ture—along with their new faith—to those did His own disciples) “to live in the the gospel itself will in time reform, who were responding to the gospel outside world, but not be of the world.” but only after it has fi rst regenerated a of Israel. Some of these Judaizers followed in number of individuals within the culture. Paul’s wake, attempting to bring the Gentile We need men like Paul today, who Christians under submission to the form can and who will stand against the mis- The gospel, together with the rest of Christianity that had been appropriately sion sending agencies and missionary of Christian truth, work together like adopted by the believers in Israel itself. educational and funding sources of the leaven in a culture to improve it. In West, and convince them to stop mixing bread batter, leaven starts out slowly, Had Paul not fought this particular Western culture into the agenda of the but eventually it thoroughly permeates battle so effectively, the churches he Western missionary movement in India. and transforms the entire mixture. Thus, established would have taken on many Paul viewed it his job to simply let the while regeneration takes place in an elements of Jewish culture and would gospel loose on the people of these cul- individual at the point of fi rst true soon have become irrelevant to the tures, to let it (together with the Holy belief, the reformation of a culture may Great Commission in the localities in Spirit) do its work. First it would regen- take many generations. For example, it which they had been planted. Thus, erate. Then in time—God’s time—it took the leavening effect of the Gospel Paul fought this battle at the top would reform. His focus was on regen- over 1800 years to bring the issue of ( Jerusalem Council, confl ict with lead- eration, not reformation. slavery to an honest head in the West. ers), through proper discipling, con- The change came ultimately by majority

International Journal of Frontier Missions D. D. Pani 29 consensus after much of the population shown in the gospel accounts) than ways more righteous than the had been regenerated. But to impose those of their countrymen. With the godless culture of the secular reform on a culture before it has extreme attitudes of bigotry held by the West today. (For some this may been regenerated is to impede—possi- Jewish race toward the Samaritans and mean taking time to “tune-in” bly even kill —the rate of regeneration Gentiles at the time of Christ, this train- to and acknowledge the real in a culture. ing effort was an immense task indeed. moral condition of the West Yet, if he had not completed it, it is today.) Proposed Solutions to the unlikely that a proper vision of Christ b. The error in the supposition would have ever been taken outside the Problem of Superiority of that superiority of technology Jewish nation. Culture always equates to superiority of Earlier we highlighted the impact We found that, by using a harmony of culture. the gospels, it is possible to observe in of Evangelical Protestantism’s negative c. The error in the supposition detail what Christ did to remove the predisposition toward the culture of that military supremacy or negative preconditioning of His disci- India. From the dearth of response domination always equates to ples toward the Gentiles and to make of thinking Hindus to the gospel, we superiority of culture. can only conclude that as long as the these men perpetual learners in the face Western missionary remains unteach- of new information. Christ was so suc- d. The intensity and degree of able concerning the virtues of Indian cessful in this venture that Peter could philosophic development in the culture and persists in an attitude of cul- one day call Paul’s diffi cult writings Indian subcontinent compared tural superiority, the Hindu world will “scriptures” (II Peter 3:17) and doubting to Europe (and later in North continue to stumble over Christ. Our Thomas (if legend is correct) could America). Also, the relative rigid spirit in this matter fl ows from establish a rigorous Church among the sophistication of the philoso- bigotry (cultural bias). The following are uncircumcised high castes of southern phies developed in each loca- suggested ways to help ourselves (and India (which, despite centuries of semi- tion (independent of the only prospective new missionaries) overcome isolation, has survived to this day). authentic source of revelation). cultural bias. Though we cannot conclusively either One must consider the degree confi rm or deny the legend of Thomas of Indian progress in the First, study the training method Christ (even with modern analysis leaning absence of the Judeo-Christian used for eliminating cultural bias from His slightly toward confi rmation6), we can scriptures relative to the degree own disciples. follow the lives of Peter and John into of Western progress helped One year I slowly worked through a the Gentile world through both the along by these revelational complete harmony of the gospels with New Testament and the writings of texts. Not to bias this inves- an Indian scholar in order to look at the Early Church Fathers. What comes tigation (but to guide it), one this topic in depth. To our amazement, through in these sources is that Jesus must come to grips with the we found the harmonized gospels to be was successful. Using Christ’s compre- failure of the West’s fi xation on a training manual in how to empower hensive method, we must reprogram “systems” to deliver anything others to overcome bigotry in their own ourselves (and others) with the same tangible or lasting in the area personal lives. attitudes the Master imparted into His of philosophy. The “brilliant men. conclusion” of this process is For Jesus, the need to overcome the that no answers can be found. Secondly, take time to research and seriously problem of the negative preconditioning Also, one must consider that consider a number of counter-facts related (bias) of His disciples in relation to modern science is in part (if to this Western bias. Among those that other cultures was paramount. The not more) a baby of the should be studied in detail are: twelve would soon be called upon to Reformation 6, 7 and not the love the Samaritans and later to love a. That the past roots of Indian result of a philosophical search the Gentiles of many different cultures. culture are in many ways more that took place outside the However, at the beginning of Christ’s righteous than the past roots of infl uence of Christian truth. private ministry with these men, their Western culture (Roman civi- e. The pure and near perfect logic attitudes toward the non-Jew and the lization), and that the present of the Sanskrit language and outcast were clearly no different (as day culture of India is in many 18:1 Spring 2001 30 Fatal Hindu Gospel Stumbling Blocks the major technological devel- Proposed Solutions to the enable his men to understand the root opments ancient India has problem of Rights and and spirit of their traditions in light of provided the world (such as the priorities of devotion to God and our power of ten based num- Rebellion compassion toward man. By His words bering system). The Evangelical Protestant “protest” and deeds, Christ taught His followers f. The fact that in community mentality, coupled with Western impe- not to submit blindly to traditions but vs. individualism, the West’s rialistic attitudes, has fostered (and is to regulate their submission to tradi- emphasis on personal rights still fostering) an effort to build a tions by the priority of loving God is now rapidly destroying Church in India that is “liberated” from and neighbor. Thus, He slowly stripped Western culture, just as the Hindu social structure (culture). To the away the legalism that the culture’s pre- community focus of India Indian psyche, the priorities of commu- conditioning had built into His follow- has limited personal creativity nity and maintenance of social structure ers, replacing their bigotry with a spirit and the rate of technological are absolutes. Thus for the Hindu, dis- of love and compassion. plays of arrogance and rebellion against advancement there. (Note that It is important to observe, however, these absolutes are abominations of both emphases are out of that in the process of stripping away the highest order. And when these dis- step with the Scriptures and their prejudice and legalism, Christ was plays accompany the WMM’s outreach that Evangelicals are essen- not attempting to make social rebels efforts among the low and no castes, tially following the current out of His followers. For example, they can only mobilize anti-Christian Western drift.) one day Christ asked Peter: “What do and anti-foreign sentiments. Regardless you think, Simon? From where do the Thirdly, require all missionaries to focus of the Hindu reaction (which some can kings of the earth collect customs or exclusively on Hindus, not the bigoted negate as the Hindu’s problem only), poll-tax, from their sons or from strang- Indian Church. rebellion aimed at oppression is not jus- ers?” Then in response to Peter’s correct tifi able. Though it is in keeping with There are several rationale for this: answer Christ added, “Consequently the protest spirit of the Reformation, the son’s are exempt. But, lest we give (1) to protect the new Western it is completely out-of-sync with the offense, go…” And on the wings of a missionary from being further spirit of the early church and the exam- miracle performed only in the sight of negatively preconditioned by ple of Christ. Peter himself, the Master paid their Indian Christians; Often the proponents of what I must yearly temple tax (even though He (2) to prevent the Western mis- label “Evangelical Liberation Theology” Himself was the temple!) There are sionary from further western- fi nd their justifi cation in Christ’s exam- many other examples of Christ’s sen- izing the Indian Church; ple of “rebelling” against the legalism sitivity and submission to the culture of the oppressive and corrupt religious of the Jews. It is also important to (3) to enable the Western mis- system in Israel in His time. However, note that the Jewish Christians of Israel sionary to really come to grips I must again encourage aspiring mis- remained zealous for their culture and with Indian culture; and sionaries to take time to work through continued to be nationalistic. a good harmony of the gospels on this (4) to allow the Indian Church to The delicate balance that Christ main- issue of personal rights and social rebel- come to grips with its own cul- tained during His training of the twelve lion to see what He really did. For ture without the distraction of enabled Him to strip away their bias those so aspiring, let me suggest in continued Western infl uence. and legalism while at the same time advance that one will fi nd quite a differ- empowering them to be appropriately Fourthly, allow new missionaries to bond ent example. to their ministry cultures by shielding submissive and sensitive to their own them from the oversight of missionaries of In my extensive study on this issue, culture. The effectiveness of this train- the old (negatively preconditioned) school I was amazed by the balanced way ing is well demonstrated through the —especially during their fi rst several years in which Christ taught His disciples follow-up ministries of the Apostles and in India. the importance of accommodating their their disciples. own culture, while not remaining bound Additional principles to ponder to the letter of all its traditions and Our job is simply to unleash the gospel ways. In doing so, He worked hard to by giving people a proper vision of Christ, International Journal of Frontier Missions D. D. Pani 31 not to externally mold people while ped- seems able to shed his tendency for high Again, the reader is directed to study dling a Western version of Him. 4 self-expectations. the life of Christ (using a good har- mony of the gospels) to discover the In summary, if the gospel is to be In relation to faith, Christ’s ministry Master’s method for imparting faith. properly unleashed, one must live near with the twelve and seventy had at However, because of our Western bag- those to whom the gospel is to be least two simultaneous aims: (1) raising gage, this can only be a start. In given, in submission to the culture, not God-expectations and (2) destroying dealing with growing Indian disciples, trying to reform it. This also means all self-expectations. Because of his we will have to resist any temptation engaging the culture in constructive fatalism, the Indian starts with (a) to demonstrate and motivate high per- and real (meaningful/practical) ways, low God-expectations and (b) limited sonal expectations. It is only as our not just peripheral ways. By extension self-expectations. Thus, because of his personal self-expectations go down that this mandates that the aspiring mission- Hindu roots, the Indian disciple only our God-expectations can rise. “When ary seeking to impact the mainstream needs his God expectations to be raised. the Son of Man returns, will He fi nd of India should come with something But while the Western mentor rigor- faith on the Earth?” other than just ministry skills (and, ously attempts via teaching and preach- before coming, should have been able ing to accomplish (1) in light of (a), he In addition, let me suggest that the to engage the mainstream of the secular inadvertently (either consciously or sub- WMM immediately drop all Western

In light of the potentially explosive … social movements currently sweeping through the oppressed classes of India, it is particularly important at “such a time as this” that the Western Christian community and the Indian Church relate in a culturally appropriate manner to these movements. culture of his/her own country, to the consciously) by demonstration serves structures and major on protocols natu- point of bearing fruit). to accomplish the opposite in relation ral to the eastern mindset and culture. to (2), thus raising the Indian’s self- For example, rather than planting com- The gospel will revolutionize a culture expectations. And because the power of munity churches with mixed castes after (and only after) it has regenerated demonstration is more powerful than present, works should be established many within it, but the former takes preaching and teaching, the Western which expand along extended family much longer. mentor (with high-self expectations of lines and are governed within these Proposed Solutions to the his own) can only raise the self-expecta- families themselves (without Western tions of the Indian and cannot accom- funds and with minimal Western infl u- Problem of Control plish (1). Because of the struggles the ence). Also, rigorous efforts of labor During nearly two and a half decades Indian disciple faces with attaining and prayer should be focused on raising of study on how Christ built faith into high God-expectations (by virtue of his up many Indian prophets with Eastern His followers, I have come to see that Hindu roots) he ends up with: (I) only mindsets (not Eastern philosophy) in the current Western models for building moderately raised God-expectations and different sub-regions and among the faith can only fail in India. I have also (II) greatly raised self-expectations. The various people groups. These must come to see that the cultural back- result is a very legalistic disciple with be extremely well-equipped individuals ground of the Hindu makes him more very little faith. Apart from following who can serve in an unstructured fertile ground for great faith if he is Christ’s method for building faith, the manner similar to the god-men and properly discipled. He has far less bag- mix of the Western-trainer and the gurus of Hinduism, in order to mobilize gage than the agenda-centered Western Eastern-trainee can usually only end in large people movements. disciple, who, despite much effort, never this (I and II).

18:1 Spring 2001 32 Fatal Hindu Gospel Stumbling Blocks A Tentative Description of Mission Frontiers by Ralph D. Winter Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must yet go, beyond which we may not be able to see clearly and which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specifi cally concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and insights related to the glorifi cation of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God.

In light of the potentially explosive 4 E. S. Jones, Christ of the Indian Road, nature of several of the social move- Lucknow Publishing House, 1977. ments currently sweeping through the Conclusions 5 oppressed classes of India, it is particu- S. H. Moffett, A History of Today the population of India is larly important at ”such a time as this” Christianity in Asia, Volume 1, Orbis increasing at an absolute rate of approx- that the Western Christian community and Books, 1998. imately 2.3% per year and is already the Indian Church relate in a culturally 6 at 1.02 billion. Yet, despite the West’s N. Pearcey and C. Thaxton, The appropriate manner to these movements. incredible investment of fi nances and Soul of Science, Good News Publishers, To fail to do so in the name of “libera- manpower into India over the past two 1994. tion” and “social reform” is to invite an centuries—and the continuing presence 7 unprecedented backlash from the anti- P. M. Gregorios, Enlightment East and of foreign and Indian missionaries foreign and anti-Christian forces that West, B. R. Publishing Corp., 1989. today—the absolute growth rate of are already polarized against the West 8 th Christianity in India is still only 2.8%. P. Johnstone, Operation World, 5 and its form of Christianity. The leaders 8 If the differential between these Edition, Zondervan, 1993. of the early Church learned not to bring two rates were to remain the same, persecution on themselves by causing nearly two additional centuries would unnecessary offense. They did not stand be required to completely reach India as judges of the pagan cultures of their for Christ. Hope lies in the observation day, but rather were the well-wishers that because of the great efforts of the of those without Christ, even as they WMM, “most Indians accept Christ as were martyred. They sought release for the greatest manifestation of redemptive all from the prison of Satan and showed love.” 1 If we from the West can retool, unconditional love to oppressor and this grave situation could be magnif- oppressed alike. Therefore also, let those icently salvaged to the great glory of who stumble in India, stumble only over God. the gospel itself—not over snares laid in In this paper I have attempted to iden- their paths by the West. IJFM tify several of the stumbling blocks facing the Hindu, which the West REFERENCES seems to have trouble seeing. I have also 1 K. V. Paul Pillai, India’s Search for the tried to explore the Western mindset Unknown Christ, India Inland Mission, at the root of these obstacles in order 1978. to help make the offenses more visible. 2 Finally, I have suggested a number of Stearns, Schwartz and Beyer, World diffi cult but practical solutions to help History Traditions and New Directions, minimize these stones of offense, so Addison-Wesley 1991. the Gospel can start to move at high 3 A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, Editors, speed through this land of one billion to Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol. I, Hendrickson regenerate and reform its great peoples. Pub., 1995.

International Journal of Frontier Missions Submission to Oppression in India: Lessons from History by D. D. Pani

ou are standing in the faint haze at dusk at the confl uence of India’s two most holy rivers. In the background you hear the eerie and continuous beating of drums. All around, and seemingly echoing in the distance, are the shrilling sounds of holy men blowing on large conch-shells. Behind you are the mysterious camps of thirteen Sadhu sects, the master ascetics of Y the Hindu faith. While the entrances to most of these camps are veiled and closed to the public, some are open to the steady queues of devotees coming to receive a blessing from one of these naked, long-haired men. The wind is blowing and the air is frigid, yet stoned on opium these demon- possessed holy men sit unfazed and oblivious to the near freezing elements, using only ash to partly cover their birth suits. As they mark the foreheads of each expectant devotee with a reddish-orange colored paste, they keep uttering ancient blessings from their scriptures. They seem very detached.

The wind picks up, causing you to turn. Something on one of the fl oating foot paths stretched across these wide rivers catches your eye, then quickly vanishes. By the light of the moon, you fi nd yourself mesmerized by the steady streams of humanity slowly crossing these rivers on these fl oating paths. They seem to be coming from everywhere, all converging on this most sacred site. You are at the “Sangam,” the place where not only the Ganges and the Yamuna rivers—but Dr. D. D. Pani is an associate also the mythical Saraswati river—all join. You are told that this is the most of the Institute of Hindu Studies auspicious day of this historic feast. Again you feel the pulse of this literal sea (USCWM). He is the author of humanity, all slowly walking forward while chanting the same ancient Vedic of one textbook and a large mantras used by earlier generations, some even possibly 3000 years ago. number of international journal articles. During parts of the According to reports, some 50 million are in the area. Of this, some 30 million last three decades, Dr. Pani (3% of India’s entire population) are simultaneously attempting to converge, on has spent considerable time in this most auspicious of days, on this spot to take their once-in-a-lifetime holy India. Though he and his dip at the location where these three rivers meet. If these reports are true, you wife are currently residents of realize that you are standing in the midst of the single largest gathering of humankind Pennsylvania, he continues to travel extensively in the Indian in the history of the world. Later you learn that actual numbers were even bigger, subcontinent. possibly 70 million. You know that such a single gathering as this will not occur again for another 12 years. International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 34 Submission to Oppression in India: Lessons from History And you wonder, Why are all these Is the preceding account simply drama- religious and social order occurred enduring the cold, the darkness, the tized fi ction? Or could it be a very accu- during the period 1757-1900 AD, when stench, and the pushing of the crowds? rate re-creation of the impressions of a Indian society was under heavy of Old women and men. Young and follower of Christ attending the Kumbh Western infl uence and European colo- middle-aged. In all manner of dress. Mela in Allahabad this past winter? nization. Yet rather than witnessing a Chanting. Pushing. Freezing. Waiting. complete shift in the peoples of India I wish it were just fi ction. Lining the far banks as far as you can toward these new and extremely pow- see in every direction. People. Members Indeed, the myriad of facts accurately erful infl uences, we see Brahmanism of Adam’s fallen race. depicted within this imagined descrip- bounce back once again. tion point to the high degree of Why are they all here? Instead of fi nishing off Brahmanism, vitality found today in Hinduism’s many Christianity (combined with other Then you are reminded that the reasons streams. Many other examples could Western ideals) injected tremendous for this presence—the individual human easily be given. regenerating power into an Indian soci- dramas that have brought each pilgrim ety left stagnant by centuries of oppres- here —are almost as many as the num- Why the Final Frontier sive Moslem rule, and more than half bers themselves. The astrologers had Why is it that without either Western a millennium of decaying Hinduism. predicted that it is this date that offers funds or the presence of foreign mis- During the Hindu renaissance that the highest chance for one to fi nd sionaries inside its borders, the Church resulted from this foreign infusion of release from the endless cycles of life, in China grew from about one million enlightenment, India also witnessed a enabling one at the end of this life to (in 1950) to over 80 million believers in revival of its Brahman priesthood and a re-merge with the Cosmos, or what they 1 less than 50 years? renewed sense of national pride.3 call “god.” By bathing in these muddy and most highly polluted waters, many On the other hand, why is it that At the root of this renaissance lay the believe their sins will be washed away. in India during this same period challenge of the gospel of Christ to with both foreign missionaries and the vigor of Hinduism itself. After the 20,000 police are on duty round the abundant Western funds, the growth social reforms and contributions facili- clock to keep order and direct the rate of Bible-focused Christians has tated by such great Western Christians crowds. As soon as one fi nishes bathing, only slightly exceeded the population as William Carey, Joshua Marshman he or she is quickly urged to move out 2 growth rate (PGR) in India , and is less and William Ward, Hindu renaissance by another route, so that others may than the PGR in North India? groups began to rise up all over India. come. On the faces of many, as they Though these groups arose primarily in emerge from the waters, you see the ear- Why is Hinduism growing stronger in reaction to the gospel, they invariably lier expressions of expectation replaced India today? adopted Christian teaching and eth- by stares of disappointment. As one of Finally, despite the incomprehensibly ics—but without Christ. So for the fi rst the very few Christian observers at this massive effort by the Western Church time in India’s Brahman history, democ- scene, you at once feel that these endless to reach India in the past three centu- racy and social justice became chief con- rivers of lost sheep are instead going to ries, why does India remain the Final cerns among the Hindus.3 their death. Frontier of missions? The shock presented by the threat of You begin to feel like you have just Resilience of Hinduism the gospel to Hinduism worked to stepped back in time. Yet the digital Despite a series of seemingly insur- revive Indian philosophy. Many of the watch on your wrist reminds you that mountable challenges, India remains the philosophical ideas that these groups it is the year 2001, January 24. You last of the world’s great classical cultures borrowed from the Bible were then remember what the late Hindu Iqbal that still strongly follows various forms attributed to their own scriptures instead once wrote, “The Roman, the Egyptian of its ancient pre-supposition systems. (such ideas including their intellectual and the Greek civilizations have all van- Brahmanism (the ruling ideology of focus on the one formless God, which ished, but there is something in us that India today) had earlier faced the many Hindu leaders began to equate to makes sure we don’t get destroyed.” internal Buddhist threat (600 BC–300 all the variant “gods” of their worship). Then a uniformed offi cial nudges you to AD ) and the external Moslem threat Using much of what they had learned keep moving on yourself. AD (1200-1757 ), and had prevailed. But from the Christians, many of these perhaps the greatest challenge to India’s

International Journal of Frontier Missions D. D. Pani 35 A Tragic Testimony In India today, seekers wanting to embrace An Indian friend shared the following testimony. As a college student on a Christ must be willing to literally change vacation in a different state in India, he met a U.S. missionary. Although a communities. … As a result, little-to-no staunch high-caste Hindu himself, after extensive interaction with this mission- multiplication of the kingdom is taking ary, my friend believed in Christ. A week or so later, when he phoned his place—merely addition. family to tell them he had “become groups—in the name of Hinduism— Hindu culture. In general, they have a Christian,” they promptly asked him even became successful in imitating disdained Hindu culture, viewing it as not to come home. They were con- nominal Christianity to their own satis- evil. Consequently, their ministry has cerned they would never be able to fi nd faction.3 remained primarily peripheral to the mates for their daughters if their com- culture, the main response being from munity learned that he had sold out to Fruit of Dependence only the low- and no-caste. Those this foreign religion. This is not to say that the missionary Indians who have responded have nor- The missionary who helped him fi nd movement from the West did not see mally been forced into Western struc- Christ also encouraged him not to go fruit, but that most of the fruit came tures of worship and education. Thus home. Today my friend is a pastor who from low-caste and no-caste groups, the church that has arisen in India runs small schools in several villages in those who had something to gain mate- is essentially Western, clustered into a India. Many years ago he took an Indian rially and in terms of social status. Many number of separated communities with Christian wife and he is now completely were literally enticed into the “faith” by cultures that are quite different from westernized. In the approximately two food and other commodities (so-called their cultures of origin. decades since embracing Christ, he has “rice Christians”). I’ve observed in my never gone back to his native home. dealings with many Indian Christians From Infl ating the Costs: whose heritage is from these ranks that Addition Only Many would call my friend’s life a suc- they still primarily view God in terms of In India today, seekers wanting to cess story; I consider it a great tragedy. what He can do for them. They want embrace Christ must be willing to liter- His provision, His healing and His solu- Why couldn’t he have been encouraged ally change communities. Tragically, this to simply tell his family that “he had tion for their problems in life, but they required change is far more radical than are not interested in His Lordship and taken a new guru” and would not be can be imagined, as it involves rejecting home for awhile? Then, once his faith His Commission. Their devotion often one’s former culture and adopting a com- seems to retain much of the “tit-for-tat” had become strong, he could have been pletely new one. As mutual rejection is sent home to demonstrate his zeal for— mentality seen in most all streams of normally involved, all bridges to past Hinduism. To date there has been little and his commitment to—his family, his relations end up being painfully and community, and his own culture. real impact on the upper-castes, who disastrously destroyed in the process. As for the most part dominate the country. a result, there is little-to-no multiplica- Being a private matter, he would not These upper-castes remain the main ini- tion of the kingdom—merely addition. have been forced to reveal the identity tiators and controllers within all levels of The high-castes that do occasionally of his guru and could have continued Indian society. come to Christ are most always pre- to make periodic sorties back to his Thus, not many of India’s “Pauls” (men vented from becoming Pauls. With spiritual parents for training. After a and women capable of moving beyond each new addition many, many more long time, once his family and commu- a dependence relationship with Christ are turned off and polarized against nity were totally convinced of his zeal to a relationship of unselfi sh service) the foreign religion known to them for them and excited about the positive have been raised up. This sad condition as “Christianity.” This partially explains changes they saw in him, he could have follows in part from the fact that why the gospel is going backwards in revealed that his new guru was in fact the Western missionaries in India were so many regions of Northern India and Jesus Christ. As people could see that (and still for the most part are) inca- advancing very slowly in the South. his commitment to his community and pable of truly engaging the core of to Hindu culture had not changed, the 18:1 Spring 2001 36 Submission to Oppression in India: Lessons from History proof of his life would have quelled all efforts in India (the Indian Church) to While his derision of Christians con- concerns. With proper follow-on dis- become an inexorable leavening force. tains some truth, there were initially cipling he might also have been able Had the West only taken instruction some (though not many) from the to start a people movement in his own from its ancestors over the last three higher and educated classes. state. He might now be seeing great centuries, the current outcome in India Nevertheless, from the middle of the multiplication for the kingdom, rather might be very different. second century on, there were numerous than the extremely slow addition of his Whereas their own spiritual ancestors church fathers (such as Justin Martyr, present village work. relied primarily on the regenerating Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Clement, Origen, Sadly, in these villages, he is—and always and leavening effects of the gospel to Tertullian, and Cyprian) who sur- will be —viewed only as an outsider. win the Roman Empire to Christ, the passed—or at least equaled—the most Western Church of the past three hun- eminent of their pagan contemporaries Some would argue that to let him return dred years has relied (as we will see) in both talent and culture.4 home would have been to risk his rever- more on reform tactics and power- sion back into Hinduism. This follows In spite of many diffi culties Christianity control approaches in its (unsuccessful) from a fl awed view of what constitutes continued to advance, its unstoppable attempt to reach India. the unadulterated essence of following progress furnishing stunning evidence of Christ. Had my friend been trained and Roman Oppression its divine origin and power to satisfy the empowered to follow this essence while Christianity was initially ignored in deep inner needs of man. Further, the keeping his own culture, there would the Roman Empire as a Jewish sect. moral sincerity and authenticity of the have been little real temptation for him However it soon became viewed as a Christians stood in stark contrast with to forsake his divine Master. But (if treasonable innovation and was forbid- the widespread corruption of the age. both to him and his mentors) reverting den. Following on the heels of Jewish While the vulgar and frivolous could back to his culture means forsaking abuse, Christianity quickly found itself only be repelled, the deepest and noblest Christ, then certainly the temptation being slandered and persecuted from of the Empire could not fail to be would have been high. In reality this many sides. Adopting this new faith impressed. The partiality and passion of temptation is really only the artifi cial carried with it the possibility of pun- the poor and oppressed for the gospel creation of his Western mentors. ishment by confi scation and death. It only further confi rmed Christianity’s was not until Constantine’s edict in 313 comforting and redeeming power. Thus, Further, because he abandoned his AD that Christianity’s existence in the in the hands of God, these tremendous people, his family and the people of his Roman Empire fi nally became legal. hindrances became some of the very home locale have become further polar- Thus, during the fi rst three centuries means of advancement.4 ized against the gospel. They view him of its existence, Christianity found itself as a traitor. And with respect to them, precariously launched into the most Fruit of Submission to is he not a traitor? Because of him they unfavorable of earthly circumstances.4 Oppression have not considered, are not considering, Far too often persecution led to martyr- and probably never will consider Christ. Christianity’s unwavering demands for dom, which in turn led to attraction. repentance and renunciation (of both Rather than deter seekers and followers The Conquest of Romana self and the world) kept many from alike, public executions served to moti- Over the last three hundred years the joining its ranks. Compared to the com- vate observers toward an ambition of long siege of North India by the West in peting religions of the time (many of the “noblest and most unselfi sh form.” the name of Christ has been conducted which promoted the love of pleasure), Every genuine martyr became living largely without respect for the fact that Christianity offered few tangible earthly proof to the truth and holiness of India remains one of the world’s great favors. Its Jewish origin, combined with Christianity.4 classical civilizations. Rather than con- the poverty and relative anonymity of sider the conclusive lessons from history the majority of its followers, were deeply History reports no mightier, longer for dealing with classical cultures, the offensive to the proud Greeks and and deadlier confl ict than the war of West has not taken seriously its need to Romans. Indeed, Celsus scoffed that, extermination waged by pagan Rome properly relate to Hindu culture. “weavers, cobblers, and fullers, the most against the defenseless Church. “It was illiterate persons” proclaim the “irratio- a most unequal struggle, a struggle of Further, the Western Church has not nal faith,” and are especially good at the sword and of the cross; carnal power suffi ciently empowered the fruit of its acclaiming it “to women and children.” all on one side, moral power all on the

International Journal of Frontier Missions D. D. Pani 37 other.” Because concession was impos- did not see the end, his observation Based as they were upon the absolute sible, eventually one of the two partic- that “the blood of the Christians is the authority of the state, ancient Greece ipants would have to surrender. It has seed of the Church” provides a perfect and Rome often mercilessly trampled the been observed that: description of the reason the defenseless individual rights of many of their inhab- and submissive could conquer so power- itants. In terms of personal belief, how- … no other religion could have stood ful a foe. ever, the individual in Greece and Rome for so long a period the combined enjoyed almost unlimited liberty of expres- opposition of Jewish bigotry, Greek Taylor gives a summary description of the sion, not only in conversation, but also in humble opponent responsible for the suc- philosophy, and Roman policy and their writings and on stage (even if their cessful 300 year siege that eventually con- power; no other could have tri- sentiments were cynical or irreverent). umphed at last over so many foes quered the pagan Roman Empire: Nevertheless, a sharp distinction was by purely moral and spiritual force, The church of this period appears made between liberty of private thought without calling any carnal weapons poor in earthly possessions and to its aid. This comprehensive and and conscience (which is inalienable and honors, but rich in heavenly grace, beyond the reach of legislation) and the long-continued martyrdom is the in world-conquering faith, love, and liberty of public worship. It is true that peculiar crown and glory of the hope; unpopular, even outlawed, the Roman senate and the Emperor early church.4 hated, and persecuted, yet far would, by special edict, usually allow con- As this battle progressed, Tertullian more vigorous and expansive than quered nations and peoples the freedom boldly exclaimed to the pagan challenger: the philosophies of Greece or the to worship and to practice their reli- empire of Rome; composed chiefl y gion—even in Rome. Yet this policy did All your ingenious cruelties can of persons of the lower social not fl ow from a regard for the sacred accomplish nothing; they are only ranks, yet attracting the noblest rights of conscience; it was a pragmatic a lure to this sect. Our number and deepest minds of the age, and policy derived from the need to keep the increases the more you destroy us. bearing, in her bosom the hope of Empire more manageable. Included in The blood of the Christians is their the world; ‘as unknown, yet well- these edicts was the express prohibition of 4 seed. known, as dying, and behold it lives;’ making converts from the state. By the middle of the second century this conquering by apparent defeat, But Christianity was not the religion of progress was extended to all parts of the and growing on the blood of her a nation. Instead it claimed itself to be empire such that Tertullian could also say martyrs; great in deeds, greater in universal and the only true religion. It in his Apology: sufferings, greatest in death for attracted Greeks and Romans in much the honor of Christ and the benefi t larger numbers than it did Jews. Its con- We are a people of yesterday … of generations to come.6 verts were from every people and sect. Of yet we have fi lled every place more concern to Rome was that it refused belonging to you—cities, islands, The fi nal victory of Christianity over the compromise with any form of idolatry. castles, towns, assemblies, your mightiest empire of the ancient world can very camp, your tribes, companies, be attributed, not to physical force, but Further, their refusal to pay the emperor (or his statue) divine honors; their aversion palace, senate, forum! We leave you to the moral powers of patience, persever- (not all) to imperial military service; their your temples only. We can count ance, faith and love. This is truly one general disregard for politics, civil con- your armies; our numbers in a single of the most awe-inspirng spectacles of 4 cerns and temporal affairs (as compared to province will be greater.5 human history. the spiritual and eternal); and their unusu- ally close associations and frequent gather- Summary of the Victor and His Lessons from Romana’s Tactics Conquest ings—all these drew upon the Christians not only the suspicion of hostility, but In time the war of attrition between the First, it must be noted that the conquest the unpardonable presumption of con- pagans of Rome and the church came of the Roman Empire did not start with spiracy against the state. As such, it to a conclusion. What began in Rome Christians demanding or promoting reli- directly threatened the very existence of under Nero in 64 AD, ended near Rome gious freedom and human rights; rather it the Roman state religion. The all-absorb- at the Milvian bridge under Constantine concluded with these results. ing political interest of Rome dictated that on Oct. 27, 312 AD. Whereas Tertullian

18:1 Spring 2001 38 Submission to Oppression in India: Lessons from History even limited toleration of this novel We must emphasize that the individual of voluptuous masters)—they movement could not be granted.4 rights and religious freedom granted showed, in this very self-control, the Roman world by Constantine did the best proof of their ripeness Seeds of Religious Freedom not come as a result of three centuries for civil freedom.4 It was the Christian apologists of the of the Christian Church demanding second century who “fi rst proclaimed, these commodities. Instead these gifts The ancient Greek and Roman repub- however imperfectly, the principle of resulted from both the submissive will- lics had no concept of the general and freedom of religion, and the sacred ingness and the supernatural ability of natural rights of men. They existed by rights of conscience.” Tertullian boldly the Christians of the empire to continue the absolute dominion of a minority tells the heathen that everybody: on without these commodities in such over an oppressed majority. They only magnifi cent poise for a very lengthy regarded the free-born rich and inde- … has a natural and inalienable period of time. pendent citizens as men (in the full right to worship God according sense of the term), denying this privi- to his conviction, that all com- Throughout these long centuries each lege to foreigners, laborers, the poor, and pulsion in matters of conscience generation would teach the next to slaves. Further, they considered it their is contrary to the very nature submit with dignity and courage to natural right to go to war with any for- of religion, and that no form of the injustice and persecution of their eign nation (without distinction of race) worship has any value whatever brutal oppressors. Thus, during this in order to bring it under their iron extended period of almost constant except as far as it is a free volun- rule. Consequently, during the time of aggravation and persecution, the tary homage of the heart. the early Church, the greater part of Christians remained the most peaceful humanity living within the borders of Justin Martyr expressed similar views.7 subjects in the empire. They never par- the Roman Empire lived under the ticipated in the frequent insurrections hopeless and brutal plight of slavery. At the close of this period, Lactantius and rebellions that served to destabilize wrote the following: and undermine the empire. Instead they This evil was so thoroughly woven into the domestic and public life of the hea- Religion cannot be imposed by proved themselves to be the empire’s then world that even the greatest phi- force; the matter must be carried best patriots, as by the power of their losophers (like Aristotle) regarded it as on by words rather than by blows, personal virtue, they helped renovate Roman society from within.9 both natural and indispensable. Even that the will may be affected. to these great thinkers the abolition Torture and piety are widely differ- Secondly, we observe that many of the of slavery was considered among the ent; nor is it possible for truth to evils of oppression in the Empire were dis- impossible. Christianity during the per- be united with violence, or justice solved—not through the external process of secutions had no infl uence over the with cruelty. Nothing is so much a reform—but through the gracious endur- state; thus, in early days the abolition matter of free will as religion.8 ance of these evils by the Christians. of slavery was utterly out of the ques- tion. The enormous number of slaves Perhaps the best example of this And when, in early 313 AD, alone (half the empire) dictated this. comes through the profound testimony Constantine issued his new edict of tol- The world was far from ripe for such a of Christian slaves. When converted eration: giant step.4 slaves: … [he] provided the world with the The Pursuit of Endurance and fi rst proclamation of the great … with the full sense of their Its Fruit intellectual and religious superi- principle that every man had a Yet to this end Christianity labored ority still remained obedient to right to choose his religion accord- from its outset: ing to the dictates of his own their heathen masters, and even … not by outward violence, nor conscience and honest conviction, served them more faithfully than sudden revolution; this, under the without compulsion and interfer- before, resisting decidedly only circumstances, would only have ence from the government.4 their immoral demands (like the beauty Potamiaena [who was made the evil worse; but by its Thus, it is the blood of persecution that martyred], and other chaste moral power, by preaching the became for the West the seed of civil women and virgins in the service divine descent and original unity and religious liberty. of all men, their common redemp-

International Journal of Frontier Missions D. D. Pani 39 tion through Christ, the duty of the fi gure of celestial beauty (i.e. the He continues: brotherly love, and the true free- image of God).” In 316 AD he facili- We are mindful of the thanks we dom of the spirit. tated the emancipation of slaves by an owe to God, our Lord and Creator; edict requiring only a written docu- In her persecuted condition, the ment, signed by the master. This was we despise not the enjoyment of Church operated outside the machin- instead of the earlier requirement for his works; we only temper it, that ery of the state and was not in a posi- a ceremony in the presence of the pre- we may avoid excess and abuse. tion to infl uence civil legislation. With fect and his lictor. Often when a slave We dwell, therefore, with you in her focus on eternity and her hope fi xed owner and his slave became Christians, this world, not without markets on the soon return of Christ, she had the nature of the old relation virtually and fairs, not without baths, inns, little concern for earthly freedom or ceased: shops, and every kind of inter- temporal happiness.4 course. We carry on commerce … both came together to the table and war, agriculture and trade Ignatius, writing to Polycarp, counsels of the Lord, and felt themselves that servants should serve all the more with you. We take part in your brethren of one family, in strik- zealously for God’s glory so that they pursuits, and give our labor for ing contrast with the condition might receive higher freedom from your use.5 of things among their heathen God. He urges that no slave should neighbors as expressed in the cur- seek redemption at the expense of a Though it is true that monasticism did Christian brother, so that they don’t rent proverb: ‘As many enemies begin to develop in the third century, its 4 become slaves of their own impulses.7 as slaves.’ effects (both negative and benefi cial) did Tertullian declares outward freedom a not become pronounced until later. Thus we see once more that it worthless commodity without the soul’s was through the endurance by the Their High Degree of Cultural ransom from sin’s bondage: Christians of the evil of slavery, coupled (and Community) Involvement How can the world make a ser- with their teaching of Christian truth, In relation to profession the early vant free? All is mere show in the that this oppression was reduced. It church followed the instruction of Paul: world, nothing truth. For the slave would be many centuries before this “Let each man abide in that calling is already free, as a purchase particular evil would fi nally be eradi- wherein he was called.”10 No respect- of Christ; and the freedman is a cated in the West by the long-term able pursuit was forbidden, proving leavening effect of the gospel. servant of Christ. If thou takest the universal application of Christianity the freedom which the world can Thirdly, we observe that the Christians and “its power to enter into all the give for true, thou hast thereby were deeply engaged in the culture at relations of human life and into all become again the servant of man, most all levels and did not seek to secede branches of society, under all forms of government.”4 Indeed, of the total and hast lost the freedom of from it—even in times of persecution. involvement of Christians in the cul- Christ, in that thou thinkest it For this reason, as the Gentile Church tures and communities of their habita- bondage.”5 expanded into new areas, it remained vulnerable by not forming separate tion, the unknown author of the Epistle Later, aided by a concurrent movement communities (which would have caused to Diognetus writes: in philosophy, the church began to see it to become isolated from the cultures For they neither inhabit cities of the fruit of their labor. Improvements in and communities of the areas into their own, nor employ a peculiar the slave-code of imperial Rome must which it was moving). form of speech, nor lead a life be attributed both to Christianity and which is marked out by any sin- to later Stoic philosophy. But it was the While the Christians of the empire gularity. … But, inhabiting Greek triumph of Constantine that brought labored to not be of the world, as well as barbarian cities, accord- the most important improvements in they remained in the world. Tertullian this period. writes: “We are no Brahmins, nor ing as the lot of each of them Indian gymnosophists, no hermits, no has determined, and following the For example, under Christian infl uence exiles from life.” customs of the natives in respect Constantine issued a law in 315 AD for- to clothing, food, and the rest of bidding the branding of slaves on the their ordinary conduct, they dis- face “to prevent the disfi guration of

18:1 Spring 2001 40 Submission to Oppression in India: Lessons from History play to us their wonderful and Remarkable as it may seem, for work empire and extensive com- confessedly striking method of within the Roman Empire following the merce; life. They dwell in their own coun- era of the Apostles, we can point to 6. A pervading sense of hopelessness. tries, but simply as sojourners. As no great missionaries’ names until long citizens, they share in all things after this period. In the Roman Empire Parallels for the Last with others, and yet endure all there were no missionary societies or things as if foreigners. Every for- missionary institutions or even orga- Great Classical Culture eign land is to them as their native nized efforts. Whether the fullness of time has come for India—as it did for the Roman country, and every land of their Christianity once established was Empire some two millennia ago—has birth as a land of strangers. … its own best missionary. It grew yet to be seen. Already most of the They obey the prescribed laws, naturally from within. It attracted unique advantages available to the and at the same time surpass people by its very presence. …. gospel in the Roman Empire during the laws by their lives. They love And while there were no profes- the fi rst three hundred years of Church all men, and are persecuted by sional missionaries devoting their history also now exist within India. all. They are unknown and con- whole life to this specifi c work, Only two languages dominate the sub- demned; they are put to death, every congregation was a mission- continent (Hindi and English) and the and restored to life. They are ary society, and every Christian Scriptures have long ago been translated poor, yet make many rich; they believer a missionary, infl amed by into all of the main regional languages. are in lack of all things, and yet the love of Christ to convert his Secular democracy still reigns and pro- abound in all; they are dishonored, fellow-men. Every Christian told vides order, though its continued dura- and yet in their very dishonor his neighbor, the laborer to his tion may be tentative. are glorifi ed. They are evil spoken fellow-laborer, the slave to his The invasion of India by secular Western of, and yet are justifi ed; they fellow-slave, the servant to his culture and its values is rapidly under- are reviled, and bless; they are master and mistress, the story of mining the moral fi ber of the nation, insulted, and repay the insult with his conversion, as a mariner tells and because of weaknesses in India’s honor; they do good, yet are pun- the story of the rescue from ship- own ancient presuppositional systems, ished as evil-doers. When punished, wreck.4 rampant corruption sickens all levels of they rejoice as if quickened into life; the culture. Modern telecommunications they are assailed by the Jews as for- Lastly, Christianity had several other technology and the world’s most exten- eigners, and are persecuted by the unique advantages during this period that sive rail system nicely connect the coun- Greeks; yet those who hate them helped attribute to its rapid growth: try. For most, the future provides many are unable to assign any reason for 1. The prevalence of the Greek worries and major uncertainty. 7 their hatred. language and culture; Additional advantages exist for India. It is clear then that the Christians of 2. The early translation of the To date there has been much genuine the Roman Empire remained a vital part Scriptures into the various lan- demonstration of Christ in India by of the communities and cultures where guages of the Empire: Latin both the West and the Indian Church. they lived, even in persecution. Rather (2); Syriac (2); and Egyptian Consequently, most people now living than withdraw, they continued to pen- (in three dialects); in urban areas (and many living in the etrate their communities in all walks of rural areas) have heard of Christ, and 3. The order and unity of the life. So when they were persecuted, the many have a deep respect for him. Roman Empire; testing of their faith had more impact. Along with the advantages, there are They were not unknown, but rather well 4. The undermining of popular many parallels in the hindrances facing known; their lives were an open book. religion and public morality the advance of the gospel. Just as the by a skeptical and materialistic Fourthly, responsibility for the growth of early Church posed a threat to the state philosophy; the Church was not handed over to full- religion and was under deep suspicion, time professionals, but rather remained in 5. Comparatively safe and easy so now Biblical Christianity poses the the hands of the people. communication within the greatest threat to the agendas of the Hindu Fundamentalists movement cur-

International Journal of Frontier Missions D. D. Pani 41 rently in political control of the land. from being Christianized) is regenera- oppression and persecution of the Church Because of the insensitivity of the tion—not reformation. in India? Rather than continue to ponder Western missionaries (past and present) this question, let all who seek to serve the to Hindu culture, suspicion abounds. In Conclusions cause of Christ in India now submit with many areas, those turning to Christ are The lessons learned from the Early great joy to the diffi cult lessons of history viewed as traitors—sellouts to the West. Church’s successful siege of the Roman responsible for the heroic and humble con- Finally, the constituency of present day Empire—and their applications for quest of Romana. IJFM Church in India is very similar to that of India—are obvious and logical. the fi rst century Church in the Roman REFERENCES For the fullness of time to come to India, Empire—not many rich, not many free, 1 R. D. Winter and B. A. Koch, 11 both the West and the Indian Church not many mighty, not many noble. “Finishing the Task: The Unreached must develop a completely new stance. Whether the fullness of time has come Peoples Challenge,” Perspectives Reader, for India may now perhaps depend on Until now a substantial portion of the 3rd Edition. Evangelical missions effort in India has how the Indian Church soon chooses 2 P. Johnstone, Operation World, 6th been aimed at facilitating the combined to respond to the growing oppression Edition. and persecution by Hindu fundamental- temporal and spiritual liberation of the 3 ist forces. Dalits and the other disadvantaged peo- K. V. P. Pillai, India’s Search for the ples. Meanwhile, little attention has Unknown Christ. Many questions now remain: been given to the other segments of the 4 population. Often the temporal side of Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Will the Indian Church respond with the this liberation effort has been aimed Church Vol. II. spirit of the modern West, that is, in protest at freeing these peoples from the 5 and defi ance? Or will it be submissive A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, Ante- oppression of the existing social order and humble, like the Early Church? Nicene Fathers Vol. III. through various forms of external social 6 Will Indian Christians judge and resent reform. This dangerous course is noth- Isaac Taylor, Ancient Christianity. their oppressors while openly demanding ing less than an Evangelical version of 7 A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, Ante- their rights? Or like the silent Christ and Liberation Theology. Nicene Fathers, Vol. VII. the Empire’s many martyrs, will they The focus of the Dalit Christians (and 8 allow themselves to be proved worthy? A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, Ante- others who have been brought into Nicene Fathers Vol. V. Will the Western Church allow the Indian the kingdom in this way) remains on Church to be tested? Or will it attempt the temporal. By viewing the “temporal 9 A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, Ante- to maintain control of the situation oppressors” as “the enemy” (rather than Nicene Fathers Vol. I. through fi nances and power-tactics? viewing the Evil One as our prime 10 1 Corinthians 7:20. foe), we end up assailing the higher Will—in order to reach this classical cul- castes. They too (the high caste tempo- 11 1 Corinthians 1:26. ture—the Indian Church and the assisting ral “oppressors”) need spiritual libera- Western Church continue to take their lead tion, not abuse from Christians. Instead, from the Protestant Reformation? Or will the very militant Hindu forces—which they decide to take their cues from the our earlier tactics served to revive and example of the Early Church? energize during the previous three cen- For three centuries now, this reform- turies—are being further enraged by our oriented approach has continued to fail. abuse (and empowered by their rage). Why? Because it is not a starting strat- Thus, it is they who are now persecuting egy for an ancient classical culture. us. Our own blood and the blood of our Reformation tactics are effective for Indian Christians may soon be on our making mid-course corrections in a own Western heads. predominantly Christianized culture. For many the question still remains: What We cannot reform that which has not now should the Western and Indian fi rst been regenerated. What is cur- Churches do in the face of the intensifying rently needed in India (which is far 18:1 Spring 2001 Renewing the Call to Reach the Hindu World The Institute of Hindu Studies launches a collaborative effort to foster a witness for Christ among Hindus.

he Institute of Hindu Studies (IHS) at the U.S. Center for World Mission in Pasadena served as the host for a Rethinking Forum for ministry to Hindus held July 20-21, 2001.

Those with a heart for the Hindu world are challenged by the stark reality that 90 percent of Indian population are in castes and Tcommunities where Christian missions are not yet planning to work. With a strong conviction that there is a need to alter our approach to caste Hindus, the fi fteen invited participants laid out a rough framework for networking more effectively both among themselves and the mission community at large.

The IHS, in conjunction with the Forum, will work to facilitate the birthing of Christ-centered movements within Hindu cultures and communities. With representatives experienced in ministry within the Hindu religio-cultural bloc throughout South Asia, the group was unifi ed in the strategic desire to see these Christ-centered worship communities form outside the walls of the existing church.

“The rethinking tradition is over a century old and calls for the adapting of Biblical faith to Hindu cultures,” says H. L. Richard, author and participant at the Forum. The IHS is making an effort to affi rm its place in that tradition, embarking on projects for those concerned with the establishment of a contextual Biblical witness to Hindus.

Future fruit from the forum will likely include seminars in churches and schools, training of cross-cultural teams and the creation of both a journal and a web page.

A follow-up conference is tentatively slated for September of 2002.

As a resource base, strategy center and a facilitator of knowledge the IHS seeks to serve the mission agency community, local churches and their affi liated This article fi rst appeared in denominations and individuals by providing reliable information on India, Mission Frontiers in August Hinduism and the Indian Diaspora. To receive more information on the 2001 and is reprinted with ministries of the IHS please contact us! permission. 1605 Elizabeth Street, Pasadena, CA 91104-2721 • 626.398.2314 • [email protected]

International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 A Message to the West: India Needs You by Satya Shodhak

hile the message of the cross and redemption through Jesus was most likely fi rst received in India by the high caste Brahmin (in the state of Kerala),1 they mostly kept it to themselves. Not until the 14th century, when Catholic missionaries came to this coastland area, did the message of the Gospel begin to travel to the fi shermen and the lowest of the lower caste and Wto the untouchables. Many on the coastland received these white missionaries with great awe, but the high castes viewed them with suspicion as ‘agents’ of some foreign ‘system.’ In time the Western effort moved inland and was joined by Protestant forces who also attempted to interact with the high castes. Dr. Shillander (one of the great missionaries of the past century) has well said that when the Gospel fi rst arrived Satya Shodhak is a Christian in India, the initial response of these high caste was to refute the message, activist in central India. He 2 began working with farmers saying, “It’s not true!” through social and political Still people continued to convert, so the Brahmin changed their response. activism in the 1980’s, and has Instead of saying, “It’s not true,” they began to say, “It’s not new!” To support spent time in jail on several this they pointed to their own great saints and literature, re-writing and inter- occasions for their rights. He moved into church planting preting their scripture to respond to the Christian Gospel. They generalized work in the early 90’s for which and glorifi ed their own religious history, trying to steer the receptive people he was imprisoned twice. This away from Christ. movement has created great Despite this opposition, Western missionaries continued to make progress, the momentum among dalits and Gospel having its greatest infl uence over the lowest of the lower castes. In lower caste in central India and has resulted in hundreds response, the Brahmin’s third and fi nal attack was, “It’s not you!” “Your Christ of thriving churches. Satya is good and easily accepted,” they said, “but the followers of Christ are nothing envisions India to be on the but hypocrites, so we reject Christianity totally. “ verge of a mass conversion As people continued to convert, Brahminical attacks became stronger and more to Christianity, and wants to mobilize churches in the strategized. They began to divert people’s attention away from the enemy of West to become involved. Brahmanism (Christianity) in order to focus on the evil of Western rule. To this end, they portrayed the nation as “Bharatmaata” (goddess mother of India) and the Indian culture (popular lower caste culture) as a religion.

International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 44 A Message to the West: India Needs You!

Historically, it can be seen that man the cause of Christ in India against Service to lepers and people affected is always looking for a better system, the accusations and ploys of the by other fatal diseases has been the but God continues to bring people to Brahminical forces. The attacks are hallmark of Christ’s love in India. Himself. Throughout nations and cul- many. One of the most recent is the Although no one can speak against this tures, people feel more comfortable and move to force the Indian church to sever service, Brahmins have tried to under- secure following a system of beliefs, but all ties with the Western church. They mine Christian involvement by giving God wants people to be drawn to Him, want to segregate the church from the glory to Gandhi through observing his not to a system. West and weaken her to the point that death anniversary as a day to honor she has no voice. leprosy service in India. The work of In time Ghandi became the sure “sav- Mother Theresa, however, has presented iour” of the nation. The lower caste were Over the years, Brahmins have created the biggest challenge to those who are always shackled by their color, language, many “church-like” organizations to trying to defend the Brahminical Hindu and work. Because they were not of address peoples’ spiritual and physical faith. No one dare challenge the love the ruling caste, their “Dharma” (obliga- hunger, while remaining loyal to and power of Christ that fl ows from the tion) was to serve the “head” (which is Brahminical Hinduism. With few excep- example of her life and service to India. Brahmanism). This they accepted as a tions, almost everything done in the reality because it was in accord with the name of Hinduism is written in Sanskrit, How the Western Church Sanskrit, the scripture of the Brahmins. which is the spiritual language of Thus for these low caste, real freedom, Brahmins. Very little has been written Can Help Effect Change which was social justice for all, remained in Pali, Tamil, Marathi, Gurumukhi and India is looking toward the West for in the background. others. The Sanskrit language was cre- resources. The free market economy ated by the Brahmins. Through the years, has opened India’s doors for money to Prior to the British Raj, the “Peshwas” this small percentage of India’s culture come in, but the lower castes are being (Brahmins) ruled, through religious has been able to convince the world that adversely affected by these changes. control, in much of India. After India is a Brahminical Hindu nation. Their hopes for employment decrease as the British became established, these Westerners enter the country. One of Peshwas began to unsettle the British In spite of the mistakes of missionaries the prevailing thoughts among western Raj by sowing hatred against the cul- and the Indian Church, Christ still Christian leaders is that India should be ture, law, and Christian religion of the remains attractive to many and con- moving toward fi nancial independence. British. Finally, when British rule failed, tinues to pose many challenges to This thought has no Biblical basis. the Brahmins were able to get back in the existing religious system. One Indeed, I believe that one of the biggest power in the name of Hindu. great social reformer who understood ways the West can help is through their Brahmanism for what it was and spoke Currently, the government in power in abundant resources. reverently of Christ and his teachings India is doing everything possible to was Mahatma Phuley. He prophetically Another way the West can help is by make “conversion” illegal. This is in stated that if the evil discriminative sending many more Western missionar- essence an attack on the freedom of scriptures (speaking of scriptures used ies. The church within India has been choice guaranteed by India’s constitu- to subjugate the low and no castes) are long divided by caste, color, geographi- tion, and upon which the constitution not destroyed by the Brahmins, some- cal location, language barriers, and cul- is based. This government is attempting one else will rise up and burn them. ture issues within the country. Our to rewrite the constitution to advance its This came to pass on December 25, nation needs to see the global church own agenda. Recently, to consolidate 1940 when Dr. B. R. Ambedkar pub- come together in spite of all their dif- the Hindu vote, the government licly burned the Brahmin scriptures. He ferences and model unity within the launched a hate campaign against chose the birthday of Christ to point body of Christ. We need to see others Christian missionaries, Christian insti- people to the true liberator and pro- working without discrimination. If the tutions and anything to do with Christ. claimed freedom from religious slavery Western church ministers in India, we These Hindutwa forces, mostly run by for the untouchables. Because of this see that it is possible to share the love of Brahmins, represent a very small seg- historical association with Christmas, Christ without moving in the discrimi- ment of the Indian population. the untouchables and Shudras now look nation and prejudice that has held us In response, a small portion of the to Jesus Christ with respect and hope. captive for so long. Indian church is trying to defend

International Journal of Frontier Missions Satya Shodhak 45

Due to the caste system in India which today who view many third-world con- listened to her speak. She continued, has been in place for centuries and verts as “rice Christians” (in other words “I have been a village midwife, and largely based on color, Indians respect converting on the basis of what they in all these years, not one baby has light skin. Although this has been a will receive), while the rich and healthy died. Even if women had a doctor, they stumbling block to the spread of the who covert are “genuine believers.” This always wanted me to be with them. Gospel, the body of Christ can turn idea dishonors God. We are not here to They thought I had some kind of black it into a stepping stone. The Indian judge the motives of anyone who says magic, but I knew the doctor was inside church has not been able to break they desire a life with Christ. We are me—Jesus living in my heart. Now you through caste barriers to minister to called to give and serve those who are are here to share the joy.” Her name those of the upper caste, but Westerners in need. was Banabai, and she became a dear and may have a much better opportunity honored friend. The Holy Spirit was her E. Stanley Jones, in his book Songs to gain the respect of upper caste teacher all her life. She didn’t need our of Ascents, describes three basic human people simply because of their color. mission strategies or church doctrines. needs: the need to belong; the need Any Indian would listen to someone She had Jesus, and he met her needs. for signifi cance; and the need for reason- who came all the way from a Western able security. “These needs” writes Jones, The second story happened while I country to share something with him. “were created in us by a God who loves was working among the Jaat community The organized Indian church has many us and wants them met. Christianity near Delhi. I met a hungry and disil- problems, and has lost its hunger of in Christ provides all needs through lusioned man while standing in a line in earlier years. However, there is a move- the body of believers. Human need has New Delhi. He was an educated man, ment outside the church consisting of always been the open door for the but had faced a life of much sadness. He various mission and para-church organi- Gospel – just serve the need.” (p. 302). had heard the Gospel before, and now zations created to help fi ll in the gap. hungered to speak with someone who The Western church could help assist in Two Personal Examples walked with Jesus. We ended up talking prayer for revival, as well as bridge the I’d like to recount two true stories throughout the night, and he accepted gap between the existing church and the which exemplify how the Lord is using Christ. However, his family had little para-church organizations. Westerners in a powerful way to bring interest in the Gospel because they Indians into the kingdom. I’m sure the associated Christianity as a religion for One philosophy spreading through the stories are countless, but these particular the poor and untouchables. Then some church is that Westerners should not two happened to me. of our Western friends helped our wit- come, but just send their money. Their ness with my friend’s family. And when resources could go so much further (sta- While traveling to a village in Jesus invaded the life of this family tistically speaking) and their presence Maharashtra, I approached an old and through our Western brothers and sis- would simply be a distraction anyway. tired looking woman. I looked into her ters, they became followers of Jesus. In This thought could not be farther from eyes and spoke, “You remind me of time, they also realized the futility of the truth. More recent policy based my grandmother. What is your name?” their beliefs held so strongly in regard on this idea has created a major hin- “Mang,” she replied. “No, I didn’t ask to the caste system and accepted their drance to the spread of the Gospel in you the name of your caste, I asked your lower caste brothers and sisters as well. India. Indians are very attracted to the name. The God I worship has no caste,” His grace is suffi cient! idea of belonging to something global. I said. She grabbed my arm excitedly Christianity connects Indian Christians and said, “Which God do you wor- Hindus can remain culturally Hindus by by family to people from all over the ship?” Eagerly I replied, “I worship Jesus following Christ, but cannot afford to world. Meeting together with brothers Christ.” She said, “I do too! When I observe untouchability, which is a sin and sisters from the West is essential to was a little girl nearly 60 years ago, two against God and a crime against the the missions movement in India. white single missionary ladies came to Indian constitution. No one will freely our village. They told stories about Jesus admit the truth that casteism remains The proper use of wealth can help. and taught the children a song. I asked an issue in India among Christians and Wealth attracts those who are poor. I Jesus in my heart that day and memo- non-Christians alike. However, espe- have never met a person who initially rized that song, and from that day to cially with regard to eating and mar- came to Christ with entirely pure this you are the fi rst Christian I have rying, the divisions remain. There is a motives. We come with our needs. met.” I had tears in my eyes as I There are some in the body of Christ 18:1 Spring 2001 46 A Message to the West: India Needs You! need to address this issue on an interna- differences while working together with belief of one God and equality for tional platform. love and respect for each other. humanity. From this movement came Islam, Christianity, and Sikhs—all rec- I feel that India needs all ethnic groups People don’t have to be addicted to drugs ognizing the need and great hunger for from all over the world to share the or have AIDS to listen to the Gospel. one God. Gospel. The foundation has been laid, The Dalit and lower caste movement of the bridges have been prepared by the today is the outcome of missionary work There is only one response needed to Lord throughout history. The seeds among the poorest of the poor through meet the heart cry of the Indian people. have been sown, and we need labourers education and hope. Millions of lower- It is seen in the example our Saviour from everywhere to serve the neglected caste Indians and Dalits are crying for gave in the midst of his betrayal. He and lost sheep without a Shepherd. freedom and dignity. There are multiple took a towel and basin and washed the dirty feet of his disciples. Love and ser- vice has always been the key to Christ. Jesus has empowered us to respond God is asking the church today to be Moses for through the power of His Holy Spirit to let the peoples of India also see His love the people of India. His body can help rescue and glory where they will fi nd true peace and joy, and where they will fi nally end the lower-caste Indians from the bondage of the Indian search of the centuries. IJFM

Brahmanism which has held them for so long. REFERENCES: 1. Samuel H. Moffet, A History of Nearly half of India is ready and waiting movements going on in India because Christianity in Asia. to receive the King of Kings. the needs are so overwhelming. The Lord Almighty heard the cry of His 2. Mahatma Phuley, Total Liberation, Potential Dangers people in slavery in Egypt (Exodus 2:23). (Government of Maharashtra publica- As always, there are potential dangers God is asking the church today to be tions). Moses for the people of India. His body and caution is needed if the Western 3. Romila Thapar, A History of India, can help rescue the lower-caste Indians Church is to help India. For example, it Volumes I and II. would be a hindrance to enter into India from the bondage of Brahmanism which without an understanding of the many has held them for so long. 4. H. G. Wells, A Short History of India. cultural issues we face. I am not saying The history of India is fi lled with con- 5. M. N. Shrinivas, Social Change in we need to be scholars of the popular version from Hinduism. As early as Modern India. culture, but sensitive that Christianity 500 BC, a lower caste tribal leader, will look very different in India than Sidartha Gautam (known to the world 6. Vera Micheles Dean, The Nature of in the West and it is our love for as Buddha), left his throne to serve the the Non-Western World. Christ rather than the organization of people and seek the truth so he could 7. Oswald Chambers, My Utmost for His ‘the church’ that will hold us together. respond to the spiritual need to those Highest. It is not helpful to come to serve in he served. Around 321 BC, Chandra 8. The Bible, Exodus. India if one thinks that all the answers Gupta Maurya (who was from a lower- come from the West. Trying to organize caste tribe) could not be satisfi ed with 9. Hans Staffners, Jesus Christ and the religion or legislate morality will not be Brahminical Hinduism. He became a Hindu Community. helpful, but service and love through the Jaina monk, and asked people to follow power of Christ should be the banner a moral code of conduct. After his death 10. Historic India (Great Ages of Man), of the West. Jesus Christ is not A his grandson, Emperor Ashoka, came Time Life Books. into power and strongly believed in one church but THE church, and that truth 11. E. Stanley Jones, Song of Ascents, God. He embraced the Buddhist code needs to be conveyed. The beauty of the Abingdon Press. church is the privilege of being a world of conduct, and expressed his loyalty Christian, not a nationalist Christian. by giving all of his wealth to further Our calling should be to embrace our spread the message of Buddha. Then came the Sufi saints who spread the International Journal of Frontier Missions The Conversion Confusion by Herbert Hoefer

he issue of conversion has become increasingly controversial in India. In fact, the defi nition of conversion has been a great historic controversy also within the church up to the present day. Some say it’s a gift of God in Baptism also for infants. Others say it’s a decision one can make at the “age of reason.” Others say it’s a moment, a “warm feeling,” speaking in tongues, a Tborn-again experience, and on and on. If Christians themselves are not clear about it, it’s no wonder devout Hindus and secular politicians are unclear.

A second issue about which everybody is unclear is the relationship of Baptism to conversion. As mentioned above, some say Baptism is the very act of conver- sion. Others say Baptism is a public testimony of one’s conversion decision. Others say “Baptism in the Spirit” is the only baptism that matters. Some say Baptism in water is essential for salvation; others say it’s necessary but not essential; others say it’s not even necessary. In the debate about conversion and Baptism in India, what are we Christians going to say that we can all agree on and others can understand?

Finally, a third controversy is what conversion and Baptism have to do with Dr. Herbert Hoefer is a former membership in a church. Can one be converted to Christ and never join missionary to India, having a congregation? Once one is baptized, must one join a congregation? Does served from 1968-1983 with conversion/Baptism put one into the “invisible Church” so that one’s member- the Lutheran Church, Missouri ship in an organizational church really doesn’t matter? Can Holy Communion Synod. He currently is professor be offered to an unbaptized convert? How about the other services of the of theology at Concordia church like marriage or burial? University, Portland, Oregon. This article appears in the My experience in India is that this third controversy is the critical one. It’s Appendix to the newly updated membership in a church that is so contrary to Hindu piety, so upsetting to and expanded edition of Hindu families, and so threatening to Hindu politicians. If we can clearly state Churchless Christianity, that one can convert to faith in Jesus and one can even be baptized, without published by William Carey ever joining a church, most of our diffi culties with the Hindu community Library. and the political parties will be over. It’s conversion into a new culture; it’s baptism into a new community, that is the problem.

International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 48 The Conversion Confusion Is Church Membership community. Conversion need not follow there is a difference between conversion the Jewish community/synagogue model and church membership. Essential? of Christian life. Christianity grew out of Judaism. Judaism At a conference in January 2000, an is an ethnic religion. It is a tradition of In regard to the episcopacy, a traditional evangelist shared the following incident. a people. They gather in worship to cel- dictum has been that the episcopal order The local tahsildar (government offi cial) ebrate their identity. Christianity began is of the “bene esse” of the church, but came to know of his evangelistic work with that tradition. The early congrega- not of the “esse” of the church. Having and approached him. He asked, “Are tions functioned like Jewish synagogues. bishops can be acknowledged as good you converting anyone?” “Well, what do The Christians gathered once a week as for an effective church and ministry, but you mean by conversion? Is it alright if in their Jewish heritage. They read and it is not essential for a church and a people pray to Jesus, learn about Him, ministry to be valid. Similarly, on the guide their life after Him, and accept Him in their hearts?” “That’s all alright, Conversion need not follow the Jewish but no conversions!” The offi cial’s concern was not spiritual community / synagogue model of Christian life. but political, not moral but cultural, not individual but communal. The evange- list said he left church membership up interpreted the Scriptures. They enforced basis of Mark 16:16, it’s been summa- to the converts. They could join the spiritual and moral discipline. They mar- rized that baptism is necessary, but not nearby city congregation if they wished. ried among each other. Even the initial absolutely necessary. We seem to have It was good but not essential. It was Gentile converts were accustomed to such a similar situation with the matter of their decision how they want to grow a spiritual life, as most came from the church membership. It is good but not and live in the faith. “God-fearers” who habitually had partici- essential. It is necessary but not abso- pated in synagogue life. lutely necessary. Why Not Promote Faith Communities rather than This was the early pattern of Christian What Does Conversion life. Converts joined a new community. have to do with Church Churches? You were baptized into a church. The We also must distinguish between pattern was set and continued through Membership? church communities and faith com- the centuries. Every pastor knows from personal munities. The church is a faith com- However, we must question if this pattern experience that church membership munity, but not all faith communities is of the essence of the Gospel, if it is no guarantee of conversion. How are churches. One can be a part of a is commanded by God. We can readily many times have we conducted a Bible Study group or a prayer group think of many Biblical exceptions to Christian rite (a Baptism, a wedding, quite separate from one’s congregation. the rule: Naaman, Cornelius, the jailer a Confi rmation, a Lord’s Supper, a A faith community may be a group with at Philippi, Bartimaeus, the Ethiopian funeral) having plenty of doubt in our whom one relates face-to-face, or one eunuch, the Samaritan woman at the well, minds about the Christian convictions may participate at a distance. No doubt, the Samaritan leper, the centurion at the of the participants. We know all too well Naaman and the Ethiopian eunuch and cross, the Gadarene demoniac, and on and that many church members see their the Gadarene demoniac and the others on. These all seem to have been converts. membership rather than their conver- felt they were part of the faith com- Some were baptized. We don’t know that sion as their assurance of salvation. munity, though they never had face-to- face contact. The faith community is the any joined a congregation, and we know We know how personally disconcerting classical “invisible Church,” with a capi- assuredly that many did not. it is to fi nd people outside of the con- tal “C.” One can be part of the Church gregation whose faith outshines many They all gave a public testimony to Christ. and never part of the visible church. They all seemed to accept Him as their for whom we conduct all the rites (cf. Lord and Savior. None was required to Lk. 7:9). The pastors who minister to The objections to conversion in India join a congregation. In fact, a few were non-baptized believers in India certainly center on the cultural and political specifi cally instructed not to leave their express this godly amazement. We all issues of church membership. Politicians community and not to join the convert know from fi rsthand experience that realize that church membership means International Journal of Frontier Missions 49 new community affi liation and new ordained clergy or formal discipline. Yet, or obedience to appointed individuals. political infl uence. It means obedience they are powerful forces in people’s lives. It is a matter of faith, of relationship to a new organization’s rules and a clergy They follow the cultural tradition of to God in Christ. It’s the same issue person and a community discipline. providing religious opportunities rather St. Paul dealt with time and again in Families and cultural leaders fear a self- than religious laws. They are faith com- his day, and which we institutionalized removal from traditions and responsibil- munities, not “churches.” Christians need to hear again and again: ities. Conversion isn’t the issue. Baptism Any religion must have standards. It must Do not let what you eat (we might isn’t the issue. Church membership is stand for something. It must hold up lofty add: or any other non-spiritual the issue. goals and expectations. It must identify requirement) cause the ruin of If one remains within the family and the for its followers what is good and neces- one for whom Christ died.... for culture and the political party, there is no sary and helpful. There is no objection to the Kingdom of God does not problem. Can one be a loyal member of such religious teaching, also among the mean food and drink but righ- the BJP as a Christian? If so, no problem. most strident Hindu fundamentalists. The teousness and peace and joy in objection comes when demands are made, Finally, there are styles of faith com- the Holy Spirit; he who thus serves when separation is expected, when affi lia- munity evolving in India, which are not Christ is acceptable to God and tions are changed. Can conversion be to the hierarchical, Western-style organi- approved by all. (Rom 14:15-18) the standard and not to the church? zations. The Sri Narayana and the Sai IJFM Baba groups, for example, are much Membership in the Church (capital “C) more informal. They don’t have mem- is not a matter of joining an organization bership rolls or required attendance or or conformance to institutional patterns

18:1 Spring 2001 Between September 11 and November 4 by H. L. Richard

hristians in the post-September 11 world must learn to think and com- municate with great care. It is gratifying that political leaders have been careful to insist that there can be no holy war between Islamic and Christian nations. Political motivations have at times caused statements hazy on truth, but greater damage is being done by xenophobic forces and one wishes that the Christian churches would everywhere be in the front line of support for internationals Cresident in the US. Triumphalistic statements about the superiority of Christianity over other faiths, and of the West over other societies, are both irresponsible and uncon- vincing. One of the fi rst lessons in missionary training is against ethnocentrism, the placing of one’s own culture and heritage in the central position and viewing all of life from that center. Peoples around the world have a rightful pride in their cultures and heritage; thankfully many are very appreciative of the USA and its achievements, but most are fl abbergasted by US murder statistics (particularly school children shooting deaths), the extremes of consumerism, and the output from Hollywood that circles the globe. Certainly internationals in Christ do not want their nations to follow the path of America.

In India perhaps one sees most clearly the damaging effects of confusing the City of God and the City of Man, and lessons from this history need to impact analyses of the striking events spoken about from India in these days. Triumphalistic arrogance towards Hinduism is one of the marks of Christian mission among Hindus. Alexander Duff, one of the greatest of missionaries to India, explicitly sought the destruction of Hinduism, and many Christians today continue to think and speak in a similar way.

But a desire to supplant Hinduism reveals a failure to think clearly. Biblical refl ection on mission among Hindus must begin with careful analysis of the complex phenomena labeled as “Hinduism”. The assumption that “Hinduism” is a religion like Christianity leads to serious distortions. All students of “Hinduism” know that is has no creed that is broadly accepted. (Many sampra- H. L. Richard is engaged in dayas have defi nite creedal positions, leading some scholars to suggest that these independent research on issues differing “schools” or “sects” of Hinduism are the Hindu phenomena that match in South Asian culture and the criteria for “religion”, so that “Hinduism” contains a number of different religion. “religions” under its vast umbrella.) Since “Hinduism” is not primarily

International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:1 Spring 2001 H. L. Richard 51

…the collapse of caste or of Indian civilization is unimaginable, and it is no part of a biblical world-view to wish for such a thing. theological, it is very hard to think of behind innumerable problems in Indian more than a few saw how the message it primarily in “religious” terms. It is Christian circles. India, and its caste of incarnation was distorted by the a truism that “Hinduism” is holistic, system, is changing rapidly. But the col- reality of “Christian” colonialism), it touching into every area of life. This lapse of caste or of Indian civilization impacted their work and remains of provides the clue that it is better to think is unimaginable, and it is no part of a crucial importance in the churches and of “Hinduism” as a multi-faceted civili- biblical world-view to wish for such a societies of the non-western world. zation rather than as a religion. thing. No greater challenge lies before the churches of the world and the western To change the broad outlook on It is striking to note that the great Dr. missionary force than that of transcend- Hinduism in this way leads to important Ambedkar, who initiated the fi rst mass ing the colonial legacy and demonstrat- transformations. It is manifestly obvious conversions from outcaste Hinduism to ing the true gospel of incarnation in all that the biblical mandate for mission is Buddhism, shared this basic perspective, the civilizations, societies, and cultures to plant gospel seeds within civilizations, and it is one of the main reasons he of the world; which certainly includes and certainly is not to supplant civili- chose to convert to Buddhism rather the complex of cultures and religions zations. The transformation rather than than to Christianity. He wrote that and castes that make up the Dalit popu- destruction of Hindu civilization is the “if the Depressed classes join Islam or lation of India. IJFM only appropriate biblical agenda. Christianity, they not only go out of the Hindu religion, but they also go out One of many specifi c areas where this of the Hindu culture. What the con- change of outlook has radical rami- sequences of conversion will do to the fi cations is in consideration of caste. country as a whole … is well worth “Hinduism” is an evolved and evolving bearing in mind” (quoted from M. E. faith (if it should be considered “a faith” Prabhakar, “Dr. Ambedkar and Indian as opposed to a conglomeration of faiths Christianity” in Dr. B. R. Ambedkar: as suggested above), and nowhere is A Centenary Tribute, A. P. Nirmal change more evident in the present day and V. Devasahayam (eds.), Madras: than in the area of caste. When dealing Gurukul Lutheran Theological College with a non-creedal, evolving “religion” and Research Institute, 1991, pg. 80-81). one must be constantly alert to the Perhaps rather than talking of “Hindu fact that “truths” of the past cannot be culture,” the point that Dr. Ambedkar is assumed to be “truths” for the present making is more clear in terms of “Hindu generation of Hindus. civilization.” Modern Hindu Indians do not defend The heart and glory (as well as the their history of caste oppression and stumbling block) of biblical faith lies in are deeply disturbed by the continuance the concept of incarnation. God became of serious problems related to caste in a man and lived among us, then left his Indian society. To suggest that state- followers with a mandate to go and do ments from ancient books about caste likewise among the complex cultures of defi ne current Hindu views and prac- the world. In the colonial era (when his- tices is unfair, untrue, and certainly toric missions made a massive impact), un-Christian. Yes, India has serious it was impossible to avoid some asso- problems in this area. So do Indian ciation of the gospel of Christ with churches, as caste continues to play a colonial power. However much many massive role in church politics and lies missionaries lamented this fact (and

18:1 Spring 2001