Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Editorial

This Issue comprises of seven papers including the articles written by veterans. In the series the first article is written by Dr. D. S. Meshram, on the theme - ‘Planning Human Settlements and Planning Education: Issues and Imperatives’. The paper highlights the economic progress of the country, which is deeply linked with the quality of manpower to improve the capacity of rural and urban local bodies in order to prepare them to plan for their settlements and states that urban settlements are generator of economic momentum and contribute 60 percent to the national GDP. By 2051 this share is likely to rise to 75 - 80 percent of GDP. Which clearly indicates that the task of urban and regional planning would be enormous in the foreseeable future and efforts will have to be made to cope up with this situation in terms of trained manpower requirement. In this direction human resource development through quality town and country planning education is one of the most effective vehicles of transformation, and is an essential element for proactive planning of sustainable development of human settlements.

The Article written by Prof. Ashok Kumar on ‘A Framework for Gentrification of Indian Cities’; underlines that gentrification is a broad framework which could be fruitfully used to unravel the nature of urban development over a period of time by critically examining movement of capital as well people as shown by production side and consumption side theories of gentrification. However, a preliminary comparison of types of gentrification shows that new research is required to understand the nature of gentrification in and around the Indian city. The author argues that we need to develop more research in substantive as well as policy gentrification even though that some work has already been done in this direction in Indian.

While the paper on ‘Mobility Based City Planning and Design’; is authored by A. K. Jain, in which it is emphasized that keeping in view the importance of road safety, it needs to take up as a mission, with a well structured action plan. It should move beyond reactive actions to the incremental radical and transformative, these include regulatory, strategic, governance and performance aspect of road safety ladder. The author also observes that Indian culture is characterized by non-violence, however, this is not reflected in its traffic, transport and driving behavior.

Kiran Sandhu in her paper on ‘Municipal Solid Waste Management Dynamics in a Burgeoning African Metropolis; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia’; observes that towns and cities of the developing countries are engulfed by a waste crisis that seems almost unsurmountable looking at the prevailing management responses. There is indeed, a dire need to formulate and implement policy framework that can lead priority to municipal solid waste management and enable holistic interventions to take shape. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is no exception to the challenges of waste. This research paper is an attempt to provide an insight into the municipal solid waste management dynamics in Ethiopia from the point of view of attempting how our African counterpart and a developing country seeks to manage its waste.

Cover Design by Dr. Diwakar S. Meshram i Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

The paper jointly written by Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma on the theme ‘Causes, Forms and Issues of Urban Sprawl’ underlines that in the present age of rapid urbanization urban sprawl is a reality and is liable to occur. The causes and issues associated with it, need careful consideration from the policy planners to work out pragmatic strategies to control and regulate the urban and suburban development. As per authors point of view, the Regional Planning approach for urban areas is the best option to bring about planned and controlled development in the suburbs.

In the paper authored by Ashish Batra on the subject ‘Community Benefits of Green Areas and Parks’ it is argued that at the beginning of the 21st century, most of us will migrate to the cities and metropolitan areas. It is also mentioned that in the view of park visionaries, parks are not “amenities”; they are necessities, providing recreation, inspiration and essential respite from the city’s blare and bustle. The visionaries are particularly concerned for the residents of the city that, the parks be available to all and especially for those who do not have the resources. This paper outlines how desperate the need is for city parks especially in the inner-city neighborhoods.

The paper jointly authored by Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia on the theme - ‘Revitalization of Commercial Hub: A Case Study of New Market, Bhopal’; gives the chronology of development of New Market, a community level commercial centre planned during 1960’s to cater to the development demands of Bhopal - the capital of Madhya Pradesh. The commercial pressure on this area due to its surrounding guided its gradual growth to the extent that today it is facing infrastructural deficiencies thereby creating congestion and conflicts between spaces and activities, and it is suggested that with minimal disturbance to the existing occupational characteristics of the study area, the redevelopment should be taken up in independent parts which ultimately will have a broader impact as a whole.

Last but not the least the paper on ‘A Conceptual Approach for Relocation Strategy of a Local Bazaar in Hyderabad : An attempt to Preserve the Heritage Character of the Area’; written by Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant; traces the history of Hyderabad which is full of monuments, mosques and bazaar and is blessed with rich cultural heritage and the traditional impact, which is evident in many regional buildings. Any new structure coming up in the city corridor should reflect the character of the prevailing neighborhood. This paper bring into focus - a design proposal which has successfully managed to retain the heritage of an old bazaar and interpretation of the same into a modern building following a relocation project yet establishing fundamentals of historic urban connectivity.

Dr. Sandeep Kumar Raut Editor

ii Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Content

Planning Human Settlements and Planning Education: 1 Issues and Imperatives D. S. Meshram

A Framework for Gentrification of Indian Cities 19 Ashok Kumar

Mobility Based City Planning and Design 33 A. K. Jain

Municipal Solid Waste Management Dynamics in a 52 Burgeoning African Metropolis: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Kiran Sandhu

Causes, Forms and Issues of Urban Sprawl 65 Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma

Community Benefits of Green Areas and Parks 74 Ashish Batra

Revitalization of Commercial Hub: 81 A Case Study of New Market, Bhopal Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar, and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia

A Conceptual Approach for Relocation Strategy 90 of a Local Bazaar In Hyderabad : An Attempt to Preserve the Heritage Character of the Area Tapaswini Mohapatra

Cover Design by Dr. Diwakar S. Meshram iii Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

ITPI JoUrnal (refereed) (January - December, 2013)

Referees of Vol. 10, nO. 1, 2, 3, & 4

Prof. A.N. Sachithanandan, Ph.D. Former Director School of Architecture and Planning, Chennai

Prof. Najammuddin, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus, IIT Roorkee

Prof. Subrata Chattopadhayay, Ph.D. IIT, Kharagpur

Prof. Krishnegowada, Ph.D. IDS, Mysore

D.S. Meshram, Ph.D. Former President, ITPI

Shri J.B. Kshirsagar Chief Planner, TCPO, New Delhi

Prof. Shivanand Swami CEPT University, Ahmedabad

EDITORIAL BOARD 2013-2014

K.S. Akode Chairman

D.S. Meshram, Ph.D. Member

A. Qaiyum Member

Prof. Ashok Kumar, Ph.D. Member

Sandeep Kumar Raut, Ph.D. Editor and Secretary Publication

iv Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Planning Human Settlements and Planning Education: Issues and Imperatives

Dr. D. S. Meshram Abstract The economic progress of the country is deeply linked with the quality of manpower to improve the capacity of rural and urban local bodies in order to prepare them to plan for their settlements. This is crucial as urban settlements are generator of economic momentum and contribute 60 percent to the national GDP. By 2051 this share is likely to rise to 75 - 80 percent of GDP. This clearly indicates that the task of urban and regional planning would be enormous in the foreseeable future and efforts will have to be made to cope up with this situation in terms of trained manpower requirement, in planning. In this direction human resource development through quality town and country planning education is one of the most effective vehicles of transformation, and is an essential element for proactive planning of sustainable development of human settlements.

1. INTRODUCTION Initiatives of the Government of India like economic reforms and liberalization of policies and launching of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, (JnNURM); Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT), in addition to the large projects coming up in Private Sector like SEZ, IT Parks, Knowledge Cities, Freight Corridors, Industrial Corridors, etc; the urban settlements are poised for huge investments in urban infrastructure, this calls for proactive planning for augmentation, upgradation and updating of existing infrastructure and provision of adequate infrastructure in urban settlements, besides planning for urban expansion and peri - urban areas.

This paper accordingly addresses the issue of shortage of trained manpower for planning the urban and rural settlement and assesses the requirement of planners to plan these settlements and identifies issues and imperatives for increasing number of students in planning stream; development of students community, developing town planning education; faculty development program, in addition to encouraging inter and intra networking among industries and educational institutions.

2. EMERging scenario The urban population of 25 million in 1901 was settled in 1,827 urban settlements. The urban population which increased to 363 million in 2011 settled in 7,933 urban settlements. Besides, as per 2011 Census, there are 6,40,867 rural settlements. While as per Institute of Town Planners, India; since 1951 country

Dr. D.S. Meshram, was Chief Planner, TCPO, Government of India; President, ITPI; Adviser, Urban Development, Government of Uttarakhand; and Chairman, All India Board of Town and Country Planning Education, AICTE. E-mail : [email protected]

D. S. Meshram 1 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 could produce hardly 4,500 qualified town and country planners, till date. That is to say one town planner has to cater to 2,68,931 people. If town planners are only deployed to plan for urban settlements, then one town planner has to cater to almost two towns on an average, including 53 metropolitan towns (2011 Census) having population more than 10,00,000. While if these planners are only deployed for planning of rural settlement in the country then one town planner has to cater to 142 rural settlements which project very grim scenario. If we take into account the emerging scenario i.e. by 2051, when the country is poised to have the population of 1.70 billion i.e. India would be the most populace country, surpassing the population of China which needs to be settled on less than one fourth of land area that of China, which is the greatest challenge to the planners and the policy makers to plan to cope up with the emerging magnitude of settling this increased population in our urban and rural settlements.

3. 74th Constitution Amendment Acts Under, the 74th Constitution Amendment Act, the establishment of Metropolitan Planning Committees (MPCs) and District Planning Committees (DPCs), is obligatory on the part of State Governments to prepare Metropolitan Development Plan and to consolidate District Development Plan. The Constitution Amendment Act also envisages empowerment of the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) with planning functions, which is enshrined in the 12th Schedule. The Twelfth Schedule to Article 243 – W of 74th Amendment, lays specific emphasis on:

• urban planning including town planning; • regulation of land-use and construction of buildings; • planning for economic and social development; • water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes; • public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management; • urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects; • slum improvement and upgradation; • urban poverty alleviation; and • provision of amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens, playgrounds.

For performing these functions local bodies are required to be adequately equipped with skilled and trained planning manpower; specifically when, the first three functions relate to spatial planning. Therefore, there is anurgent need that the development of skills and manpower for better performance of new functions assigned to Municipal Councils and Urban Local Bodies should be seen in proper perspective and brought in tune with the needs of urban and regional planning at various levels. To meet these challenges, town and country planning education is also required to be re-oriented and modernized.

D. S. Meshram 2 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

In addition, the 74th Constitution Amendment Act provides to constitute the District Planning Committees (DPCs) in every district to consolidate the plans prepared by the gram panchayats, nagar panchayats and the municipalities in a district and to prepare a Draft Development Plan for a district as a whole. Besides, Metropolitan Planning Committees (MPCs) are also required to be set up in metropolitan areas with the purpose to prepare plans for the metropolitan areas as a whole falling under the jurisdiction of MPCs. Thus, the 74th Constitution Amendment Act makes it mandatory on the State Governments to constitute DPCs and MPCs for the preparation of Development Plans for all the districts and all the metropolitan areas which will have far reaching repercussions not only on planning of rural and urban settlements but also on the town and country planning education. Because, the preparation of plans have now been bestowed to the panchayats both rural and urban. To achieve this, the manpower trained in planning is required, however, their training for the preparation of plans would be a enormous task for which planning education needs to be re-oriented qualitatively and quantitatively to match the new tasks assigned to Local Bodies by the Constitution.

4. Shortage of town and country planners Due to the launching of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) by the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India; the urban settlements are poised for huge investments in urban infrastructure, which calls for advance planning, which in turn would require large number of trained planners with diverse specializations. Under JnNURM, the preparation of City Development Plans (CDPs) is essential prerequisite for which policy makers and stake holders are required to appreciate the spatial dimensions. Since, the JnNURM is a reform driven mission; the Urban Local Bodies also needs to implement the provisions of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act. In addition under the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT), there is a need to prepare Development Plans along with CDPs (Vision Statements) to promote planned development in the next 10 years to 20 years to accommodate the changing scenario of the urban settlements.

To assess the requirement of planners, the Secretary, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, convened a meeting on 3rd April, 2007, of all Heads of the Planning Schools and Departments imparting Town and Country Planning Education along with the ITPI. In this meeting various issues emerged and accordingly the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, has underlined following important areas:

• The constitution of the Metropolitan and District Development Committees makes it imperative to prepare Metropolitan and District Development Plans. Here, the role of town planners becomes important, as both these plans are essentially spatial development plans;

D. S. Meshram 3 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• The preparation of both these plans is to be undertaken by qualified town planners. There should be District Development Plans for all the districts. The essence of District Development Plans would be strengthening the urban and rural settlements as per their potentials and hierarchy, which will not only be helpful in bridging the rural urban divide but also pave the way for balanced spatial development. This will also offer solutions for overcoming the problems of backward areas and prioritizing the investments as per the requirements of rural and urban settlements right up to village level. This will enhance the importance of Regional Planning; • The District Planning Office can be established on the lines of District Information Center of National Information Center (DISNIC); and • The objective of the District Development Office would not only be to prepare District Development Plan but also be a coordinating agency for all the offices and departments at the district level.

With the changes in the economic scenario and real estate developers coming in for the development of Special Economic Zones, New townships, hi-tech cities, knowledge cities and large scale residential developments, more and more new avenues and opportunities would be opened up for town planners with attractive packages. The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, has further observed that the implementation of the JnNURM will go a long way in strengthening the infrastructure of the urban settlements. In order to effectively implement the JnNURM, it is essential that City Development Plans (CDPs) are prepared by qualified planners who would also be involved in the implementation of projects arising out of such plans. This will ensure planned development of urban centers and avoid haphazard growth. To attain this for 5,161 towns (2001 Census), India only have 3,000 town and country planners that roughly works out to less than one planner per urban settlements, which is grossly inadequate and just cannot cater to the demands of urban settlements. Accordingly, the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India have identified following action areas:

• The Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) should employ qualified town and country planners; • The ULBs to develop cadre of town planners, which should also ensure timely career promotions; • In case there is a public private participation in the implementation of projects, planners should be employed as consultants and advisors. If ULBs resorts to outsourcing the plan preparation then the same should be undertaken by qualified town planners only; and

D. S. Meshram 4 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• If all the towns have town planners available then there would be huge demand for them, which needs to be met by the town planning schools and university departments.

The Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, in the meantime also set up the Committee of Experts in Town Planning and Architecture for ‘Policy Guidelines to Energize Architecture Town Planning Education’. The Committee in its Report submitted in July, 2011; inter-alia among other recommendations highlighted that a multi pronged strategy needs to be adopted to bridge eminent gap between supply and demand for trained professionals in planning and broadly identified three areas for policy considerations in the light of the need for practical training namely:

• Formal professional town and country planners; • Support staff in the field of town planning; and • Skill upgradation.

The report taking the cognizance of estimation of 4.0 lakh town and country planners by the year 2032, estimated by School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, underlined that to achieve this challenging task the greater involvement of professional bodies like Institute of Town Planners, India would be eminent. Committee also evolved a scenario by 2031 for the profession of town and country planning as given in the Box-1:

Box-1 Qualified Planning Professionals • Through Formal B. Planning Courses : 1,20,000 • Through Formal M. Planning Courses : 40,000

Qualified Supporting Staff • Through Formal ITI and New Diploma Courses : 80,000 • Through In-Service Upgradation Programmes : 60,000 Total : 3,00,000

The Committee also recommended that: • Intake in the three SPA’s be enhanced and 14 new SPA’s be started in major metro cities with minimum intakes of 75 (B. Planning), and 60 (M. Planning) each. • In addition to enhancing capacity in existing NIT’s, new State level SPA’s be opened so as to provide a total of 40 such State level institutions by 2031, with intakes similar to that of SPA’s for UG programme i.e. 75 (B. Planning) and for M. Planning the intake could be restricted to 30.

D. S. Meshram 5 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• The balance of seats could be provided by UGC and State recognized universities through affiliated institutions for B. Planning courses only.

5. Town and Country Planning Education in VOGue Imparting planning education at postgraduate level is the common feature in all the schools, with two years duration till 1988. At present, there are 21 Schools or Departments in various Universities and IITs imparting town and country planning education at postgraduate level (Table - 1). The School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, provides specializations in Urban Planning, Regional Planning, Housing, Traffic and Transportation, and Environmental Planning. The CEPT University, Ahmedabad provides specializations in Urban and Regional Planning, Environmental Planning, Housing, and Infrastructure Planning. While all other schools and university departments impart general courses in town and country planning. In addition all the planning schools and university departments now enrol candidates for doctoral programmes. To date very few planners hold Ph.D. degrees including those who are even in teaching positions. But, the number of doctoral programme candidates is on the rise.

After almost 30 years of the experience of planning education at postgraduate level, the Institute of Town Planners, India, during the early 1980s realized that there is a need for starting undergraduate programmes in planning and accordingly, took up the matter with the then Ministry of Education, Government of India and designed a Model Curriculum with the objective of producing planners with basic capacity of coming to grips with a variety of planning situations and delivering the necessary services in a professional manner. The Bachelor of Planning degree was proposed to be treated as a full professional qualification like Bachelor of Civil Engineering or Bachelor of Architecture in respective disciplines. The School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, was the first to start bachelor programme in planning in 1988 followed by Guru Ram Das School of Planning and Architecture, GNDU, Amritsar, and Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, followed by School of Planning and Architecture in Bhopal and Vijayawada.

At present there are 20 planning schools and university departments imparting postgraduate level town planning education, including five institutions imparting bachelor’s programme in planning. In addition Institute of Town Planners, India, since 1955, through its Town Planning Examination Board is conducting Associateship Examinations of ITPI, which is considered equivalent to postgraduate planning qualifications by the Government of India for the purposes oftown planning jobs. Recently ITPI has also signed the Memorandum of Understanding with Karnataka State Open University for issue of Master of Planning Degree to successful candidate of Associateship Examination. The total intake of students in these 21 Institutions is 600 per annum (Table 1).

D. S. Meshram 6 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Table 1: Planning Schools / University Departments imparting Planning Education in India

S. State Name of the Institution Programmes Students’ No. offered Annual Intake 1. Andhra Department of Urban and Regional Planning, 1-UG and 1 PG 50 Pradesh Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad

2. Andhra School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada 1 – UG 40 Pradesh 3. NCT Delhi School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi 1-UG and 90 1- PG with 5 specializations 4. NCT Delhi Institute of Town Planners, India, New Delhi Associateship 20 Exam. (P.G.) 5. Gujarat School of Planning, Centre for Environment and 1-PG Course 60 Technology (CEPT) University, Ahmedabad with four specializations 6. Gujarat Sardar Vallabhai National Institute of Technology 1 – PG Course 18 (SVNIT), Surat 7. Gujarat Arvind Bhai Patel Institute of Environmental Design, 1 – PG Course 15 Vallabh Vidhya Nagar 8. Karnataka Institute of Development Studies, University of Mysore 1 – PG Course 20 9. Madhya Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology 1-PG Course 15 Pradesh (MANIT), Bhopal 10. Madhya School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal I – UG Course 40 Pradesh 11. Maharashtra Department of Architecture and Planning, 1 PG Course 20 Vishvesvaraiya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur 12. Maharashtra College of Engineering, Pune 1-PG Course 20 13. Punjab Guru Ram Dass School of Planning and Architecture, 1-UG Course and 50 GNDU, Amritsar 1-PG Course 14. Tamil Nadu School of Architecture and Planning, Anna University, 1 – PG Course 20 Chennai 15 Uttarakhand Department of Architecture and Planning, IIT, Roorkee 1-PG Course 10

16. West Bengal Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, IIT, 1 – PG Course 20 Kharagpur 17. West Bengal Department of Architecture, Town and Regional 1- PG Course 19 Planning, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Kolkata 18. Kerala College of Engineering, Thiruvananthapuram 1-PG Course 10 19. Haryana Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and 1 – PG Course 20 Technology, Murthal, Sonipat (Regular) 20. Jharkhand Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi (MESRA) 1 – PG Course 15 21. Rajasthan Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur 1 – PG Course 28 Total 600

D. S. Meshram 7 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Thus, over the years, Town and Country Planning Education has emerged as full-fledged independent discipline that from architecture. In fact architecture discipline deals with projects at micro level, where as Town and Country Planning offers the broader context at national, state, regional and local levels through state perspective plan, regional plans, metropolitan plans, district plans, urban development plans and action area plans for urban and rural areas.

6. TEaching pedagogy in Town and Country Planning Education The prevailing mode of town and country planning education followed generally in various planning schools place more emphasis on studio work and less on theory and thesis work. The theory subjects mainly relate to urban, regional and rural planning theories and processes; quantitative methods and analytical tools; components of settlements such as housing and transportation system, conservation of heritage, environmental and ecological aspects; planning legislation and information system and some such other areas. During the review of the various planning schools, it was observed that the students are not adequately exposed to the special and practical problems of the regions, towns, and local areas. They are not even exposed to the working of the Central Town and Country Planning Organizations and Town Planning Departments of State Governments, Housing Boards, Development Authorities and other planning agencies. They are not even familiar with ever changing requirement / problems of users / communities and various players / stake holders in the urban development. Therefore, once this product comes out in the market / industry, they are not adequately equipped for serving to community, industry and users. Students, therefore, need to be exposed to these areas so as to appreciate and understand the problems / requirement of community and various stake holders, users, etc. Besides taking them to slums, shopping centers, residential areas, industrial areas, etc; would give them exposure to wide spectrum, these being laboratories of town and country planning.

Yet another glaring example of the present system of education is that the students are not even aware of the important Central Sector and State Sector Schemes / programmes like the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM), Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme of Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT), Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums (EIUS), Mega City Project, and private sector ventures such as SEZs, IT Parks, Knowledge Cities, Freight Corridor, etc. Besides, in some of the schools, students are not exposed to the latest technological developments in the implementation of development plans like Transfer of Development Rights (TDR), Accommodation Reservations (AR), Land Pooling, Town Planning Schemes (TPS) and also not exposed to the terminologies like Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), etc. Due to which the students, as soon as they come out of the planning schools find it difficult to absorb themselves in formulation, implementation, monitoring, and enforcement of the Master Plan

D. S. Meshram 8 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

provisions, including projects, under Central and State Sector Schemes. It needs no emphasis to state that through these schemes the national and state level urban strategies and policies are implemented and therefore, all endeavors needs to be made to enable the students to be equipped to take up these jobs from the day one. The training and education needs have to be demand oriented. The key characteristics necessary for effective training strategy should relate to:

• demand oriented training programmes which is responsive to the requirements of Urban and Rural Local Bodies and State Town and Country Planning Departments, Housing Boards, Development Authorities and other agencies handling urban planning and development and urban management; • focus on indigenous planning practices and local issues; • training of senior and middle level officials and also suitable courses for training of trainers; • support decentralization and regionalization of training efforts; • vertical and horizontal linkages to all relevant agencies which can contribute at central as well as state level to the training and education processes which encompasses training management, training material development, conduct of training and research, etc; and • sustainability of training mechanisms, regional and state level training institutions as well as universities and other institutions.

It would be pertinent to mention here that the introduction of new courses in planning at undergraduate level is a leap forward, but at the same time have created curricula overlaps due to absence of undergraduate programmes in planning for the last over thirty years, because the basic courses were and are being given at the postgraduate levels. As the situation demands the same basic courses along with certain additional courses of core and subsidiary nature have been included in the undergraduate programmes. The postgraduate courses in planning schools needs to be modified, especially in the schools where the bachelor level programmes have been initiated, in view of the course contents at the bachelor level. Duplication of courses at both the levels should be removed after revisiting the necessity of these courses by taking into consideration that at postgraduate level students join from different streams like Architecture (B.Arch.), Civil Engineering (B.E. Civil), Master in (Geography, Sociology and Economics) because of multi-disciplinary mould of town planning discipline. The need thus, is to restructure urban and regional planning undergraduate as well as postgraduate courses in tandem.

Yet another aspect, which merits consideration, is the gap between the current needs and the knowledge of the faculty in the field of planning, management, and development skills. The teaching faculty needs to undergo training so that

D. S. Meshram 9 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 they get refreshed with latest innovations and technologies in the profession and in the field, so as to know ground realities.

Most of the faculties do not possess practical / field experience as a result of which their comprehension of practical problems is naturally inadequate. This requires pooling of facilities, sharing the expert knowledge, establishing a networking system linking industries, research and development organizations, with other teaching institutions and various user organizations / agencies.

Education today needs to be imparted in the context of rapidly changing Indian political, economic and social environment. The western biased curriculum at undergraduate and postgraduate level planning courses needs to be replaced with more cases on indigenous planning aspects / projects and with more documentation and case studies in Indian context. The normal practice in the Indian situations is to leave the curriculum development as an exercise of the Academic Councils of academic institutions. Practicing professionals in the private or the public sector are usually excluded from these exercises. The curriculum should be based on current societal needs and should be decided upon in consultation with professionals practicing in the field.

Planning education must also include study of humanities to avoid students becoming lop sided robots without any human touch. The neglect of social science and humanities in the context of education has been noticed by the national and international policy making agencies like UNESCO, etc.

Lately, emphasis is also being given to project formulation and evaluation techniques. It has, however, been recognized that existing models of planning education are oriented more towards physical aspects of planning while in western countries the system has moved into multi-disciplinary mould. This leads to isolation of physical planners from the main stream of planning and development processes globally. Thus, it would be necessary that planning education is reoriented so as to form part of the mainstream of planning organizations and institutions engaged in the formulation and implementation of development plans, policies, programmes and projects.

In the light of the above discussion, the Quality Improvement Programme (QIP) and Curriculum Improvement Programme (CIP) need to be devised in such a manner that future planners could play more effective role in planning and designing of human settlements to provide quality built environment backed by urban development management skills, to promote healthy, safe and sustainable development of both urban and rural settlements. It would be pertinent to mention here that over the years engineering and architecture education have become well established disciplines, while Town and country planning education in India, is comparatively of recent origin; therefore, the University Grant Commission (UGC), All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE), and Ministry

D. S. Meshram 10 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

of Human Resource Development (MHRD) needs to take a more liberal view for promoting the discipline of town and country planning by allocating exclusive funds for Ph.D. scholarships each year for town and country planning, and also by earmarking separate funds for sponsoring QIP research exclusively for the purpose of developing teaching materials for Town and Country Planning based on recent case studies and field experiences not only in India but also overseas. In this reference the recommendations given by the ITPI in 1998 merit serious consideration.

Town and Country Planning being a multi-disciplinary subject, the curricula should have the right mix and proportions of various subjects from different disciplines in addition to professional courses that constitute the core of an academic programme. Moreover, there is a need to provide flexibility in the choice of some subjects depending upon the interest of the individual students. Recognizing this need, three tier structure needs to be introduced for curriculum development, namely: (i) core subjects; (ii) subsidiary subjects; and (iii) elective subjects. The approach to designing the curricula should also consider the fact that the students for undergraduate courses in town and country planning are fresh from senior secondary school with 10+2 level qualifications and, therefore, introduction of the core subjects should be gradual and the choice of subsidiary subjects should be such that the change is not abrupt but it follows a structure where, at the end of each semester, a specific level is attained that helps the studio assignments and also sets the foundation for subsequent learning process.

Basic expectations, after accreditation granted, are that the institutions would continue to maintain these standards on the basis of which accreditation were granted to it and its programmes. A deep sense of commitment is also expected from the institutions, both in a philosophical sense and in material terms, to the underlying principles of the programmes offered by them. The institutions are also expected to take right steps and make necessary efforts to:

• attract well qualified faculty and retain them; • maintain excellent quality of teaching; • foster climate of confidence amongst the various components of the institution namely the faculty, administration and supporting staff; • ensure efficient channels of communication among faculty and administration and management; • ensure public relations for a proper projection of the image of planning institutions; • provide assistance for building linkages with the field departments, professional bodies and NGOs, CBOs; • maintain and upgrade equipment and facilities for the use of students and staff; and

D. S. Meshram 11 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• continually review and introduce innovative subjects in the curricula and initiate new courses as demanded by the market.

In this direction Institute of Town Planners, India should also take a lead in assisting the schools / institutions recognized by them for making the students eligible for becoming their members by arranging training programmes and workshops with professional and teaching faculty for integration between education and industry. They may also consider approaching various schools (10+2) and collages to attract more students towards town planning discipline besides instituting prizes for best student, best teacher, best institution on the pattern of Prof. V.N. Prasad National Best Theses Award instituted by ITPI.

7. issues and imperatives As mentioned earlier the recent initiatives of the Government of India like economic reforms and liberalization policies, the JnNURM and UIDSSMT, in addition to the large projects coming in private sector like SEZ, IT Parks, Knowledge Cities, etc; would add substantially to the required number of town and country planners in the country, in addition to requirement of educational institutes and research. Beside, under 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendment Acts it is mandatory to constitute Metropolitan Planning Committees (MPCs) and District Planning Committees (DPCs) for preparation of the plans for metropolitan areas and consolidation of plans prepared by nagar panchayats and gram panchayats in the district, which calls for deployment of town and country planners. Therefore, as observed by the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, and also by the Committee of Experts constituted by MHRD there will be huge requirement of trained / qualified planners, while till date there are only 4,500 qualified planners in the country and only 600 town and country planners are coming out of the planning schools and university departments, annually (Table 1).

Thus, in the light of acute shortage of qualified professional town and country planners in the country and the present model of town and country planning education which is in vogue, there is urgent need that All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE); Institute of Town Planners, India (ITPI); Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India; Ministry of Housing and Poverty Alleviation, Government of India; Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India and other stake holders address all these issues in its totality. Accordingly, in this section efforts have been made to highlight specific issues and identify action areas along with agencies and stake holders responsible for action.

7.1 Increasing Number of Students • Efforts needs to be made to reach out to all the 10+2 level educational institutions, so as to attract sizable number of students towards B. Planning and also to approach all the colleges in the country for attracting the students

D. S. Meshram 12 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

towards M. Planning programme (Action: Institute of Town Planners, India; Institutes imparting town and country planning education like SPAs, IITs, Universities, Colleges). • Efforts to be made to give wide publicity in press and electronics media, to attract more students towards planning courses. (Action: Institute of Town Planners, India; Institutes imparting town and country planning education like SPAs, IITs, Universities, Colleges). • New schools of town and country planning needs to be started not only in Central and State sectors but private sector should also be motivated to start new planning schools with both Bachelors and Masters Programmes in Town Planning. The Institute of Town Planners, India in this direction, has taken the lead by approaching the Ministry Human Resource Development to start four new Schools of Planning. It is encouraging to note that the MHRD has started two new schools of planning in central sector one at Bhopal and other at Vijayawada. But it is necessary to start at least one School of Planning in each state, and at least one in North-East Region, immediately (Action: Institute of Town Planners, India; MHRD; concerned State Governments). • In the light of the discussions held in the meeting convened by the Secretary, Urban Development; Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India needs to initiate the action to advice / direct the Local Bodies and Development Authorities to deploy qualified town and country planners on town planning jobs and to create / develop cadre of town and country planners and also to ensure timely career promotions so that more students get attracted to town and country planning education / profession (Action: Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India; Local Bodies; Development Authorities; State Governments). • There is a need to create national level cadres for the town and country planners. This will make the profession of town and country planning more attractive and in turn attract more students towards town and country planning education (Action: Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India; Town and Country Planning Organization, Government of India; State Town Planning Departments). • Till adequate number of new schools are started, the intake of existing Planning Schools and University Departments imparting town planning education should be increased considerably, but not at the cost of compromising quality of education (Action: University Grant Commission; AICTE; All Schools of Planning, IITs, Universities, Colleges imparting Town and Country Planning Education). • All the existing Town and Country Planning Schools should be encouraged to start B. Planning programmes on priority by providing financial and technical support (Action: University Grant Commission; AICTE; All Schools of Planning, IITs, Universities, Colleges imparting town and country planning education).

D. S. Meshram 13 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

7.2 Development of Students Community • To inculcate the habit of competing and participating in the competitive environment and in order to improve the quality among students the Institute of Town Planners, India; should institute more awards for students on the pattern of Prof. V.N. Prasad Best Thesis Award which is being awarded to postgraduate level students. Similarly, awards need to be instituted for undergraduate level students in addition to best student award, etc. There is a need to increase number of such awards. These awards may be distributed not in the National Congress but in NOSPLAN for which ITPI gives generous grant (Action: Institute of Town Planners, India). • The MHRD / UGC / AICTE needs to take a more liberal view for promoting the discipline of town and country planning by allocating separate funds for Ph.D. scholarships each year for town and country planning discipline (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE). • The MHRD / UGC / AICTE should earmark exclusive funds for sponsoring QIP and CIP and also for developing teaching materials of town and country planning discipline based on recent case studies and field experiences in India and abroad (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE). • Planners should be encouraged to opt for administrative services for which UPSC needs to consider ‘Town and Country Planning’ as one of the optional subject like any other discipline (Action: UPSC).

7.3 Developing Town Planning Education • Keeping in view the changed economic scenario of the country, the curriculum of both undergraduate (B. Planning) and postgraduate (M. Planning) needs to be reoriented on priority basis under CIP. All India Board of Town and Country Planning Education, AICTE has already drafted the revised curriculum for B. Planning which needs to be adopted by all Schools, irrespective of nomenclature adopted as B. Planning or B. Tech. Planning (Action: AICTE, All India Board of Town and Country Planning Education; All institutions imparting town and country planning education). • The dichotomy created by the AICTE by bringing B. Tech (Planning) under the purview of All India Board of B. Tech Planning Education; and B. Planning under All India Board of Town and Country Planning Education is creating a problem in imparting undergraduate level programme because prescribing Chemistry, Physics and Maths as a core subjects is being argued as mandatory subjects in case nomenclature of B. Tech (Planning) is used, which if done would be at the cost of deleting very important and relevant core subjects of planning, which ultimately leads to deleting core planning subjects and also reducing proportion of theory and studio (laboratory) subjects which ideally should be equal to the 50:50 mix of theory and studio (Action: AICTE, All India Board of Town and Country Planning Education).

D. S. Meshram 14 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• Initiatives are required to be taken for revision of M. Planning, programme as well, so that the curriculum of B. Planning and M. Planning should be in tandem (Action: AICTE, All India Board of Town and Country Planning Education; ITPI). • The ITPI and AIBTPE, AICTE should explore the possibility of embedding recent trends in human settlements in planning and technological innovations in implementation of Development Plans; in curriculum so as to bring it at par with international level (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE; ITPI). • Taking into consideration that the new areas of concern are emerging in town and country planning discipline the initiatives to start new programmes in the areas of urban planning and management, infrastructure planning and management, etc; needs to be explored (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE; ITPI). • It would be more appropriate that all the schools adopt the nomenclature of B. Planning and M. Planning instead of B. Tech (Planning) and M. Tech (Planning) to achieve the harmony throughout the country; so as to avoid the confusion of teaching mandatory subjects of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics. The emphasis has to be on core subjects of planning instead of core science subjects (Action: UGC; AICTE; MHRD; ITPI; All India Board of Town and Country Planning Education). • As the Institute of Town Planners, India also conduct the Associateship Examination, which is at par with post graduation in town and country planning, the ITPI needs to include other basic qualifications for post graduation in town and country planning, and not to confine only to B. Arch / B.E. (Civil) / Postgraduate in Geography, Economics, and Sociology because Town Planning is the multidisciplinary discipline, it could even be open to students of Management, Statistics, Law, B.E. (PHE), Remote Sensing, etc (Action: ITPI). • It is important to open up vertical mobility by allowing lateral entry to students with post-diploma not only for Associateship Examinations of ITPI, but also in the Schools of Planning. This will also ensure career promotion in the Town Planning Departments of Central and State Governments, Semi- Governments, Local Bodies, Development Authorities and other parastatal agencies. This will also be in consonance with the policy of the AICTE. However, in case of certain deficiencies in some subjects, students should be asked to qualify in such subjects (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE; ITPI). • The curriculum should be based on current societal needs apart from requirement of industry and various other stake holders in the field, in addition to global issues like climate change, green planning, rising sea level, environmental and ecological considerations, and disaster mitigation etc. (Action: UGC; AICTE; ITPI). • The study of humanities needs no emphasize so as to avoid students becoming lop sided robots without any human touch (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE; ITPI).

D. S. Meshram 15 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

7.4 faculty Development • For upgrading the skills of teaching faculty, capsule programs for training of trainers should be initiated under the QIP. The schemes for training of trainers should be evolved at least for two years after completion of 8 to 10 years in teaching along with necessary component of field visits to successful projects in India and abroad, to give exposure to the teachers to the latest techniques, technologies and development strategies (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE). • The ITPI should take a lead in organizing workshops, congress, conference for the mixing of professionals, educationists and researchers, for wider interaction, so that both educationists / researchers / professionals can interact on latest initiatives and innovations in profession and education (Action: ITPI). • Due to opening up of economy and liberalization of industrial policy, the demand for planners is increasing with better pay packages due to which most talented students are opting for private sector and less in public sector, this is true for educational institutes as well. Therefore, the need is to consider framing an appropriate policy to attract most talented and competent persons in teaching (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE; ITPI). • The Ministry of Human Resource Development in consultation with Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Housing and Poverty Alleviation, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Transportation, etc. should organize workshops, seminars, brain storming session, etc., so that teachers get up to date knowledge of profession and professionals get the exposure to education. This will give exposure to the educationists to various schemes in State and Central Sectors, which are under operation, through which, central and state government polices get implemented. It would also be advisable that educationists, researchers and professionals are encouraged by their employers to attend National Town and Country Planners Congress, annually organized by ITPI on the theme of topical interest. This will also built strong interface between the education and industry and will also give exposure to the teachers regarding working and requirements of industry / profession (Action: MHRD; Ministry of Urban Development; Ministry of Housing and Poverty Alleviation; Ministry of Rural Development; Ministry of Transportation; State Governments; ITPI). • The institutional consultancy should be allowed to be taken up by the Planning Schools, so that teachers can deal with live projects and problems and gain experience of successful projects and disseminate the information to students and students can also get involved in such projects so that they can also earn while they learn (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE; ITPI). • The ITPI needs to take an initiative to institute Best Teacher Award on the pattern of Prof. V.N. Prasad Best Thesis Award to encourage improvement in the quality of teaching (Action: ITPI).

D. S. Meshram 16 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

7.5 Inter and Intra Networking Among Educational Institutes and Industry • There are certain schools which are better placed in terms of their locations, due to which they are able to draw better faculty and impart better teaching quality. Due to their location they get better exposure to the other town and country planning activities in the country and the region. Therefore, it would be advisable that all the schools / departments pool their facilities, share their knowledge and experience by establishing a networking among themselves and other institutions as well (Action: ITPI; All Schools / IITs / Universities / Colleges imparting Town and Country Planning Education). • AICTE (through its All India Board of Town and Country Planning Education) and the ITPI (through their Regional Centers existing in almost all the states) take lead in establishing networking among the schools, universities, planning departments and IITs and interact with Town and Country Planning Organization / Departments of Central and State Governments and other stake holders (Action: AICTE; All stake holders). • As present model of town and country planning education gives more emphasis on studio work, theory and thesis work, without much emphasis on live problems and projects and the requirements of community. The Institute of Town Planners, India therefore, should assume pivotal role between education and profession through networking. The networking with Schools of Planning, profession and industry would give the edge to planning students as they will be better placed to deal with live problems and projects (Action: UGC; AICTE; ITPI; All institutions imparting town and country planning education). • ITPI should also take lead in establishing contact and networking with similar Institutions like Royal Institute of Town Planners, London; American Institute of Certified Town Planners; Commonwealth Association of Planners, besides Schools / Universities abroad, imparting town and country planning education, specifically to ensure that the duration of B. Planning andM. Planning programme is same (Action: ITPI). • ITPI needs to take up issue of not recognizing one year Master Planning Programme offered by other universities in the different countries because postgraduate level planning programme in India is of two years and one year postgraduate programme being offered by other countries if recognized by MHRD / UGC / AICTE the students in India would be at disadvantage position. ITPI is also of the considered opinion that it is not possible virtually to cover the whole syllabus prescribed by AICTE / UGC / ITPI for post-graduation in Planning in one year, including thesis (Action: MHRD; UGC; AICTE; ITPI). • ITPI should disseminate not only the professional activities through their websites and newsletters but should also give more coverage / information regarding town and country planning education, research and training so that students community get the latest information (Action: ITPI).

D. S. Meshram 17 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

8. Conclusions The economic progress of the country is deeply linked with the quality of manpower to improve the capacity of rural and urban local bodies in order to prepare them to plan for their settlements. This is crucial as urban settlements are generator of economic momentum and contribute 60 percent to the national GDP. By 2051 this share is likely to rise to 75 percent to 80 percent of GDP. This clearly indicates that the task of urban and regional planning would be enormous in the foreseeable future and efforts will have to be made to cope up with this situation in terms of trained manpower requirement, in planning. In this direction human resource development through quality town and country planning education is one of the most effective vehicles of transformation, and is an essential element for proactive planning of sustainable development of human settlements.

In view of the fact that the number of urban and rural settlements would increase with the increase of population it is imperative to increase the number of students to bridge this gap. The basic premise for manpower training in town and country planning should focus on the needs of the industry i.e., user agencies and the government priorities and requirements of other stake holders. There should not be wide gaps between the requirements of the planning profession and education being imparted by the training institutions / schools because ultimately students are required to be absorbed in public and private sectors. Therefore, it is essential that planning education match with the requirements of the changing roles of town and country planners in the country in the light of the fast changing technologies and changing needs of the society and the user agencies / industry for orderly and planned development of both urban and rural settlements.

References Ansari, J.H. (1995), Undergraduate Planning Education in India, A paper presented in National Seminar on the theme Planning and Management of Planning Education in India held at School of Architecture and Planning, Anna University, Madras 1995. Meshram, D.S. and Singh, S. (1990), Professional Requirement of Spatial Planning by 2001, A paper presented in 38 National Town and Country Planners Congress on the theme Emerging Challenges in Spatial Planning with focus on Man Power, Research and Education, held at Roorkee, April 1990. Meshram, D.S. (1995), Manpower Training Requirement in Town and Country Planning, A paper presented in the Regional Seminar held at Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, 1995 on the theme Planning and Management of Town Planning Education in India. Sachithanandan, A.N. (1995), An Introduction to Planning Education, in the Regional Seminar held at Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, 1995 on the theme Planning and Management of Town Planning Education in India ITPI (1998), ITPI Report and Recommendations on QIP and CIP on Town and Country Planning Education, November 1998, New Delhi. Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India (2011), Report by Committee of Experts in Town Planning and Architecture for Policy Guidelines to energize Architecture and Town Planning Education in the Country, July, 2011, New Delhi.

D. S. Meshram 18 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

A Framework for Gentrification of Indian Cities

Prof. Ashok Kumar Abstract Gentrification is a broad framework which could be fruitfully used to unravel the nature of urban development over a period of time by critically examining movement of capital as well people, as shown by production side and consumption side theories of gentrification. However, a preliminary comparison of types of gentrification shows that new research is required to understand the nature of gentrification in and around the Indian city. We have to develop more research in substantive as well as policy gentrification where some has already been done with Indian cases.

1. INTRODUCTION As soon as cities attained a reasonable age and size, historically, decision makers had renewed urban fabric worldwide. These attempts have been made both in developing and post industrial countries. For instance, Paris was razed to ground in 1850s before it became ‘the city of lights’. Between 1850s and 1870s nearly 27,000 houses were demolished and 100,000 new houses were constructed along with most modern infrastructure possible at that time. Similarly, a large number of urban renewal projects were undertaken in the U.S. after the Second World War but at a much grander scale involving much greater displacement of the poor and lower middle classes with predominance of the minority communities. Both in Paris and throughout the U.S. large scale displacements of the working class homes and businesses took place while undertaking the grand projects of renewal of cities and construction of new infrastructure. This way of looking at cities perceives them as physical organisms, which are prone to production, use, and after some duration of use, the city begins to decay requiring renewal, regeneration, revitalization, renaissance, etc.; if it has to be put to modern uses. On some occasions when it is not possible to reuse the city in its existing physical form, policy makers have desired that urban fabric of the city must be redeveloped after fully demolishing the existing physical structures and new developments must be undertaken with new, old or mixed land-uses. Clearly, this kind of thinking has led to most policy framing on urban renewal in India, most prominent example being that of Mumbai when parts of city are demolished to turn the city into a global city.

In both cases capitalism was responsible for evictions and displacements of the poor. In both instances, these urban renewal attempts were made to absorb

Prof. Ashok Kumar, Ph.D. Department of Physical Planning School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi. E-mail : [email protected]

Ashok Kumar 19 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 surplus capital and surplus labour, the most prominent problems of capitalism worldwide. As David Harvey eloquently notes: “Rebuilding Paris absorbed huge quantities of labour and capital by the standards of the time and, coupled with suppressing the aspirations of the Parisian workforce, was a primary vehicle of social stabilization. He drew upon the utopian plans that Fourierists and Saint - Simonians had debated in the 1840s for reshaping Paris, but with one big difference: he transformed the scale at which the urban process was imagined”, (Harvey, 2008: 26).

On 18th April, 1976, large scale dislocation of people from Turkman Gate in Delhi was undertaken in the name of urban renewal and redevelopment (Tarlo, 2003). Cleansing the city of poor, however, remains the original aim of such drives (Ramanathan, 2006: 3193). Nonetheless, this was done at a moment in independent history of democratic India when temporarily democratic institutions were suspended. This is not to suggest that urban renewal and redevelopment is carried out only under undemocratic regimes. In U.S. at least 2.5 million dwelling units got demolished within two decades after the Second World War in the name of urban renewal. Over 500,000 families lost their homes from Yamuna Pushta along the river Yamuna in Delhi during redevelopments undertaken before the conduct of the Commonwealth Games in 2010. As these families got relocated outside the city of Delhi, elite sports event paved way for elite and high income housing, sports facilities, new roads improving accessibility of automobiles, etc. Delhi is not alone in this exercise of power by the state and private sector, similar evictions and displacements have happened in Mumbai, Dharavi being one of its most notorious signposts. Spaces vacated after the closure of textile mills in Mumbai is another instance of urban renewal intended to construct elite spaces such as malls, and high end housing, etc. Other cities in India do not remain untouched with such urban renewal attempts.

In the most recent times, Government of India has launched one of its most ambitious urban renewal programs named the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission. This program was formulated with the help of national and international research and funding agencies who firmly believed in the dominance of neoliberal regime globally. Central Government provided half the funds to undertake these renewal and redevelopment activities, which would directly contribute to handle the challenges of proliferating slums, homelessness, urban poverty and crime, pollution and ecological damage. Spread over 65 cities, Government of India envisaged an investment of Rs.100,000 crores with 50 percent to be paid by it. This appears to be an egalitarian agenda, which requires further analysis now that the first phase is implemented, and Government of India is working on the second phase.

Worldwide huge research output exists, particularly in the case of France, U.S. and U.K., possibly the same cannot be said for India. It is strongly recommended

Ashok Kumar 20 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

that apart from achieving its main objective of informing the policy makers about these critical issues, a concerted effort should be made by researchers across the country to investigate positive as well as negative implications and consequences of the renewal and redevelopment programs since the last 60 years.

There exists a definite link between what we know as urban renewal, redevelopment, revitalization, renaissance, etc.; while the term urban renewal is used to keep a firm focus on physical aspects of urban development and generally treated as a form or product, gentrification places huge emphasis on processes involved in the production of urban built form. This is one of the crucial reasons for taking up this topic for discussion.

In this paper the author argues that, the gentrification scholarship provides an opportunity to bring together for analytical purposes, as all players involved in the game of urban restructuring. An understanding of this coming together helps in critically examining the processes of urban restructuring. We move from important questions of how to undertake urban renewal or whether it is a fit case of urban redevelopment to a critical examination of the processes of urban restructuring asking directly why urban restructuring is taking place and with what consequences for different classes of people with variegated identities. Exploring interactions between the state, urban poor and beneficiary classes including the elite and high middles classes, and businesses in a global environment makes our analysis robust and deep as well as comprehensive at the same time. This paper has three parts after this introduction; in the next section the author attempts to explain the term gentrification as it has developed over a period of time beginning with 1960s, when Ruth Glass first coined this term for examining the inner city of London. In the second section the author also elaborates the types as well as theories of gentrification. In the third section a comparative analysis of forms of gentrification, with the kind of gentrification that actually exists in the Indian city is explored by discussing a case of redevelopment of a Katra in Old Delhi.

2. COMPREHENDING GENTRIFICATION Huge literature on gentrification exists in the western world focussing onits various causes, consequences and instances. But this literature largely emanates from the U.S. and U.K. (Brown-Saracino, 2010; Lees, Slater and Wyly, 2008; Lees, Slater and Wyly, 2010; Atkinson and Bridge, 2005, Smith, 1996). This literature is hugely useful for theorizing about cities in the western world, and provides a starting point for scholars researching cities in the developing world. The author argues that in order to understand Indian cities generally and through a framework of gentrification particularly, Indian scholars will have to develop Indian frameworks of gentrification, which are likely to be very different from their western counterparts as the Indian cities are very different from the western cities because globalization does not erase local contexts and histories of a place.

Ashok Kumar 21 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

In India scholars have more often talked about urban renewal and redevelopment rather than gentrification with particular emphasis on the physical aspects of the city rather than the underlying and interlaced social, economic and political processes. Separately though, policy makers and scholars have discussed gentrification by using umbrella terms like evictions and displacements of the urban poor. Then in the 1990s onwards increasingly the discourse has taken the rights turn whereby affected parties have demanded fulfilment of their rights to housing and the right to the city. While a discourse on evictions and displacements does touch upon the political economy issues related to space, these narratives do not make ‘the class question’ central in a global context. Gentrification, at least in its critical literature, clearly argues that gentrification is a spatial manifestation of class system, which in turn is an integral part of the processes of urbanization under the global capitalist economic system. Without a critical framework like that provided by gentrification, talk of evictions and displacements alone focuses on evictees and very minimally focuses on middle and high income beneficiaries of vacated spaces. For example, what are the processes which facilitate elite classes to benefit from gentrification? Gentrification framework allows us to unearth those processes as the focus shifts from urban form to processes of urbanization.

As is well known, the term ‘gentrification’ was first used by the British sociologist Ruth Glass in 1964 “to describe a process of working class displacement that changes the district’s prevailing social character. Initially, the defining features of gentrification included an influx of middle class households and the renovation of working class housing, invariably resulting in the displacement of tenants from gentrifying neighborhoods. Eventually, these processes are capable of completely changing the class composition and dominant tenure of inner area communities. Hence, in usage, gentrification has always referred to both the physical and social transformation of neighborhoods” (Badcock, 2010: 305). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia traces the root of gentrification from the word ‘gentry’, taken from the old French word ‘genterise’ meaning ‘the people with noble birth’. Clearly there is more than a hint about specific classes i.e. today’s higher income groups and elite classes.

Reviewing definitions of gentrification in the three editions (1994, 2000 and 2009) of ‘The Dictionary of Human Geography’, editors of ‘The Gentrification Reader’ point out that the scope of gentrification has widened and deepened over one and a half decade. They show how gentrification has moved “from being defined as a relatively insubstantial urban process affecting residential neighborhoods in 1994, to a definition that is broadened out to include commercial redevelopment and that points to gentrification as a more significant process that is part of the wider restructuring of urban geographical space in 2000, to the most recent 2009 definition which extends the definition so that gentrification is now seen as a truly global urban process affecting big and small urban centres around

Ashok Kumar 22 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

the world (Lees, Slater and Wyly, 2010: 5). Smith captures the essence of gentrification thus; “The crucial point about gentrification is that it involves not only a social change but also, at the neighborhood scale, a physical change in the housing stock and an economic change in the land and housing markets. It is this combination of social, physical, and economic change that distinguishes gentrification as an identifiable process or set of processes. Upper-middle-class immigrants to a run-down neighborhood do not move into slums; they fix them up or they move into buildings already fixed or newly up built, and this inevitably involves substantial capital investment in gentrifying neighborhoods along with social change” (Smith, 1987: 463).

More recently scholars have used the term gentrification to include empowerment of middle classes by the active support of the local state “through its institutionalization in Delhi Government’s Bhagidari Scheme (Ghertner, 2011: 527) where Resident Welfare Associations act as an interface between the people and the government. In this arrangement Bhagidari Scheme has created new arenas of interactions between citizens and the local state through resident welfare associations where propertied citizens have privileged access to the state meaning systematically displacing the urban poor classes and replacing them with elite classes for urban governance. In this way “Bhagidari has effectively gentrified the channels of political participation, respectializing the state by breaking the informal ties binding the unpropertied poor to the local state and thereby removing the obstacles to large scale slum demolitions” (Ghertner, 2011: 505). In Mumbai, the state has adopted gentrification as ‘urban strategy’ (Harris, 2008: 2414) Lower Parel being one prominent example of gentrification from textile mills to shopping malls, office complexes and leisure facilities. Liberalization of the Indian economy has generally hastened this process of gentrification. Manufacturing workers have been replaced with blue collar workers. Neil Smith relates gentrification with globalization and argues that gentrification has gone global and many states have adopted gentrification as the ‘global urban strategy’ (Smith, 2002: 80).

Gentrification therefore, has moved from a view encompassing physical improvement and redevelopment of inner city residential areas and consequently displacing the working classes and replacing them with higher and elite classes, to a scope where all kinds of land-uses, in all kinds of areas from inner city to the peripheral areas and from innocent displacement of people from inner city towards the suburbs and back to the city to the active role of the state in perpetuating these movements through various policies whose declared intent is always poor friendly.

2.1 Types of Gentrification Starting from inner cities with only residential use, gentrification has mutated into various forms, important among them are discussed below briefly (Table 1).

Ashok Kumar 23 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Table 1: Types of Gentrification

Form of Definitions Instances and consequences Main Authors Gentrification Classical Movement of capital from suburbs to city centre leading British inner cities of 1960s, Glass (1964), Smith Gentrification to redevelopment of the area into new commercial and 1970s and 1980s; Delhi’s (1979, 1987, 1996) residential development resulting in displacement of Old city of today and most the poor by incoming upper middle class people from recently Bhindi Bazar of suburbs changing the social character of the area. Mumbai, etc. Rural “The term refers to the gentrification of rural areas, and Recent colonization through Parsons (1980); gentrification or it studies the link between new middle class settlement, the Special Economic Zones, Smith and Phillips, greentrification socioeconomic and cultural transformations of the and colonization of the rural 2001) rural landscape, and the subsequent displacement and land by large private builders marginalization of low income groups”. after early 1980s around Delhi and other metropolitan areas New-build “… as real estate developers woke up to the opportunity High end designer houses and Zukin (1991) gentrification of offering a ‘product based on place’, notions of condominiums gentrification expanded to include a varied range of building forms, some of which were newly constructed townhouses and condominiums. Such buildings are obviously at odds with the classic gentrification notion of a rehabilitated ‘old’ property”. Super- “Here we find a further level of gentrification which is City of London and Wall Lees gentrification or superimposed on an already gentrified neighborhood, Street (2000, 2003); Financification one that involves a higher financial or economic Butler and Lees investment in the neighborhood than previous waves 2006) of gentrification and requires a qualitatively different level of economic resource”. Studentification “Studentification refers to the process of social, Many higher education cities Darren Smith environmental, and economic change effected by and towns in India as well as (2002) (D. Smith large numbers of students invading particular areas throughout the world. 2005) D. Smith and of the cities and towns in which popular universities Halt are located”. “Studentification is framed as a (2007) ‘gentrification factory’ in that studentifiers ‘represent a potential grouping of future gentrifiers’ or ‘apprentice gentrifiers’”. Commercial ‘Commercial gentrification’ refers to the gentrification When commercial spaces get Zukin (1990); Ley gentrification of commercial premises or commercial streets or gentrified in order to serve (1996); Dowling areas; it has also been called ‘boutiqueification’ or individual preferences of (2001) ‘retail gentrification’. the gentrifiers like designer clothes, craft shops, etc. Tourism Tourism gentrification is defined “as the transformation Coastal cities and towns Gotham (2005) gentrification of a neighborhood into a relatively affluent and worldwide experience this exclusive enclave in which corporate entertainment kind of gentrification, and and tourism venues have proliferated”. is also known as coastal gentrification. Global urban Global urban gentrification “is a ‘global urban strategy’ Most global cities in the world Neil Smith (2002); gentrification that is ‘densely connected into the circuits of global including Mumbai in India Atkinson capital and cultural circulation’”. and Bridge (2005) Provincial “… the process of gentrification in provincial cities Provincial cities and towns Dutton (2003, gentrification came after gentrification emerged in London, and that 2005); Gary Bridge the process in London cascaded down to smaller cities (2003) throughout Britain. London in this sense is an incubator for gentrification”. Source: Lees, Slater and Wyly (2008: 129-133). Note: References in the fourth column of the table are as cited in Lees et al (2008).

Ashok Kumar 24 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

We can construct an alternative typology by basing it on the lead actors involved in bringing about gentrification. First, the state-led gentrification where the state or its local organs like municipalities play prominent and decisive role in gentrifying the areas. The JnNURM is one such program of Government of India whereby urban renewal and gentrification is clearly led by the state. Second, the private sector led gentrification whereby the private sector initiates and plays pivotal role in gentrifying various spaces in a city. Unlike government led gentrification, generally speaking, private sector led gentrification will not have countrywide reach and impact. Individual private gentrifiers could pick up individual buildings or a group of buildings for redevelopment. Third, there could be a partnership between public agencies on one hand and private entities on the other coming together for gentrification.

2.2 Theories of Gentrification There are at least two prominent theories of gentrification: production led theory and consumption led theory. Scholars have written extensively about both theories placing the strongest possible arguments to defend their intellectual endeavours. No consensus appears to be in sight. Some scholars have arrived at a partial consensus by arguing that both theories together provide adequate explanation about the form and processes of gentrification. Let us take a brief look at both the theories in turn.

Production-side Gentrification Theory : Prominent among the production led theorists is the late Neil Smith who proposed his well-known Rent Gap Theory. He argues that gentrification is a manifestation of capital movement. He asserts that two decades after the Second World War due to low rents in the suburbs, capital moved towards suburbs also causing devaluation of capital in inner cities. Consequently abandonment of properties in the inner cities causing fall in land values in the inner cities. At the same time land values substantially increased in the suburbs. This fall in land values in the inner cities and increase in land values in the suburbs has caused, what Smith calls, “rent gap”, which is defined as “the disparity between the potential ground rent level and the actual ground rent capitalized under the present land use” (Smith, 1979: 545). Smith highlights two aspects of his rent gap thesis. First, land value means value of land excluding value of house or structure, which gets appropriated during economic transactions, therefore, the name ‘rent’ gap. Second, rent gap means, economic gap between actual and potential land values in a location. This rent gap is produced through investment and disinvestment in built environment over a long period of time. Therefore, it is also a ‘historical gap’. He critically explains that this gap emerges when redevelopment is expected if the present use succeeded in capitalizing all or most of the ground rent, hence little economic benefit can be derived from redevelopment. As filtering and neighborhood decline proceed, the rent gap widens. Gentrification occurs when the gap is wide enough that developers

Ashok Kumar 25 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 can purchase shells cheaply; can pay builders’ costs and profit for rehabilitation; can pay interest on mortgage and construction loans; and can then sell the end product for a sale price that leaves a satisfactory return to developers (Smith, 1979: 545). However, Smith further points out: The whole point of the rent gap theory is not that gentrification occurs in some deterministic fashion … but that it is most likely to occur in areas experiencing a sufficiently large gap between actual and potential land values. This is a fundamental distinction. Areas such as the central and inner city where the rent gap may be greatest may also experience very high land values and housing costs despite disinvestment from the built environment and the consequent rent gap” (Smith, 1987: 464). In this way Neil Smith does admit that widest rent gap alone, in a deterministic way, cannot determine where gentrification should take place. Other local factors such as fear and racism of white people and financial institutions could slow down or even stop the process of gentrification.

Consumption side Gentrification theory : David Ley and Chris Hamnett are considered to be the chief theorists of the consumption side theory of gentrification (Ley, 1996; Hamnett, 1991). While David Ley has focussed on industrial restructuring and occupational changes Chris Hamnett has proposed, what he calls, the “professionalization thesis”.

This theory views “gentrification as a consequence of major changes in the industrial and occupational structure of advanced capitalist cities, resulting in the growth of middle-class professionals” (Lees, Slater and Wyly, 2008: 124). This was the time when advanced western economies were experiencing economic changes from manufacturing to service industry, which led to the expansion of the middle class professionals or ‘cultural new class’ who have temperament to live in the city. Additionally, this new service industry was largely located in and around the inner cities. At the same time these new professional middle classes were also rebelling against ‘the oppressive conformity of suburbia, modernist planning, mass market principles …’ (Lees, Slater and Wyly, 2008: 95).

Economic restructuring and transformations, increased size of the new professional middle class, and their rejection of the mass produced suburban development created conditions for movement of these gentrifiers towards the cities. Ley saw this as the new phase of urban development, whereby new middle classes began to move back to the city because of changing tastes, and consumption patterns.

Chris Hamnett (1991) developed this theory by developing what he called “professionalization thesis”. He describes this thesis by producing evidence from London that clearly pointed out that the proportion of middle class professionals increased while proportion of all other category of workers declined from 1961- 1981 in the inner core of the city. This trend has continues unabated (Hamnett, 1994: 407).

Ashok Kumar 26 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

In this professional middle class, minority groups such as gays, lesbians, who felt unsafe at other places, came back to the city to establish their enclaves as gentrifiers. Manuel Castells conducted a case study of gay gentrification, which he argues have also contributed to gay liberation throughout the U.S. (Castells, 1983). Recent research has shown that the inner London neighborhood of Barnsbury is now experiencing ‘super-gentrification’ involving ‘a new, more elite, more globally connected gentry is moving into the neighborhood (Butler and Lees, 2006: 469).

3. fRAMING GENTRIFICATION FOR THE INDIAN CITY To explore the process of gentrification for the Indian city, available gentrification typology as discussed above is only partly useful as the Indian city context is quite different from the western context. But before comparing the Indian case with the existing typology built on the basis of existing largely western literature, few illustrations, are given to demonstration the contextual differences.

Industrial relocation policy led to eviction of large scale industries from various parts of Delhi and some of these spaces got redeveloped into malls in the western parts of Delhi, for example, a huge mall near Moti Nagar replacing electric tubes and bulb manufacturing factory. Relocation of polluting industries is not the only trigger for gentrification, at some places in the city land vacated from the occupation of squatters, have been handed over to nearby elite schools. A piece of land was handed over to an elite school in Janakpuri, which was earlier occupied by squatters. Similar examples can be found elsewhere in the city of Delhi.

Another example is that of a group of derelict buildings, which earlier housed a power plant is owned by the government. This area is located along an arterial road near IP Metro Station in Delhi and is proposed for commercial development including construction of malls. If developed as proposed, it will be the case of gentrification because it will invite middle income and high end elite consumers and it will have replaced a public purpose utility meant for all citizens. This is a spatial manifestation of economic classes in full blown materiality.

A lot has been written about evictions from the Yamuna Pushta area prior to the organization of the mega event of the Commonwealth Games of 2010. While over 500,000 families were evicted from this area, citizens were convinced that this land will be used for public purposes including the prestigious Commonwealth Games, a symbol of national interest. Most of this land has been gentrified with developments, such as construction of the Commonwealth Games Village, construction of office buildings for the DMRC (Shastri Park), construction of arterial road network, etc. All of this has replaced spaces occupied by the poor with spaces occupied by the elite. It is rumored that each room in flats constructed for the players in the Commonwealth Games Village now costs nearly Rs. 5 crore. The village gradually being inhabited by the elite will create conditions for further gentrification of the

Ashok Kumar 27 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 kind proposed near IP Metro Station for construction Fig. 1: Gentrification of a Katra in of high end commercial spaces. Paharganj, Delhi, 2006

A classical form of gentrification is being undertaken in the Old City of Delhi. Poor are being evicted and displaced from the inner city of Delhi or the Special Area as the Delhi Development Authority would prefer to call it. This is a case of classical gentrification where an individual or a group of buildings is purchased by the builders by following a quasi-legal process involving threats and coercion. Each building houses a number of families, who may have owned a flat or rented it long time ago, sometimes for many decades. The private builders start the process by purchasing few flats from willing and needy owners. The process of threats and coercion begins if others do not wish to sell their properties for various reasons.

In the case being discussed here, a Katra has been redeveloped by a builder. This Katra housed 60-70 families. What has been the process of redevelopment of the Katra is explained at (Fig. 1).

Comparison of Table 1 and Table 2 reveals many aspects about gentrification in India, which appears to be somewhat different because local context do matter forcing global capital to produce unique outcomes. We will list some of those differences here:

In India still, we have not reached a stage of super- gentrification. Perhaps after two to three more rounds of gentrification and after the economy has reached a certain stage of economic development for a sustained period of time, India will also experience super-gentrification, the condition for which are being put in place under the globally linked capitalist system.

Indian cities are beginning to experience the classical form of gentrification after the liberalization of the economy and associated sustained economic growth in the last two and a half decade. Capital is beginning to move into India’s old (inner) cities. This is expected to slow and uneven process largely depending on global capital flows and local contexts. Source: Kumar (2006: 54).

Ashok Kumar 28 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Table 2: Forms of Gentrification in India

S. Forms of Name of the Areas Type of Changes No. Gentrification Classical Paharganj and other Individual buildings or groups of buildings like Katra are 1. Gentrification parts of the Old being demolished and plots are redeveloped into high end City commercial or residential spaces. Commercial Mehar Chand From low end commercial to high end commercial 2. Gentrification Market, Lodhi Colony Recreational National Capital From traditional cinema halls to modern multiplexes 3. Gentrification Territory of Delhi interlinked with global commodification and elite consumption patterns Policy National Capital Bhagidari and institutions like the Resident Welfare Gentrification Territory of Delhi Associations; Manner in which disposal policy for 4. commercial development got changed; Studio apartments versus EWS housing; land policy permitting amalgamation of residential plots for development Global Lower Parel, High end commercial and residential development 5. Gentrification Mumbai replacing textile mills Industrial Entire National Commercial use primarily construction of a large mall at 6. Gentrification Capital Territory is Moti Nagar, Delhi covered. State-led Entire National DDA low income housing going to middle income families 7. Gentrification Capital Territory is covered. Mega Entire National Evictions from Yamuna Pushta leading upto the Event-Led Capital Territory is Commonwealth Games, 2010; From farm land to elite 8. Gentrification covered. housing; high accessibility paving way for further rounds of gentrification Rural Colonization around Corporate builders’ pave the way for residential Gentrification Delhi in Gautam development on existing agricultural land in the periphery Budh district in of large cities. 9. Uttar Pradesh, and Gurgaon and Sonepat in Haryana New Build High end designer Limited edition high end residential areas are developed Gentrification residential spaces by corporate builders for very high earners who are in the periphery professionally qualified. This has become prevalent after 10. of Delhi including the globalization of the Indian economy. some gated communities Gentrification Hauz Khas Village High end eating places; elite fashion boutiques; designer 11. of Urban and Shahpur Jaat furniture items; building materials, etc. Villages

Ashok Kumar 29 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Gentrification in India is much variegated than could be seen in the western countries. As can be seen from Table 2, Indian cities are experiencing gentrification in almost all parts of its cities as well as in the peripheries of its large metropolitan cities.

Origins of rural gentrification are unique and locally embedded. For example, rural gentrification in the periphery of Delhi in the form of building ofnew industrial towns such as Noida and private sector led colonization in Gurgaon began much earlier than the opening up of the Indian economy in the 1990s. Reasons for this sort of rural gentrification were also very different, for example, restricted housing market in Delhi being one of the prominent causes.

There is less discussion on policy gentrification in the western literature, most of the time substantive aspects of gentrification are being discussed by scholars as shown in Table 1. On the other hand, before scholars have begun to say; it is time to discuss the policy of gentrification in India (Ghertner, 2011 and Harris, 2008).

3.1 Some Thoughts on the Future of Gentrification in Indian Cities Newer and better planned inner cities for commercial purposes and high end housing will become harbingers of economic growth in the near future. In order to provide strategic locations for IT, ITES and such other service sectors, even large sums of money are required to finance and transcend challenges of urban renewal, redevelopment and regeneration due to entrenched urbanization. This is in conformity with the global trends, and already some signs are visible in cities like Mumbai where pressures from various quarters, global as well as local, are already building up to redevelop inner Mumbai.

Of course one of the major challenges is who will provide funds for these redevelopment and regeneration projects in the inner cities because government money is unlikely to be sufficient. Private investment alone or public private partnerships are likely to come with stringent conditions favouring the private sector whose main focus remains accumulation of wealth in the form of ever increasing profits, despite huge environmental and social costs. It is proposed therefore, that apart from facilitation of the private sector for attracting investments into inner cities, state governments should strictly enforce development control rules and regulations and master plan provisions specifically prepared for the inner cities.

As soon as urban renewal, redevelopment and regeneration are carried out, it will result in voluntary and involuntary evictions resulting in displacements of citizens. In order to minimize the impact of displacements on citizens, fair compensation mechanisms and interim resettlement arrangements should be made by state government for all evictees. The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 provides a good starting point for fair compensation equal to four times the market rate, and the Act also for the first time recognizes the Right to Fair Compensation.

Ashok Kumar 30 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Prior to this, state governments should carry out comprehensive surveys in order to find out the extent of displacements and losses of property and also identify owners of such properties so that lack of information does not delay or complicate the processes of compensation and general relief to citizens.

State governments should also be entrusted with the urgent task of preparing the Inner City Redevelopment and Regeneration Plans, and these plans, apart from other things, should cover a number of important redevelopment and regeneration projects, which will be carried out between the next two to five years from the date of approval of these plans by State Governments. Since, the vital issue of public interest is involved, these ICRR Plans should be fully funded by central Government and only Government agencies should be allowed to prepare these plans. This should include State Town Planning Departments, SPAs and other such government academic institutions. It is also proposed that the private sector should be allowed to participate only at the implementation stage.

These ICRR Plans should be approved by State Governments, and prior to that state town planning laws should be amended urgently to incorporate provisions for the preparation of these plans by government agencies including government planning schools.

Special teams of senior planners with experience in inner city redevelopment and regeneration should be set up from the exiting cadres of State Town Planning Departments to prepare these ICRR Plans. Government academics may be co- opted for occasional advice and inputs. These plans should be prepared within one year from the amendment of state town planning laws.

Special townships have been a great success in Maharashtra and other states. However, these developments, particularly led by the private sector, are highly inequitable. It is proposed that State Governments should seek some share of the developed space, may be in the form of some percent of total FAR, for the lower income citizens in these special townships because government infrastructure has been developed with tax payers’ money to provide linkages with the rest of the state or even the country.

Time has come when State Governments should again undertake urgent initiatives to build new towns particularly for lower income groups with only minor component of higher and middle income housing as most of the housing shortage, according to Government of India’s own National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy, 2007, pertains to lower income groups. These towns should be built near major urban centres as most of the existing and future livelihood opportunities are likely to be located in these cities.

4. CONCLUSIONS Gentrification is a broad framework which could be fruitfully used to unravel the nature of urban development over a period of time by critically examining movement

Ashok Kumar 31 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 of capital as well people as shown by production side and consumption side theories of gentrification. However, a preliminary comparison of types of gentrification shows that new research is required to understand the nature of gentrification in and around the Indian city. We have to develop more research in substantive as well as policy gentrification where some has already been done with Indian cases.

REFERENCES Badcock, B., (2010), Gentrification’, in Ray Hutchison (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Urban Studies, Sage, London. Brown-Saracino, J., (2010), The Gentrification Debates, Routledge, London. Butler, T. and Lees, L. (2006) Super-gentrification in Barnsbury, London: globalization and gentrifying global elites at the neighborhood level, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 467-487. Castells, M., (2003), The City and the Grassroots: A Cross-cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements, University of California Press, Berkeley. Lees, L., Slater, T. and Wyly, E., (2008), Gentrification, Routledge, London. Lees, L., Slater, T. and Wyly, E., (2010), The Gentrification Reader, Routledge, London. Ghertner, D.A. (2011), Gentrifying the State, Gentrifying Participation: Elite Governance Programs in Delhi, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, Vol.35, No. 3, pp. 504-532. Glass, R., (1964), Aspects of Change, in Centre for Urban Studies (ed.) London: Aspects of Change, MacGibbon and Kee, London. Hamnett, C., (1991), The Blind Men and the Elephant: The Explanation of Gentrification Transactions Institute of British Geographers, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 173-189. Hamnett, C., (1994), Socio-economic change in London: Professionalization not Polarization, Built Environment, Vol.20, No.3, pp.192-203. Harris, A., (2008), From London to Mumbai and Back Again: Gentrification and Public Policy in Comparative Perspective, Urban Studies, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 2407-2428. Harvey, D., (2008), The Right to the City, New Left Review, Vol. 53, pp. 23-40. Kumar, A., (2006), Urban Renewal in Paharganj, Delhi, An Undergraduate Planning thesis, Department of Physical Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi. Ley, D., (1996), The New Middle Class and the Remaking of the Central City, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Ramanathan, U., (2006), Illegality and the Urban Poor, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42, No. 29, pp.3193-3197. Smith, N., (1979), Toward a Theory of Gentrification, A Back to the City Movement by Capital, not People, APA Journal, Vol. 45, pp. 538-548. Smith, N., (1987), Gentrification and the Rent Gap, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol.77, No.3, pp.462-465. Smith, N., (1996), The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City, Routledge, London. Smith, N., (2002), New Globalism, New Urbanism: Gentrification as Global Urban Strategy, Antipode, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp.427-450. Tarlo, E., (2003), Unsettling Memories: Narratives of the Emergency in Delhi, C. Hurst and Company Publishers, London. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Columbia University Press, Columbia.

Ashok Kumar 32 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Mobility Based City Planning and Design

A. K. Jain Abstract Keeping in view the importance of road safety, it needs to take up as a mission, with a well structured action plan. It should move beyond reactive actions to the incremental radical and transformative, these include regulatory, strategic, governance and performance aspect of road safety ladder. The author also observes that Indian culture is characterized by non-violence. However, this is not reflected in its traffic, transport and driving behavior. With less than 1 percent of theworld’s vehicle population, India accounts for 6 percent of world’s road accidents and 10 percent of world’s road fatalities. More than 1.41 lakh people die in road accidents and more than 1 million fatal road accidents accrue every year. The victims are mostly pedestrians or cyclists for whom there is hardly any dedicated space on the roads, though 30 to 40 percent of citizens walk or cycle to work.

1. INTRODUCTION Indian culture is characterized by non-violence. However, this is not reflected in its traffic, transport and driving behavior. With less than 1 percent of the world’s vehicle population, India accounts for 6 percent of world’s road accidents and 10 percent of world’s road fatalities. More than 1.41 lakh people die in road accidents and more than 1 million fatal road accidents accrue every year. The victims are mostly pedestrians or cyclists for whom there is hardly any dedicated space on the roads, though 30 to 40 percent of citizens walk or cycle to work.

Violent motorization impacts the natural and the built environment (noise, pollution, traffic accidents, community severance). In Delhi 72 percent of emissions (suspended particulate matter) are from motorized vehicles. Of these the private vehicles, which are 90 percent of total motorized transport, carry 31 percent of vehicular trips and are responsible for 90 percent of emissions. Violent traffic and transport impacts the health and safety of the people. Urban transport services are hardly accessible to all. It does not provide barrier free access, especially for the elderly, children, women and disabled. Violent, aggressive and noisy traffic constantly disturbs the peace of the residents, sick and students, not to speak of birds and pets. It is common to observe vehicles not slowing down, nor restraining horn blowing near the residences, schools, hospitals, temples, mosques, etc.

2. PLANNING FOR NON-VIOLENT MOBILITY Planning of transport synergy with land-use can effectively address the issues of violent urban mobility. At the start, it aims to reduce the need to travel

A.K. Jain, former Commissioner (planning) Delhi Development Authority; Email: [email protected]

A.K. Jain 33 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 and encourages walkablity together with maximizing the efficiency of the public transport system and non-motorised transport. The following attributes can lead to accident reduction, improved mobility, road safety and emission reductions:

• Walk to work (W2W), “local hubs” within 10 minutes walking and cycling distance; • Integrated planning of urban transport/corridors; • Mixed land-use, rationalization of land-use and density; • Multi-modal integration of buses, trams, metro rail, rail corridors and LRT; • Potential of using subterranean space; • Communication as a viable substitute for transportation; • Encourage walking, cycling and NMV; • Safety of the movement for children, pedestrian, women, disabled and elderly; and • Low noise and traffic calming.

Safe and accessible cities are compact, walkable and sustainable, (Fig. 1 and 2) which are designed to enhance local identity, provide diverse housing options, land use efficiency, generate local employment and provide comfortable, safe, affordable, reliable and non-polluting public travel modes. Most of the local facilities are reachable by a convenient 5-minute (400 to 500 meter) walking, with dedicated paths for walking and cycling. Neighborhood facilities, shops, schools,

Fig. 1: liveable and Accessible City.

Source: Barton H. etal (2003) Shaping Neighborhoods, Spon Press, London

A.K. Jain 34 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 2: access Hierarchy parks, clubs and city centres are located along the pedestrian, cycle and public transport corridors. The urban form plays an important role in the safe urban mobility by accommodating all modes to travel, including walking, wheelchair, cycling, public transit and people by a safe, efficient and attractive road network, with generous footpaths and trees. Buildings are located directly on street fronts to ensure passive surveillance of public spaces that increases personal safety. Streets are provided with service roads and pooled parking area at every kilometer that keeps the path and building front free from on-street parking.

The concept of community module and urban hierarchy is the basis of planning. Le Corbusier in his Chandigarh Plan adopted the sector measuring 800 X 1200 m, which is the building block of the city. This has public transit on its periphery from where one can walk down to any place within the sector in 5 to 10 minutes. The starting point of planning of Chandigarh was organization of a transport network based on V-7 hierarchy of road network and sectors (800 × 1200 m) with an interconnected green corridor, cycle tracks and pathways (Fig. 3).

Charles Correa developed the plan of New Bombay (Mumbai) along the MRT corridor, which he called the string, along with a series of new cities, the beads, in the region (Fig. 4). The junction of transport nodes constitutes the regional transport and business node. The Master Plan of Delhi is based on poly-nodal, poly- nuclear concept in the organization of districts, communities and neighborhood. However, in actual practice there had been a centrifugal, and centripetal transport network with gridlocks all over. The growth of large cities had been usually concentric, leading to congestion in the central areas and numerous intersections. The building flyovers / grade separators provide only temporary relief to the perennial congestion. Often it is not possible to restructure the city completely, but mixed land-use, compact and smart development controls, transit oriented development, car pools, efficient public transport and taxies, improving road capacity and using Intelligent Transport Systems / Management can provide solutions to the problem.

A.K. Jain 35 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 3: Chandigarh Planed by Le Corbusier

Source: Boesiger, W (Ed.) (1999) Le Corbusier-Complete Works, Birkhauser Publishers, Besel

3. a WALKABLE URBAN STRUCTURE Mobility is the lifeline of urban living. It is necessary that the urban structure and land-use pattern make day to day activities accessible by walking and there is a close relationship between residence and place of work. The concepts of Transit Oriented Development (TOD), Transport Demand Management (TDM) and Corridor Development form the basis of walk to work, compact and smart urban planning, which establishes a close relationship among the residential, employment and service locations. For Integration of land-use and transport planning, mixed land-use helps in minimizing the need to travel. A walkable community provides a fundamental building block in creating a sustainable urban form. As such, a city comprises a network of overlapping communities, each focused on a local centre, within which people can access on foot most of the facilities and services for day-to-day living. Each of these communities is defined by the walking catchment or “ped-shed”, which is generally around 500 to 800 m, or a 5 to 10-minute walk. Walkability is about making it possible for the average citizen to be able to lead his / her life by relying largely on walking for day to day activities. This needs an urban design consideration, such as density, mixed use, street life, pedestrian crossings, tree shade, public places and so on. All these parameters are important in their own right but walkability is a simple way to encapsulate this philosophy of integrated transport and urban planning.

A.K. Jain 36 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 4: new Bombay (Mumbai) developed by Charles Correa.

Source: Frampton, Kenneth (1996), Charles Correa, Perennial Press, Mumbai

A.K. Jain 37 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Organization of land-use, circulation Fig. 5: Master Plan of Delhi Based on Segregated Land pattern and decisions regarding Use. density, Floor Area Ratio and other controls should be around the public transport system, so as to which reduce the need of personal vehicles. The spatial model based upon the principle of “less travel, more energy saving”, promotes a compact development. This can also significantly help in saving fossil fuel consumption, climate change and environment. Critical instruments for this option include land-use synergy with public transport, infrastructure development, mixed land-use and e-governance. Communications, such as telecommunications, electronic mail, video - conferencing, radio paging, mobile-phones, computer networking, e-mail, etc. provide the Source: Jain, A.K., 2012, Sustainable Urban Transport and alternatives to physical movement. Systems, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi

Fig. 6: Principles of Public Transport Planning

Source: Barton H.etal(2003) Shaping Neighborhoods, Spon Press, London

A.K. Jain 38 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

The World Development Report (2009) of the World Bank cites the example of Atlanta and Barcelona. Atlanta has a metro network of 74 km while Barcelona has 99 km. These may seem comparable but per capita CO2 emission for Atlanta is 10 times that of Barcelona. The difference is mostly explained by Barcelona being more compact while its American rival is spread out. As a result, less than 4% of Atlanta’s population lives within reasonable walking distances of a metro station compared to 60% for Barcelona. If Atlanta now tries to give its citizen the same accessibility, it would have to build 2800 new metro stations and 3400 km of new tracks. The lesson learnt is that public transport, land-use and walkability are interlinked and need to be planned together.

For low emission, green mobility, besides engine norms and fuel policy, it is necessary to reduce the vehicle kilometers travelled and trip length by travel demand management, land-use and transport synergy, car pooling and integrating public-private modes of urban transport. Environmental footprints of private motor vehicle also include the amount of resources (including embedded energy) used in their production, amount of waste produced by their disposal, and continued use of fossil fuels. The electric car is being promoted through the government subsidy, however, the production of thermal energy is still a large producer of carbon emissions.

Studies show that to transport one ton of cargo per kilometer, road transportation needs 4 to 5 times the energy that is needed by a train. The energy used by a car to carry a passenger over one kilometer is 3 to 4 times that of a bus. Greenhouse gas emission per passenger of public transport (bus, rail and trams) is about one-twelfth that of a car. Although, NMTs (including walking) are ideal from the point of view of emissions, in terms of kilometers travelled, these cover only 1 to 2 percent of the total kilometers Fig. 7: Integrated Transit Corridor travelled, even if the proportion of trips are as high as 40 to 50 percent, as in Delhi and other megacities. It implies that environmentally sustainable transportation and reduction of energy use is essentially a walkable community and a greener transportation, which helps in reduction in use of fossil fuels and conservation of natural resources. Walkable community is compact and smart with home based offices. Sustainable fuels, energy, water, waste management, sanitation and mobility should be the basis of planning and growth, along with extensive use of IT and e-governance.

A.K. Jain 39 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Table 1: Environmental Sustainability of Different Modes of Transport Air Pollution Noise Uglincess Unsafe Walking 5 5 5 3 Cycling 5 5 4 2 Car 1 2 2 2 Tram 5 3 3 3 Light rail (LR), Surface 5 3 3 4 Rapid Rail (RR), Surface 5 2 2 4 Rapid Rail (RR), Elevated 5 1-2 2 5 Rapid Rail, Tube 5 5 5 5 Bus, Mixed Traffic 1-2 3 4 3 Bus, Reserved Lane 3 3 4 3 Legend: 1 = very bad, 2 = bad, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = very good Source: Vuchic, R.V (1981), “ Urban Public Transportation Systems and Technology”, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,. cited by Raman Parti and Surjit S Katoch, Efficient Transportation Planning and System Integration for Healthy Environment of Large Cities, Proceedings of International Conference on Energy and Environment March 19-21, 2009 Issn: 2070-3740.

Fig. 8: newman and Kenworthy’s hyperbola “Urban density and trasnport-related energy consumption” shows a high correlation between urban density and intra-urban transport-related energy consumption per capita.

Source: Newman, Peter, R Kenworthy, 1999, Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Independence, The Centre for Resource Economics, Washington DC, USA.

A.K. Jain 40 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Dense and compact urban planning can effectively reduce the vehicle kilometer travelled and trip length which results in lesser accidents, pollution and noise. Density is highly correlated with modal distribution and the intensity of automobile use, as shown in Table 2:

Integrated land-use planning considers Transport Demand Management (TDM) solutions, such as, rideshare program, mobility management programs, shared parking and user charges. These aim to encourage people to reduce car trips by incentives such as and support to reduce peak-period driving, including better cycling facilities and flexible working hours. The core of integrated planning is to improve public transit and increase its service efficiency by dedicated corridors (e.g. BRT) better vehicles and stations, more frequent services, reduced crowding, improved walking conditions of transit stations, and priority to high occupant vehicles (buses and carpools) .

Location Efficient and Transit Oriented Development is a set of planning practice to create more attractive, efficient and safe communities. These can significantly improve accessibility and reduce per-capita automobile travel, by various design features. The land-use reforms can be implemented at various geographic scales at local level, site and block level and city level. These reforms do not exclude automobile travel, but aim to increase transportation options and give priority to walking, cycling and public transit, which provide more direct travel between destinations. Increased connectivity has shown a reduced per capita vehicle

Table 2: City Typology Based on Average Urban Density and Transport.

Urban density Low Medium High >25 persons/ha 50-100 persons/ha < 250 persons/ha Modal distribution MPT: 80% MPT: 50% MPT: 25% PT: 10% PT: 25% PT: 50% NPT: 10% NPT: 25% NPT: 25% Automobile use (km/pers/yr) > 10,000 < 5,000 Public transport use < 50 > 250 (trip/person/an) > 55,000 3,500-20,000 < 15,000 Petrol consumption for North American European cities Asian cities transport (MJ/persons/an) & Australian Representative positions cities MPT : Motorised Public Transport; PT : Public Transport; NMT : Non-motorised Transport; Density : Number of inhabitants and jobs per hectare of net urban surface (omitting green and water surfaces). Source: Newman, Peter, R Kenworthy, 1999, Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Independence, The Centre for Resource Economics, Washington DC, USA.

A.K. Jain 41 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 travel and reduced traffic volumes as the people can F ig. 9: Transport Contributes up to 70% of conveniently go to work and shopping by walking SPM and other Urban Pollution and cycling and children can walk to school, parks, recreation centre and gym. These concepts can be incorporated into existing urban communities. Existing urban areas can implement traffic calming and pedestrian improvements, reallocate road space, use parking management and encourage location efficient development.

This needs a review of current planning regulations and development practices. For example, zoning codes often require more parking and wider streets than considered appropriate. Zoning codes also discourage commercial activities and secondary living units in residential areas, and require large setbacks for homes and businesses that reduce densities and land-use mix. Another barrier is that the real estate industry is highly segmented by land-use category (such as single-family housing, multi-family housing, retail, office and warehouse). Each category has its own practices, markets, trade associations, and financing sources, which requires a more integrated approach to development.

Residents in a well-designed neighborhood with good walkability, mixed land- use, connected streets, and local services tend to drive 20-30% less than residents in automobile dependent areas, and even greater vehicle travel

Fig. 10: Public Space- Pedestrian Realm

Source: Unified Traffic and Transportation Infrastructure Planning and Engineering Centre (UTTIPEC)

A.K. Jain 42 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 11: Skeleton Parking Cluster at Every km to avoid Parking Spillover on Footpaths and Building Fronts

Source: Unified Traffic and Transportation Infrastructure Planning and Engineering Centre (UTTIPEC) Delhi

reduction may be possible if urbanism is coordinated with TDM strategies, such as transit improvements, car sharing, road pricing, parking, management and commuter trip reduction programs. This can provide a variety of economic, social and environment benefits, such as reduced traffic congestion, parking costs, accident risk, pollution and urban sprawl. It can significantly improve liveability, interaction and cohesion, with increased traffic safety due to narrower streets and slower traffic (traffic calming).

4. Traffic Calming and Noise Control There is a need for traffic calming by reducing speeds, noise and volumes by various measures such as no horn zoning, traffic circles at intersections, raised crosswalks and partial street closures to discourage, short-cut traffic through residential neighborhoods. Traffic calming may be necessary in front of certain streets, such as high security zones, areas university, college, schools, hospitals, etc. Traffic calming / noise control measures involve notifying no horn zones, Constitution of area-wise noise control circles, preparation of Noise Monitoring and Control Plan (NMCP), hybrid electric vehicles, speed breaker / hump, landscape and noise buffers and rubberized road surface.

5. Barrier Free Access All housing and mixed use development should be within easy walking distance with good public transport services that give access to the main centres of urban activity. Access is also influenced by gradients (especially for older people) and psychological barriers, such as foot over bridges and subways.

A.K. Jain 43 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Foot-over bridges and subways Fig. 12: Indian drivers are so fond of blowing horns that are hardly used as they cause amused the architect- Patrick Crooke to Sketch the inconvenience and insecurity above Cartoon to the users. As a result, the pedestrians risk their lives crossing the high intensity, high speed roads. It is necessary to provide wide and safer pedestrians corridors at grade, while the motorized vehicles move up and down. The walkways also need to cater to wheelchair users that require avoidance of steps and provision of curb ramps. This may be possible by raising the carriage ways of the road by about 2 to 3 meters, so that pedestrians keep moving freely at the ground level without mingling with vehicular traffic. Such facility should be provided on all major roads, National and State Highways, in front of village abadi, transport nodes (railway stations, metro stations, bus terminals, etc.), and also forests and wildlife areas. The walking zone should be barrier free and designed as per the specifications.

Public transport has to be disabled and wheelchair friendly with tactile flooring and low floor buses with footboard at level with the platform and proper street lighting for the safety and security of pedestrians. A dedicated bicycle lane has to be built along every road. The fixed signs, maps, variable message signs, pedestrian crossings, integrated fare collection systems, protection systems and communication are important elements of safe mobility.

In order to deliver an inclusive, safe and barrier free mobility for all, it is necessary to synergise supply and demand side measures. Various options are available, which can be considered in combination or separately depending upon the context, traffic volume, sustainability (social, economic and environmental), costs and feasibility. Public transport is to be planned keeping in view the operational characteristics of different modes and their optimum efficiency / ridership.

6. non-structural and Non-Invasive Transport Planning The planners can significantly affect the safety and viability of public transport by arranging roads, footpaths and land-uses. The quality of bus and train services can

A.K. Jain 44 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

be higher where the maximum number of people can reach their destination by the minimum number of routes. Linearity is therefore, a key feature. The points where routes cross (nodes) become the prime locations for local jobs and services as well as the focus for pedestrian and cycling routes. Public transport accessibility needs to be considered not as an after-thought, but as the starting-point for neighborhood planning, with land-uses attached to the public transport network.

Popular solutions like widening of roads, construction of flyovers / grade separators and mega transport terminals are pursued by transport organizations and political leadership, who consider these as a matter of prestige and professional achievement. However, these often prove to be short term and sometimes even worsen the situation. Planning interventions and non-invasive, non-structural solutions such as promoting public transport and land-use integrity need to be adopted.

It is being increasingly realized that the structural solutions, like flyovers built at enormous cost, provide only a temporary relief and fail to keep pace with the growth of traffic. The Master Plan for Delhi-2021, notified in February 2007, advocates a comprehensive strategy comprising preventive, structural and non- invasive transport solutions and approaches. For a synergy between land-use and public transport system, it mandates restructuring the city by Transit Oriented Development. Higher density, FAR and mixed land-use envisage a compact and smart growth. It mandates an integrated multi-modal public transit system, including Rapid Railway extending to NCR, together with corridor development. Simultaneously, transport infrastructure, roads, dedicated two wheelers, cycle and pedestrian tracks are to be improved.

As urban transport in Indian cities contributes up to two-third of the emission and pollution, it is crucial that the concepts of walk to work, inter-modal public transit, mixed land use, e-governance, transit oriented development and travel demand management are adopted, rather than just end of the pipe, pollution under check technology. Low carbon and green mobility is crucial for an efficient, sustainable and healthy society.

7. a Case Study — Recovery of a River in Seoul (Korea) Cheonggyecheon, a stream that marks the feng–shui origins of Seoul in 1392, used to run through central Seoul until the mid–1970s, it was originally a brook, and then developed into a stream with 14 waterways at the time of King Taejongin 1412 at the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty. The covering of the stream for military, sanitary and flood management purposes, started early in the 20th century and was finally completed in 1958. The elevated Cheonggye expressway was opened in 1976. The Cheonggye expressway became one of the most important inner city highways with up to 168,000 vehicles a day and the surrounding areas became the most important clothing clusters in the 1970s and 1980s.

A.K. Jain 45 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 13: Elevated Expressway before Demolition Fig. 14: Recovery of River by Dismantling Elevated Expressway in Seoul, Korea

Source: Erpenstein, Annette, 2012, Back in the Future: The Rebirth of Public Space in Seoul, Trialog,108, August, 2012.

Removal of the expressway started on July 2003 and the rest of the stream restoration work was completed by October 2005. In total, the restoration took one year of urban planning processes and two years and three months of construction time. The successful implementation of the project paved the way of Lee Myungbak, then the mayor of Seoul, to become the president of South Korea in February 2008.

8. Informal and Non-motorised Transport Informal and intermediate modes of transport, which include 3 wheelers, vans, pickups, rickshaws, manual thelas and rehri, etc. cater to about 30 to 60% of passengers and goods movement in the cities like Delhi. As compared to small truck, autos and rickshaws are substantially cheaper, which by multiple trips deliver as much as a 5-ton truck in a day. Courier services, perishables, such as milk, vegetables, fruits, groceries and other short-haul deliveries are increasingly being made by auto-rickshaw, van or tricycle, which reach in the narrow lanes and congested areas where public authorities do not allow trucks / public carriers during day time and also during the frequent VVIP visits, processions, ceremonies, etc.

However, the intermediate and informal transport sector is riddled with numerous challenges, including lack of parking space and road right of way, harassment by traffic and transport officials, poor vehicle safety and fitness standards, lack of insurance, etc. Although competitive and affordable, low fares force the operator using substandard fuels, polluting engines and preclude service improvements. The predisposition among motoring class and transportation officials is to expedite automobile flows and they usually fail to appreciate the importance of informal transport. This mindset together with the pressures from

A.K. Jain 46 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 15: Dedicated Right of Way for Pedestrians, Cyclists, customers and automobile industry Buses add to the marginalization of informal transport. There is an absence of any kind of normative policy framework for informal motorized transport services, which is a part of overall city transport. Delhi had about 60,000 transport related shops and repair facility, of which one-third are illegal or informal. Keeping in view the service rendered by informal transport and workshops, there is a need to integrate them with land reservations.

There is an ample scope and need to develop and plan for NMTs and Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) to improve their safety, efficiency, speed and comfort. By adopting standards, protocols and legal provisions, together with simple technical innovations, such as, installing a two-speed gear system would enable the rickshaw-puller to pedal easily. Redesigning the handlebars in such a way that the rickshaw-puller does not have to strain his wrist and lungs, its efficiency can be substantially improved. The puncture proof or tubeless tyres, using lighter and more durable, sturdier metal, a better designed seat can provide a more comfortable ride to the commuter. To meet the requirements of school children a motor with a battery to run for small distances and a multi-speed gear system can be fixed for smooth and easy pulling. To rectify the imbalances, which often cause overturns in the conventional rickshaw, the geometry of the design can be improved, together with other aspects of safety. In Agra, state of the art designer rickshaws have made them prestigious for the users, besides being more efficient, less polluting and more comfortable.

9. An Agenda for Non-violent Mobility Corridor plans and strategy for safe and non-violent mobility should cover the following:

• Reduce need to travel by Transit Oriented Development and Travel Demand Management; • Improvement of public transport, sidewalks , cycle tracks, NMVs underpasses and overpasses; • Safety oriented planning and engineering specifications, norms and practice; • Upgrading of traffic control - multi-functional and sophisticated signal control and ITS;

A.K. Jain 47 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Table 3: Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning

1. Increase the proportion of public roads and take up traffic calming with dedicated corridors for pedestrians and cyclists. The length of dedicated cycleway can be gradually increased by planned target each year. Likewise, the length of pedestrian-friendly streets can be targeted each year. 2. Provide incentives to increase the proportion of institutions, businesses and dwellings with facilities for bicycles (e.g., daytime storage). 3. Increase on a priority-route basis the proportion of public transit vehicles capable of carrying bicycles. 4. Develop an active campaign to publicise the personal, community and ecosystems health benefits of cycling and walking. 5. Create and publicise targets to increase the annual share of work and shopping trips taken by bicycle or by walking. 6. Provide end of trip facilities , like bike racks, storage lockers and shower changing facilities at railway/metro/bus station, offices, shopping centres, etc. Source: Adapted from Kenworthy and Laube (1999)

• Driving license regime; and • Work Zone Safety.

It is necessary to provide wide and safer pedestrians corridors at grade while the motorized vehicles move up and down. The walkways also need to cater to wheelchair users that require avoidance of steps and provision of curb ramps. Such facility should be provided on all major roads, National and State Highways, in front of village abadi, cattle grazing fields, transport nodes (Railway stations, metro stations, bus terminals, etc.), and also forests and wildlife areas.

Planning for pedestrian zone and road safety:

• Identifying accident prone points, pedestrian movement, volumes and areas; • Prepare area wise/corridor wise pedestrian and road safety plans with dedicated footpaths, NMTs and cycle lanes; and • Underpasses at grade for pedestrians and cattle at regular intervals.

Engineering and implementation:

• Road management plan, repair, drainage and work zone management; • Speed breakers; • Maintenance to aim zero defect roads;

A.K. Jain 48 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 16: A 10 to 15 m wide pedestrian underpass is created by raising the vehicular carriageway by 2 to 2.4 m and dipping the pedestrian passage by 0.5 to 1.0 m. It shall be provided at regular intervals on all NH, SH, Arterial roads where there is sizable volume of pedestrians, NMTs / cycles, cattle / wildlife. Similar provision is required on the railway lines for safe crossing of pedestrians and animals.

Fig. 17: Safe corridors for Cyclists, Cattle, Pedestrians and Wheelchair Users

• Road markings, zebra lines; and • Provide railings and crash barriers, signage, orientation points and guide maps.

Traffic regulation/control and audit:

• ITS, Intelligent signals, alarm and communication system, unified CCTV command platform be installed; • Streamline drivers licensing procedures, training and behavior; • Check overloading of goods vehicles and joy rides; • No free U-turn, no blind corners, keep right of way and crossings free from parking, bus stops, kiosks, taxi stands, encroachments, etc.; • Online complaints and redressal system to be in place; and

A.K. Jain 49 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 18: Structured Action Plan for Road Safety.

• Inter-state/city and inter-departmental coordination.

Help in emergency:

• Helpline, surveillance, first aid, trauma centres, ambulance service; and • Integrated/common complaint centre.

Institutional capacity building, public participation and support:

• Organizational resources, financial strengthening and capacity building; • Promote active safety campaigns by participation of public, road users/citizens; • Accountability, monitoring framework; • Revisiting Motor Vehicle Acts and other legal framework; and • Pedestrians right to safe mobility be deemed as a human right.

10. Conclusions Keeping in view the importance of road safety, it needs to take up as a mission, with a well structured action plan. It should move beyond reactive actions to the incremental radical and transformative. These include regulatory, strategic, governance and performance aspect of road safety ladder (Fig. 18). The ‘National Road Safety Mission’ could be under the PM and ‘State Road Safety Missions’ under the CMs of each State.

A.K. Jain 50 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

References Barton H., (2003), Shaping Neighborhoods, Spon Press, London. Boesiger, W (Ed.) (1999), Le Corbusier-Complete Works, Birkhauser Publishers, Besel. Central Pollution Control Board,Various reports (2005-10), New Delhi. Delhi Development Authority (2007), Master Plan for Delhi-2021, New Delhi. Frampton, Kenneth (1996), Charles Correa, Perennial Press, Mumbai. Government of India, (2013), 12th Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, New Delhi. Government of India, (2006), National Urban Transport Policy, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi. Jain A.K., (2009), Urban Transport, Planning and Management, APH Publishing, New Delhi. Jain A.K., (2012), Sustainable Urban Transport and Systems, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi Kenworthy and F.B. Laube (1999) An International Sourcebook of Automobile Dependence in Cities, 1960-1990, University Press of Colorado, Boulder. Kenworthy, J., (2011), ‘An International Comparative Perspective on Fast Rising Motorization and Automobile Dependence’ in Urban Transport in the Developing World: Perspectives from the First Decade of the New Millennium, edited by Harry t. Dimitriou and Ralph Gakenheimer, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham. Newman, Peter, R Kenworthy, (1999), Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Independence, the Centre for Resource Economics, Washington DC, USA. Rees, William E., (1997), Ecological Footprints and Urban Transportation, Velocity, Barcelona. Replogle, M., (1993), Bicycle and cycle rickshaws in Asian cities, 6th conference on urban transport in developing countries, CODATU-VI, Tunis, 1993. UN Habitat, (2013), Planning and Design of Sustainable Urban Mobility, Nairobi/New York. Vuchie, R.V. (1981), Urban Public Transport System and Technology, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey. World Health Organisation, (2004), World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention, Geneva. Wilbur Smith Associates, (2008), Traffic and Transport Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi. World Bank, (2002), India’s Transport Sector, the Challenges Ahead, Washington, D.C.

A.K. Jain 51 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Municipal Solid Waste Management Dynamics in a Burgeoning African Metropolis: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Kiran Sandhu Abstract Towns and cities of the developing countries are engulfed by a waste crisis that seems almost unsurmountable looking at the prevailing management responses. There is indeed, a dire need to formulate and implement policy framework that can lead priority to municipal solid waste management and enable holistic interventions to take shape. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is no exception to the challenges of waste. This research paper is an attempt to provide an insight into the municipal solid waste management dynamics in Ethiopia from the point of view of attempting how our African counterpart and a developing country seeks to manage its waste in the era of hyper consumerism where waste is emerging as a major urban crisis. In doing so the author analyses the situation in Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia and unravelling the operational dynamics and the governance aspect of waste in the city. The study identifies specific challenges and dwells on a broad framework for better municipal solid waste management in Addis Ababa.

1. Introduction From being in a state of ‘invisibility’ municipal solid waste (henceforth referred as MSW) has emerged from the closet to become one of the most widely debated environment agendas of the 21st century. The reasons are primarily embedded in the visibility of the issue that has led it to be considered as one of the prominent challenges in the contemporary times, the subject that requires urgent and immediate attention before the situations turns from bad to worse and aggravates beyond control.

Looking at the global MSW generation statistics, the current generation stands at two billion tones annually and is expected to touch seven billion tones by 2025 (Davis, 2008, p.3). The focus and need for appropriate MSW largely stems from the research and realization of the occupational and environmental health risks associated right from the point of generation to its ultimate disposal. In the developing countries, even the base minimal regulatory frameworks for MSW management, either does not exist or is poorly enforced. Thus, sights of large quantities of waste lying uncollected, drains clogged by wastes are not uncommon. In fact, the low and middle income countries have a collection rate varying between 10 to 90 percent (UN-Habitat, 2010). Also in most developing countries, MSW management represents a high proportion of the recurrent

Kiran Sandhu, Faculty at Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar. E-mail : [email protected]

Kiran Sandhu 52 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

budget, sometimes, as much as 20 to 50 percent. But ironically despite the high costs, low collection rates are also accompanied by poor disposal.

Thus, the growing rates of waste production and the threats posed by its inept management has prompted international organizations and countries to bring it to the forefront of environment debates, more so in the last four decades. The sound of the Waste Management Hierarchy with its three ‘R’ principle (reduce, reuse, recycle) is clearly heard in the articulations pertaining to the Millennium Development Goals and the Rio+20 Summit. This thus brings in further focus to prioritize MSW management and frame appropriate measures to deal with the same at country levels. Looking at the context, the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is faced with a major challenge emanating from the domain of municipal solid waste management. Ethiopia is also one of the fastest urbanizing country in Africa and the plethora of problems accompanying urbanization are becoming more visible by day.

2. Ethiopia, A Country Profile The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is a land locked country and the second most populous country in Africa with a population of 84.3 million (CSA, 2012). It has also one of the fastest growing population in Sub Sahara Africa with an annual growth rate of 3.8% and an urban population is 17% (ibid) . However, with a per capita income of only USD 220, it is one of the countries in the world with lowest income levels, which is low even by the African standards, where the average per capita income is estimated at USD $ 450 (UN-Habitat, 2008, p.7). The rapid rate of migration from rural to urban centres and especially to the capital - Addis Ababa is posing severe challenges and strain on its existing infrastructure and municipal solid waste management is very much a part of this scenario. Currently Ethiopia is the second fastest growing economy in Africa after Congo and can therefore, expect a faster rate of urban growth well into the future thus compounding the urban challenges. Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, is one of the most prominent primate cities of Africa due to its demographic, historic, diplomatic and political significance. Covering an area of 540 sq km and with a population, of 3.04 million, amounting to 23% of the national urban population the city is experiencing a rapid pace of physical and socio-economic transformation (Woldetensae, Fanta and Haile, 2011, p..).

The city has been experiencing a high growth of urbanization with its population growing at the rate of 2.9% per year and is estimated to reach 5 million by 2020. The city located in the rough geographical centre of Ethiopia is currently experiencing spatial spread towards southern and eastern side. East South western parts of the main city is guided largely by its undulating terrain and development of road network. The city is also experiencing a dynamic transformation from

Kiran Sandhu 53 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 being a predominantly administrative and service centre into an industrial and financial hub.

The household income and expenditure survey conducted by CSA (Central Statistical Agency, 2012) revealed that 41.5% of households in Addis Ababa earned less than 4100 ETB / year (less than 340 ETB/month). UN-Habitat (2007) estimate that about 50% of the population lives below or close to poverty line and a figure of 70-80% as living at or below subsistence level. Another study (Bogale, 2012) mentions nearly 50% of the population below poverty line with a monthly income less than 20 Euros per household (476 ETB) and about 23% households in absolute poverty with less than 13 Euros per month (309.4 ETB). The growing manifestation of urban poverty in Addis Ababa is the overcrowding and congested living conditions and poor access to urban basic services including MSW in the city.

3. Municipal Solid Waste Facts According, to UN-Habitat, 2011, MSW comprises of household, commercial, institutional and street wastes, which together are termed municipal solid wastes. Small quantities of construction and demolition debris are often generated by refurbishment or small alterations in houses, and these wastes are often mixed with household wastes. Specifically, in case of Ethiopia, FDRE, Solid Waste Management Proclamation No 513/2007, defines MSW as anything that is neither liquid nor gas and is discarded as unwanted. Obviously this definition subscribes to the international definition provided by the UN-Habitat but also appears wide enough to include bio - medical waste and other types as a part of solid waste in the city.

The per capita amount of waste generated for the year 2003 in Ethiopia was estimated to be in the range of 0.17 to 0.48 kg / capita / day for urban areas and 0.11 to 0.35 kg / capita / day for rural areas. The total generation of MSW is estimated to be between 2.8 to 8.8 million tones. This can be split to approximately 0.6 to 1.8 million tones from urban areas and 2.2 to 7.0 million tones from rural areas (EPA / World Bank, 2004 in FGE,2010).

In case of Addis Ababa, the municipal solid waste generation per capita is 0.21 kg / capita to 0.35 kg / capita / day (Regassa, Sundaraa and Seboka, 2010) and a total of 650 tones per day. About 75% of the waste is generated from residential and commercial sectors out of which 3/5th of the waste comprises of largely organic matter. It is estimated that about 60-65% of the MSW generated is collected and disposed off by the Municipal Authorities in the landfill, about 5% is recycled

1 ETB refers to Ethiopian birr, the currency of Ethiopia and is equivalent to 19.33 USD and 3.15 INR

Kiran Sandhu 54 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

another 5% is composted and the remaining 25% is dumped off in an uncontrolled manner in vacant plots, streets or river and streams (ibid). Taking into account the budget allocated for the Addis Ababa city, MSW management constitutes only 1 % of the total city government budget (AASBPDA, 2004 as seen in Tsegaye,2007).

4. Municipal Solid waste Management Operations; Governance Insights The overall responsibility of managing the MSW in Addis Ababa lies with the Sanitation Beautification and Park Development Agency (SBPDA) since 2003. The SBPDA has developed five main administrative units. One of the unit is for planning, research and coordination, which is divided further into three sub- divisions and is responsible for administration of the landfill site locally known as ‘Repi’, planning and research, public education and support related to SWM in the city. The second unit is a division for SWM, which been established in each of the 10 sub-cities locally known as Woredas. The SBPDA responsibility includes managing and coordinating the sanitation, collection, transportation, and disposal of solid waste in the city. The main duties are, therefore, to formulate and implement laws and regulations to coordinate the SWM and to implement the various regulations and directives from the national government. This involves responsibility for establishing mandatory standards, procedures, coordination of the 10 sub-cities, giving technical support and training in relation to MSW management and conducting research on the area.

The 10 sub-cities are coordinated by the SBPDA and are responsible for the day- to-day activities concerning MSW, including collection, transportation and street sweeping. They are also responsible for developing collection services, adopting and implementing taxes, governing and controlling the private companies, micro and small enterprises working with solid waste and maintaining statistics on solid waste. The sub - cities are further sub - divided into smaller zones known as kebeles and these are the smallest administrative units in the city. The main responsibility of the kebele administration is to keep their areas clean. This includes initiating measures that people do not dispose of their refuse illegally and penalizing those who discard their waste in open areas, observing how dwellers handle solid waste in the area, and arranging solid waste campaigns and cleaning the area.

In addition to the city government, there are also private stakeholders involved in MSW service delivery. The private sector involved in SWM in Addis Ababa is constituted by private enterprises and MSSEs (Micro and Small Scale Enterprises)

2 Prior to the establishment of SBPDA city sanitation was the duty of Health Bureau and the Environment Hygiene Department. With the restructuring of the administration of the city in 2003, some service-giving departments were merged under the SBPDA and these services are being provided by this agency.

Kiran Sandhu 55 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 1: addis Ababa Sub - Cities

Source: Horn of Africa Regional Environment Centre and Network, 2014 which operate with valid and registered licenses from the government. The municipality’s intention with the involvement of the private sector in MSW management in Addis Ababa is to make the management of solid waste more efficient in term of the rate of collection, to reduce the municipal expenses, and to improve the urban environment. In addition, the municipality aims to create jobs within this sector. Besides the formal micro enterprises engaged in the area, these are the ones which are established by Kebele Micro and Small Scale Enterprises Development Office in line with the poverty reduction and job creation program of Addis Ababa City Government. Regarding the private sector operating in the city, according to SBPDA Report, in 2004, 149 registered micro enterprises and 8 small scale enterprises were operating in the city. According to PPIAF (2011). The Solid Waste Proclamation No. 513/2007 has enabled more private sector participation in waste management and the number of private enterprises has increased to 524 employing 5815 waste collectors. Following the 2007 Proclamation, the city has been divided into 549 collection zones comprising 800–1000 households, with one private enterprise assigned to each zone. Service charges for waste collection are collected as part of water consumption rates and payment for the private operators is on a volume based rate of 30 birr ($1.75) per cubic metres of waste collected. The private enterprises are involved in door to

Kiran Sandhu 56 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

door collection and transportation to municipality owned communal collection points, transporting solid wastes to or from communal/secondary collection point to disposal site.

A major stakeholder in the MSW management process has been the informal private sector comprising of unregistered family or individual owned micro scale enterprises, individual door to door collectors and scavengers from communal containers, streets and land fill site. The sector is largely responsible for the estimated 4 to 5 percent of recycling activity related to MSW. It involves individual door to door collectors (Qorales) who buys or barters recyclable wastes such as old cloths, shoes, papers, old exercise books, news papers, broken kitchen and other house hold utensils, plastic and glass made containers, tins and other scrap materials, etc.; and scavengers who picks wastes from street, communal containers and land fill site. The second level constitutes middle men who receive recyclable wastes from the door to door collectors and scavengers.

Despite the significant role of the informal sector, till the early 2000s, the attitude of the authorities was of disregard (Baudouin,et.al,2010). However, since 2003 the city government took some initiatives to facilitate the role of informal micro enterprises and also engaged in constituting micro enterprises from amongst the unemployed and individual informal waste collectors. As a result of these initiatives, the informal groups organized themselves as private enterprises and took over door to door collection in the kebeles. However, it may be mentioned that conflicts regarding territorial jurisdiction emerged and the SBPDA dealt with this problem by dividing the kebeles further into zones to ensure clear boundaries of operations. However, while the covered parts of the city became cleaner, the poor areas remained unserviced and also the issue of informal dump sites continued to persist due to lack of requisite infrastructure (containers and collection vehicles).

In 2005, the city administration, with a total disregard to the currently operating private enterprises and informal stakeholders decided to create MSSE’s relegating the previous operating enterprises (Bjerkli, 2013, p.1279). The purpose was to make a political gesture of having generated 13000 jobs in solid waste management just prior to the national elections (Ethiopian Herald, 2006, p.6 in Bjerkli, 2013, p.1279).

In 2009, under the aegis of Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) in Ethiopia to improve infrastructure and governance, the SBPDA was re-organized and the MSSEs were re-organized into co-operatives and are now working under the kebele administration. This move, however, is said to have been without involving the informal micro enterprises already existing as well as the established formal

Kiran Sandhu 57 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 private waste enterprises. In most cases, the pre-existing enterprises were forced to merge with the newly created MSSEs to avoid conflicts in serviced areas.

5. Municipal Solid Waste Operations The municipal solid waste management operations comprise of collection, transportation, disposal and recovery and the following discussions focuses specifically on these aspects in Addis Ababa.

5.1 Collection Currently, the MSW is collected by three methods, i.e, 240 containers of 8 cubic metres and serviced by 5 trucks, door to door system using two compaction trucks and the block system using 28 side loaders. The municipality is also responsible for street sweeping. The service, regarding solid waste collection, is inadequate and poorly managed. The settlement pattern and the infrastructure in the city make it almost impossible for the trucks to access many areas of the city. Therefore, the municipal containers are located near the main roads which means that a large proportion of the city’s population has to carry waste over a distance of between 0.5 and 1 km while the recommended distance is 150 metres (Regassa, Sundaraa and Seboka,2011, p.179). One container serves a population of 7367 people so due to inadequacy of collection infrastructure a large proportion of the population throws their waste illegally into ditches, rivers and open areas. Higher income households do not use container services due to their access to door-door service since they can afford to pay for it, whereas the poor areas are un-serviced or under serviced. In peri urban kebeles, containers are not placed and hence, curb side waste collection is practiced largely and in total only about 65% of the waste actually gets collected (Regassa, Sundaraa and Seboka, 2011, p.187).

5.2 Transportation The transport of waste to the landfill site is done with skipper trucks or with compactors. Although the exact figures are not known, it is estimated that up to 10,000 collectors from both public or private stakeholders are in charge of collecting waste from door to door, which is then transported by pushcarts to the skipping points where the waste is transferred to containers, or directly to waste compaction vehicle to be then transferred to the landfill site. The containers are picked up randomly, which leads to several containers remaining full for several days or weeks before being picked up and transported to the landfill. Many of the containers are overfull when the collection trucks pick them up, so it is quite common to see a lot of garbage lying around the containers. Each sub - city is responsible for transporting to the final dumping site, theRepi . However, old and outdated infrastructure especially vehicles pose major challenges. The vehicles can carry only a single container at a time with maximum capacity of 8 cubic

Kiran Sandhu 58 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

metres and are usually picked randomly as mentioned above (Regassa, Sundaraa and Seboka, 2011, p.189). Additionally, private institutions with a capital of 10,000 birr and above are bound to transfer refuse on their own directly to the waste dump. In 2010, the solid waste management agency purchased 44 new trucks increasing the number to 104, however, on account of the majority being from the old fleet, this did not sort out the problem of transportation and hence adhocism in MSW transport continues.

5.3 Treatment and Disposal Mechanical facilities are non - existent and whatever sorting out takes place is done manually by the households themselves to generate income from the waste by selling the recyclables to the scrap dealers and also by MSSEs and private enterprises to a small extent. However, the primary segregation by households is practiced on a very small scale as Regassa, Sundaraa and Seboka (2011, p.185) point out. Similar to the kabadiwallas in India, the qorales in Addis Ababa buy recyclables, such as paper, metals, plastic, etc; from households and sell them to small scrap dealers or recycling units directly.

All refuse collected in Addis Ababa has one destination, which is land filling, in an area found in south-west of the city. This landfill is 13 km from the centre of

Fig. 2: The Repi Dumpsite in Addis Ababa

Kiran Sandhu 59 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Addis Ababa and is 25 hectares in area. The present system of disposal is hauling the wastes by a truck and spreading and levelling by bulldozer. The landfill is surrounded by human habitation and a potential health hazard to the residents. There is no systematic recording and assessment of the amount of waste collected and transported by the municipal or private enterprises and the final disposal site is lacking a weighing bridge to register the amount of residues landfilled, almost no robust data that helps to make a valid assessment the performance of the waste management, or to determine to what extent the streams of valuable materials recovered and recycled is available. With no provision of leachate collection and treatment, odor and vector control and fire hazard due to self internal combustion are the major threats from the landfill site. In addition to disposal at the landfill, waste is indiscriminately dumped into Akaki river and streams and vacant plots of land or simply burning the MSW.

5.4 Resource Recovery In the absence of any formal setup for resource recovery, the households themselves and the informal waste sector is the dominant recycler of waste with some contributions also coming from the formal private enterprises. In this manner at least 5% of the solid waste gets recycled where as the potential for recycling could be very high if source and secondary segregation took place. Composting activity is currently very limited (Regassa, Sundarra and Seboka,2011, 185), the major cause being the lack of market. Till recently, modern technologies such as incineration, bio-methanisation, pelletisation were not adopted largely due to the high cost of their application as also inadequate suitability in the context. However, there is an attempt to move towards technologies and in this context the Repi landfill site is under consideration for establishing a methane extraction plant as is discussed later.

6. Policy and Regulations Some of the early legislation includes, the Ethiopian Environment Policy (Proclamation No 9/1995) wherein Section 3.7 emphasizes, provision of efficient waste collection services and its safe disposal. The Proclamation No. 300/2002 pertains to environment pollution control and provides regulations regarding MSW management are provided in part II section 5 of the document. Further to this, the Ethiopian Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Programme (ESDPRD) 2004 also gave importance to MSW management as one of the components towards achieving sustainable development.

In the year 2007, the Ethiopian President passed the Solid Waste Management Proclamation No. 513/2007, which allows private operators to obtain a permit to engage in the collection, transportation and use or disposal of waste. The Proclamation encouraged urban administrations to create appropriate enabling conditions to promote private investment and operation in the provision of

Kiran Sandhu 60 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

SWM services and allowed private operators to obtain a permit to engage in the collection, transportation and use or disposal of waste. The objective of the proclamation was to increase solid waste collection rates to reduce the potential negative environmental and social impacts of insufficient SWM and provide economic and social benefit through increased private sector participation in MSW management.

The Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP) 2006, is a comprehensive policy document that envisions Ethiopia’s development strategies and targets. Section 7.15.2-b and 17.15.3 pertains to strategic goals towards realization of the environmentally sound development vision of Ethiopia inclusive of MSW management. The PASDEP document also emphasizes for creating enabling frameworks to ensure private sector participation and creation of MSEs. However, Ethiopia does not have a national waste management policy to further streamline and regulate waste management scenario. So while the policy guidelines exist, even though not in comprehensive details, yet ground implementation poses serious challenges.

7. MSW Management: Inferences and Challenges The above discussion points to the management scenario of municipal solid waste in Addis Ababa. It can be gauged quite clearly, that while on one side the garbage governance has progressed interms of decentralizing solid waste management services to the lowest administrative unit, i.e, the kebeles and also created immense employment opportunities particularly by formalizing a lot of informal operations into formal micro enterprises and co-operatives, yet the system continues to suffer from adhocism and rudimentary overtures that poses considerable and formidable challenge towards achieving efficiency in solid waste management in the city. Some of the major challenges identified are:

• The MSW generation figures are approximations and no reliable data is available to judge the actual quantum of generation, collection or disposal; • The Country does not have a waste management policy or an implementation plan to give a direction to holistically manage its waste; • Proclamations are insufficient to impose efficient MSW management and encounter implementation problems; • There are deficiencies in all aspects of waste management right from storage, collection to transportation, disposal and recovery; • MSW collection figures are small and the whole city has inadequate coverage especially the low income areas; • Resource recovery mechanisms are lacking and recycling takes place primarily through the informal sector at a limited scale;

Kiran Sandhu 61 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• The only landfill site is exhausted and inefficiently managed. It posesa potential hazard to surrounding resident population. • Private sector participation and MSSEs have been encouraged but the modalities and frameworks are still not in place to ensure their successful participation. There are also conflicts amongst the private enterprises, the MSEs and the informal sector over area demarcations for waste collection. • The municipality has limited institutional, managerial and financial capacity to ensure efficient MSW management; • The waste management hierarch at model of sustainable waste management is not at all followed; and • There is inadequate literature on MSW operations and management in Ethiopia and necessitates the need for more research towards seeking better imperatives for MSW management.

12. Conclusions From the above discussions it can be inferred that Ethiopia faces immense challenge to manage its waste efficiently. The current system as is reviewed is not environmentally, socially or economically sound. Increased urbanization and population growth particularly in urban centres as Addis Ababa, combined with a lack of resources to provide basic infrastructure and urban services, have led to a series of problems such as increased generation of waste and inadequate collection, transport and disposal of solid waste.

However, there are some recent serious initiatives by the city administration also that are likely to guide policy decisions and activities in future. In this context is the partial closing of the Repi landfill under theRepi Clean Development Mechanism project. The Addis Ababa city administration received a soft loan from the French Development Agency for sanitarily close the landfill and implement mechanism for methane gas extraction in May 2011. The solid waste management project at the Repi landfill is proposed to be implemented in phases, wherein phase I, involves sanitary closure of a major section of the landfill site to capture and flare LFG. Under phase II, a small active portion of the site would continue to receive material until 2013 when a new landfill site 50 kilometers to the north of Addis Ababa becomes operational. The Repi landfill site would subsequently be closed, not allowing any further dumping of material. On the social side, the waste pickers working at the Repi will be helped to organize themselves into cooperatives and earn their living.

The private sector both formal and informal is an important stakeholder in the MSW management processes. There is a need to conduct further research into the operations and underpin the practices with particular emphasis on the role played by the private sector, the impediments and the possibilities to achieve

Kiran Sandhu 62 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

the target of sustainable MSW management in Ethiopia. Besides, it is also of significance to frame interventions that address not only the environmental concerns but are also socially productive so that the immense human capital deployed in current waste management systems is not adversely impacted by the advent of technological solutions. The integrated sustainable solid waste management paradigms are globally already well established and the adoption of the same as a base to effective waste management is sine qua non. The search and pursuit of sustainable solutions globally continues, stimulated by the key concern for public health and environment. It thus goes without saying that MSW management continues to defy prototype solutions and looking at the accelerated pace of consumerism accompanied by a race for development, it is likely to move up even further on the list of priorities of countries and international organizations in times to come.

References Abebew D, (2008), Determinants of solid waste disposal practices in urban areas of Ethiopia: A household analysis, Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review, vol.24, No.1, pp.1-14. Alebachew, S, (2003), The 5th urban and city management course for Africa, MDPESA,WBI and GDLN centres in Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Ghana, Tanzania and Uganda, Oct 20-24, 2003. Baudouin,A, Bjerkli,C, Habtemariam,Y, Chekole, Z.F, (2010), ‘Between neglect and control: questioning partnerships and integration of informal actors in public solid waste management in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, African Studies Quarterly, Vol 2, No. 2-3, pp.29-42. Bjerkli, C.L, (2013), Governance on the ground: a study of solid waste management in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, Vol. 37,No.4, pp.1273-1284. Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia http://www.csa.gov.et/images/documents/pdf_files/ recentsurveysreports/HCE_2010_11_Statistical%20Report.pdf, accessed on 1/12/2013. Davies, A.R. (2008), The geographies of garbage governance : interventions, interactions, and outcomes, Ashgate, Burlington. FDRE, (2010), Ethiopian growth and Transformation Plan, Volume II, Policy matrix, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Addis Ababa. FDRE, (1995), Proclamation No. 9/1995, Environment Protection Authority Establishment proclamation, pp.70-73. FDRE, (2002), Proclamation No. 300/2002, Environment Pollution Control, pp.1959-1966, http://phe-ethiopia.org/resadmin/index.php?news=52, accessed on 2/2/2014. FEPA, (2004), Technical Guidelines of household waste management, The Federal Environment Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.et/.../Guidelines/Households%20Waste%20 Management.d...‎, accessed on 30/12/2013.icipation in the solid waste sector in Ethiopia. MoFED, (2002), The Ethiopian Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Programme (ESDPRD), Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Addis Ababa. MoFED, (2005), Ethiopia: Building on progress, a plan for accelerated and sustained development to end poverty (PASDEP), Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Addis Ababa.

Kiran Sandhu 63 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Regassa,N, Sundaraa,R.D, Seboka,B.B, (2011), Challenges and opportunities in municipal solid waste management: the case of Addis Ababa City, central Ethiopia, vol.33,no.3, pp. 179-190. Tsegaye, F (2007), ‘Assessment of management options for domestic solid waste in Addis Ababa, Unpublished thesis, Addis Ababa University, etd.aau.edu.et/dspace/ bitstream/123456789/.../1/Fitsum%20Tsegaye.pdf‎, accessed on 11/2/2014. UNDP (2011), From dump to dollars: Repi landfill gas gets clean development mechanism (CDM) registration. UN-Habitat, (2009), Solid waste management in world’s cities, pre-publication presentation, viewed 27 august 2011. United Nations (2012), World Urbanization Prospects, The 2011 Revision, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, viewed, 12 january 2013,http://esa.un.org/unup/pdf/WUP2011_ Highlights.pdf. World Bank, (2011), PPIAF supports private sector participation in the solid waste management in Ethiopia.

WEBSITE (info.worldbank.org/etools/.../Module4urbanServiceDeliveryEth.pdf, accessed on 11/2/2014) Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia http://www.csa.gov.et/images/documents/pdf_files/ recentsurveysreports/HCE_2010_11_Statistical%20Report.pdf, accessed on 1/12/2013. www.mofed.gov.et/.../GTP%20Policy%20Matrix%20(English)2.pdf‎, accessed on 11/2/2014 www.fsc.gov.et/.../Proc%20No.%209-1995%20Environmental%20Prote...‎, accessed on 2/2/2014 http://www.hoarec.org/index.php/activities-energy/repi-landfill, accessed on 4/3/2014. http://www.imf.org/External/NP/prsp/2002/eth/01/. Accessed on 12/2/2014 www.afdb.org/.../Plan_for_Accelerated_and_Sustained_(PASDEP)_final...‎, accessed on 12/2/2014 http://www.in.undp.org/content/ethiopia/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/ successstories/Clean-Development-Mechanism/, accessed on 22/2/2014. UNFCCC/CCNUCC, (2010), Project Design Document Form Version 0.41http://waste.ccac- knowledge.net/sites/default/files/CCAC_images/documents/Addis%20Ababa%20City%20 Administration%20-%20Case%20study%20-%20CDM%20project%20landfill%20Addis%20Ababa. pdf, accessed on 18/2/2014. http://www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/UN%20HABITAT%20 2010%20Solid%20Waste%20Management%20in%20the%20Worlds%20Cities_0.pdf, accessed on 20/2/2014 www.ppiaf.org/.../ppiaf.../PPIAF-Impact-Stories-PSP-in-Ethiopia-Solid-...‎accessed on 2/2/2014.

Kiran Sandhu 64 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Causes, Forms and Issues of Urban Sprawl

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma Abstract In the present age of rapid urbanization urban sprawl is a reality and is liable to occur. The causes and issues associated with it, need careful consideration from the policy planners to work out pragmatic strategies to control and regulate the urban and suburban development. Regional planning approach for urban areas appears to be the best option to bring about planned and controlled development in the suburbs. Strict enforcement and control by the Development Authorities seems to be the key to check speculative tendencies and development on agricultural land.

1. INTRODUCTION Unprecedented urbanization and migration result in multifold growth of urban areas. Hence, towns and cities witness land-use conversions along major roads and expansion in their immediate vicinity. Such developments outside of compact urban centres along highways and in rural countryside or surrounding green areas are called urban sprawl. Generally, they present unplanned and haphazard growth, decreasing agriculture land, costly physical infrastructure, no regard to social infrastructure, lack of overall integrated development, etc. Therefore, it becomes imperative to identify the issues for all round development of the city so that livability conditions in the suburbs are better and cities are compactly developed. A clear understanding of the concept, characteristics, forms, causes and issues of urban sprawl helps in suggesting planning and developmental strategies to develop the cities on sustainable basis.

2. URBAN SPRAWL AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS Urban sprawl is a multifaceted concept, which indicates spread of city outwards and to its suburbs. It is generally low density residential and commercial development, which is unplanned and presents unexpected expansion of development in natural areas. While defining urban sprawl K. Siddhartha [2000] stated that, it is ‘the disconcertion of the urban activity. Urban sprawl is due to the expansion of the city beyond of its city boundary. It is the by-product of highway and automobiles. Automobiles, highway and flyover compel the city to grow outside from its jurisdiction boundary’. According to S. Mukherjee [2000] urban sprawl is defined as, ‘a term describing the physical pattern of low density expansion of large urban areas under market conditions into the surrounding agricultural areas’.

Ashwani Luthra, Faculty, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar. E-mail : [email protected] Swati Sharma, Former Executive Planner, DHV India Private Ltd., Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 65 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Adding infrastructural dimension to urban sprawl S.K. Kulshrestha [2006] defines it as, ‘a process of growth of urban area or suburban area in an unplanned manner having no regard to social infrastructure and subsequent needs for transport and other facilities and services’.

Thus, urban sprawl is basically a process of transformation of the surrounding rural areas into suburban or semi-urban areas as a result of spill over of population or expansion of the city beyond its city boundary or Municipal Corporation boundary, which is largely unplanned. Urban sprawl gets impetus from the market conditions or demand and supply factors. As if there is demand for housing that is not fulfilled by the city centre then people will move to the surrounding areas. Generally, private developers fulfill the demand of housing in these surrounding areas, hence, sprawl is the result.

Sprawl is mainly the outcome of the highways and automobiles because they provide easy accessibility to the people residing in the surrounding areas. It is because of improved accessibility that the people are able to commute to their work places fairly conveniently; otherwise people hesitate to reside in the far flung areas. Generally, sprawl witnesses low density or leapfrogged development, which presents sporadic or sparse pattern of spatial growth. As a result, it becomes difficult and costly for the municipal bodies to provide infrastructure insuch type of developments. Therefore, these areas are usually devoid of municipal services, thus, leading to unhealthy living environment or unhygienic conditions. Urban sprawl negatively affects the budget of its residents as it increase car dependency. As public transport is not viable and available in such areas, therefore, people have to rely on their personal vehicles, which in turn lead to high fuel consumption. Thus, urban sprawl is characterized with unplanned and unexpected growth, which is largely encouraged by car dependency and is the by-product of highways and other transportation improvements. Market driven forces result in dispersed low density development in the suburbs of the city having disconcerting urban activities and devoid of basic infrastructure required for habitation of human beings. Though urban sprawl is generally considered to be unplanned and devoid of basic amenities, but market forces and rapid urbanization lead to high spill-over from the municipal boundaries of the cities. Multiplicity of development agencies and other legal and environmental concerns also pave way for urban sprawl, especially in fast growing larger cities.

3. CAUSES OF URBAN SPRAWL There are several reasons which lead to urban sprawl. Some of the important causes are:

3.1. Increase in Population Increasing population of the large urban areas is the basic or root cause of urban sprawl. Large number of migrants from the nearby villages and smaller towns

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 66 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

come to bigger cities in search of better employment opportunities and later settle there itself. Also, increasing foreign investment through multi-national companies (MNCs) in the bigger urban settlements has resulted in increasing employment opportunities. This attracts a large number of migrants from the surrounding areas and adds to urban sprawl.

3.2. liberalization Policies of Government Liberalization policies of government promoting the Special Economic Zones, IT Parks and other such large scale economic activities has led to increased demand for bigger space requirement for these activities. As the city is not able to provide required space for these activities, therefore, for fulfilling their requirements they move to the surrounding areas and lead to sprawl.

3.3. lack of Regional Planning Approach The municipal governments prefer to plan the areas under their jurisdictions and are least bothered about the overall regional planning. In case of most of the cities concept of regional planning is missing. If it is present in certain cases then it is not efficient enough to control the unplanned growth. Lack of integrated regional planning approach to control and regulate urban and suburban development is the major reasons for urban sprawl.

3.4. Increasing Buying Capacity Increase in income of the urbanites also leads to urban sprawl. As more money comes to the people their wish to live in a bigger house or in a comparatively green and better environment increases. The congested environs of the city core compel the people to move to the outer areas leading to sprawl. Farm houses in the suburbs are contributing to urban sprawl of metropolitan cities and megalopolises. These farm houses also attract other lavish housing projects of the private colonizers to fulfill the wishes and requirements of environment conscious higher income families.

3.5. Decaying Central Areas With the increasing population the central areas start decaying and compel the residents of the core areas to move outside the city for a better living environment. As the economic activities increase in the cities, most of the development try to come up in or around their core areas. Hence, density of development increases in the central area and a mismatch with infrastructure occurs. Hence, central area becomes congested and environmentally poor. The residents are not able to enjoy the modern urban gadgets. Therefore, at times some residents prefer to have dual housing, one paternal house and another in the suburbs. As these inhabitants are not able to enjoy the urban gadgets such as bigger car in the

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 67 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 central areas, they tend to have their second house in the suburbs, which is bigger as well.

3.6. higher Property and Business Taxes in the Cities In the municipal limits of the city the rate of property and business tax are very high. Therefore, to escape from these taxes people settle in the peripheral area where such taxes are not applicable, or if applicable then they are meager. Most of the times industrial and bigger commercial development come up in the agricultural lands beyond municipal limits. This, in turn, attracts residential development by the workers of these industries or shops. Hence, patchy development come up in the suburbs having no regard to integrated urban / suburban development.

3.7. housing Projects of Private Developers The private developers do not get space in the interiors of the city because they generally required larger areas for their projects. Also, they are not interested in the lands in the core areas because of high land values. Therefore, they move to the out skirts of the cities and add to urban sprawl.

4. foRMS OF URBAN SPRAWL Every city is having different patterns of growth and development. Therefore, the form of sprawl that occurs in a particular area is also different depending on that pattern of development. Most common form of sprawl that can be seen is ribbon development. Some of the usual forms of urban sprawl are:

4.1 Ribbon Development Ribbon development is the most common kind of development constituting urban sprawl. Such development comes along the main transit corridors Fig. 1: Ribbon Development of the city. The areas without direct access remain more or less rural. But over the time the nearby agricultural land also gets converted into urban because land value increase and some infrastructure is also extended, perpendicularly from the major roads. Providing infrastructure to this type of sprawl is very expensive. Therefore, for a longer time the inhabitants have to rely on their own sources to fulfill their infrastructural

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 68 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

requirements. This form of urban sprawl poses various traffic problems and land- use - transportation integration becomes difficult.

4.2 low Density Development Low density sprawl or sparse development is the consummative use of land for urban purposes mainly along the margins of existing metropolitan area or larger cities. Various market driven forces and social factors lead to sporadic growth of areas in loose form. The development may be planned or organic because some colonizers bring up their projects beyond municipal limits as land is available in quantum and at cheap rates. Development is partially the result of piecemeal extension of basic infrastructure, e.g., water supply, sewerage, road and power networks. No new infrastructural facilities are provided to the area, especially in the organic development. Most Fig. 2: low Density Development of the inhabitants have to rely on the private sources to fulfill their requirements.

4.3 Sporadic Development As hardly any plans exist for the land liable to urban sprawl, therefore, most of the spillover of urban growth is in the form of sporadic organic development. Mostly, the plots are cut by the private colonizers in some portions of agricultural land and are sold off to the aspirants, largely speculators. However, Fig. 3: Sporadic Development some buildings do come up over a period of time, but all such areas come up in a haphazard manner. At times, constraints posed by terrain can be the reason for such type of development. Lack of control by the local administration and interference of external economies leave these developments devoid of municipal services and other infrastructure.

4.4 Patchy Development Introduction of private partners in the development process of

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 69 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 urban areas results in patchy kind F ig. 4: Patchy Development of development in the suburbs of the cities. In the wake of no Master or Zonal Development Plans developers are free to develop any portion of suburban land. Even the Development Authorities grant them licenses to bring up their projects in the non-municipal areas. Big private developers are at their whims to develop any portion of land. As they are in competition to each other, therefore, normally they develop their townships away from each other leading to patchy kind of urban sprawl. At times, even the Development Authorities themselves bring up such projects in the suburbs of the cities. Generally, these townships are self-contained entities, but it is difficult for the Development Authorities to link there areas with the trunk services as they reflect discontinuous pattern of urban growth. This type of development is costly with respect of providing urban services such as water supply and sewerage. Also, some small colonizers take advantage of the situation and develop small colonies near these townships to reap the benefits of location. Thus, significantly smaller patches also come up in the sprawl. Overall, the urban sprawl presents a patchy type of development, which lacks integration and poses vivid concerns to rural environs.

4.5 Transit Oriented Development Transit oriented development is basically the improved form of ribbon development, which is planned and suited near to fast growing urban settlements. It is a step that helps in creating the vibrant and livable communities. Transit Fig. 5: Transit Oriented Development oriented development presents, creation of compact and walkable communities, which are centered around high transit systems. It proposes possibilities to live a higher quality of life without depending on car for mobility. Such form of development helps in decongesting the central areas/ core of the rapidly growing cities. High rise, high density developments; work places

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 70 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

and residential areas, are planned and developed along the high speed transit corridors, around the main city’s terminals, to optimize the use of precious urban / suburban land and to make the transit facility more viable. Such developments have started coming up around the mega cities of India.

4.6 high Rise Low Density Development The congested environment of the urban areas, especially the core, and vehicular fumes has resulted in demand for eco-friendly residential township. Many big colonizers have come up with townships having an idea to fulfill the demand of such section of the society. Hence, high rise low density developments have sprung up away from the congested compact development beyond municipal limits of urban settlements. The developed area of the township is generally kept as 20-25 percent and remaining is devoted to golf courses or green lands / parks. These are costly developments but are self-contained entities. But in many parts of the country they also come without any integration with the old developments and the trunk services of the cities.

5. ISSUES OF URBAN SPRAWL A number of issues have emerged as a byproduct of urban sprawl. Some of the important issues are:

5.1 non-integrated Development As the development in the suburbs come up as a result of market forces, fiscal and environmental concerns, alongwith patchy kind of development is usually witnessed. Lack of regional planning approach for urban areas leads to haphazard and organic development in the suburbs. At a later stage it becomes difficult to integrate such development as they are independent entities most of the times. At times they are gated communities as well. Hence, it becomes really difficult for the municipal government to integrate all such developments.

Fig. 6: non-Compatible Land-Use 5.2 non-Compatible Land Uses One of the major issues of the urban sprawl is non compatibility of land- uses, as the area under urban sprawl is largely unplanned by nature, and there is no strict rules and regulations in the periphery. Therefore, no concern is given to the compatibility of land-uses, which creates a haphazard situation and adversely affects the health of the residents of the area. At times residential areas come up

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 71 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 around the polluting industrial environs, which in no way is good for human health.

5.3 land Speculation As the land values are very low in the suburbs, therefore, people buy cheap parcels of land for minting profits in near future. Whenever the prices of these vacant land increase then owners sell their parcels and earn high profits. It results in land shortage especially for the weaker and lower income strata of the society. This is a very common feature seen in most of the Indian cities, that outward growth is not the need of the city but it is the tendency of the speculators to earn higher profit.

5.4 Perceived Low Aesthetic Value Urban sprawl is largely unplanned and organic by nature. Therefore, low aesthetic value is perceived. There is no systematic arrangement of land-uses or the land- uses are highly incompatible with each other. So, instead of giving eye soothing effect, such developments become eye sours for the urban community.

5.5 Inadequate Infrastructure The area under sprawl is devoid of even basic amenities such as educational, commercial, recreational, medical facilities. The residents of the area do not have easy access to government facilities. The residents have to travel to far flung areas to avail those facilities. The unauthorized colonies / developments lack provisions of municipal water supply and sewerage facilities.

5.6 loss of Farmland Urban sprawl leads to loss of valuable farmlands because it consumes the surrounding agricultural land. This adversely affects the agrarian economy of the nation as a whole.

5.7 higher Consumption of Land, Water and Energy As there is ample of land available in the surrounding areas at cheaper rates, people buy large chunks of land which is actually much more than their actual requirement. Same is the case of water and energy. As the residents of suburban areas have bigger lawns, consumption of water is also more. Since, they have to travel longer distances to avail educational, commercial, medical, and other facilities apart from their work places, so more energy (fuel) is used.

5.8 loss of Wildlife Habitat Sometimes, sprawl also absorbs the lush green forests in the vicinity of the cities. These forests house variety of species of plants and animals. But due to the sprawl many species of plants and animals get vanished which adversely affects the green cover and disturbs the urban ecology.

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 72 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

5.9 Costly Infrastructure Providing infrastructure in the sprawling areas is very costly because mainly sprawl come in patches or along the corridors. Therefore, providing municipal water supply and sewerage facilities become very costly. Even the private colonizers are charging quite high for the services they provide to the residents of their colonies.

5.10 loss of Time and Productivity in Commuting There is no regard to social infrastructure in developments constituting urban sprawl. To avail these services and facilities people are forced to commute daily to the main city by their own vehicles. As the suburbs may not be their work places, therefore, lot of time is wasted while commuting these long distances. The overall impact of longer commuting is on the productivity of the residents of urban sprawl.

CONCLUSIONS In the present age of rapid urbanization urban sprawl is a reality and is liable to occur. The causes and issues associated with it, need careful consideration from the policy planners to work out pragmatic strategies to control and regulate the urban and suburban development. Regional planning approach for urban areas appears to be the best option to bring about planned and controlled development in the suburbs. Strict enforcement and control by the Development Authorities seems to be the key to check speculative tendencies and development on agricultural land.

References Kulshrestha, S. K., (2006), Dictionary of Urban and Regional Planning, Kalpaz Publications, New Delhi. Marengo, Cecilia, (2009), Urban Sprawl and Spatial Planning, Papirozifou, USA. Sidhartha, K. and Mukherjee, (2000), Cities Urbanization and Urban Systems, Kisalaya Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

WEBSITE Urban Sprawl – En.wikipedia.org/wiki/urban sprawl Urban Sprawl and Urban Planning - http://www.youtube.com/watch?uv=vQEaGyESK6c&feat ure=related

Ashwani Luthra and Swati Sharma 73 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Community Benefits of Green Areas and Parks

Ashish Batra Abstract At the turn of the 20th century, the majority of people lived in rural areas and small towns, relatively close to their land. At the beginning of the 21st century, most of us will migrate to the cities and metropolitan areas. In the view of park visionaries, parks are not “amenities”; they are necessities, providing recreation, inspiration and essential respite from the city’s blare and bustle. The visionaries are particularly concerned for the residents of the city that, the parks be made available to all and especially for those who do not have the resources. This paper discusses how desperate the need is for city parks especially in the inner-city neighborhoods, and also describes the social, environmental, economic and health benefits of the parks for the residents of the urban area.

1. Introduction City parks, green areas and open spaces improve our physical and psychological health, strengthen our communities and make our cities and neighborhoods more attractive places to live and work. But very few people are able to enjoy these benefits, especially in metropolitan cities. Low income neighborhoods populated by minorities and recent immigrants are especially devoid of green spaces. From an equity point of view, there is a strong need to redress this imbalance. Urban planners and urban designers believe that the parks will improve public health, relieve stresses from the urban life and create a democratic public space, where rich and poor will share the same on equal basis. However, by the mid 21st century, city parks and green spaces will decline with the increasing urban population.

Over the past decade, interest in city parks and green areas has revived. Government and civic authorities around the country have revitalized city parks, community open spaces and developed gardens and tot lots, on vacant lands.

General evidences show that, when people have access to parks they exercise more. Subsequently, the impact of regular physical exercises reflect in better health condition and reduce the risk of diseases like, heart disease, hypertension, colon cancer and diabetes. The presence of green environment and physical activity not only improve the symptoms of depression and anxiety but also improve the overall well being of the society. Beyond the benefits of exercise, the growing children when come in contact with natural green areas improve the physical and psychological health.

Ashish Batra, Consultant (Urban and Regional Development), LEA Associates South Asia Private Limited, New Delhi. E mail- [email protected]

Ashish Batra 74 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Many studies have shown that parks and open space increase the value of residential property and growing evidence points to a similar benefit on commercial property value as well. The presence of parks and recreation facilities are important location factors for municipal corporations and individuals to choose a place to live for better quality of life. Green spaces in urban area provide substantial environmental benefits. Trees reduce air and water pollution and help in keeping cities cooler. Trees and plants are more effective and less expensive ways to manage storm water runoff.

City parks and open spaces also produce social and community development benefits. They make inner city neighborhoods more liveable. They offer recreational and employment opportunities for youth, poor children and BPL families. Access to public parks and recreational facilities has been strongly linked to reductions of crime.

In short, the community garden increases residents sense of community ownership and stewardship; provide a focus for neighborhood activities; expose inner city youth to nature; connect people from diverse cultures; reduce crime by cleaning up vacant lots; and build community leadership.

2. The significance of Parks An attempt has been made in this paper to explain the significance of parks and green spaces taking in to consideration following factors:

Environment: The Parks protect and conserve biodiversity. They play a vital role in keeping the air and water clean and counteracting the damaging effects of pollution. Parks and green spaces give refuge to various species and build buffers against the impact of climate change.

Health: Parks are inspiring and pleasant places to exercise and improve physical and mental wellbeing for today’s society, which is more vulnerable to stress, mental health issues and obesity than before.

People and Communities: Parks are places to meet and celebrate with family and friends. They are inclusive and accessible. They are venues for community festivals, events and sports activities. Parks are the scene of excitement, refreshment, relaxation and solitude.

Economy: Neighborhood, city and regional economies benefit significantly from parks. They stimulate the recreation and tourism industries. They are significant sources of employment for local communities and range of other associated economic benefits.

Traditionally, the value and benefit of parks has not been estimated and overlooked. Along with the parks and green spaces, the entire assets of city

Ashish Batra 75 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 1: The Neighborhood Park View

Fig. 2: Benefits of Parks and Green Areas

Ashish Batra 76 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

like brick and mortar, intellectual property, social institutions and networks, etc., must be maintained or they will deteriorate. Continuing improvement and investment will reflect on social, cultural and environmental values as well as higher economic returns. Figure 1 shows the example of a modern neighborhood park and Figure 2 shows the flow diagram of benefits of parks and green spaces for urban area.

3. Benefits of Parks, Green Areas and Open spaces The major benefits of parks and green areas are described below:

3.1 Environmental Benefits Pollution Abatement and Cooling: Green spaces in urban areas provide substantial environmental benefits. The trees generate oxygen; control air and water pollution; manage water cycle; and prevent soil erosion. In a park with extensive tree cover, such as urban forest, helps to remove from the air as much as 14 percent of sulphur dioxide, 13 percent of suspended particulate matter, 8 percent of nitrogen dioxide and 0.05 percent of carbon monoxide. Trees in combination with soil under it, act as natural filters for water pollution. Their leaves, trunks, roots and associated soil remove polluted matter from the water before it reaches storm water drain or sewers. Trees also absorb nutrients created by human activity, such as, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, which otherwise pollute streams and lakes. Trees also act as a natural air conditioners to help keep cities cooler, mitigate the heat effects of concrete and glass, which can turn neighborhood areas into ovens under the scorching summer sun. The evaporation from a single large tree can produce the cooling effect of ten room- size air conditioners operating 24 hours a day.

Controlling Storm water Runoff: Trees more effectively and less expensively manage the flow of storm water runoff than concrete sewers and storm water drains. Runoff problems occur in the cities because they are covered with impervious surfaces, such as, roads, sidewalks, parking lots and rooftops, which prevent the water from soaking into the ground. Hence, trees and unpaved areas slow down the rate of water to reach storm water drain.

3.2 Public Health Benefits Contact with green spaces and nature enriches our psychological, emotional and spiritual wellbeing. Parks are places of adventure, challenge, exercise, peace, quietness, recreation, gathering and relaxation. In them, a sense of enjoyment, strong community spirit and wonder in nature can be observed. Parks offer a range of recreation activities to bring families and friends together.

Physical Activity Makes People Healthier: People can substantially improve their health and quality of life by paying moderate amounts, for physical activity

Ashish Batra 77 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 in their daily lives. The health benefits would be proportional to the amount of physical activities. Hence, increase in physical activities is directly proportionate to better quality of life.

Access to Parks Increases Frequency of Exercise: Many studies show that, when people have access to parks, they exercise more. When people have no where to walk, they gain weight. Obesity problem is more prominent in those neighborhood areas which lack provision of parks and open spaces. Dense housing, congested streets and mixed land-uses reduce the probability of good health.

Exposure to Nature and Green Areas Make People Healthier: Beyond the recreational opportunities offered by parks, many studies show that, contact with the natural surroundings improve physical and psychological health. Horticultural therapy, evolved as a form of mental health treatment, based on the therapeutic effects of gardening. The activity is also used today in community based programmes, rehabilitation of prisoners programme, development of disabled persons programme and special education programme.

3.3 Social Benefits Among the most important benefits of city parks, though hard to quantify, is their role as community development tool. City parks make neighborhoods more liveable. They offer recreational and employment opportunities for youth, poor children and BPL families. In low income neighborhoods parks provide common places where resident can experience or feel a sense of community.

Reducing Crime: Access to public parks and recreational facilities has been strongly linked to reduction in crime. Recreational and employment opportunities keep the youth off the streets and give them a safe environment to interact and spend time, within which they could otherwise get into trouble.

Recreation Opportunities for Children: Children playing is an important factor for the overall improvement of his personality. Hence, playing has proved to be a critical element for children to have successful future. Playing helps children develop muscular strength and coordination, language, cognitive thinking and reasoning abilities. Playing also teaches children, how to interact and cooperate with others, or in other words, laying foundations for success in school curriculum and practical world.

Creating Stable Neighborhoods with Strong Community: Parks and green spaces build community. Many studies shows that, residents of neighborhood with lush green parks and open spaces are more likely to enjoy stronger social ties and community feeling than those who live in neighborhood surrounded by congested concrete buildings and lack of open spaces.

Ashish Batra 78 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

3.4 Economic Benefits Parks bring measurable direct and indirect economic benefits to local, regional and national economies. These economic benefits enable communities to function and prosper and allow them to build social capital and healthy communities.

Increased Property Values: The real estate market consistently demonstrates that, many people are willing to pay larger amount for a property located in front of parks and open spaces than those which does not. The higher value of park facing homes means, higher economic benefit for the authorities in terms of higher property tax.

Tourism Benefits: A park often becomes one of a significant attractions for the city and prime marketing tool to attract tourists, conventions and businesses. Organized events like, arts festivals, athletic events, food festivals, musical and theatrical events, held in public parks and open spaces often bring substantial positive economic returns.

4. Conclusions Those of us, who live near parks and open spaces are treated as lucky and know the joys they feel with calm views of trees and lush green lawns, singing of birds, fresh air and scent of flowers. Overwhelming evidence demonstrates the benefits of city parks. They improve our physical and psychological health, strengthen our communities and make our cities and neighborhoods more attractive places to live and work. But now a day’s very few people are able to enjoy these benefits. The lack of places for regular exercise has contributed to the epidemic of obesity among adults and children, which have adverse consequences on both health and finances.

We as a professionals and citizens need to join the effort to conserve or revitalize parks, open spaces and green reserves in the neighborhood for benefit of the whole urban community. While government plays a vital role to develop and conserve the public parks or open spaces, however, the government alone cannot be held responsible to maintain / develop the numbers of such large parks and open community spaces. We have to come forward and help the government at neighborhood level by making small trusts to maintain the parks and open spaces.

Working together, can help many more people and next generations to experience the joys of jogging down a tree-lined track; enjoy a family picnic on a green sunny lawn; and sharing a community garden. We can create the lush green parks and open spaces to rediscover our natural roots and to reconnect with our souls.

Ashish Batra 79 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

References David J. Nowak, “The Effects of Urban Trees on Air Quality” (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service), http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/syracuse/gif/ trees.pdf. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Pamphlet #FS-363, cited in “Benefits of Trees in Urban Areas,” Colorado Tree Coalition, http://www.coloradotrees.org/. American Forests, (1997), The State of the Urban Forest: Assessing Tree Cover and Developing Goals, September 1997. Arendt, Randall, (2001), Enhancing Subdivision Value through Conservation Design. Common Ground, National Association of Realtors, summer 2001. Cox, Bob, Mitchell Schnurman, Jim Reeves, and Jay Root, (2001), Boeing to Move Headquarters to Chicago, Fort worth Star-Telegram, May 11, 2001. Garvin, Alexander, and Gayle Berens, (1997), Urban Parks and Open Space, Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute. Lewis, Megan, (2002), How Cities Use Parks for Economic Development, City Parks Forum Briefing Papers. Chicago: American Planning Association. New Yorkers for Parks and Ernst &Young LLP, (2003), How Smart Parks Investment Pays Its Way. June 2003. St. Louis, (2004), Clean Water, Safe Parks and Community Trails. Ulrich, R. S., (1984), View through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery, Science, pp 224 . Wilson, Edward O., (1984), Biophilia: The Human Bond with Other Species, Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press.

Websites Open Document, http://www.realtor.org/SmartGrowth2.nsf/Pages/enhansubdivisions Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Defining Overweight and Obesity, http://www. cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/defining.htm Colorado Tree Coalition, Benefits of Trees in Urban Areas, http://www.coloradotrees.org/. http://www.planning.org/cpf/pdf/economicdevelopment. pdf http://www.stlouis2004.org/html/ap_cleanwater.html Urban Park and Recreation Recovery, http://www.nps.gov/uprr/program_inbrief.html.

Ashish Batra 80 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Revitalization of Commercial Hub: A Case Study of New Market, Bhopal

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia Abstract New Market, a community level commercial centre planned during 1960’s to cater to the development demands of Bhopal - the capital of Madhya Pradesh, presently serves as a central business district. The commercial pressure on this area due to its surrounding, guided its gradual growth to the extent that today, it is facing infrastructural deficiencies thereby creating congestion and conflicts between spaces and activities. While restructuring of the market needs to be taken in to consideration towards it’s deeply linked social and financial implications underlying user-centric approach, with minimal disturbance to the existing occupational characteristics of the study area, the redevelopment should be taken up in independent parts which ultimately will have a broader impact as a whole. The challenge is to justify the provisions for the users, enhancing the functionality and coping with the progressing alterations within the precinct.

1. Introduction Bhopal, state capital of Madhya Pradesh bestowed with scenic beauty, historicity and modern urban planning, is situated on the site of an 11th century city, Bhojpal, founded by Raja Bhoj (ESICON, 2013). Bhopal, is also known as the ‘City of Lakes’, is divided into two major parts, the old city and the new city. The new city area was developed after Bhopal became a State Capital of Madhya Pradesh in 1956. In the old city most of the residents are muslim, where as, the new city is dominated by hindus.

Bhopal has various institutions of national importance. Some of these include ISRO’s Master Control Facility, AIIMS Bhopal, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Advanced Materials and Processes Institute, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Indian Institute of Science, Education and Research, School of Planning and Architecture, Indian Institute of Forest Management, and National Law University. As a result large number of young population migrates to Bhopal from the different states of India.

2. location of the Study Area The study is limited to the New Market Commercial Area of Bhopal. New Market is a city level landmark centrally located in the new city and easily accessible

Alankrita Sarkar, Final Year Student, B. Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal (M.P.) Uttara Majumdar, Final Year Student, B. Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal (M.P.) Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia, Assistant Professor, School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal (M.P.) E-mail : [email protected]

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 81 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 1: location of Bhopal Fig. 2: Location of New Market, Bhopal

to the major parts of the city. It was planned in 1970’s and during the last 40 years it has seen various development and expansion due to the growing need for commercial spaces. Its location is such that it acts as a link between the new and old parts of the city. The surroundings consist of government quarters, TT Nagar Stadium, Kamla Nehru School and public and semi public offices.

3. Climatic Conditions The city enjoys a moderate climate. Normally temperature ranges between 50º F and 104º F although highest temperature occasionally rises to 110º F. The rainy season lasts from mid June to September, the winter from November to February, and summer from March to June. The average annual rainfall is about 1200 mm, predominantly during the month of July and August. Winds are predominant from the west and southwest during the monsoon. The presence of the lakes and hillocks create its own microclimate.

4. Topography Bhopal city nestles in a hilly terrain, which slopes towards north and southeast. Hillocks of different altitudes are situated along the southwest and northwest part of the city, these hillocks from a continuous belt from Singarcholi up to Vindhyachal Ranges. The height of Singarcholi near Lalghati is 625 m, which is highest in the area. The general ground level is however, nearly 460 m along the southeastern and northeastern portion of the city. The unique topography of the city provides enchanting and panoramic views of the city and of natural scenic beauty. There are immense possibilities for landscaping and waterfront development for recreation facilities. However, it is unsuitable for continuous urban development. It also creates physical barriers owing to which interlinks

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 82 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

between various parts of the city are often inconvenient. Large portion of the city areas are separated by hillocks and lakes, which act as a barrier in social and cultural integration of the city. The present city stands segregated distinctly in three parts. The TT Nagar and its extensions being developed on the southern side is separated by the old city by two lakes - upper lake and lower lake, B.H.E.L. township is separated from the new city as well as the old city by Railway line.

5. Demography According, to the 2011 census the population of the Bhopal is 1,795,648 persons residing in a total area of 837.24 sq km.

6. Chronology of Development In 1956, Bhopal was identified as the capital of newly formed State of Madhya Pradesh. In order to facilitate planned development, beautification and conservation of environment of the state capital, the Capital Project Administration (CPA) was set up under the Housing and Environment Department on 1st October 1960 by the approval of Planning Commission, Government of India. New market was planned in the 1960s to cater the Capital Township Project of TT Nagar and to serve as a commercial centre for the government housing.

1960-1970: Peripheral arcade style shopping complex with corridors on the exteriors were built on the site. In these buildings, the ground floor was planned to cater the commercial activities while the upper floors had residential use. The central inner area of the site was occupied by informal market.

1970-1980: The central area started developing into a more formal market and construction of single-storied shops was carried out by the government in two phases. 152 shops were built in the first phase and 168 in the next. Each of these shops were rented out at Rs. 100 per month. The informal market areas were provided with raised platforms. Another shopping cum office complex (GTB Complex) was constructed across the Jawahar Chowk Road to cater to the increasing demand of this area.

Fig. 3: Chronology of Development of New Market, Bhopal (1950 - 2013)

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 83 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

1980-1990: Gradually, the raised platforms for the open informal market were converted into shops with temporary partitions.

1990-2013: The areas around New Market have witnessed gradual conversion from residential use to commercial use because of the prime location of the market and rising pressure on space due to ever increasing demand of commercial activities.

Current Scenario: Today, New Market and its adjoining areas serve as a major Commercial Centre for people from all parts of the city, owing to its central location. The commercial activities cater to all social and economical class and attract versatile crowd. It was converted into a pedestrian friendly zone by prohibiting vehicles to enter into the market in 2004.

The market has, developed specialized type of shops selling similar range of goods. This feature reflect the particular pedestrian movement pattern and dynamics. However, this commercial centre is losing its charm due to lack of infrastructure, services and maintenance, hence, losing its clientele to newly developed shopping malls in the city.

7. Contextual Land Use The surrounding areas comprise of low-rise residential land-use, designed and developed under the Capital Township Project. In the present context it is a prime land in the heart of the city and occupied by government housing complex with un-organized open spaces, which Fig. 4: Landuse of Surrounding can only encourage encroachment or un-authorized Areas of New Market, Bhopal garbage dumping site (Singh, 1997). The peripheral areas across the main roads of the New Market are developed as commercial, along with public and semi-public offices. Also located in this area is the TT Nagar Stadium and Sports Training Centre.

8. aCTIVITy Pattern Observations and studies indicate that two major linking corridors provide access to the interior and transitional areas of the market and witness the highest amount of crowd. These congested areas of the market also support informal activities in the form of temporary kiosks, pushcarts and moving vendors. Type and character of the commercial activities change with the seasons and festivals, especially around the temple plaza.

As per the analysis, the area away from the main principal axis and junctions are less frequently visited by the public. Consequentially, unequal distribution of crowd in

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 84 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 5: Use of New Market Complex (Ground Floor) the market affects its economy. Thus, It is required that every unit area of the existing prime location be utilized in the best possible manner.

9. Traffic and Transportation New Market forms an island of commercial activities surrounded by roads on all sides. It serves as a link between the new and old parts of the city of Bhopal. It is easily accessible through public transport systems- buses and tempos. Also, the recently formed BRTS corridor passes directly through the access routes of the New Market.

10. Observations From the last four decades, New Market has been serving as a prime market area for the city. Though, its location allows easy access to people from all parts of the city, its deteriorating condition and the prevalent mall - culture make people seek other alternatives.

The growing commercial pressure in the existing New Market area has guided its gradual growth to the extent that it exist today, but it is facing infrastructural

F ig. 6: Transport Network shortage, creating congestion and conflicts between spaces and activities. Also, unplanned growth within the market along with time and need based development of peripheral infrastructure has lead to unequal utilisation of the areas. The upcoming CBD by Gammon will further affect the business of New Market.

Some of the major issues affecting the functioning of New Market commercial area are:

• Due unequal distribution of people, density of crowd is not uniform in various part of the New Market • Due to zoning, segregation of various types of shops and activities in specific pockets within the market, is taking place. • Popularity of shops and landmarks attract the public and confine them in only their specific influence zones.

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 85 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• Unhygienic conditions of streets Fig. 7: Commercial Bifurcation - Land Use of New and lack of planned services cause Market (Ground Floor) people to avoid roaming around in the market and thus, it receives only focused customers looking for only a specific type of shop. • Decrease in footfall due to inadequate parking: ** Total number of 855 shops; ** Total number of 2000 two- wheeler parking; and ** Total number of 425 four- wheeler parking. • Off street parking reduces effective road width for traffic movement. ** Excessive parking on weekends. • Ill-maintained buildings due to persistence of Rent Control Act: ** Structural integrity of the buildings is a safety concern; ** Visual appearance has deteriorated; and ** Increase in quantity of unused spaces. • Location of parking lots leads to conflict between pedestrian and traffic movement. ** Unsafe for people to cross access roads to reach market; and ** Traffic movement is hampered. • Inadequate size of plazas. ** Due to increase in informal activities; ** Seasonal activities encroach and use plaza space; and ** Extension of subway construction has further reduced the main temple plaza inside the market. • Informal, seasonal and other activities lead to encroachments and thereby congestion on roads and pathways. • Decrease in parking spaces due to: ** Encroachment by informal activities; and

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 86 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 8: activity Pattern of New Market

** Encroachment by seasonal activities like festivals and political gatherings. • Small-scale food stalls have negative impact on the other surrounding activities. ** They cause pedestrian congestion; and ** Littering around such food stalls is also a concern. • Lack of public toilets triggers insanitary conditions.

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 87 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• Inadequate waste disposal management system. In fact 24-hour cycle of waste collection is not enough. • Low sense of security in inactive areas. Because inactive areas develop due to lack of infrastructure (dead spaces). • Fire safety issues ** Access routes for fire fighting vehicles are not defined and Interior area have road-widths less than that required by fire-engines; and ** The market is deficient in services and equipment necessary for combating fire emergencies. • Impact of religious places on the market. In fact excessive informal and seasonal activities cause overcrowding which require larger open spaces. • No provision for resting or shaded seating arrangements. • Parking should be classified according to the building use (residential/ offices/ commercial)

11. Vision After understanding the site, context and their issues, a concept is designed for revitalization of the commercial hub. Restructuring of the market by considering social and financial implications, is the basic underlying user-centric approach. With minimal disturbance to the existing occupational characteristics of the study area, the redevelopment needs to be implemented in the independent parts, which ultimately will have a broader impact as a whole. The challenge is to justify the provisions for the users, enhancing the functionality coping with the progressing alterations within the precinct. Hence, it needs to develop and improve its charm as a street market without compromising on public facilities and conveniences, so that it can effectively serve as a commercial centre.

12. Strategies Some of the strategies and guidelines which can resolve many of the issues being faced by New Market area are:

Redensification : New Market has a high potential owing to its strategic location in the city, however, it appears that the activities in the market are mainly confined to the ground floor. The upper floor should be utilized more extensively so as to harness the full potential of this centrally located Market. Densification will also create more open spaces inside the market and give better visual linkages.

Improving recreational capacity of the market : Developing safe and hygienic pockets as recreational open spaces would help not only to improve the quality of market as a public space but further enhance the economy of the region, since people would prefer to stay for longer time.

Pedestrian Safety and Convenience : New market needs to be converted into a pedestrian zone in order to avoid the vehicular traffic and thereby avoiding

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 88 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

congestion. Thus, the major roads are wider as per the requirement for the pedestrians and do not have shaded or seating spaces, because the extent of the market and its spread-out activities cause inconvenience to the pedestrian. Thus, the market can be integrated and interspersed with resting spaces to create a sense of security and comfort. The pedestrian network currently is restricted only to the ground floor. Through design interventions, various layers of horizontal and vertical pedestrian corridors may be added to make provision for vertical development / growth.

Maximizing Parking Space : There is a gap between the parking space available and actual parking space required to cater to the visitors. In the current situation, people think twice before planning a visit to New Market because of lack of appropriate parking spaces, hence, such spaces need to be maximized.

Traffic Movement Bifurcation : Traffic movement can be bifurcated as through traffic and traffic destined for New Market, so that they do not mix with each other. Accordingly, road widths be used for parking or secondary lanes be dedicated for New Market.

The above strategies should be implemented in a phased manner because of the complexity of inter-dependence of activities.

13. Conclusions As a commercial precinct, New Market has a tremendous scope due to its location and popularity. However, its lopsided infrastructure is hampering its growth and vitality. In order to match with the pace of developments of the Bhopal city, New Market area is required to be renewed by preserving quality of its street market and also providing a wholesome and comfortable experience to its visitors by incorporating the characteristics of safety, leisure and universality. This will not only enhance its commercial value but establish its identity as a recreational centre as well.

REFERNCES Directorate of Town and Country Planning, M., (1995). Bhopal Development Plan 2005. M.P. Nagar Tatha Gram Nivesh Adhiniyam. Mehta and Associates Indore. (2011). Bhopal City Development Plan. Bhopal: Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission.

Websites ESICON., (2013), 43rd Annual Conference of Endocrine Society of India. Retrieved November 30, 2013, from ESICON Bhopal 2013: http://esicon2013bhopal.com/venue-city.php Singh, S. (1997). An Approach to Redevelopment Case Study - Bhopal. Retrieved 11 10, 2013, from http://www.devalt.org/newsletter/jan97/of_2.htm Superintending Engineer, C. (n.d.). Capital Project Administration, Bhopal. Retrieved 11 10, 2013, from http://www.cpamp.nic.in: http://www.cpamp.nic.in/

Alankrita Sarkar, Uttara Majumdar and Dr. Devarshi Chaurasia 89 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

A Conceptual Approach for Relocation Strategy of a Local Bazaar in Hyderabad : An attempt to Preserve the Heritage Character of the Area Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant

Abstract Hyderabad the historic city with monuments, mosques and bazaar has been blessed with rich cultural heritage. The traditional impact is evident in many of its regional buildings; therefore, any new structure coming up in the city - corridor should reflect the character of the prevailing neighborhood. It should co-exist in terms of socio - economical, sentimental and traditional values of the users. Historic - image has to be recreated keeping the urban image intact. This paper bring into focus, a design proposal which has successfully managed to retain the heritage of an old bazaar and interpretation of the same into a modern building following a relocation project yet establishing fundamentals of historic urban connectivity.

1. INTRODUCTION Hyderabad the city of Nizams has transmitted the heritage character to the current and future generations and that legacy deserves respect. Hyderabad is a historic city noted for its many monuments, temples, churches, mosques, and bazaars. A multitude of influences has shaped the character of the city in the last 400 years. The city has been blessed with a rich cultural heritage. It is adorned with over 130 heritage buildings and 32 archaeological monuments. The traditional effects of this is noticeable in the regional buildings and also in commercial infrastructure and architecture. The cosmopolitan city, as of now is one of the centers of traditional Indian art, since its foundation and has also maintained its distinctive architecture, which is a mixture of the styles and designs of various cultures.

The city itself is undergoing tremendous transformation in the wake of IT boom, which has created a massive scope for various kinds of development. The total metropolitan area of Hyderabad in 2013, was 9.1 million, making it an A-1 status city and the second largest (in terms of area) in the country. It is also the sixth largest metropolitan area in India. A point to point connectivity is required for the economic growth of the city, accordingly Hyderabad Metro Rail vision ensures mobility to every square meter of the urban agglomeration. Hyderabad Metro Rail project is also said to be all-in-one answer to many problems like lack of public transport, traffic congestion and noise and pollution levels, etc. Hyderabad Metro Rail Ltd (HMR) project covers 71.0 km along three high-density traffic corridors:

• Miyapur - LB Nagar (28.87 km, 27 stations);

Tapaswini Mohapatra, Assistant Professor, Vaishnavi School of Architecture and Planning, Hyderabad. E-mail : [email protected]

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 90 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• Jubilee Bus Station - Falaknuma (14.78 km 16 stations); and • Nagole - Shilparamam (27.51 km, 23 stations).

HMR authorities have stepped up land acquisition to acquire properties from Greenland’s junction. And for Jubilee Bus Station-Falaknuma Corridor, one of the area identified near the old city market called Sultan Bazaar for alignment of proposed metro corridor, hence the local market has to be relocated. A proposal made by the Authority is to build a Commercial Complex in near by area - Putlibowli for rehabilitating traders and hawkers who will be affected by road widening on the Sultan Bazaar stretch. However, the site and its surroundings are undergoing tremendous transformation in terms of commercial activities enlarging scope for developmental activities at the same time there is need to preserve / conserve the historical character of the town. Due to sensitivity

Fig: 1: Metro Corridor Route Sultan Bazaar (One of the Area Marked for Relocation)

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 91 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 of location of the site, efforts need to be made in finding ways to keep the traditional links alive and blend it with the traditional style in harmony with the upcoming modern concepts of architecture. A perfect fusion of both the styles needs to be achieved. Though the design has to be contemporary, it would be more appropriate that the core design concept should be developed from the traditional architecture which prevailed in the city since time immemorial.

So the aim for the design of the commercial centers ought to be, to secure the continuity of traditional mixed uses and the small scale functionality they have acquired over time, on the other hand, it would be essential to meet new emerging needs and functions, without betraying their history and losing their inhabitants.

2. Commercial sector in Hyderabad Retail and commercial activities in Hyderabad are marching toward providing boom to industrial sector in Andhra Pradesh, but the retail sector follows a mix culture in the city from Bazaars to CBD.

2.1 Shopping Malls The fast growth of middle and upper middle class segment with vast purchasing capacity have created demand for more number of modern malls in Hyderabad. The new corporate culture seeks shopping experience instead of mere buying goods. Highly skilled people from all over India are migrating to Hyderabad. The strong NRI presence also gives rise to swanky malls in the city. There are few major shopping centers namely Hyderabad Central Mall, Punjagutta; Inorbit Mall,Hitec city; City Centre, Banjara Hills; Shoppers Stop, Begumpet; Westside, Basheerbagh; GVK 1 Mall, Banjara Hills; Babukhan Mall, Somajiguda; and MPM Mall, Abids; and still there is a scope for increase of malls.

2.2 Bazaar Scenario in the City Bazaars are very old market, popular for local shopping arcades, these are mostly located on main roads that branch out from local streets. Majority of them have narrow lanes with full of articles presented in front of shops, mostly for consumption of women like bangle and money - purse shops, etc. Old buildings with wooden balconies, bargaining and haggling are part and parcel of these bazaars. Shopkeepers employ “beckoning” tactics, placing an employee at the entrance of the store beckoning passers-by to enter their shop. Some of the famous bazaars in the city are:

Charminar Market which is the reflection of true culture of Hyderabad. Evening is the perfect time for visiting these markets when the whole market have full of life. The attraction, hustle and bustle in markets is tempting;

Begum Bazaar which is next door to these showrooms is famous for brassware items;

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 92 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Laad Bazaar is the famous place for conventional variety of pearls and textiles. This market is the oldest in these twin cities;

General Bazaar is the place for selling artificial jewelry; and

Moazzam Jahi Market famous for fruits and eatables.

Sultan Bazaar Situated between the Residency and the Badi Chowdi, is the busiest commercial centre in the city, where anything and everything can be found on this single stretch of road. The best buys include women’s wear, slippers and shoes, bangles and other trinkets.

In spite of the popularity and usability of these bazaars there is a slight deviation in people’s preference to mall culture. Some of the following factors that affect the growth are:

• Changing tastes; • New urban centers – driven by market economy; • Explosive growth; • Social - economic growth; and • Increase in middle class group.

2.3 Consumer Upsurge Shopping markets of Hyderabad are currently lined with varied retail shops, offerings, transforming its image as an urban retail hub. Jubilee Hills, Himayathnagar, Begumpet, Somajiguda, Ameerpet and Punjagutta are among the new breed of High-Street shopping stretches that co-exists with the traditional shopping destinations like Laad Bazaar, Basheerbagh, Abids, Nampally and MG Road.

Fig: 2. The Local Bazaars in the Central Square of the City, with fill of Economic and Community Activities.

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 93 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig: 3. Sultan Bazaar - Small Scale Local Shops

3. Sultan Bazaar Street – identified for Metro Corridor Sultan Bazaar area is an old commercial market in Hyderabad. It lies between the commercial areas of Abids and Koti. This area is a big shopping center having about 100 shops, selling textiles, fashion articles, etc. The current occupants of Sultan Bazaar are predominantly small scale - temporary stall owner’s. The area will be strongly affected by the metro rail project affecting the shops and traders who are residing in the area since decades. The authorities have come up with the relocation proposal for these small scale shops. So a similar nature of space organization is required to match with the present requirement.

4. Design Proposal of Hyderabad Metro Rail Authority (HMR) The design proposal aims to relocate the existing small scale shops of Sultan Bazaar and accommodate the same in a Commercial Complex with all modern amenities, yet reflecting the character of the old bazaar. The place identified for the relocation is a site in Putlibowli about a km from sultan bazaar. Hence, the Putlibowli Commercial Complex is meant to rehabilitate traders of Sultan Bazaar, displaced by the Hyderabad Metro Rail project. HMR still has not made much progress on this stretch of the Metro Rail project due to stiff resistance / opposition from traders and hawkers. Nearly 300 traders in Sultan Bazaar, and many street hawkers, have been against the project right from the beginning. Heritage lovers are also opposing demolition of properties in these centuries old heritage markets, for road widening to make way for the Metro Rail. Traders are also apprehensive about selling their goods in the Commercial Complex, assuming that it can never be an alternative for ‘Pedestrian Markets’ like Sultan Bazaar.

All the commercial buildings coming up in the city are futuristic in nature commensurate with the modern trends of architecture, therefore buildings with similar character along with distinct elements derived from local architecture

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 94 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

will be the most appropriate proposition. Hence, such a building whose façade will reflect present day trend, would become a landmark of its time in the years to come and give it, its own identity and character to the project.

4.1 Revitalization, Rehabilitation, Renewal The revitalization process initiated by the state authorities (HMR) is playing a catalyst role for the renewal. The process rested on the comprehensive review of the existing conditions in the area to be revitalized (including conducting Interviews with all users). Planning tools and techniques were also developed to implement and manage the revitalization strategy. To avoid the destruction of valuable old structures and the cityscape, a major part of the building stock was put under protection, and local people (owners) were encouraged to participate in the revitalization. Thus, this historic area is being safeguarded and efforts are being made to protect, conserve and restore the same. At the same, time efforts are also being made to have harmonious and coherent development suitable to contemporary life.

4.2 Site at Putlibowli to Accommodate the Shops of Sultan Bazaar Objectives : The site located for the new building complex (identified by HMR for relocation of Sultan Bazaar shops) is located in Putlibowli, the old commercial hub of Hyderabad. It is about a kilometer from sultan bazaar, of 19320 sft (230’ x 84’) and is approached by 50’ (approx) wide road. Surrounding comprises a mix of old and new commercial development. It is well connected to all the areas by various modes of transport. It has also maintained its distinctive architectural character, which is a mixture of the styles and designs of various cultures of ages.

However, the site might face difficulties is accommodating the present number of shops, as such it calls for going for a high rise structure which may mar the identity

Fig. 4: Site Located at Putlibowli to Accommodate Sultan Bazaar Shops

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 95 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014 of the existing building and may also disturb the harmony of existing buildings in the vicinity.

Urban Context of Site and Surrounding at Putlibowli : The site has potentials to enhance further the commercial activities and area may turn to extensive Commercial Zone.

5. Demand-Supply Analysis A survey was made to study the requirements of customers and shopkeepers and their inputs were carefully incorporated in the design which will make the building a user friendly one. Survey analysis reveals that the users are of mixed community, class, and background, e.g. 80% (the majority) are Marwaris so a modern building without much influence of a particular community would be advisable.

Though, the Islamic architecture (which prevailed in the area) will add to the dignity of the built form, but a minimalistic –Islamic architectural building will be more users friendly to all the occupants.

Fig: 5. Aerial photograph of the area, depicting the sultan bazaar market and the proposed site for the commercial complex, in the part city plan. It shows the physical connectivity through the streetscape. The homogeneity of building types and architectural forms adds to distinctive urban character of this area.

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 96 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig: 6. Zoning with Respect to Commercial Influence ZONE 1 - Close proximity to the site, predominant commercial Influence. ZONE 2 - Has an indirect influence of the commercial hub which has given rise to the commercial sector with increase in density. ZONE 3 - Small scale shops including sultan Bazaar Street. ZONE 4 - Progressive with scope to expand.

5.1 Requirement of Sultan Bazaar Traders A proper design - requirement benefit analysis was carried out for this project to share the views of users in the design development. The major findings are:

• Low cost development, affordable by the small scale shopkeepers, was the prime demand; • There should be provision for temporary stalls too. Simple planning and design with local ambience received prominence; • Space should not have very hi-end design, so as to ensure that the shopkeepers don’t land up in confusing situation; and • An eco-friendly design with cross ventilation will be cost effective and will also be an added advantage for designing the project.

5.2 Requirement of Buyers and Regular Customers Sultan Bazaar has been a centre for commercial hub for generations and hence, the people are used to same kind of shopping culture so their requirement counts a lot in designing any new place to cater to their demands:

• Small shops for the middle class, retaining their previous experiences and feeling intact; • Repetition of same scenario with a permanent roof above head; • Should be geographically close to Sultan Bazaar area; and • Should be convenient for all segment of people.

5.3 Design Strategy Formation To secure the integrated approach and the mixed-use character, eight aspects were identified and taken into consideration, which are of utmost importance for the development of the area:

• Physical and cultural heritage; • Culture and tourism;

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 97 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

• Economy; • Living environment; • Mobility and accessibility; • Urban design; • Environment and leisure; and • Awareness and research.

For each aspect, principles, objectives and specific interventions were determined and coordinated taking the parallel issues into account.

6. Design Overview 6.1 Planning to meet the Challenges Taken an inspiration from traditional markets and by analyzing the Master Plan at an urban level, it was evident that the roads of Sultan Bazaar area are like commercial corridors with shops on either side. This arrangement can be repeated in the design, which adds similar circulation pattern and character to the commercial complex planning. On the planning level it should be simple, straight corridor, with ample circulation space and common area for ease in movement. There should be sufficient space for plaza and spill out spaces which will help in public participation within the building and will add to the character of the built form. More than one entrance will make the floor an open type plan and add to the freeness of the floor space. Open courts should be introduced which add to the eco-friendliness of the built form.

Conscious effort were made to analyze and achieve solution to meet the requirements put forward by the shop keepers and customers.

6.2 an Eco - Friendly Design The environmental friendliness aspect of the design emerged as prime important besides emphasis was stressed on transparency of light and views and free air flow. The design accordingly attributes to natural light and ventilation to make it the socially and environmentally compatible commercial complex.

Fig: 7. Internal Planning – An Inspiration from the Circulation Pattern Existing in Sultan Bazaar.

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 98 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Table 1: Design Requirement and Solution Requirements Design solution Small scale shops Shop size is taken as 12’ x 10’ with an average size of small- medium scale shops. Local Ambience Close to GHMC Commercial Complex and Puspanjali Complex so the character will remain the same. To fit the The complex is G+4 structure almost 150 shops can be Requirement accommodated. Simple Planning Straight doubly loaded corridor with shops on either side. Provision for Around 10 temporary kiosk are provided in the exterior and few temporary stalls can be accommodated in the lobby area too. Environmentally An eco-friendly design adopted sound

7. Building design - An Inspiration From Islamic Architecture 7.1 local Architectural Context Though futuristic by nature, efforts have been made to keep the local traditional link alive, besides, efforts have been put forward in making the built form a modern constructive derivation of the Islamic architecture prevailing in the city. Elevation so designed based on morphing of the major Islamic architectural elements into modern architecture eg: Jalis are morphed and replaced by glass and small openings which aids light travel through it. The major architectural elements of Islamic architecture like projections, repetition, dome (space frames), arches, etc., were tried and modified into modern contemporary forms. Repetition of different forms was carried out as it has been a design pattern of Islamic architecture. A space frame was designed at the top of the building which can imply as dome in Islamic architecture. The windows with sun breakers was so arranged to give the effect of arches. The Fig: 8. Earthy Color Combination and Textures will color scheme was a derivation of the very show Close Resemblance with the Prevailing old rock-cut, Islamic architecture like that Architecture. of Golconda fort.

7.2 an Inspiration from Surrounding Buildings To merge with the neighboring built-form and to retain commercial character of the conventional style prevailed in the region; the new elevation infect reflects the style of these commercial buildings. It is contemporary yet traditional.

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 99 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig: 9. Morphing of Traditional Architectural Elements Since the users are of mixed community so the elements of Islamic architectural style can be morphed and used carefully to give a traditional yet contemporary look. Space frame can be used as a representation of Islamic dome. Jalis can be replaced by glass or perforated elements. Repetition of arches, etc., can be achieved by innovative façade treatments. The building should reflect its traditional thought yet should be very much corresponding with its neighboring contemporary buildings.

Simple architectural treatment and repetitive color scheme make the buildings merge in harmony with the surrounding neighborhood.

Modern architectural style, bold color combinations, innovative futuristic treatment makes it stand-out and attract the customers.

8. Vision Overview The vision takes into consideration following five elements:

• Contemporary look to match to the upcoming development in building technology;

Fig: 10. Commercial Buildings and High End Mall surrounding the Site.

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 100 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

Fig. 11: Feasible Design Option for the Commercial Complex at Putlibowli.

• Color scheme so adopted to merge with the surrounding buildings and following the heritage resemblance; • Minimum use of Islamic architectural elements to add respect for all the communities. Use of morphed elements like glass instead of jali’s, etc.; • Addition of sky bridge for free access to the elevated metro stations, making it, user friendly; and • A mix of both local and high-end design.

9. Conclusions To secure traditional link, an active coordination and management of the needs and demands of the different stakeholders is essential based on the assets of the cultural heritage. The functional diversity of the design can be supported by the revitalization of the traditional activities of the urban centre. This will result in mixed-use historic centre, which provides quality of life to residents and visitors besides the identity to the place at the same time safeguard its cultural heritage.

It shows that “not only the heritage value of the area can be the point of interest but also the residents, besides the local social structure can equally be important conveyor of values.”

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 101 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 11 x 1, January - March 2014

References ITU Regional Forum for Asia Pacific 2009 Hyderabad,India G.O.Ms.No. 76, M.A. and G.O.Ms.No. 86 U.D. (M2) dept ., dated: 6-2-1992. Hyderabad Metro Rail Limited- A Government. of Andhra Pradesh Enterprise Jukka Jokilehto,Bari, 22 March 2013 -: An International Perspective Hero Expert Workshop, Vilnius, 9.-11. May 2010 - Visual Integrity of Historic Urban Landscapes Liveable Cities Through Multifunctional Historic Centres ,September 2010 By Nils Scheffler and Frédérique Calvanus

Websites www.hmr.gov.in www.explohyd.com www.citycapitalmall.com/commercial-development-hyderabad.html www.deccanchronicle.com www.JnNURM.nic.in wikipedia.org

ITPI PUBLICATIONS Reader Volumes (Rs. 100/- each) Advanced Transportation Planning City and Metropolitan Planning and Design Development Management Ecology and Resource Development Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Planning and Design History of Human Settlements Housing Land Economics Network and Services Planning Legislation and Professional Practice Planning Techniques Planning Theory Project Formulation and Appraisal Regional Planning and Development (Part -I) Social Formation and Changes Statistics and Population Studies Transportation Planning Village Planning and Rural Development

Tapaswini Mohapatra Samant 102