DOCSLIB.ORG

Introduction

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Introduction INTRODUCTION The Three Dharma Seals, translated from Chinese 三 法 印 (san- fa-yin), are the key teachings in Buddhism, both in Theravāda and Mahāyāna. According to the Buddhists, the Buddha taught the Three Dharma Seals in order to determine the genuineness of Buddhist teachings.1 [The Three Dharma Seals are the three aspects of Buddhist teachings which are distinguished from the non-Buddhist teachings.] However, These Three Dharmas are said to be very different in the both traditions. In the Theravāda tradition, the Three Dharma Seals are presented as impermanence, suffering and non-self. Meanwhile, in the Mahāyāna tradition, these are known as emptiness, signlessness and wishlessness.2 In order to make difference between the two sets, the Buddhist scholars called impermanence (anicca/anitya), suffering (dukkha/duḥkha) and non-self (anattā/anātman) as the Three Characteristics of Existence, or the Three Marks of Existence, etc., and emptiness (śūnyatā/sunnattā), signlessness (animitta) and wishlessness (apraṇihita) as the Three Doors of Liberation or the Three Concentrations. On the philosophical view, if the Theravādins based their thought on the phenomenal world, the world of birth and death, to explain 1 The Seeker‟s Glossary of Buddhism, ed., The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, Taiwan, 1998, p. 159; Thích Nhất Hạnh, The Heart of the Buddha‟s Teaching – Transforming Suffering into Peace, Joy and Liberation, London: Rider, 1999, p. 131. 2 The Seeker‟s Glossary of Buddhism, ibid; Thích Nhất Hạnh, ibid; Thích Nhất Hạnh, The Kinh Pháp Ấn, Sài Gòn: Lá Bối. 2 things, then the Mahāyānists relied on the ontological (or absolute) world, the world of no-birth and no-death. We know that in the world of phenomena, all dharmas always exist in their changing forms. The Buddha said that they are impermanent, suffering and non-self: ―Whether Buddhas arise, O monks, or whether Buddhas do not arise, it remains a fact that … all [the world‘s] constituents are transitory … that all its constituents are dissatisfactory … that all its constituents are lacking a permanent self.‖3 With this statement of the Buddha we can partly understand the true nature of the world; and it is also from this statement, a lot of scholars, with their own ideas describe the world in various ways. Patrul Rinpoche describes ―impermanence‖ as something very terrible when he advises us to meditate on it: ―While standing up, sitting or lying down, tell yourself: ―This is my last act in this world‖, and meditate on it with utter conviction. On your way to wherever you might be going, say to yourself: ―Maybe I will die there. There is no certainty that I will ever come back.‖ When you set out on a journey or pause to rest, ask yourself: ―Will I die here?‖ Wherever you are, you should wonder if this might be where you die. At night, when you lie down, ask yourself whether you might die in bed during the night or whether you can be sure that you are going to get up in the morning. When you rise, ask yourself whether you might die sometime during the day, and reflect that there is no certainty at all that you will be going to bed in the evening.‖4 3 A. N., I, III, XIV, 134. 4 Patrul Rinpoche, Words of My Perfect Teacher – A Complete Translation of a Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, trans., The Padmakara Translation Group, Delhi: Vistaar, 1994, p. 54. 3 For Donald W. Mitchell, ‗impermanence‘ is the cause of ‗suffering‘. When discussing the word, especially ―suffering‖, he represents that things are suffering because things cannot provide the lasting happiness that humanity seeks. In other words, things are suffering because things are impermanent (because of impermanence things cannot provide the lasting happiness). This representation does not differ from the description of Patrul Rinpoche on ―impermanence‖. Donald W. Mitchell writes: ―In the early texts, the Buddha mentions the happiness that comes from such things as family life, life in the Saṅgha, and meditative attainments. However, he also points out that these enjoyments are ―impermanent, duḥkha, and subject to change‖. That is, they are dissatisfactory because they cannot provide the lasting happiness that humanity ultimately seeks. In other words, since all things in life must pass away – given their impermanence – so must all the pleasures these things provide be fleeting. Since humanity ordinarily seeks a lasting happiness in things that do not last, or a permanent satisfaction in impermanent things, these things are said to be characterized by duḥkha.‖5 The researcher humbly holds that the Buddha did not advise people to avoid things or to seek happiness in things. He wanted them to encounter things in order that they can realize the true nature of things. Impermanence, suffering and non-self help them to realize the true nature of things. We should not scare impermanence, suffering and non-self. Because without impermanence we would not grow up, could not 5 Donald W. Mitchell, Buddhism – Introducing the Buddhist Experience, New York: Oxford, 2002, p. 36. 4 transform our problems, and could not attain Liberation; without suffering, we could not love others; and without non-self, we could not become a saint or a Buddha. By the way of explanation given by Patrul Rinpoche and Donald W. Mitchell, the researcher thinks that the readers cannot find happiness and liberation in the teachings. On the contrary, the teachings can make them arise the feelings of unhappiness, sadness and fearfulness. Of course, every dharma in the phenomenal world has two aspects in itself: pessimistic and optimistic. Patrul Rinpoche and Donald W. Mitchell base their explanations only on the pessimistic aspect. Why do we not explain the teachings on the view of optimism, for the teachings can enable one to destroy one‘s problems and lead one to the shore of liberation? Why do we only look garbage as the very garbage, or even a flower as a garbage-to-be, but do not look at garbage deeply in order to see that it will be flowers in the future? The Buddha said that everyone will be a Buddha-to-be. So, from these teachings if we learn to practise diligently we can certainly get freedom. On this view, Joseph Goldstein and Jack Kornfield are right when they say that ―there is no need to fear our pain… Facing it directly, we can come to freedom.‖6 And Vạn Hạnh (? – 1025) – the Vietnamese Zen Master stated freely with the well-known verse in Vietnam: The body is like lightning: it‘s there and then it‘s not, It is like myriad plants and trees - fresh in the spring but fading in autumn. 6 Joseph Goldstein and Jack Kornfield, Seeking the Heart of Wisdom – The Path of Insight Meditation, Delhi: Shambhala, 2000, p. 141. 5 Trust in your destiny unafraid of ups and downs, Because ups and downs are as drops of dew on a blade of grass.7 Thích Nhất Hạnh in his book ―The Heart of the Buddha‟s Teaching– Transforming Suffering into Peace, Joy and Liberation‖ says that ―Understanding impermanence can give us confidence, peace and joy. Impermanence does not necessarily lead to suffering.‖8 This idea is very different from what Donald W. Mitchell thinks: ―This characterization of impermanence leads to the second characteristic of phenomena, namely, ‗dissatisfactoriness‘ (duḥkha).‖9 From the representation above, we can easily realize the true meaning of impermanence, suffering and non-self; and thus, we can say that the Three Characteristics of Existence are the very keys to open the doors of liberation. The Three Doors of Liberation are the teachings which describe the ultimate truth where all things in the phenomenal world are understood as unreal. In practice, they are the continuative teachings of the Three Characteristics. In other words, the Three Doors of Liberation are higher than the Three Characteristics of Existence, because on the way to liberation the practitioners are said truly to enter the Three Doors after becoming free from all obstructions in the phenomenal world. In these doors, their minds become free from everything: no fear, no confusion and no sadness. They always dwell in meditation, 7 Cường Từ Nguyễn, Zen in Medieval Vietnam – A Study and Translation of the Thiền Uyển Tập Anh, USA: University of Hawaii, 1997, p. 176. 8 Thích Nhất Hạnh, The Heart of the Buddha‟s Teaching – Transforming Suffering into Peace, Joy and Liberation, London: Rider, 1999, p. 132. 9 Donald W. Mitchell, Buddhism – Introducing the Buddhist Experience, New York: Oxford, 2002, p. 36. 6 and see that all dharmas are empty, signless, and there is nothing to wish to attain. The Heart Sūtra describes: ―All dharmas are marked emptiness; they are not produced or stopped, not defiled or immaculate, not deficient or complete.‖ Thus, in the Vajra. Pra. Pā. Sūtra, the Buddha declares: Those who by my form did see me, And those who followed me by voice. Wrong the efforts they engaged in, Me those people will not see.10 In the ultimate truth, how could we see the Buddha by form or by voice? Because ―wherever there is a sign there is deception, illusion.‖11 In practice, we have to see all dharmas by their real form; that the real form of all dharmas has no form. Buddha is not a form or a voice. Buddha has no sign. If we see the signlessness of signs, we see the Buddha. Moreover, while practising meditation, we should not think to attain enlightenment, because there is nothing to attain: ‗no cognition‘, ‗no attainment‘ and ‗no non-attainment‘. Enlightenment has no sign; and enlightenment is already in us.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • This Being, That Becomes: the Buddhas Teaching on Conditionality Pdf
    FREE THIS BEING, THAT BECOMES: THE BUDDHAS TEACHING ON CONDITIONALITY PDF Thomas Jones Dhivan,Sagaraghosa | 160 pages | 14 Jun 2011 | Windhorse Publications | 9781899579907 | English | Birmingham, United Kingdom This Being, That Becomes: The Buddha's Teaching on Conditionality by Dhivan Thomas Jones It This Being to the principle of causality—that all things arise and exist due to certain causes or conditionsand cease once these causes This Being conditions are removed. This principle is expressed in the following simple formula that is repeated hundreds of times in the Buddhist discourses:. When this is, that is. From the arising of this comes the arising of that. When this isn't, that isn't. From the cessation of this comes the cessation of that. Rupert Gethin states ". With ignorance as This Being, there are volitional formations The glossary states: [web 3]. Contemporary translator Thanissaro Bikkhu provides the following translation: [web 4]. Rupert Gethin translates That Becomes: The Buddhas Teaching on Conditionality follows: [4]. There are many possible ways of interpreting this formula, but only one does justice both to the way the formula is worded and to the complex, fluid manner in which specific examples of causal relationships are described in the Canon. That way is to view the formula as the interplay of two causal principles, one linear and the other synchronic, that combine to form a non-linear pattern. The linear principle — taking 2 and 4 as a pair — connects events, rather than objects, over time; the synchronic principle — 1 and 3 — connects objects and events in the present moment. The two principles intersect, so that any given event is influenced by two sets of conditions: input acting from the past and input acting from the present.
    [Show full text]
  • Early Buddhism: Karma, Anatta (No-Self)
    BUDDHISM: CLASS OUTLINE 2 KARMA, NO-SELF, REBIRTH 1. Three Marks of Existence (Tri-lakṣṣṣaaaṇṇṇa [in Pali: Tri-lakkhaaaṇṇṇa] 1) anicca (impermanence) 2) anatta (no-self) 3) dukkha (suffering/grasping) 2. Karma: 1) intention / volition / state of the mind 2) conditioning: neither fatalistic nor deterministic - Twelve Links of Dependent Origination - Five Skandhas 3) no-self (anātman [Pāli: anatta]) 3. Samsāra 4. Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (Paticca-samuppāda) PAST LIVES 1. ignorance (avidyā) [Cause of Future Lives] 2. volitions (saṃṃṃskāra [in Pali: sankhara]) 3a. consciousness leading to another appearance/birth (vijñāna [Pali: viññāna]) PRESENT LIFE 3b. consciousness (vijñāna) [Effect of Past Lives] 4. mind and body (literally, name and form) (nāma-rūpa) 5. six sense organs 6. contact with sense objects 7. sensations (vedanā) 8. desire (tṛṣṇaaa [Pali: tatataṇṇṇhhhāāā]) [Cause of Future Lives] 9. grasping (upādāna) 10. becoming (bhāva) NEXT LIFE 11. Birth (jāti) [Effects in Future Lives] 12. Old age, senility and death 5. Five Skandhas [Pali: Khandhas] (Aggregates of Being) 1. Form (rūpa) The physical body. All the other four aggregates are mental phenomena. 2. Sensations or Feelings This denote two things: (vedanā) (1) it is raw sensory input before it is processed by the mind (e.g., the light that enters your eyes, the sound in your ears, etc., before the mind has a chance to identify them). (2) it is a judgment that these things are pleasant, unpleasant or neutral 3. Perceptions The mind imposes an interpretation on sense data, (saṃṃṃjña [in Pali: sañña]) so that one recognizes a visible form of brown and green light as a tree, a certain smell as a skunk, etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Print This Article
    Journal of Global Buddhism Vol. 18 (2017): 112–128 Special Focus: Buddhists and the Making of Modern Chinese Societies Buddhism and Global Secularisms David L. McMahan, Franklin and Marshall College Abstract: Buddhism in the modern world offers an example of (1) the porousness of the boundary between the secular and religious; (2) the diversity, fluidity, and constructedness of the very categories of religious and secular, since they appear in different ways among different Buddhist cultures in divergent national contexts; and (3) the way these categories nevertheless have very real-world effects and become drivers of substantial change in belief and practice. Drawing on a few examples of Buddhism in various geographical and political settings, I hope to take a few modest steps toward illuminating some broad contours of the interlacing of secularism and Buddhism. In doing so, I am synthesizing some of my own and a few others’ research on modern Buddhism, integrating it with some current research I am doing on meditation, and considering its implications for thinking about secularism. This, I hope, will provide a background against which we can consider more closely some particular features of Buddhism in the Chinese cultural world, about which I will offer some preliminary thoughts. Keywords: secularism; modern Buddhism; meditation; mindfulness; vipassanā The Religious-Secular Binary he wave of scholarship on secularism that has arisen in recent decades paints a more nuanced picture than the reigning model throughout most of the twentieth century. For most of the twentieth century, social theorists adhered Tto a linear narrative of secularism as a global process of religion waning and becoming less relevant to public life.
    [Show full text]
  • The Dōgen Zenji´S 'Gakudō Yōjin-Shū' from a Theravada Perspective
    The Dōgen Zenji´s ‘Gakudō Yōjin-shū’ from a Theravada Perspective Ricardo Sasaki Introduction Zen principles and concepts are often taken as mystical statements or poetical observations left for its adepts to use his/her “intuitions” and experience in order to understand them. Zen itself is presented as a teaching beyond scriptures, mysterious, transmitted from heart to heart, and impermeable to logic and reason. “A special transmission outside the teachings, that does not rely on words and letters,” is a well known statement attributed to its mythical founder, Bodhidharma. To know Zen one has to experience it directly, it is said. As Steven Heine and Dale S. Wright said, “The image of Zen as rejecting all forms of ordinary language is reinforced by a wide variety of legendary anecdotes about Zen masters who teach in bizarre nonlinguistic ways, such as silence, “shouting and hitting,” or other unusual behaviors. And when the masters do resort to language, they almost never use ordinary referential discourse. Instead they are thought to “point directly” to Zen awakening by paradoxical speech, nonsequiturs, or single words seemingly out of context. Moreover, a few Zen texts recount sacrilegious acts against the sacred canon itself, outrageous acts in which the Buddhist sutras are burned or ripped to shreds.” 1 Western people from a whole generation eager to free themselves from the religion of their families have searched for a spiritual path in which, they hoped, action could be done without having to be explained by logic. Many have founded in Zen a teaching where they could act and think freely as Zen was supposed to be beyond logic and do not be present in the texts - a path fundamentally based on experience, intuition, and immediate feeling.
    [Show full text]
  • Dharma Kings and Flying Women: Buddhist
    DHARMA KINGS AND FLYING WOMEN: BUDDHIST EPISTEMOLOGIES IN EARLY TWENTIETH-CENTURY INDIAN AND BRITISH WRITING by CYNTHIA BETH DRAKE B.A., University of California at Berkeley, 1984 M.A.T., Oregon State University, 1992 M.A. Georgetown University, 1999 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Colorado in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English 2017 This thesis entitled: Dharma Kings and Flying Women: Buddhist Epistemologies in Early Twentieth-Century Indian and British Writing written by Cynthia Beth Drake has been approved for the Department of English ________________________________________ Dr. Laura Winkiel __________________________________________ Dr. Janice Ho Date ________________ The final copy of this thesis has been examined by the signatories, and we find that both the content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards of scholarly work in the above mentioned discipline. Drake, Cynthia Beth (Ph.D., English) Dharma Kings and Flying Women: Buddhist Epistemologies in Early Twentieth-Century Indian and British Writing Thesis directed by Associate Professor Laura Winkiel The British fascination with Buddhism and India’s Buddhist roots gave birth to an epistemological framework combining non-dual awareness, compassion, and liberational praxis in early twentieth-century Indian and British writing. Four writers—E.M. Forster, Jiddu Krishnamurti, Lama Yongden, and P.L. Travers—chart a transnational cartography that mark points of location in the flow and emergence of this epistemological framework. To Forster, non- duality is a terrifying rupture and an echo of not merely gross mismanagement, but gross misunderstanding by the British of India and its spiritual legacy.
    [Show full text]
  • Three Sutras on Complete Enlightenment 19
    Three Sutras Complete Enlightenment Sutra Translation Committee of the United States & Canada Copyright © 1998 by YMBA. All rights reserved. Resale is not permitted 紀念樂渡法師圓寂 This book is dedicated to the memory of Dharma Master Lok To (1923~2011) Three sutra on complete Enlightenment Other Works by the Committee: 1. The Buddhist Liturgy 2. The Sutra of Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha’s Fundamental Vows 3. The Dharma of Mind Transmission 4. The Practice of Bodhisattva Dharma 5. An Exhortation to be Alert to the Dharma 6. A Composition Urging the Generation of the Bodhi Mind 7. Practice and Attain Sudden Enlightenment 8. Pure Land Buddhism: Dialogues with Ancient Masters 9. Pure Land Zen, Zen Pure Land 10. Pure Land of the Patriarchs 11. Horizontal Escape: Pure Land Buddhism in Theory and Practice 12. Mind Transmission Seals 13. The Prajna Paramita Heart Sutra 14. Pure Land, Pure Mind 15. Bouddhisme, Sagesse et Foi 16. Entering the Tao of Sudden Enlightenment. 17. The Direct Approach to Buddhadharma 18. Three Sutras on Complete Enlightenment 19. Terre Pure des Patriarches 20. Samantabhadra: Supreme Vows / Voeux Supremes 21. Zen & Sukhavati: Lettres du Maitre Yin-Kouang 22. Mind-Seal of the Buddhas 23. Samantabhadra: Votos Supremos 24. The Seeker’s Glossary of Buddhism 25. Zen & Sukavati: Cartas del Patriarca Yin-Kuang 26. Brahma-Net Sutra 27. The Way of Fortune with Blessings 28. The Fundamentals of Meditation Practice 29. Thus I have Heard: Buddhist Parables and Stories 30. Taming the Monkey Mind 31. Selected Lectures of Dharma Master Fa-Fang 32. The Buddha’s Teachings 33. Give Us a Chance! THREE SUTRAS ON COMPLETE ENLIGHTENMENT Translated Into English by Venerable Dharma Master Lok To Edited by K'un Li, Shih Sutra Translation Committee of the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • (Anatta), 2. Impermanence (Anicca), and 3
    Buddhist Philosophy Take Home Mid-Term Examination This exam consists of two parts, each of which should be no longer than 4 pages (typed, double spaced, standard font – each essay should be approximately 1000 words). The clarity and precision with which you express yourself are extremely important. Be sure in each of your essays that you have 1) a clearly stated thesis; 2) a clearly structured argument; and 3) sufficient evidence to support that argument. This last point is particularly crucial: you must pay close attention to the actual texts upon which you are writing, and use them to flesh out and “enliven” your discussion. Avoid general, summary-type answers. Please pay attention to spelling and grammar (read your essay aloud several times). This is an open book exam, and you may consult and use any of the materials assigned for the class, including your lecture notes. In citing these sources, a simple parenthetic reference will suffice. If you choose to use any other sources - you may, but it is neither necessary nor expected - please give me the full citation the first time you quote the source, and then an abbreviated form thereafter. Please avoid internet sources. Pick two: 1. The three “marks” of existence are described by the Buddha as: 1. No self (anatta), 2. Impermanence (anicca), and 3. Unsatisfactoriness (dukkha). How did the Buddha “discover” these three? Explain the relationship of these three things (you do not have to do so in order, 1,2,3). 2. Explain and analyze how it is that the story of the Buddha’s life is the story of Buddhism.
    [Show full text]
  • Buddhism from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia Jump To: Navigation, Search
    Buddhism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search A statue of Gautama Buddha in Bodhgaya, India. Bodhgaya is traditionally considered the place of his awakening[1] Part of a series on Buddhism Outline · Portal History Timeline · Councils Gautama Buddha Disciples Later Buddhists Dharma or Concepts Four Noble Truths Dependent Origination Impermanence Suffering · Middle Way Non-self · Emptiness Five Aggregates Karma · Rebirth Samsara · Cosmology Practices Three Jewels Precepts · Perfections Meditation · Wisdom Noble Eightfold Path Wings to Awakening Monasticism · Laity Nirvāṇa Four Stages · Arhat Buddha · Bodhisattva Schools · Canons Theravāda · Pali Mahāyāna · Chinese Vajrayāna · Tibetan Countries and Regions Related topics Comparative studies Cultural elements Criticism v • d • e Buddhism (Pali/Sanskrit: बौद धमर Buddh Dharma) is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha (Pāli/Sanskrit "the awakened one"). The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.[2] He is recognized by adherents as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end suffering (or dukkha), achieve nirvana, and escape what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth. Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada—the oldest surviving branch—has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, and Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tendai and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications Vajrayana, a subcategory of Mahayana, is recognized as a third branch.
    [Show full text]
  • Buddhist Beliefs and Teachings
    Buddhist Beliefs and Teachings 1 1 The birth of the Buddha and his life of luxury Buddhism was founded 2500 years ago by Siddhartha Gautama. He was born approx. 500BCE in southern Nepal to King Suddhodana and Queen Maya. When he became enlightened he became known as the Buddha, which is a title meaning ‘awakened on’ or ‘enlightened one’. There are many stories surrounding Siddhartha’s life – including legendary and miraculous events. The following is a traditional commonly told about Siddhartha’s birth: Legend Queen Maya suggests that: Shortly after his dreamed that a birth a prophecy •Siddhartha could white elephant She gave birth immediately walk was made that came from to Siddhartha and talk Siddhartha heaven to tell when she had •Walked seven steps would either and lotus flowers her she would stopped to rest appeared under his become a great give birth to a feet. king or a holy holy child. •Declared he man. wouldn’t be reborn Siddhartha’s life of luxury: His mother died a week after his birth. His father wanted to protect him from any hardship, therefore Siddhartha only knew luxury – with the hope that he would be a great king like his father. Siddhartha had many mansions, female dancers for 2 2 entertainment and protected by sunshades. The four sights As Siddhartha got older, he got more curious about life outside the palace. One day he convinced his attendant Channa to take him to the nearby city. Here encountered four sights. (These stories can be found in Jakata 75) Siddhartha saw a frail old man and realised that everyone will age Siddhartha wanted answers to the problems of old age, illness and death.
    [Show full text]
  • OF BUDDHISM Alia Jawad
    Ancient Pakistan, Vol. XIX - 2008 MAITREYA OF GANDHĀRA―AN ANTICIPATED SANGUINE OF BUDDHISM Alia Jawad The Maitreya Boddhissatva,‘the unconquered, the invincible is the one who is free of the three poisons of greed, anger and stupidity’ (Bell, 1998). Abstract Maitreya enjoys the unique distinction of the only Bodhisattva being recognized throughout the entire Buddhist World, including the Theravada sect. The prophecy of the arrival of Maitreya is found in the canonical literature of all Buddhist sects and is accepted in most Buddhists sects as an actual event that will take place in the distant future. The article presents a short summary of the concept of Maitreya as a ‘future savior of the world’. A short description of other boddhissatvas (recognised by the Theravada texts) is also presented in this paper. The paper presents an analytical review of how Maitreya cult has provided a ray of hope for a better future to the common masses. Moreover, throughout centuries, the same cult has initiated several schools/societies, that yearn for promulgation of a global moral and ethic decree. A bodhisattva is the symbol of compassion who seeks enlightenment while also trying to save all sentient beings by spreading the Buddha’s teachings. In early Buddhism the term boddhisattva (on the way to enlightenment) was used to identify Siddharta autama before he became a buddha (the enlightened one). Nonetheless, some other boddhissatvas were known as early as the early Buddhism, before its schism in several sects. The boddhissatvas in Hinayana were limited in their number and function. They began to gain greater importance for the Mahāsamghīkas1.
    [Show full text]
  • Buddhism Reconsidered
    BUDDHISM RECONSIDERED A Presuppositional Critique of Theravada Buddhist Philosophy as Interpreted by David Kalupahana and Illuminated by Other Select Buddhist Scholars A Thesis' Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS RELIGIOUS STUDIES Specialization in Philosophy of Religion In the GRADUATE SCHOOL OF RELIGION LIBERTY UNIVERSITY By. MICHAEL COLLENDER August 23, 2000 ~"",,""""""""""""" ____________.-dr ExPLANATION OF CORRECTIONS I have tried to harmonize all the criticisms offered by all my committee members. It was impossible to only present the information in the last four chapters without any background material at all. To make my arguments I would have needed to summarize in each of the criticism chapters (previously 8 to 11, now 2 to 4) the necessary back ground to explain the arguments. But the criticism chapters are so interconnected that there was no practical way to introduce particular nuggets of Buddhist philosophy without creating ambiguities on what exactly was being criticized in each chapter. To solve this problem I have dropped chapter 9 entitled, "The Buddhist Problem of Other Minds." And distilled a summary of Buddhist philosophy tl1at only includes information directly related to tl1e arguments presented later. Several sections have been dropped, like tl1e historical introduction, tl1e biography of the Buddha and tl1e section on nirvana, just fo name a few. I also did my best to address all your concerns and criticisms in footnotes. I also increased my citations in conformity witl1 every request for such. Where appropriate I also added more to the text, but Dr Beck made clear that I was to shorten the tl1esis to under a hundred pages so I have done tl1at.
    [Show full text]
  • An Inquiry Into the Description of Mystical Experience and Its Ontological and Epistemological Nature Evgeny Torchinov St
    International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Volume 22 | Issue 1 Article 6 1-1-2003 Mysticism and Its Cultural Expression: An Inquiry into the Description of Mystical Experience and Its Ontological and Epistemological Nature Evgeny Torchinov St. Petersburg State University, Russia Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.ciis.edu/ijts-transpersonalstudies Part of the Philosophy Commons, Psychology Commons, and the Religion Commons Recommended Citation Torchinov, E. (2003). Torchinov, E. (2003). Mysticism and its cultural expression: An inquiry into the description of mystical experience and its ontological and epistemological nature. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 22(1), 40–46.. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 22 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2003.22.1.40 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals and Newsletters at Digital Commons @ CIIS. It has been accepted for inclusion in International Journal of Transpersonal Studies by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ CIIS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Mysticism and Its Cultural Expression: An Inquiry into the Description of Mystical Experience and Its Ontological and Epistemological Nature Evgeny Torchinov St. Petersburg State University, Russia The purpose of this paper is to critically explore the nature and ontological and epistemological significance of differences observed in how various cultural traditions describe and explain such experiences. After an initial consideration of definitional issues, the article focuses on the argu- ments supporting and challenging the idea of mystical experience being a universal phenomenon and a vehicle for true knowledge.
    [Show full text]