UNIVERSITY of SINDH, JAMSHORO Phd Thesis Social Assessment Of

PhD Thesis Social Assessment of Female Education and Its Impact on Poverty Alleviation in Sindh

A Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Sociology, University of Sindh, Jamshoro By GHAZALA SHOUKAT Department of Sociology University of Sindh, Jamshoro P A K I S T A N 2014

STATEMENT BY THE RESEARCH SCHOLAR

I hereby officially state that I have submitted the thesis entitled, “Social Assessment of Female Education and Its Impact on Poverty Alleviation in Sindh”, to the University of Sindh, Jamshoro for the award of the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy. It is a bonafide record of research work that I carried out under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Pervez Ahmed Pathan and co-supervisor, Prof. Khalida Shaikh. The contents of this thesis, in full or in part, have not been presented to any other institute or university with the intention of acquiring any degree or qualification.

Date: Signature of Research Scholar Ghazala Shoukat

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF FEMALE EDUCATION AND ITS IMPACT ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN SINDH”, submitted by Ghazala Shoukat to the University of Sindh, Jamshoro for the award of the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D) degree, embodies original work done by her; it is a bonafide record of research work she carried out under our direction. The contents of this thesis, in full or part, have not been submitted to any other institute or university for the award of any degree or diploma.

Research Guide ______Prof. Dr Pervez Ahmed Pathan Director, Sindh Development Study Centre

Co-Guide ______Prof. Khalida Shaikh

ABSTRACT

This study aims to record female perception about education and its impact on poverty alleviation. Poverty is on high priority for Government and defined differently by various stakeholders and organizations. Poverty manifests itself in a broad range like, economic poverty (Lack of food, shelter and clothing) health poverty, poverty of opportunity and choice. Females are capable, but capability alone is not sufficient to participate in the development. Rural, urban divide, married, unmarried, young, old, culture and many are also factors which contribute in the ratio of female education. Education can only be a useful investment of social change, when it enables a human life skills and empowerment. The present education system is not addressing to alleviate poverty which we are facing now a days. It is essential to understand that poverty which we are facing now a days, our educational system was not designed to alleviate it. This study has been designed to explore the answer of major question that is: To What level does the education of female helps in poverty reduction? For this purpose, a sample of 375 females aged fifteen to sixty was taken from three randomly selected districts (Larkana, Benazirabad and Badin) of Sindh, Pakistan. In order to test the validity of research supposition, the objectives were set using a theoretical framework. Research indicates that there are limited social, economic impacts of female education in some cases, especially where females face high poverty, education is not getting its effectiveness, also socio- cultural taboos limits not only getting an education but limits the opportunities of jobs too, in culture teaching is considered a respectable job for educated female. One of the more significant findings emerging from this study is that majority of women covets the view that education increase awareness that also leads to poverty alleviation. Consequently, this study puts significant value to the education of female literature by using sociological lenses. Evidences presented in this study clearly show that female with high education are more expected to be employed in the formal job sector. There is a negative relationship between female education and agriculture sector employment v even female with primary education does not prefer to work in the agricultural sector. The study suggests that gender sensitive, carefully planned quality education system, improved curriculum can lead to poverty alleviation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Almighty Allah for enabling me to fulfill this effort on an issue of great importance that will contribute on many fronts. I would also like to acknowledge the University of Sindh and my seniors, whose experience and guidance have enriched this research study. This task would not have been possible without the contribution of many minds, especially my supervisors. It is an honour to mention Dr. Rajab Ali Memon and Dr. Pervez Ahmed Pathan’s contributions to this study. Without their interest and motivation, this huge task would never have materialized. Throughout the time that I was writing my thesis, they provided high-quality teaching and stimulating ideas, valuable recommendations and sound advice, extraordinary support and excellent companionship. A special thanks to my co-supervisor, Prof. Khalida Shaikh, whose encouragement and sincere loving support persuaded me to work on these issues. I would like to acknowledge Mr. Aijaz Ali Khunharo of Sindh Agricultural University, Tando Jam and Mr. Ashok Kumar of RAASTA Consultants for providing me the support I needed for research and help with technical issues. I am nothing without my family! My parents deserve extraordinary mention for their unending support and prayers. A special thanks to my husband and my Children Rehan Ali,Kinza Fatima and Zurnain, my brothers and sisters, and all my friends who have played an important role in enriching my life, who held second place so often through my research; without their support, I could not have accomplished my thesis. I truly appreciate the time and cooperation provided by the community; I am grateful to them for sharing their experiences during data collection. All the results and analyses described here are the voices of underprivileged communities. I pray to Allah for their empowerment in every aspect of life.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT BY THE RESEARCH SCHOLAR ...... III

CERTIFICATE...... IV

ABSTRACT ...... V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... VII

LIST OF FIGURES AND BOXES...... XVIII

CHAPTER ONE ...... 1

CONCEPTUALIZING STATE OF EDUCATION ...... 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.2 GENESIS OF EDUCATION ...... 1

1.2.1 ANCIENT GREECE ...... 2

1.2.2 ANCIENT ROME ...... 4

1.2.3 THE MIDDLE AGES ...... 6

1.2.4 THE RENAISSANCE ...... 8

1.2.5 THE REFORMATION...... 9

1.2.6 17TH- AND 18TH-CENTURY EUROPE ...... 10

1.2.7 COLONIAL AMERICA ...... 13

1.2.8 18TH-CENTURY UNITED STATES ...... 14

1.2.9 19TH-CENTURY EUROPE...... 15

1.2.10 19TH-CENTURY UNITED STATES ...... 20

1.2.11 EDUCATION IN THE 20TH CENTURY ...... 23

1.2.12 THE 21ST CENTURY ...... 24

1.4 CONCLUSIONS ...... 29 ix

CHAPTER TWO ...... 31

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 31

2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 31

2.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM (PROBLEM STATEMENT) ...... 31

2.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH ...... 32

2.4 HYPOTHESES ...... 32 2.5 THE LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 32

2.6 JUSTIFICATION ...... 33

2.7 RESEARCH PARAMETERS, TECHNIQUES AND ANALYTICAL TOOLS ...... 37 2.8 SOME QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED THROUGH HYPOTHESIS TESTING PROCEDURE ...... 38

2.9 IMPACT AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ...... 38

2.10 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 39

2.10.1 SOCIAL ASSESSMENT ...... 39

2.11 TARGET POPULATION AND REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE SIZE ...... 39

2.12 SAMPLING METHOD ...... 40 2.13 SAMPLING PLAN FOR THE SELECTION OF RESPONDENTS ...... 41

2.14 DEVELOPMENT OF QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 43

2.15 PRE-TESTING OF QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 44

2.16 LAYOUT OF RESEARCH ...... 44 2.17 CONCLUSION ...... 45 CHAPTER THREE ...... 46 SOCIOLOGICAL LINKAGES BETWEEN EDUCATION AND

POVERTY...... 46

3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 46

3.2 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION ...... 46

3.3 POVERTY: A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE...... 47 3.4 THE LINK BETWEEN EDUCATION AND POVERTY ...... 48

3.5 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ON EDUCATION ...... 50

3.6 CRITICS ON FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION ...... 51 3.7 PREVIOUS STUDIES ...... 53

3.8 GAPS IN THE PRESENT LITERATURE ...... 71

3.9 NEXUS OF BARRIERS, POVERTY AND FEMALE EDUCATION ...... 72

3.10 FAMILY BACKGROUND ...... 72

3.11 CULTURAL CONTEXT ...... 75 3.12 SCHOOL LOCATION ...... 83

3.13 FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY ...... 85

3.14 CONCLUSION ...... 87 CHAPTER FOUR...... 90 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL POLICY MAKING AND

PLANNING IN PAKISTAN ...... 90

4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 90 4.2 FINDINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION CONFERENCE 1947 ...... 90

4.3 NATIONAL PLAN OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 1951-57 ...... 93

4.4 FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN: 1955-60 ...... 94

4.5 ANALYSIS OF REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON NATIONAL EDUCATION: 1959...... 94 4.6 DISCUSSION ON SECOND FIVE YEAR PLAN: 1960-65 ...... 95

4.7 ANALYSIS OF THIRD FIVE YEAR PLAN: 1965-70 ...... 95

4.8 THE INNOVATIVE EDUCATION POLICY: 1970 ...... 96 4.9 THE EDUCATION POLICY: 1972-80...... 97

4.10 DISCUSSION ON FIFTH FIVE YEAR PLAN: 1978-83 ...... 97

4.11 DISCUSSIONS ON NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY AND IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMME: 1979 ...... 97

4.12 THE 10-POINT PROGRAMME: 1983 ...... 99

4.13 DISCUSSION ON SIXTH FIVE YEAR PLAN: 1983-88 ...... 101

4.14 NATIONAL LITERACY PLAN: 1984-86 ...... 102 4.15 DROP-IN SCHOOLS: 1986-1990...... 102

4.16 COUNTRYWIDE LITERACY PROGRAMME: 1986-90 ...... 103

4.17 THE NAI ROSHNI SCHOOLS SCHEME: 1986-90 ...... 103 4.18 DISCUSSION ON SEVENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN: 1988-93 ...... 105

4.19 STATE EDUCATION POLICY: 1992 ...... 106

4.20 DISCUSSION ON EIGHT FIVE YEAR PLAN: 1993-98 ...... 107

4.21 NATIONWIDE EDUCATION POLICY: 1998-2010 ...... 108 4.22 CONCLUSION ...... 109 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 111

EDUCATION IN SINDH ...... 111 xi

5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 111

5.2 ANALYSIS OF EDUCATION SECTOR IN TERMS OF POLICY, STATUS AND KEY ISSUES ...... 112 5.3. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION (ECE) ...... 115

5.3.1 POLICY GUIDELINES...... 116

5.3.2 STATUS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION ...... 116

5.3.3 INEQUALITIES AND DISPARITIES ...... 118

5.4 PRIMARY EDUCATION ...... 118

5.4.1 POLICY ...... 119

5.4.2 STATUS ...... 120

5.4.3 INEQUALITIES AND DISPARITIES ...... 133

5.4.4 KEY ISSUES ...... 134

5.5 SECONDARY AND HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION ...... 135

5.5.1 POLICY ...... 136

5.5.2 STATUS ...... 136

5.6 TERTIARY EDUCATION ...... 141

5.6.1 STATUS ...... 142

5.6.2 KEY ISSUES ...... 145

5.7 CONCLUSION ...... 146 CHAPTER SIX ...... 147

DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF STUDY AREA...... 147

6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 147 6.2 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS ...... 149

6.3 HYPOTHESIS ONE ...... 158

6.4RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS ONE ...... 158

6.5 HYPOTHESIS TWO(I) ...... 159 6.6 RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS TWO (I) ...... 160

6.7 HYPOTHESISTWO (II) ...... 163

6.8RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS TWO (II) ...... 164 6.7 CONCLUSION ...... 168 CHAPTER SEVEN ...... 169 xii

PERCEPTIONS OF FEMALE ABOUT EDUCATION ...... 169

7.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 169

7.2 MAIN CHANGES THAT HAVE OCCURRED AFTER GETTING YOUR EDUCATION...... 169 7.3 IMPACT ON FAMILY RELATIONS AFTER GETTING EDUCATION ...... 170

7.4 FINANCIAL CONDITIONS BEFORE GETTING EDUCATION ...... 173

7.5 LITERATE WOMEN’S ACTIVITIES INSIDE THE HOUSEHOLD...... 176

7.6 DO LITERATE WOMEN CONTRIBUTE TO THE INCOME OF HOUSEHOLD? ...... 176 7.7 BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION ...... 177

7.8 DECISION MAKING ...... 186

7.9:HYPOTHESISTHREE ...... 191 7.10RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS THREE ...... 192

7.11 HYPOTHESIS FOUR: ...... 194

7.12 RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS FOUR: ...... 195

7.13 CONCLUSION ...... 196 CHAPTER EIGHT ...... 197 BARRIERS AND OBSTACLES FACED BY FEMALES WHILE

GETTING EDUCATION ...... 197

8.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 197

8.2 DIFFICULTIES FACED DURING EDUCATION ...... 197

8.3 REASONS OF GETTING EDUCATION ...... 201

8.4 HYPOTHESIS FIVE ...... 207 8.5 RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS FIVE ...... 207

8.6 CONCLUSION ...... 208 CHAPTER NINE ...... 209

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 209

REFERENCES ...... 215

ANNEXES ...... 229

ANNEX A .QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 230

ANNEX B. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS...... 239

ANNEX C. MAP OF SINDH ...... 240 ANNEX D. LIST OF SAMPLE DISTRICTS, TALUKAS, UCS AND xiii

VILLAGES ...... 241

ANNEX E. LIST OF DATA COLLECTORS ...... 242

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1 ANALYSIS TOOLS ...... 37

TABLE 2.2 PIEDMONT POTENTIAL ...... 43

TABLE 5.1: MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTIONS IN SCHOOLS...... 113

TABLE 5.2: DIFFERENT RATIOS OF STUDENTS OVER TEACHERS, SCHOOLS AND CLASSROOM WITH RURAL

URBAN DIVISIONS...... 115

TABLE 5.3: NUMBER OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS ‐ SINDH...... 121

TABLE 5.4: SINDH’S PRIMARY LEVEL ENROLMENT...... 122

TABLE 5.5: GROSS PRIMARY (5‐9 YEARS) ENROLMENT RATES BY SEX (PERCENTAGE) ...... 123

TABLE 5.6: NUMBER OF TEACHERS AT PRIMARY LEVEL ‐ SINDH...... 124

TABLE 5.7: NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AT MIDDLE LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 124

TABLE 5.8: ENROLMENT STATICS AT MIDDLE LEVEL-SINDH ...... 126

TABLE 5.9: GROSS MIDDLE ENROLMENT RATE (10‐12 YEARS) BY SEX (PERCENTAGE) ...... 127

TABLE 5.10: NET MIDDLE ENROLMENT RATE (10‐12 YEARS) BY SEX (PERCENTAGE) ...... 127

TABLE 5.11: NUMBER OF TEACHERS AT MIDDLE LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 129

TABLE 5.12: CONDITION OF BUILDINGS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS ‐ SINDH ...... 130

TABLE 5.13: BASIC FACILITIES AVAILABLE AT PUBLIC SCHOOLS ‐ SINDH...... 130

TABLE 5.14: CLASS WISE DROPOUT RATES ‐ SINDH (PERCENTAGE)...... 131

TABLE 5.15: PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATION OF TEACHERS ‐ SINDH ...... 131

TABLE 5.16: PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION THAT HAS EVER ATTENDED SCHOOL ACCORDING TO INCOME

QUINTILES (PERCENTAGE)...... 133 TABLE 5.17: GROSS PRIMARY ENROLMENT RATE BY INCOME QUINTILES (PERCENTAGE)...... 134

TABLE 5.18: GROSS ENROLMENT RATE AT MIDDLE LEVEL (AGES 10‐12) BY INCOME QUINTILES ...... 134

TABLE 5.19: NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AT SECONDARY LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 136

TABLE 5. 20: ENROLMENT AT SECONDARY LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 137

TABLE 5.21: NUMBER OF HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLS ‐ SINDH...... 139

TABLE 5.22: NUMBER OF TEACHERS AT HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 139

TABLE 5.23: CONDITION OF BUILDINGS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS AT SECONDARY & H. SEC. LEVEL...... 140

TABLE 5.24: SCHOOLS HAVING BASIC FACILITIES AVAILABLE AT SECONDARY & H. SEC. LEVEL ...... 140 TABLE 5.25: LAB FACILITIES AVAILABLE AT SECONDARY AND H. SEC. LEVELS ...... 141

TABLE 5.26: NUMBER OF DEGREE COLLEGES IN SINDH (PUBLIC AND PRIVATE) ...... 142

TABLE 5.27: UNIVERSITIES/ DEGREE AWARDING INSTITUTIONS SINDH...... 143

TABLE 5.28: ENROLMENT AT DEGREE COLLEGES (PUBLIC AND PRIVATE) ...... 143

TABLE 5.29: ENROLMENT IN UNIVERSITIES IN SINDH (PUBLIC AND PRIVATE) ...... 144

TABLE 5.30: TEACHERS AT DEGREE COLLEGES IN SINDH (PUBLIC AND PRIVATE) ...... 144

TABLE 5.31: FACULTY AT UNIVERSITIES/ DAIS IN SINDH (PUBLIC AND PRIVATE) ...... 145 xv

TABLE 6.1: RESPONDENT EDUCATION DISTRICT WISE DISTRIBUTION ...... 150

TABLE 6.2: MARITAL STATUS ...... 152

TABLE 6.3: NUMBER OF CHILDREN IF MARRIED BOYS LESS THAN 18 YEARS ...... 152

TABLE 6.4: NUMBER OF CHILDREN IF MARRIED BOYS MORE THAN 18 YEARS ...... 153

TABLE 6.5: NUMBER OF CHILDREN IF MARRIED GIRLS LESS THAN 18 YEARS ...... 153

TABLE 6.6: NUMBER OF CHILDREN IF MARRIED GIRLS MORE THAN 18 YEARS ...... 154 TABLE 6.7: NUMBER OF CHILDREN ATTENDING SCHOOL (BOYS) ...... 154

TABLE 6.8: NUMBER OF CHILDREN ATTENDING SCHOOL (GIRLS) ...... 155

TABLE 6.9: NUMBER OF EDUCATED FAMILY MEMBERS (MALE) ...... 155

TABLE 6.10: CHI-SQUARE TEST ...... 158

TABLE 6.11 CHI-SQUARE TESTS ...... 160

TABLE 6.12: COMPARISON AMONG THREE DISTRICTS CONCERNING SOURCE OF INCOME ...... 161

TABLE 6.13: CHI-SQUARE TESTS ...... 163

TABLE 7.1: IMPACT ON FAMILY RELATIONS AFTER GETTING EDUCATION (IMPORTANCE) ...... 171

TABLE 7.2: RIGHTS OF SELECTION LIFE PARTNER ...... 172

TABLE 7.3: LITERATE WOMEN’S ACTIVITIES INSIDE THE HOUSEHOLD ...... 176

TABLE 7.4: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (WATER SUPPLY) ...... 177

TABLE 7.5: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (LATRINE SANITATION / KITCHEN SANITATION)178 LATRINE SANITATION / KITCHEN SANITATION ...... 178

TABLE – 7.6: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (IMPROVEMENT IN HOUSING SECTOR) ...... 178

TABLE – 7.7: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (INCREASE NUMBER OF LITERATE PERSONS)179

INCREASE NUMBER OF LITERATE PERSONS) ...... 179

TABLE – 7.8: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (INCREASE NUMBER OF SKILLED PERSONS) . 180

INCREASE NUMBER OF SKILLED PERSONS ...... 180

TABLE – 7.9: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (OTHER SOCIAL SERVICES) ...... 180

TABLE –7.10: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (ACCESS TO HOSPITAL) ...... 181

TABLE 7.11: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (INCREASED IMMUNIZATION OF CHILDREN) . 182

TABLE 7.12: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (REDUCTION OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY)182

TABLE 7.13: BENEFITS DERIVED FROM FEMALE EDUCATION (INCREASED LIVELIHOOD OPPORTUNITIES) .. 183 TABLE 7.14: KNOWLEDGE REGARDING INHERITANCE LAW...... 184

TABLE – 7.15: DID YOU EVER VOTE ...... 185

TABLE –7.16: DECISION MAKING (LAND AND CROPS) ...... 188

TABLE – 7.17: DECISION MAKING (HEALTH) ...... 188

TABLE 7.18: DECISION MAKING (MATRIMONIAL) ...... 189

FIGURE-7.13: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF DECISION MAKING (PROPERTY/OWNERSHIP) (N=375)...... 190

TABLE 7.19: DECISION MAKING (MARKETING OF FISH) ...... 190

TABLE – 7.20: DECISION MAKING (SALE OF AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION)...... 191

TABLE 7.21: CHI-SQUARE TESTS ...... 191 xvi

TABLE – 7.22: DECISION MAKING (LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT) ...... 192

TABLE – 7.23: AWARENESS...... 194

TABLE – 7.24: MAJOR SOURCE OF INFORMATION ACCORDING TO LEVEL OF EDUCATION...... 195

TABLE – 8.1: HOW FAR IS THE LAST EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION FROM HOME? ...... 199

TABLE -8.2: MODE OF GIRLS’ ACCESS TO SCHOOL...... 200

TABLE- 8.3: TYPE OF DIFFICULTIES FACED DURING EDUCATION AND RESPONDENT EDUCATION ...... 202 TABLE -8.4: DO YOU THINK THAT FEMALE EDUCATION CAN PLAY A ROLE IN MARITAL ADJUSTMENT? .. 204

TABLE-8.5: CHI-SQUARE TESTS ...... 207

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List of Figures and Boxes

1.3 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION ...... 26

1.1 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION CONTINUUM CHART...... 26

FIGURE 2.1 DIAGRAMMATIC RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN POVERTY AND EDUCATION ...... 35

FIGURE 2.1 SAMPLING PLAN ...... 41

MAP 2.1 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF SINDH ...... 42

FIGURE 2.2 DIAGRAM SHOWING RESEARCH CYCLE ...... 45

FIGURE 3.1: MATRIX TO ASSESS POVERTY STATUS ...... 48

FIGURE 5.1: INSTITUTIONS IN SINDH IN TERMS OF LEVEL AND GENDER...... 113 FIGURE 5.2: ENROLMENT IN TERMS OF LEVEL AND GENDER IN SINDH...... 114

FIGURE 5.3: PRE-PRIMARY ENROLMENT LEVEL-SINDH ...... 117

FIGURE 5.4: NUMBER OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS ‐ SINDH ...... 121

FIGURE 5.5: SINDH’S PRIMARY LEVEL ENROLMENT...... 122

FIGURE 5.6: NUMBER OF TEACHERS AT PRIMARY LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 124

FIGURE 5.7: NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AT MIDDLE LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 125

FIGURE 5.8: ENROLMENT STATICS AT MIDDLE LEVEL-SINDH ...... 126

FIGURE5.9: NUMBER OF TEACHERS AT MIDDLE LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 129

FIGURE 5.11: NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AT SECONDARY LEVEL ‐ SINDH ...... 137 FIGURE 5.12: ENROLMENT AT SECONDARY LEVEL – SINDH ...... 138

BOX 6.1: SINDH DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS ...... 147

FIGURE 6.1: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL LEVELS BY AGE (N=375) ...... 149

FIGURE 6.2: RESPONDENT EDUCATION DISTRICT WISE DISTRIBUTION ...... 151

FIGURE 6.3: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER OF EDUCATED FEMALE MEMBERS (N=375) ...... 156

FIGURE 6.4: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF MALE EDUCATED FAMILY MEMBERS (N=375) ...... 156

FIGURE 6.5: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATED FAMILY MEMBERS (N=375) ...... 157

FIGURE 6.6: COMPARISON AMONG THREE DISTRICTS CONCERNING SOURCE OF INCOME ...... 158

FIGURE 6.7:PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCE OF INCOME(N=375) ...... 159

FIGURE 6.8: PERSONAL INCOME PER MONTH ...... 162 FIGURE 6.9: COMPARISON AMONG THREE DISTRICTS PERSONAL INCOME PER MONTH ...... 163

FIGURE 6.10: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF CONSENT DURING MARRIAGE (N=375) ...... 167

FIGURE 6.11: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER OF AGE OF RESPONDENT AT THE TIME OF MARRIAGE (N=375) ...... 167

FIGURE – 7.1: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF MAIN CHANGES HAVE OCCURRED AFTER GETTING YOUR

EDUCATION (N=217) ...... 170

FIGURE 7.2: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF IMPACT ON FAMILY RELATIONS AFTER GETTING EDUCATION

(BEHAVIOR) N=217 ...... 171 xviii

FIGURE 7.3: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FINANCIAL CONDITIONS BEFORE GETTING EDUCATION (N=217) ...... 173

FIGURE 7.4: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF DO YOU HAVE ANY LAND OR PROPERTY? (N=375) ...... 174

FIGURE 7.5: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF IF YES, FROM WHERE YOU RECEIVED THIS LAND OR

PROPERTY (N=375) ...... 174

FIGURE 7.6: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF “DO YOU HAVE PERMISSION OR RIGHT TO PURCHASE OF

SALE”? (N=375) ...... 175

FIGURE 7.7: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF DO LITERATE WOMEN CONTRIBUTE TO THE INCOME OF

HOUSEHOLD? (N=375) ...... 176

FIGURE-7.8: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF DIAGRAM SHOWING DATA DISTRICT WISE ON IMPACT OF

EDUCATION ON LIVELIHOOD OPPORTUNITIES (N=375) ...... 184

FIGURE-7.9: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FAMILY PLANNING (N=375) ...... 185

FIGURE- 7.10: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF CONSENT TO CAST VOTE (N=375)...... 186

FIGURE – 7.11: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF DECISION MAKING (HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT) (N=375)186

FIGURE 7.12: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF DECISION MAKING -FAMILY MATTERS (N=375) ...... 187

FIGURE-7.14: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION (N=375) ...... 193

FIGURE-8.1: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF TYPE OF DIFFICULTIES FACED DURING EDUCATION (N=217)197

FIGURE-8.2: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF WHO RESTRICTED YOU FROM SEEKING EDUCATION? ...... 198 (N=375) ...... 198

FIGURE 8.3: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF WHY WOMEN GET EDUCATION (N=375) ...... 201

FIGURE -8.4: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF REASON FOR NOT SENDING TO SCHOOL (N=375) ...... 202

FIGURE-8.5: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF IF OPPORTUNITIES ARE LIMITED, WHO SHOULD GET PRIORITY

TO GET EDUCATION? (N=375) ...... 203

FIGURE 8.6: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF IS THERE ANY NEGATIVE IMPACT OF FEMALE EDUCATION? (N=375) ...... 204

FIGURE 8.7: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILY ATTITUDE TO WOMEN’S WORK (N=375) ...... 205

FIGURE8.8: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ROLE OF FAMILY AND OTHERS IN PAID WORK DECISION

MAKING (N=375) ...... 206

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LIST OF ACRONYMS/ ABBREVIATIONS

AD After the Death of Christ ADB Asian Development Bank AEPM Academy of Educational Planning and Management CPU Chicago Plan for Undergraduates DFID Department for International Development EFA Education for All FAN Federally Administered Northern Areas FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas FBS Federal Bureau of Statistics FGD Focus Group Discussion GDI Gender Development Index GDP Gross Domestic Product GGG Global Gender Gap GII Gender Inequality Index GLS Generalized Least Squares Technique GNP Gross National Product HDI Human Development Index HH Household Non-Governmental Organization HIES Household Integrated Economic Survey HRD Human Resource Development MDGs Millennium Development Goals MHM Menstrual Hygiene Management MPI Multidimensional Poverty Index MTDF Medium Term Development Framework NEP New Economic Policy NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIPS National Institute of Population Studies PIDE Pakistan Institute of Development of Economics PIHS Pakistan Integrated Household Survey xx

PLC Provincial Literacy Councils PRSP Pakistan Rural Support Program PRB Population Reference Bureau PTC Primary Teachers Certificate PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers SA Social Assessment SEMIS Sindh Education Management Information System SPSS Statistical Program for Social Science UC Union Council UDHR s Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNDP United Nations Development Program UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund WB World Bank WHO World Health Organization

xxi

Chapter One

Conceptualizing State of Education

1.1 Introduction The first chapter focuses on reviewing the status of female education throughout history. The chapter has well elaborated the different discrimination against women; this chapter explores the ways in which gender approaches have limited experience of higher education of women. Through using primary objective historical examples from the throughout world, which shows how beliefs about women eventually led to three expectations about their participation in education : At first , women were not interested in education; later, they were not able to further education ; and throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , they were better educated in segregated with plans for independent study environments. The power of these beliefs has led to three constant misinterpretations of the historical behavior of women : first, that " feminized " certain fields , leading men ; second , that have been minor and unsuccessful participants in science; and third, that in the early period after the Second World War, his involvement in education was merely incidental. In many ways, when the performance of women defied expectations, people tend to see what they expected instead of analyzing what behavior really meant , and the promotion of women in higher education continues to be inhibited by these beliefs previous

1.2 Genesis of Education1 As the complex civilization and customs emerged in the river valleys of Egypt 2 and Babylonia3, operating and performing roles in complex and multilingual societies4, humans required effective ways of accumulating, recording and preserving these cultural values and

1The History of Education – Early Civilizations - Edited by Robert Guisepi. 2In ancient times, it was a flourishing kingdom and one of the earliest known civilizations, known for its development of hieroglyphic writing and its achievements in agriculture, art, and architecture. It reached its height during the XVIII dynasty (1570-1342 BC) and declined after the seventh century BC. 3 An ancient empire of Mesopotamia in the Euphrates River valley. It flourished under Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar II but declined after 562BC and fell to the Persians in 539BC. 4a complex society is a social formation that is otherwise described as a formative or developed state. 1

heritage. Therefore, writing for recording and accumulating was invented by about 3100BC5 (Guisepi, 2006).

The existing educational system and mechanisms that transmitted the skills required by society were not sufficient. Temple or religious education was the major rationale for the existing institutes. Informal apprenticeship was the only source of learning and very few children got formal schooling 6 .Amongst the ancient Middle Eastern people, Jews were largely involved in providing formal education to adults and their children. In the 1st century AD, a large number of schools were established for elementary education of children aged thirteen, who enrolled to develop their reading and writing skills. The main aim of these schools was to provide religious education of the Old Testament7, the Pentateuch. Therefore, religious teachings were set and children aged thirteen continued in these schools in order to become disciples of the Rabbi and prepare themselves for teaching (Ajegbo, Sir Keith, Dina Kiwan and Seema Sharma, 2007).

1.2.1 Ancient Greece8 In the Greek city-states, the objective of acquiring knowledge was to prepare the children to become mature citizens. Every state had their own set of principles regarding training and planned education as it seemed appropriate. In Sparta9, the objective of education was to create excellent warriors. However, in Athens, education was provided to train skilled people who could play an effective role in both war and peace (Shemilt, Denis, 1980).

In Sparta, when children reached the age of seven, they usually got permission to attend the training programmes under the supervision of highly trained officers. Boys from the age of seven to eighteen went through a strict grueling training schedule, which included walking

53100 BC considered the start of history time of Ancient Egypt. People always consider Ancient Egypt started its civilization in 3100 BC. 6Education obtained through an accredited source such as high school or university/college. 7The Old Testament is a Christian term for a collection of religious writings of ancient Israel. 8 Old Greek was assumed to be a great civilization which remained from the Archaic period in the 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca.600AD). 9An ancient Greek city in the Peloponnese, famous for the discipline and military prowess of its citizens and for their austere way of life.

barefoot, running and jumping (The History of Education, edited by Robert Guisepi). Boys pursued a defined and strict course of action during training in such schools. They used to feel proud when they faced the severity of pain during trainings (Herodotus, Classics Archive).

When boys reached the age of eighteen in Sparta, they became part of the military cadets and learned the various techniques of war. Boys at the age of twenty were part of the state militia and were used as reserve in times of emergency. While being part of state militia, boys remained in the military until the age of sixty (Thomas W Meyne, 1961). Old Spartans did not possess the ability to read and write; they were not educated in other forms of literature considered inappropriate for the soldier community. Education in dance and music was considered part of their military service (Andrewes, A 1966).

Women became part of these departments after they had been educated at home (Hunt, 2004). Spartans adopted a different approach than other Greek city states. They provided complete training to girls. Training of girls was similar to that of boys; they learnt the art of running, jumping, throwing the javelin and the discus, and wrestling (Boring, Terence 1979). The best citizens were the ones who possessed both the arts of peace and war. In Athens, many schools declared these two arts as the most important for citizens. States allowed leading families to impart education to their offspring, which seemed more appropriate before gaining military training when they reached the age of eighteen. The schools were operating as private institutions with low fees, more affordable to the poor community, to educate their children for a few years (Bouras, Charalampos, and M. Korres, eds. 2003). As part of the elementary education, boys remained in schools from the age of six to fourteen and learnt various games and received training in gymnastics. They also learnt other games such as volleyball. Older boys attending elementary schools learnt art as well as activities related to running, boxing, jumping etc (Pearce, Celia, 2004).

Plato said that education focused on a human’s mind, body and aesthetic sense; of the boys he wished that they “may learn to be more gentle, and harmonious, and rhythmical, and so more fitted for speech and action; for the life of man in every part has need of harmony and rhythm" (Connolly; Peter and Hazel, 1998). Poorer boys, turning thirteen or fourteen, ended their time in school and were offered

apprenticeship to trades whilst boys belonging to rich communities continued their education under the supervision of great philosophers and teachers (The History of Education, Edited by Robert Guisepi). Therefore, until 390 BC, people could not find any schools or particular courses for higher education, on a permanent basis. For example, to achieve higher education, Socrates looked in every corner of Athens, asked people to hold discussions on important subjects and courses that could shape the conduct and ethics of man’s life. There was gradual development when few students attached themselves to one teacher or another. This resulted in permanent schools being built where the most prominent scholars such as Plato10, Isocrates11 and Aristotle12 taught students.

Two groups of students emerged: the first group comprising of students who wished to study for the sake of learning moved towards philosophers like Plato who taught them geometry, astronomy, harmonics and arithmetic. The second group of students who wished to obtain skills and methods related to social and public life went to philosophers like Isocrates to learn the art of public speaking and various expressions. This kind of training was more suitable for Athens because of the power that resided with men who possessed such abilities that persuaded their orators and other officials to act and perform. So in Athens, many girls gained primary education in their own homes. But the most capable and learned women were the hetaerae13, or courtesans14; these kinds of women got lessons from special schools where they were taught to be more helpful and attractive as companions (Ajegbo, Sir Keith, Dina Kiwan and Seema Sharma, 2007).

1.2.2 Ancient Rome15 In 146 BC, when Rome gained military triumph over Greece, it resulted in the triumph of

10Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece. He was also a mathematician. 11Isocrates an ancient Greek rhetorician was one of the ten Attic orators and among the most influential Greek rhetoricians of his time. 12Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. 13A courtesan or mistress, especially one in ancient Greece. 14A courtesan was originally a courtier, which means a person who attends the court of a monarch or other powerful person. 15Roman civilization flourished on the Italian peninsula during 8th century BC. 4

Greece culture on Rome. In fact, Greek education had influenced Roman education almost a century earlier when most boys obtained their education from home. Fathers solely decided what their sons needed to learn about Rome and its various customs. Parents also took the responsibility of providing training related to physical activity. Some boys older than the required age, had to opt themselves to learn about public life by taking help from orators. Thus, boys learnt the art of communication and public speaking by carefully paying heed to the various discussions in the Senate and other public places. Roman education included some elements in its educational system in the form of book learning from the Greeks (Painter, 1987).

Parents had to decide whether they want to send their offspring at six or seven years of age, to ludus16publics, to learn the art of reading, writing and counting. Rich communities usually sent their boys who were past the age of twelve or thirteen to some “grammar”17 institutes where they learnt Latin and Greek along with methods of analysis, declension and conjugation. Hence, boys belonging to the upper classes had to study both Greek and Latin Literature as well. The teacher would read the student’s work and then deliver the lecture in class; students would memorize the notes, which they took from teachers. When students reached the age of sixteen, they had the option to learn public speaking at rhetoric schools. Arrangements slowly began to build schools in Rome. This movement spread over the entire Roman Empire in the middle of the first century. Development continued until the complete downfall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century.

Because of the enormous influence of Greek education, Roman educational values seemed quite different. Greek education aimed to produce a good citizen, a sophisticated and sober individual. Even though the prime objective of Roman education was the same as Greek education, it aimed to produce the most effective speakers. Roman education did not include science, philosophy, music, dance and gymnastics like the Greek and focused instead on oratory and literature. The reason for studying literature was to produce good orators by overemphasizing some basic technicalities of grammar and its usage of content.

16Ludus is a Latin word meaning either school or game. Gladiators like Spartacus were taught to fight by people called lanistae in a ludus and then the game at which they fought was a ludus. 17 A state secondary school to which pupils are admitted based on ability. 5

In 31 BC, Rome declared itself an empire. Most schools could not uphold their customs and values. So it was not due to the fact that orators did but it was the ruler keeping all the power there. The Roman style of education seemed different in reality from that in other parts of the world and did not interest school-going boys. It was imperative to motivate these children by introducing various disciplines, which helped the Romans not to be victims in that situation. When the Roman empire went down, the education that originally meant to produce and train some think tankers for the Senate in the Roman empire was adopted by the prevalent educational system in Europe as a model. It continued to dominate until the twentieth century (Ajegbo, Sir Keith, Dina Kiwan and Seema Sharma, 2007).Almost a thousand years later, after the fall of the Roman Empire, the legacy of the Roman era continued to dominate in all fields such as commerce, public services education and even the Roman Catholic Church. In the year 1200, in Europe, books were even written in Latin (Ajegbo, Sir Keith, Dina Kiwan and Seema Sharma, 2007).

1.2.3 The Middle Ages18 The movement of tribes belonging to the western world assumed to be civilized, caused to destroy the ancient culture where young people did not have the opportunity to get formal education. The disappearance of the Roman school system in the early Middle Ages was due to the invading tribes.In the fifth century, civilization in Europe seemed to revert to primitive education which was not for the medieval church which protected the western learning that survived due to the fall and collapse of the Roman Empire (Pierre Riche, 1978).

Cathedral19, monastic20, and in most parts of Western Europe, clergy and other religious people took the responsibility to run the activities of educational institutes. Many students trained to become clergymen to keep with the demands of current and future scenarios but some lay students also received training to become clerks. Church schools in Western Europe followed the same pattern as Greek and Roman schools. This implied that they taught the students about the existence of the earth; they learned to read Latin in order to preserve and facilitate the various writings of the Church fathers. Students in these schools

18The Middle Ages was a period of European history that lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century. 19The principal church of a bishop's diocese, containing the Episcopal throne, a large, important church, something that resembles a cathedral, as in grandeur or authority. 20Characteristic of a monastery, used often by monks and nuns who live alone. 6

obtained greater expertise in mathematics in order to improve their calculations about various religious festivals and they learnt singing so they could participate more effectively in church services (Amt, Emilie, 1993).The church schools also gave more importance to physical training like the Greeks; physical education was compulsory in Greek education. Students had to attend schools that lacked the facilities and seemed dull where physical activity was subdued (Ariosto, 1983).

There was no sorting of students of different ages in sharing the same bench in schools. In these schools, both children and adults did not receive any kind of unbiased and special distinction. The existence of medieval educational institutes was for clerks and clergymen but it was not for children. In the Middle Ages, a boy aged seven was supposed to be part of the adult world where he could absorb adult knowledge and opt for the same way of doing work done by men during the middle years of the elementary education. Childhood was not even recognized and understood until the eighteenth and twentieth century (Castiglione, Baldesar, 1967).

In the Middle Ages, women knew their importance and endorsed themselves for marriage and motherhood. They got training in various kinds of domestic responsibilities while boys became apprentices. It was more important for boys to be sent to other places for educational purposes than girls. Therefore, girls acquired basic education at home from their parents. It was considered useless and a waste of time to teach girls complex subjects which did not have meaning in practical life. Girls belonging to the higher strata of society received better education when their parents sent them to their friends to learn music, art and other subjects. Girls from rich families also joined convent boarding schools to learn “Morals” (Amt, Emilie, 1993).

A few schools were built for girls. In 425 AD, during the East Roman empire, many schools opened. These schools were maintained by the Byzantine Empire before it collapsed in 1453 AD. Schools during the Roman Empire, mostly administered at the village level were to educate soldiers and girls. But in the West, few convents had schools designed to provide educational facilities to girls. However, there is limited information about these schools (Blamires, Alcuin, 1992). From the beginning of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries to the end of the Middle Ages,

there was progress in the development of universities. More than 1200 universities adopted the curriculum based on seven liberal arts, classified in to the following major groups; the preparatory trivium that contained grammar, rhetoric and logic and the more advanced quadrivium that contained arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy (Jacqueline Broad 2002). Women were educated in different convents; this revealed in the letter of the French nun, Heloise21, who before becoming abbess received her classical education at the nunnery of Argenteuil.

A high ratio of girls registered in schools in Paris to study French literature. Philosopher Peter Abelard faced many problems. The ratio of failure was very high because of the low quality of teaching materials in those schools. Universities located in France had access to limited books so students in schools would learn their lessons by memorizing and through dictation. The education system of the twelfth century could provide effective teaching facilities; thus, it yielded careers of men in a positive direction and generated more passionate students (Bokenham, Osbern, 1992).

Chivalric education was well thought-out for youngsters who were part of the aristocracy and received such instruction at home. This secondary education covered various social and science subjects and encompassed some social training useful during times of war (Badio u, Alain. St. Paul, 2003).

1.2.4 The Renaissance22 A revolt in Italy during the fourteenth century extended its influence to the Northern part of Europe and was to end the world openness and narrowness of the Middle Ages. Like Greeks, in the Renaissance period, they wanted men to develop in physical and spiritual capacity so they could bring positive improvement to their lives (Debus, 1970). At the beginning of the Renaissance, Florence was the main hub where men, women and children all attended schools and women from noble classes had obligations that required literacy. When education progressed, almost all households started to employ poor students from

21Héloïse (born c. 1098—died May 15, 1164, wife of the theologian and philosopher Peter Abelard, with whom she was involved in one of the best known love tragedies of history. 22A cultural movement that spanned the period from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century roughly, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. 8

universities as tutors. Sometimes, girls were allowed to attend classes to help their family members (Legacy, 2007).The main material of the books, "liberal education 23 " bore resemblance to the older educational system that was famous in medieval ages. Humanists included many subjects like history, physical games, and exercises, which emphasized on Roman and Greek literature (Augustine, 1958).Over time, attitudes changed about the attainment of educational objectives. Only a few innovative schools adopted changes in the educational methods that reflected education as more exciting, pleasant and fun for students (Boorstin, Daniel, 1938).

Vittorino da Feltre founded a school where renaissance ideals were taught in Mantua, Italy in 1423AD. This also broke the medieval tradition which existed in the cheerless institutions where students learnt different substances by memorizing it (Vecchia, P.1905).The educational institutes were meant to educate children from the age of six or seven and the youth who were in their mid-twenties in subjects like history, philosophy, music, geometry which were based on the curriculum of the Romans and Greek with a keen emphasis on exercise and games (Boorstin, 1938).

The lower classes did not see any impact because of the humanists’ ideals and this was why they remained totally uninformed like the people of the Middle Ages. Secondary education seemed to be for the upper classes only. Unlike Vittorio’s schools, many educational institutes taught the students Roman and Greek literature. Humanist ideals considered physical development more significant. Therefore, strictness and brutal discipline flourished in educational institutes (Badiou, Alain. St. Paul, 2003).

1.2.5 The Reformation24 During the sixteenth century, the deterioration of various practices and educational goals and methods continued. This invited religious dominance in men’s thoughts, which also became dominant in the humanist courses designed for higher secondary schools.

23 For the development of human beings, it is suggested that liberal educational system be introduced, based on the various models and theories presented in the Medieval Ages. This concept is highlighted as a philosophy of education.

24Martin Luther was the first man in the sixteenth century who brought about the Protestant Reformation in Christianity. 9

The efforts to defend the new religion by Protestants brought more sacrifices from the pagan community that was based on the curriculum of Greek and Latin which was strictly opposed by inhibitors (Paul Althaus, 1966).The Protestants also believed that the education of women was aimed at the development of the endorsed concept of marriage, and training in domestic skills. Women were trained in ways to look after children and other domestic activities. Because of the changes, women were able to study the Bible in their vernacular language; this was responsible in having a colossal influence on children and their husbands. After reading the Bible, women came to know that women were also equal in the presence of God (Charlotte,1999).

1.2.6 17th- and 18th-Century Europe25 Many schools during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries remained in a state of stagnation because of the incompetency of teachers and the cruel regulations that were prevalent in schools. The various learning methods used by children did not help them in understanding words and facts. Education for poor families was not available in that period because there were no literate educators in schools (Isaiah, 1970).

By the seventeenth century, the impact of Latin literature helped students because Latin had been used for the purpose of commerce and trade and also religion. During the seventeenth century, many schools run by humanists could not follow the rules and regulations that were to be taught in Latin. It was thought to train the student’s minds. Great schematic movement with an incredible effect began to infuse the western countries. Many schools of Catholic and Protestants with its emphasis on the use of classical linguistic studies were thereby protected (Cole, 1975).The general state of education worsened although some capable educationists had ideas about learning purposes that pointed towards the educational revolution which took place in the twentieth century (Cole, 1975).

John26 (Johann) Amos Comenius (1592-1670), was a great educationist, who is still thought

25Early 17th-century philosophy is often called the Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism and is considered to succeed the Renaissance philosophy era and precede the Age of Enlightenment. 26John Amos Comenius (1592-1670). Selections. Introduction by Jean Piaget, Director of the International Bureau of Education. The volume is illustrated and contains notes and a bibliography by Professors Chlup of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, and Patocka, lecturer at Prague University. Besides extracts from The Great Didactic, it includes chapters from lesser-known works and also hitherto unpublished ones. 10

to be a leading figure of the seventeenth century because of his effective educational deliberations into the personality of the child. John identified the traits and features of educational institutes there were, as "the slaughterhouses of minds" and "places where minds are fed on words." It was his belief that understanding does not occur because of the learning of mere facts and the names of various objects but due to original perception. Comenius books were widely endorsed by children for almost two centuries (S. S. Laurie, 1904). During the eighteenth century, there were levels for both men and women but they carried certain levels of difference in the type of education that both male and female received. Even in the seventeenth century, numerous schools were built to provide education to girls but their cultural education started from their homes. Many families in the eighteenth century mulled over sending their girls to schools for education especially middle class families that wanted their girls to acquire an aristocratic education (Taylor, 2005).

The major contribution by philosophers during the seventeenth century for the promotion of the methods of learning theories reflected the new scientific reliance on firsthand observations. John Locke (1632-1704) had a huge impact with his theories on education; he said that the mind, at the time of birth, is an entirely blank tablet that carries no inborn God- given knowledge. But it possesses many powers such as perceiving, discriminating, comparing, thinking and recalling. Locke also had the firm belief that through power, knowledge could evolve; such knowledge could be used on the availability of material which could make some impression that could be gained from objects existing in the external world (Locke, 1700).

In terms of educational reform, the significance of theory based on firsthand experience against books about the Middle Ages and humanists stated that there could be no proper function of natural elements without knowledge strengthening the mind naturally. Thus, the major influence of this concept was highlighted in various schools where it could be visualized in various extracurricular activities and through observation from first sight. By the middle of the nineteenth century, objects that offered firsthand sense impressions and that filled out, supplemented, and added interest to abstract book learning, were introduced in schools. The materials and the methods of traditional book learning remained unchanged for the next seventy-five years (Fenton, Edwin 1968).

During the eighteenth century, a Frenchman named Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) emerged with new ideas that created a strong foundation of education in the twentieth century, which resulted in turn in bringing an upheaval in the United States (Debus, 1970). Jean believed that children were innately good but all social institutions such as schools were evil, thereby distorting the child. He wanted formal schools for children and fostered the purpose of education to be for the natural development of the learner (Daumas, Maurice 1972).The observations made by Jean about educational ramifications seemed to be the reversal of old educational theories proposed in the 1700s. The basic theory prevalent indicated that the quantity of mind in children and adults differed. He mentioned that children when they are born have weaker mental faculties or powers. It was his observation that to bring the power and faculties to the adult level, children’s minds should be exercised. "We are always looking for the man in the child," he said, "without thinking what he is before he becomes a man" (Debus, Allen G, 1970).

According to Jean’s observations, children “are always in motion: a sedentary life is injurious.” It was Rousseau’s idea that focused on the “development of human bodies and minds and that started from two years of age to twelve years. So students reaching the age of twelve to fifteen years of age used to develop the intellectual level of understanding about subjects like geography and the sciences” (Daumas, Maurice, 1972).Jean also attacked the various teaching methodologies that were being used at that time. The theory of power and faculties recognized no innate differences among the children as it was perceived that all children possessed the same level of faculties at birth; differences always emerged on achieving an education and this was dependent on the exercises which their faculties received (Jones, Richard Foster, 1961).

Since Rousseau believed that children are naturally good and the aim of the education should be the natural development of the child, teachers were expected to observe the child. He emphasized on the individuality and freedom of children and their needs and revolted against the cruel educational practices and exercises of the time. Many schools were influenced by Rousseau; they created a controlled environment where natural growth of the child would occur and with time, the child would be guided by the teacher (Daumas, Maurice 1972). Prussia was declared the first modern state to create a controlled school system that operated

on the principles opposed to Rousseau’s after his death (David, 1983).

1.2.7 Colonial America27 Schools established by the Colonia lists during the seventeenth century in New England, and other parts were entirely different from each other with the concept taken up by Europe. In those areas, schools carried no formal education system but rather, mostly poor students learned through apprenticeship. In elementary schools, poor students were taught the art of reading, writing and learned religion. Students memorized lessons that were stimulated by whipping. Children from the wealthier communities usually attended secondary schools but mostly Latin Grammar schools. Teachers in those schools were not skilled and well prepared for class. The teachers in Europe were probably better (Phillips, Robert, 2002).The establishment of Harvard College in Europe in 1636 was primarily meant to provide the best training to Latin school graduates for the ministry and its courses were about humanists like other colleges in Europe.

Many books used for learning purposes in both elementary and secondary schools were also used in Europe especially the Bible, Latin and Greek texts and Comenius' 'OrbisPictus'28. All these books were in use in England until the end of the sixteenth century. The book called the hornbook was a paddle-shaped board; it had paper along with the lesson written on it and was also covered by the sheet of horn to keep it clean (Bishop, William Warner, 1950). The first contribution by an American was the first textbook named “The New England Premier” which was used from 1690 to the start of the nineteenth century with the aim of teaching both religion and reading to students (Anthony, Lynn Newton, Douglas Newton and Kathleen Brown, 2003).

Even in Europe, many schools were greatly influenced because of the religions in the colonies. Many schools started in New England due to the Puritan and other English religious dissenters. Puritans tried to consolidate the universal education system in the

27 At the end of the twenty-fourth century, countries like France, England, Spain introduced some progarmmes which were about colonization in eastern North America. 28ObrisPictus or Obris sensualium pictus is the textbook for children authored by Czech educator named Comenius published in 1658. It is considered the first picture book for children.

colonies following the steps taken by the Protestants of Reformation who built the lingual elementary schools in Germany in the sixteenth century. With the help of the government, the Puritans supported the universal education system in colonies. In 1642, a law passed by the Puritans in Massachusetts mentioned that every child be taught to read. Additionally in 1647, an act named “Old Deluder Satan Act” was passed which required a town consisting of fifty or more families to build elementary schools and a town consisting of hundred families or more to build and maintain grammar schools.

During the period of colonialism, gender was the only element on which the entire education was based and a significant gap in the literacy level between males and females was noted. Education was costly despite the fact that no institution was charging tuition fees to attend colleges. Investing in the education of girls seemed to yield no profits at all for a family. Therefore, the real assumption about education was taken in the form of preparing their role in public life. Society in that period never considered the role of women in public life. Many people believed that education for females was mediocre as compared to males and they held the view that providing the same level of education to females was not appropriate. Rich families intending to educate their female had few options. One was the option that enforced rich families to get their female enrolled in the “damn schools”. Women who ran those schools to earn money used to administer the schools on an informal basis. Even teachers were well educated and that resulted sometimes in offering them more than babysitting services (David, 1983).

1.2.8 18th-Century United States Western world saw the quick and rapid advancement in education because of the spirit of science, commercialism, secularism, and individualism which could easily cater to the needs of seamen, various artisans and others, all and sundry in the colonies. Thus, American schools responded faster to these developments than the European schools with the practical content competing vigorously with the concerns (Ajegbo, Sir Keith, Dina Kiwan and Seema Sharma, 2007).

The competition was seen when Benjamin Franklin founded the first academy in 1751. That increased the growing competition with Latin schools and it was Franklin’s efforts to offer

the curriculum related to humanist religion; he also introduced new educational courses with the needs and demands of everyday life where courses such as history, geography, accounts, geometry, algebra were taught. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, all American schools adopted the new diversification of the educational curriculum (Ajegbo, Sir Keith, Dina Kiwan and Seema Sharma 2007).

After the concluding Revolutionary War, the world saw new textbooks related to American history and geographies and these kinds of books were written highlighting the national flora of America. American book “The New England Premier” shared its dominance and supremacy at the beginning of 1783 by becoming the most popular books taught at the school level. The book “Noah Webster’s American Spelling Book” also eased American spelling. The book also helped the American school children to expose the grueling drill. To checking the spelling, the speller remained in use until the end of the nineteenth century to the early years of the twentieth century for accuracy of various spellings (Keith, C. Barton, 2006).

1.2.9 19th-Century Europe Europe saw the spirit of nationalism in the nineteenth century that focused on the power of education in shaping the future of nationals and individuals. Prussia’s example was widely followed by European countries, which resulted in the formation of the national school system. Countries like France had built one school by the 1880s and England had primary schools that were tuition-free; education at the primary level declared compulsory.

Because of the development of education, the society observed great change in the attitudes towards women and many secondary schools in France and Germany established by the end of the nineteenth century. However, the concept of co-education grew with the support of liberal educators who approved such an institution (Boutilier, Beverly, and Alison Prentice, 1997).

There was more similarity in the elementary schools established in Europe in the nineteenth century to the schools which were built in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Most students aged ten or eleven, belonging to lower classes attended schools when schools seemed to be terminated for all but few were selected to study subjects like reading, writing, observing religion and arithmetic with the master skills of teachers (Barton, 15

Keith C 1997).

Teachers in those schools had less information, as they had no other option to obtain this kind of work; all schools held in apprenticeship shops, industrial plants, living rooms, kitchens, although regular classes became the rule in Europe. The teachers could manage the entire classroom by using various means like bullying, beating and sometime bantering with the students. Charles Dickens explains it best through a candid description about the children who attended the schools as “Pale and haggard faced, lank and bony figures, children with the countenances of old men. . . . There was childhood with the light of its eyes quenched, its beauty gone, and its helplessness alone remaining”.

These schools created to attract international and American students were built by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi in Switzerland that saw thousands of students get in. Visitors also saw real schools for children and it was only for children where physical activities useful for students were to be implemented. Schools could observe children learning the counted numbers about the various objects and playing with real letters blocks. They also observed children learning lessons by engaging themselves in the study of geography after visiting the nearby area of schools where they were seen measuring the map and finally making the final execution from the map (Osborne, Ken, 2003).

Pestalozzi built schools where he developed certain methods based on his belief, highlighting the objectives of education that mainly focused on the development of an individual child. The focus was to understand the subjects rather than memorize the subjects with the support of educators. It was Pestalozzi’s idea that gave the idea to children that learning started from the first hand observation of any objects that gradually move towards the remote and it could make the abstraction of realm form the words and concerning ideas. Even he had the idea that the teachers’ best job was to guide the students in a natural way but not make them distorted through his personal experiences which could easily direct children towards the realm of ideas (Ashby, Rosalyn, and Peter Lee, 1987).

Froebel in 1789 wished that his schools looked like gardens where the education of children unfolded like flowers. He emphasized that national development could be achieved through self-creativity and adaptation of various activities by sustaining the interest of the children

himself. His kindergarten school also provided a free atmosphere where self-activity and creativity could easily take place (Alberta, 2003).Kindergarten school provided immense material for self-activity; children could easily observe various shapes of blocks and their sizes which could help them to observe, compare, contrast and count. His schools also gave ideas to students for the purpose of learning and enhancing self-activity through drawing, coloring, modeling and developing strong coordination and encouraging self-expression (Ashby, Rosalyn, and Peter Lee, 1987).

Johann Freidrich Herbart, the German philosopher and psychologist, who was an admirer of Pestalozzi’s said that education was not meant for the training of facilities that could exist in the mind, that could not make the natural unfolding from within. He explained that education seemed to be the instruction that could built into the mind from the outside. He explained that building blocks were the primary materials of instruction that assumed important lessons. Being a teacher, his job was to form the mind of the child in such a way that he could build the knowledge of human cultural heritage by learning subjects like history, science, mathematics. Thus, Herbart’s interest helped the child by determining the knowledge to be presented in such a way that it could be easily understood and retained. He also put great emphasis that knowledge and learning should be based on children’s education and on the child’s psychological knowledge to be instructed more effectively (Ausubel, 1968).

Herbart’s methods based on psychology proved to be incorrect later on but he gained more credit in education when he introduced the proper systematic teaching plan and ways of presenting the subject by the teachers to his pupils. It assumed as his major innovation and contribution in education. Herbart also attracted the attention of the teachers when he introduced the content of material related to any subjects. He also emphasized on the need of memorizing the theory for understanding. This was his achievement. He successfully changed the image of teachers when they beat and bullied the children. Because of his new methods, teachers became more trained in imparting knowledge to children in a more effective manner. Herbart adopted mechanisms in controlling the learning situation through psychological insight and he denied the use of physical force. It was the teacher’s responsibility to inspire the child’s interest in the material as he had better information as to how to present it to a child for better learning (McDiarmid; G. Williamson and Peter Vinten-

Johansen, 2000).

Herbart made numerous visits and was impressed by the school built by Pestalozzi in Switzerland before he arrived at his educational theories. The evolution of teaching methods by Herbart helped the German schools to apply the same learning techniques, which Pestalozzi had made. Therefore, he always emphasized on studying children to determine his relevant interest. The educational goal of Herbart was quite different from Pestalozzi’s and his teaching methods produced a very different kind of school as he was working within the framework of the state-owned schools which were controlled easily. The prime objective of Herbart’s education was to build individuals who could become part of the socio-political community. Pestalozzi’s focused on the individuality that could help the individual to be more distinctive and his school created an international environment where children could absorb the knowledge .On the other hand, Pestalozzi was in favor of the physical environment which promoted the physical activity of a child which could help to understand first-hand experiences. Thus, the interest always resided within physical activities that developed by Pestalozzi where the child engaged himself for the sake of natural development. According to Herbart’s principles, teachers created interest in children for the purpose of further instruction. The Pestalozzi teacher guided the students’ minds through knowledge for its natural development that was based on the children’s innate power while Herbart’s teachers tried to build the knowledge into the minds of children by using the systematic method of various instructions, which were uniform for all students. United States and Europe also got influenced by Herbart’s theories focusing on teacher and centering on curriculum and by following the Pestalozzi method which was child-centered (denHeyer, Kent, 2009).

The end of the nineteenth century saw the enormous developments about educating individuals; the last century had not been successful in this aspect. To educate every individual, all educationalist experts took responsibility by becoming more interested in giving education to children who had been obstinate. Maria Montessori, an Italian physician offered new mechanisms for those children who were mentally disturbed and resisted; her plan was a huge success that helped retarded children to learn, read and write the material more effectively. Her students showed wonderful performance in education that surprised everyone. Maria made her conclusions about children’s education by indicating some

educational mechanisms which could easily lead to development; she personally encouraged students (Roussos, Maria, Andrew Johnson, Thomas Moher, Jason Leigh, Christina Vasilakis, and Craig Barnes, 1999).

Casedei29 took charge of the Montessori in the early 1900s where schools for students aged three to seven years established in the newly built buildings in Rome. The concept was to highlight the importance of freedom and individual development for someone special. If the children are supposed to be free in those schools, they are to be independent from other people in the best possible way. So children in those schools learnt and performed daily routine-based tasks like dressing themselves and keeping the classroom in schools very clean. They were free to select the materials according to their will and they given places to work. Children were expected to be increasingly independent from their teachers in the best way possible, and use the means by which they were free to correct their mistakes by observing and following the various examples (Beck, Clive, Brian S. Crittenden, and Edward V. Sullivan, 1971).

The strong belief of Montessori was the importance of self-activity, which was strongly advocated by Froebel and believed in the significance of growth of the child. Montessori considered the growth of child as congenital rather than emotional. In the Montessori school, the art of self-activity manifested in the form of tough exercises (Ashby; Rosalyn, and Peter Lee, 1987).

Therefore, Montessori focused on the development of cognition than Froebel’s objectives which mainly focused on emotion. The physical objects were designed by Montessori for children which allowed school-going children to achieve cognitive ends like reading, writing. For example, if students wanted to learn the art of writing, he/she simply traced the letters by running their hands and they tried that the letter be made from sandpaper. In this way, a little child of age four or five could easily learn reading and writing which Montessori introduced (Keith, C. Barton.2006,).

29 Cascadia Montessori School is a private school in Vancouver, Washington. 19

1.2.10 19th-Century United States With state support, education in America progressed and consequently, there was free education for children. The state built many schools that started in the 1820s when elementary schools started. The impetus in the movement expanded when Massachusetts formed the State Board of Education and lawyer cum politician Horace Mann (1796-1859) was made its first secretary. He passed many reforms but his main reforms were to bring improvement in the quality of teaching by establishing teacher-training centers in the United States. Many states in USA followed the example set by Massachusetts until the end of the nineteenth century when many states established the common schools system. It was the first rung of the ladder and marked the first step in developing the American educational system (Barton, Keith C 2001).

After the acceptance of the educational school system in USA, all and sundry realized the need for higher education that should be tax supported. So at the start of the year 1821, an English classical schools system was established under the Boston School committee that was the very first public secondary school in the United States which resulted in outnumbering of private academies (Barton, Keith C 2001).

There was uniqueness in the American education ladder where countries like Germany and France had public schools in the dual system. In this education ladder, children from the lower classes after finishing elementary education could easily join a technical school. Children belonging to the higher strata of society did not like these activities, preferred to hire a tutor till they reached the age of nine and could enter secondary schools. Especially in the Latin Grammar schools, children prepared for university, which could help the society for generations of national leaders of the country. Thus, the United States offered the single most system for education instead of making separate and distinct educational systems for the people (Halsey, Van R 1963).During the middle of the nineteenth century; United States saw the gradual movement of women gaining education. Emma Willard (1787-1870) first formed the female academies and Catherine Beecher (1800-78) made a concerted effort for the women to obtain secondary education (Ellsworth, Elizabeth, 1992).

Another change that appeared in the United States in the middle of the nineteenth century in education was when the curriculum of secondary schools slowly expanded after the

academies were founded during the middle of the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries (Prentice, Alison, 1977).There was increased need for new knowledge in the newly developed society, which supported the discoveries of physical and biological sciences, and even this had seen the rise of industrialism and capitalism. Massachusetts Secondary School began to offer studies in more than seventy-three subject or branches by 1861 and people still waited for further expansion of studies that could provide them better jobs. Thus, as result, curriculum seemed heavier with scientific instruction (Lewin, Kurt, 1945).

During the mid-nineteenth century, knowledge expansion touched all schools and compelled them to include courses such as science and nature. Few students went to these schools that offered materials which were related to the minor level of books on various subjects, Thousands of children were needed for the purpose of memorizing such warnings (Oldfield, Adrian1981).Common schools built in Europe usually contained one room where the teacher could be seen teaching pupils ranging from six to thirteen years, sometimes even older. Each child got separate instructions from teachers who possessed a certain level of motivation for imparting information to students (Wood, Nancy, 1999).

When the children won the fight to gain free education, teachers and educational institutions changed their mind in bringing about improvements in education. For betterment and improvement in the quality of education, America looked to Europe and they discovered after twenty years, the educational influence made by Pestalozzi which emphasized the need to observe real objects rather than memorize abstract facts (Prentice, Alison, 1977).

Pestalozzi's30depleting impact hardly bore any resemblance to the cities which expanded rapidly. By the 1880s, United States observed several millions of immigrants rushing towards the US resulting in more problems for common schools. It created more problems for the educators who were unable to deliver quality of knowledge to children in a shorter time. The original aim of educational experts was to show the means which they had acquired in the newly built schools by using the various techniques (Taylor, M. Brook, 1989). The United States also saw changes in the form of one-room common schools with larger

30Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 – February 17, 1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. 21

schools for the purpose of facilitating and instructing students by educators more easily because there were tiny differences that existed amongst the children there. As the noticeable difference among children was the age, classification made based on age among the children creating separate rooms for each group. To avoid any kind of interruption that could divert the attention of students from educators, students given more encouragement to listen to teachers’ words and many schools even strongly discouraged the violation of discipline in classes to students. For maintaining discipline in classes, formal seat rows made in class (Forbes, E.R, 1989).

Not surprising enough that education’s goals was meant to enhance the process of expanding the relevant information to students; the normal school saw themselves under the influence of Herbart because of his careful five-step lesson plan representing the basic ideas. Herbart’s plan suggested that a systematic method of instruction could evolve which was to be designed for the same pupils in classes. It is probable that Herbart emphasized students should learn by various kinds of presentation related to various subjects and through various rewards and punishments. Herbart’s methods also highly influenced the methods used in teachings in the 1880s and 1890s (Taylor, M. Brook, 1989).

The new methods which were coupled with the physical organization of schools also showed antithesis to the belief of Pestalozzi about the power of the child which was to be used to unfold his innate power naturally. Instead, the child was cut off from the designed curriculum. This was to assess the child’s inner power for absorbing the level of memorization and judging his determination after extracting from the examination. Thus, grades introduced based on punishments and rewards (Forbes, E.R, 1989).

The nineteenth century saw the presentation of information, more streamlined, thus enabling the extension of the curriculum, which represented the information closer to daily life matters. The society also saw that book learning was to be supplemented by means of direct observation. Physical flogging came down as the results of grades that were to be because of the psychological flogging. Thus, historians do not claim that because of these teaching and course descriptions, there were no major difference in the schools that existed in the late nineteenth century to the schools in the Middle Ages (Prentice, Alison, 1977).

1.2.11 Education in the 20th century International wars, together with an intensification of internal stresses and conflicts among social, racial, and ideological groups, characterized the twentieth century and had profound effects on education (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1998). Some of the changes that had far- reaching effects were:

 the rapidly spreading prosperity but the widening gaps between rich and poor;

 an immense increase in world population but a declining birth rate in Western countries;

 the growth of large-scale industry and its dependence on science and technological advancement;

 the increasing power of both organized labour and international business, and the enormous influence of both technical and socio-psychological advances in communication, especially as utilized in mass media (S.N Mukherji, 2013).

 Other pivotal changes included challenges to accepted values, such as those supported by religion; changes in social relations, especially toward versions of group and individual equality; and an explosion of knowledge affecting paradigms as well as particular information. These and other changes marked a century of social and political swings toward a more dynamic and less categorical resolution. The institutional means of handling this uncertain world was to accept more diversity while maintaining basic forms and to rely on management efficiency to ensure practical outcomes (S.N Mukherji, 2013).

The two World Wars weakened the military and political might of the larger European Powers (Encyclopedia of Britannia 1998). Their replacement by “superpowers” whose influence did not depend directly on territorial acquisition and whose ideologies were essentially equalitarian helped to liquidate colonialism. As new independent countries emerged in Africa and Asia and the needs and powers of a “third world” caused a shift in international thinking, education was seen to be both an instrument of national development and a means of crossing national and cultural barriers (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1998,). One consequence of this was a great increase in the quantity of education provided. Attempts were made to eradicate illiteracy, and colleges and schools were built everywhere.

The growing affluence of the masses in the high-income areas in North America and Europe brought about, particularly after World War II, a tremendous demand for secondary and higher education. Most children stayed at school until sixteen, seventeen, or even eighteen years of age, and a substantial fraction spent at least two years in college. The number of universities in many countries doubled or trebled between 1950 and 1970, and the elaboration of the tertiary level continued thereafter (Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, 1970).

This growth was sustained partly by the industrial requirements of modern scientific technology. New methods, processes, and machines were continually introduced. Old skills became irrelevant; new industries sprang up. In addition, the amount of scientific—as distinct from merely technical—knowledge grew continually. Researchers, skilled workers, and high-level professionals were increasingly in demand. The processing of information underwent revolutionary change. The educational response was mainly to develop technical colleges, to promote adult education at all levels, to turn attention to part-time and evening courses, and to provide more training and education within the industrial enterprises themselves.

The adoption of modern methods of food production diminished the need for agricultural workers, who headed for the cities. Urbanization, however, brought problems: city centers decayed, and there was a trend toward violence. The poorest remained in those centers, and it became difficult to provide adequate education. The radical change to large numbers of disrupted families, where the norm was a single working parent, affected the urban poor extensively but in all cases raised an expectation of additional school services. Differences in family background, together with the cultural mix, partly occasioned by change of immigration patterns, required teaching behaviour and content appropriate to a more heterogeneous school population.

1.2.12 The 21st Century The new millennium was ushered in by a dramatic technological revolution (Mason, 1998). We now live in an increasingly diverse, globalized, and complex, media-saturated society (Elizabeth Marshal, 2011). According to Dr. Douglas Kellner at UCLA, this technological revolution will have a greater impact on society than the transition from an oral to a print culture. 24

Today's kindergarteners will be retiring in the year 2067 (Kellner, Douglas, 2011). We have no idea of what the world will look in five years, much less sixty years, yet we are charged with preparing our students for life in that world (IEARN Pakistan,2010). Our students are facing many emerging issues such as global warming, famine, poverty, health issues, a global population explosion and other environmental and social issues. These issues lead to a need for students to be able to communicate, function and create change personally, socially, economically and politically on local, national and global levels.

Even kindergarten children can make a difference in the world by participating in real-life, real-world service learning projects. You are never too young, or too old, to make your voice heard and create change that makes the world a better place.Emerging technologies and resulting globalization also provide unlimited possibilities for exciting new discoveries and developments such as new forms of energy, medical advances, restoration of environmentally ravaged areas, communication, and exploration into space and into the depths of the oceans. The possibilities are unlimited (Kellner, Douglas, 2011).

21st Century Skills Twenty-first century schools, LLC recognizes the critical need for developing twenty- first century skills. However, we believe that authentic education addresses the “whole child”, the “whole person”, and does not limit our professional development and curriculum design to workplace readiness.Twenty-first century skills learned through our curriculum, which is interdisciplinary, integrated, project-based, and more, include and are learned within a project-based curriculum by utilizing the seven survival skills advocated by Tony Wagner in his book, The Global Achievement Gap:  Critical Thinking and Problem Solving  Collaboration across Networks and Leading by Influence  Agility and Adaptability  Initiative and Entrepreneurialism  Effective Oral and Written Communication  Accessing and Analyzing Information  Curiosity and Imagination

1.3 Philosophy of Education There are many types of philosophy of education, but for the sake of simplicity can be extracted to different sections. These concepts were timeless idealism, realism, experimentalism, and Existentialism. Collectively, these philosophical thinking representing a wide range of schools should be and do. Educators hold this creates very different schools of philosophy students, understanding. In the following sections, each of these standards of value theory, epistemology for philosophical discussions of their attitude, and ontological questions. Table 1.1 comparison of attitudes on major issues of these standards.

1.1 Philosophy and Education Continuum Chart

General or Idealism Realism Pragmatism Existentialism World Ideas are the Reality exists Universe is Reality is Philosophies only true independent dynamic, subjective, within reality, the of human evolving. Purpose the individual. only thing mind. World of thought is Individual rather worth of physical action. Truth is than external knowing. objects is the relative. standards. Focus: Mind ultimate Focus: Experience Focus: Freedom reality. Focus: Body

Originator(s) Plato, Socrates Aristotle Pierce, Dewey Sartre, Kierkegaard

Curricular Subject matter Subject Subject matter of Subject matter of Emphasis of mind: matter of social experience. personal choice literature, physical Creation of new history, world: social order philosophy, science, math religion

Teaching Teach for Teach for Problem solving: Individual as Method handling ideas: mastery of Project method entity within social lecture, facts and context discussion basic skills: demonstration recitation

Character Imitating Training in Making group Individual Development examples, rules of decisions in light responsibility for heroes conduct of consequences decisions and preferences

Related Perennialism: Essentialism: Progressivism: Reconstructionism Educational Focus: Teach Focus: Teach Focus: Ideas /Critical Theory Philosophies ideas that are the common should be tested Focus: Critical everlasting. core, "the by active pedagogy: Seek enduring basics" of experimentation. Analysis of world truths which information Learning rooted in events, are constant, and skills questions of controversial not changing, (cultural learners in issues and through great heritage) interaction with diversity to literature, art, needed for others. Experience provide vision for philosophy, citizenship. and student better world and religion. (Curriculum centered. social change. can change slowly)

Key Robert William John Dewey, George Counts, Proponents Hutchins, Bagley; William J. Habermas, Jacque Arthur Kilpatrick Ivan Illich, Maritain, Bestor, Henry Giroux, Mortimer E. D. Hirsch, Paulo Freire Adler, Chester Finn, Allan Bloom Diane Ravitch, Theodore Sizer

Related Information Behaviorism Cognitivism/ Humanism Theories of Processing Behaviour Constructivism Personal freedom, Learning The mind shaped by Learner actively choice, (Psychological makes design and constructs own responsibility. Orientations) meaning determined understandings of Achievement through by forces in reality through motivation symbol- environment. interaction with towards highest processing Learning environment and levels. Control of structures of a occurs as reflection on own destiny. Child fixed body of result of actions. Student- centered. knowledge. reinforcing centered learning Interaction with Describes how responses to around conflicts others. information is stimuli. to present received, Social knowing processed, Learning structures. stored, and Learning by retrieved from observing and the mind. imitating others.

Adapted Key R. M. Gagne, Ivan Pavlov, Jean Piaget, J.J. Rousseau, from proponents E. Gagne, John Watson, U. Bronfenbrenner, A. Maslow, Omstein’ Robert B.F. Skinner, Jerome Bruner, C. Rogers, s and Sternberg, E.L. Lev Vygotsky A. Combs, Olivas’s J.R. Anderson Thorndike, R. May Educatio Albert nal Bandura Philosop hies,2002.

1.4 Conclusions

Analyzing the history of education, one can see that in education, oral traditions were central in societies without written texts. Similarly, the literacy in the pre-industrial era and societies showed much association with the civil administration, law, trade and commerce, and religion. It also shows that formal schooling was given to rich groups either at holy places or at splendid palaces of rich and influential people. For the last hundred and fifty to two hundred years, education for children developed immensely. The third world countries have experienced development for the last fifty years. Schools for girls considered more important even at that time. In addition, old trends for educating girls still exist in the modern era.

If we look at the Spartan regime, we observe that women were educated in the field of craft while staying at home and not allowed to read and write; they engaged however, in learning religion and history does disclose female priestesses. During the middle Ages, girls not given any formal education, rather they asked to learn about managing and maintaining the home during marriage life. It was necessary for women to be educated on these topics before the age of seven. Despite the extent of development in the schools system, we see that the majority of children were unable to write or read. From the estimation of the Jewish population, ninety percent of the community from Roman Palestine could barely write their name and could not write and read at all beyond that (Catherine, 2001); literacy rate was supposed to be only three percent (Bar, 1992).

Students learnt the alphabet with the help of song, and by copying the text on a wooden tablet. After receiving some schooling, the majority of poor or middle class children learnt the art of trade by apprenticeship by associating themselves with their fathers or tradesmen (Joseph, 1999). In Rome, both boys and girls were educated but not in-group form (Simon, 1996). It was in the United States in the eighteenth century that boys and girls were still going to school at the age of fifteen years.

It was agreed that the brains of women were less brilliant than those of men and the foremost need was to educate girls in reading the Bible. When the Republic was formed, the idea of the Republic mother got more value and its real role was to listen to ideas from the educated citizens in a more effective way. Beginning in the mid to the late 18th century, there had developed for girls something called French schools, which typically taught elementary French and needlework (otherwise known as the polite or ornamental accomplishments). By the first quarter of the nineteenth century, some of these French schools offered academic subjects, drawing, and music as well, and ultimately a few upgraded their curriculum to become legitimate academics. The academy movement provided a shift in emphasis from French and the ornamental accomplishments to academic subjects (relegating drawing, music and the like to electives). The nineteenth century curriculum was almost exclusively textbook centered even in the most advanced colleges for males, and the female academies simply used the same texts.

Chapter Two

Research Methodology

2.1 Introduction Present Research is correlative analytical study. Quantitative method has been applied to find out the relationship b/ w education and poverty with special reference to female.Three district have been purposively selected in order to take account whole Sindh. Total Number of 375 sample responded have been taken using multiple sampling techniques.

Closed Question have been employed total 13 question were asked to know the demographic profile and to know the impact of education on individual. Five Questions regarding general perception about education. 10 questions were asked to know the particular economic impact of education on individual while 10 questions were asked about impact of female education on social development.Total 28 questions asked to know the situation & relationship. The purpose is to decide the statement of the problem for exploring study justification. The chapter is divided into three major parts. Part One explains study objectives and problem statement. Part Two explains methodological details. Part Three highlights developments in education.

2.2 Research problem (Problem statement) Education is the basic right of every citizen of Pakistan as declared in the Constitution of Pakistan31(Amanullah 2013), but society is typically conservative and restricts the mobility of women outside the home. Basic education does not always transform into improved employment opportunities. As in other countries, returns of education are quite low in Pakistan, apart from the case of technical tertiary education (Ghulam Rasool, 2000). The status and system of education and HRD is not positive for catering to the requirements and demands of local and foreign markets (Baluch and Shahid, 2008). Women’s social and economic status may control the threat of domestic violence in many ways (Center for Social Development, 2007).

2.3 Objectives of the Research 1. To assess the state of female education in Sindh; 2. To undertake a formal survey regarding perception about female education and correlate it with household income patterns; 3. To assess the empowerment of literate females in matters of household decisions 4. To quantify social awareness status of females in Sindh; and 5. To explore socioeconomic causes that undermine female education in Sindh.

2.4 Hypotheses 1. Education of female members in the study area is significantly low compared to that of male members at the household level; 2. (i) There is significant correlation between employment status and education in rural Sindh. (ii) Personal income is significantly correlated with level of education; 3. The female role in decision making, regarding property matters, is related to the level of female education. 4. Social awareness is significantly related with education in Sindh; 5. Socioeconomic difficulties are significantly related with low female education.

2.5 The Literature Review There are so many socioeconomic inequalities and worldwide crises over water, food and energy (United Nations, 2013). Education is a necessity and the means of survival in today’s competitive world. Education leads to empowerment. It increases literacy which is an essential need for lifelong learning and a fundamental means of human development as well as of achieving the Minimum Development Goals (MDG) (UNESCO, 2012). In terms of control over resources of men and women, the access to school has significant value in its own right. The important reason for reducing gender-imbalance is to gain equality. Women’s equal right to education will increase women’s contribution to economic development.There are huge numbers of girls in Pakistan that have no access to schools as yet. These girls never have an option to show their motivation and aptitude to learn. This is not just a matter of unfairness; there is real economic loss. It represents a huge waste of talent for the girls concerned and for society. 32

To see how more girls can be educated, it is important to investigate what holds them back from getting an education at present. There are so many causes responsible for low female enrolment. Over all women’s education lags behind men’s education, especially in Sindh where the number of girls’ schools is very low relative to the number of boys’ schools.As discussed earlier, female education has a positive impact on society as a whole in many ways, but this research aims to analyse the major reasons that female education has not been as profitable in Sindh as in other developed countries. The gender gap in education is continuing either due to the variance between the expense and profit of women’s education, or due to cultural reasons, or because there is no use at all for the courses/syllabus for girls.

2.6 Justification The research helps to answer the question of “What is the effect of female education on poverty alleviation, how can the benefits of female education be increased in the Sindh province of Pakistan and what are the diverse ways in which the correlation between female education and poverty has been conceptualized and explained?” Lack of education and marketable skills, inadequate opportunities in the employment market and socio-cultural limitations restrict women’s likelihood to compete with men. This study has tried to find out the real barriers to the girl-child’s access to and participation in formal education.

This research is important for two reasons. First, it has addressed the reasons of gender differences in enrolment in detail with complete analysis and second, it has explored the reasons for unemployment of females in that earning patterns are different even having the same years of schooling.

This research seeks to investigate the reasons of gender disparities in educational attainment in Sindh and attempts to discover the relationship between females' educational attainment, poverty alleviation through labour force participation and income earnings. Although several studies in Pakistan document the gender gap in educational enrolment and educational attainment, none have been undertaken to examine the multiple causes behind the relationship of education and poverty. This research can be most useful for policy purposes.

Education has a very important function to play in strengthening the social framework, encouraging equal opportunities and combating discrimination against exclusion and social disturbance. Education, at every stage, must contribute against the rising, seriously disturbing elements social evils such as poverty and unemployment, which are major problems in Pakistan.

Only four studies are available on the national level to study the advantages of education: “Mincerian earning function approach” Shabbir and Khan (1991) and Shabbir (1994); Zafar Mueen, Nasir and Hina Nazli (2000) and Aslam (2009). The data used in these studies is more than twenty years old. These studies are based upon cost profit technique. This technique fails to quantify the effects of education on income; quality of schooling, family background; rural urban cultural differences; distance between school and home and impact of educated mothers on their children’s education. Traditionally, these studies used the level of education to measure the income rate of return or social gains, nobody has paid any attention to externalities, which are highly responsible for employment or earning. Such externalities include social class system i.e. the poor, middle, richer school system (government, private, madrassa), rural urban divide, marital status, or having babies, cultural verity of family, personal characteristics, or effectiveness of curriculum. A good example for this can be that an individual educated from rural areas has less opportunities of employment or earning than an individual educated from urban areas. In the same way, there is little or no research on the effects of education on poverty alleviation in Pakistan excluding one research.

In Sindh, a woman has a certain set role– she expected to get married, have children, raise them as good individuals, and support her husband in all his endeavors. The study investigates important factors (both push and pull 32) which affect female education and female poverty.It is believed that currently, women have more choices about what they should do with their lives. Sindhi women are considered almost as a commodity in family as

32The push factor involves a force, which acts to drive people away from a place, and the pull factor is what draws them to a new location. Unit level estimation results confirm that economic push factors and social status effects mainly determine participation of poorly educated women. Only at the highest education levels do we see evidence of pull factors drawing women into the labour force at attractive employment and pay conditions. 34

well as in society when it come up to decisions regarding their future (Khan,1999).The family decides the way of living of their girl child - whether they will attend school or not, what type of education they can afford and even after acquiring education, how they will utilize it. In Pakistan, no research, based on primary data, is available on female education with connection of family background, through which we can see the impact of female education, even work found regarding feminization of poverty. According to the Asian Development Bank 2003 statistics, the figures of women in poverty are not available; and the extent of poverty is not established yet as accurately as possible, based on which future policies could be designed.

Figure 2.1 demonstrates that education is negatively correlated with poverty. Increased literacy reduces the incidence of poverty especially among women. Figure 2.1 Diagrammatic Relationships between Poverty and Education

Female Education

Economic Democracy opportunity

Material Power and Rights wellbeing

Poverty Alleviation

In addition, the education of women may or may not lead to women with increased decision- making power in the family; positive relationship is evident in settings where family structure is patriarchal and less employment opportunities are favorable to women. Women's education is consistently associated with increased mobility and freedom of movement of women. Enrollment of girls at the secondary level is more consistent and more strongly associated with increased decision-making and mobility for women as primary school enrollment (Jejeebhoy, 1998). Evidence of the effect of women's education on time allocations to domestic work of women is not conclusive because of the limited number of studies on the 35

relationship number. Evidence of a limited number of studies suggest that women's education may have little or no influence on gender equality in social structures , mainly because of the strength of gender norms and hierarchies ( Sathar , 2001) .

Women's education is consistently associated with a greater use of maternal health services. To use the service, or sexual and reproductive health of women, girls' education is not always protected, and should be considered in the context of other risk factors ( Behrman and Wolfe, 1989). Women's education is effective in reducing violence against women where standards are already less patriarchal and more egalitarian gender , but less so in the settings, rigid conservative (Sen , 1999). Inequality of son preference and sex health of the child can be reduced and exacerbated due to the education of women, but there is little consensus on the contextual factors that contribute to adverse effects or positive education, or the way they do (Pande and Astone 2001). The education of women at higher levels is always associated with better health outcomes and stronger than the lower levels of schooling effects.

Investing in women's education in general, including literacy, is considered one of the most important elements complementary to income-generating activities that are considered essential for the economic empowerment of women. The post- primary education has the greatest reward for women's empowerment in that it increases opportunities for income generation and decision-making autonomy (Cheston and Kuhn 2002; Albee and 1994 UNFPA, 2006) . Education is considered as the most effective way to give girls access to economic opportunities. More education is associated with a decrease in unemployment. The most plausible reason for this relationship between unemployment and human capital is the difference between the marginal product of labor and the reservation wage is lower for those who have low levels of human capital. Theory predicts higher unemployment rates for women than for men and women human capital , higher unemployment rates for women are likely to have accumulated less human capital ( Azmat et al 2006; . GFW , 2004).

(1959) classic work of Lipset drew on modernization theory to argue that education promotes democratization. ( Dahl ,1971) also argues that higher levels of socio -economic development to increase the potential for success of democracy, as an educated population is engaged in the types of popular participation necessary to maintain a representative government, (Huntington, 1991) argues that education was a key factor in the "third wave of democratization" in the 1970s and 1980s.

2.7 Research Parameters, Techniques and Analytical Tools Table 2.1 Analysis Tools Objectives Parameters Measurement Methods Analysis Tool and Procedure One Education Statistics by Literacy rates, number of Through Descriptive sex based on schools, enrolment, secondary Statistics. administrative data. number of teachers by data sex, facilities in school. Two Income pattern by Personal income per Primary data Descriptive educational level and month, source of & secondary Statistics, impact of education on income, livelihood data Figures, different aspects of opportunities, number of Tables, lives. employed women, rate Graphs of female unemployment, vulnerable employment. Three Relationship between Hold of decisions Primary data Descriptive female education and regarding their own lives & secondary Statistics, empowerment and property related data Figures, matters. Tables, Graphs Four Record perceptions of Occupation, monthly Primary data Descriptive different age groups income, changes after (Survey) and Inferential and women of getting education. Statistics, different levels of Charts, Graph. education regarding impact of female education on economic activity. Five Accessibility to school. Problems faced when Through Descriptive getting education, Number Primary data and Inferential of children, Marital status, and Statistics, Family income, economic secondary Tables, status, land or property data Graphs, ownership Charts.

2.8 Some questions to be addressed through hypothesis testing procedure 1. Does educational level affect the annual income of the rural women? 2. Does educational level affect matters like: household management, family matters, health problems, matrimonial matters, property/ownership, and livestock management? 3. Are all the women with different educational backgrounds equally discriminated against regarding attitude, diet, work, dress, mobility, property, land management, and family decisions? 4. Does educational level affect the age of marriage amongst rural women?

2.9 Impact and contribution of the study A two-stage investigation is used to study the various dimensions of disparity in female education. Firstly, difficulties that affect girls’ access to school to get an education include restrictions in the family and within society. One of the major reasons a girl child does not go to school is that she is needed to work at home. School fees are also a key obstacle to schooling. Secondly, how girls perform and how attainment converts into equal opportunities in social and economic fields is the other reason.

Generally, inequality in educational involvement and outcomes of education show broader disparities across society. The findings of the study would help in comprehending interrelationships between poverty and female education based on primary data while understanding the phenomenon of feminization of poverty will be based on the analysis of secondary data.

The research aims at giving insight into negative cultural practices that hinder or slow down human development and growth particularly with regard to female education, developing female education and training program for rural poverty alleviation, and proposing social development intervention for uplifting the living standards of women. This study will be highly significant in helping to suggest policy measures for public and private sectors, civil society and donors. It is expected that this effort would add to the body of knowledge of female studies and would serve as the source of further studies and research on female education in Sindh province and the country as a whole.

2.10 Research Design This study is based primarily on descriptive research methods focusing particularly on descriptive survey, interrelationship, and development studies. Survey studies assess the characteristics of the entire population of a people or a condition. Interrelationship studies illustrate interaction between the facts obtained to get a deeper insight into the situation. Developmental studies focus on the present position and the interrelationships of occurrence and modification that take place as a function of time (Cohen & Manion, 1980 and Trochim, 2000). The descriptive survey method was selected because the primary purpose of the present study was to document the socioeconomic profile of women of Sindh. Interrelationships were analyzed to unveil the effect of education on the socioeconomic profile of women. Women literacy trends were analyzed using regression and time series analysis to visualize the development of female education in the study area.

2.10.1 Social Assessment Social Assessment (SA) can assist in establishing different forms of social structure, process, as well as modification in a particular group or community. Social Assessment furthermore can include a review of political, social, and economic trends that may affect the group or community of interest and provide information regarding the social environment.

Strengths  Discover major problems and issues  Help to find factors that cannot be directly observed  Assist in publicizing important social concerns  Enable the setting of priorities for necessary action  Recognize stakeholder groups and associations

Limitations  It can be time consuming and expensive  It can be controversial and resistance may be encountered

2.11 Target Population and Representative Sample Size Since the collected sample represented women, the target population is a total number of females of age 15 to 60 years in the Sindh province of Pakistan. To determine a representative sample size, the following equation was used: 39

Formula33: Z 2 * (P) * (1-P) SS = ______C 2 Z = Z value of confidence level 95% P = Percentage picking a choice is 50. C = Confidence interval is 5%  Population of the universe, Sindh province, according to the 1998 census, is 35,439.89334  Confidence level is 95%  Confidence interval is 5%  Sample size determined is 375, calculated through sample size formula  Margin of 5% is a common choice  Confidence level 95%  Population size 35,439.893  Response distribution leaves this as 50%

2.12 Sampling Method Four-stage cluster sampling was applied, to choose a representative sample of the respondent. Cluster sampling is important for two advantages, random sampling and stratified sampling. First, it is economical and second, it is appropriate for selecting a sample when the sampling frame of the individual is not present. Cluster sampling just requires a list of elements in clusters sampled (Anderson, Sweeney and William 1993). Three districts were selected from three major agro-ecological zones of Sindh. Distribution of districts in agro-ecological zones of Sindh is given in Table 1. Figure 1 also shows the map of Sindh with agro-ecological zoning. It was proposed that Larkana district from Zone A, Shaheed Benazirabad (Nawabshah) from Zone B and Badin from Zone C were selected. Besides agro ecological zones, these districts represent upper (Larkana), middle (Benazirabad) and lower (Badin) Sindh. These three parts are different from a social perceptive. Selection of sample

33Sources: http://www.surveysystem.com/sample-size-formula.htm

34 Sources (Wikipedia 17 February 2011).

at various administration tiers, namely talukas, union councils, villages and women are elaborated as under: First Stage: Three talukas were randomly selected from each district. Second Stage: Three union councils (UCs) were selected from each taluka; thus, a total of nine UCs were selected. Third Stage: From each UC, three villages were selected. Nine villages from each district and twenty-seven villages in total from three districts were selected. Fourth Stage: From each village, fourteen women of ages 15-60 years were selected amounting to forty-two women from each UC, 126 from each district and 375 from three districts were selected for primary data collection. Efforts were made to maintain a proportion of women by education as 135 (50%) illiterate; 81 (30%) having education up to matriculation; 41 (15%) intermediate; and remaining 13 (5%) graduate and postgraduate.

2.13 Sampling Plan for the Selection of Respondents Figure 2.1 Sampling Plan

Districts

Larkana Shaheed Benazirabad Badin

1 Taluka 1Taluka 1Taluka

3UCs 5UCs 4UCs

9 Villages 10 Villages 8 Villages 12 females from one 13 females from one 15 females from one village village village

Women 139 (37.1%) Women 124 (33.1%) Women 112 (29.9%)

Map 2.1 Agro-ecological Zones of Sindh

Selection of Districts from Agro-Ecological Zones

Source: National Master Agricultural Research Plan, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council,2007.

Table 2.2 Piedmont Potential Agro- Districts Selected Ecological District Zones Zone A: A I Larkana, Shikarpur and Northern Talukas (Mehar and Larkana Khairpur Nathan Shah) of Dadu district. A Piedmont soil area of Jacobabad and Larkana districts. II This area is potentially more fertile and less prone to salinity troubles. Zone B: B I Ghotki and Sukkar districts; controlled by perennial Shaheed canal Ghotki feeder of Guddu barrage. Benazirabad B II Sukkar barrage covering the districts Khairpur, NausheroFeroz, Sanghar, Hyderabad, Mirpurkhas and Tharparkar. Zone C: Badin, Thatta, Karachi (except Taluka Matli and Badin northern parts of Tando Bago) Source: National Master Agricultural Research Plan, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, 2007.

2.14 Development of questionnaire Semi-structured questionnaire was developed after an intensive review of literature, informal interviews with female educators, consultations with the research supervisor, and faculty members. Questions were carefully worded and arranged in groups, for instance, respondents’ personal characteristics and perceptions, family profile, village facilities, and educational facilities in areas. Respondents’ perceptions were rated using 4-point liker type scale. Efforts were made to revise the questionnaire before actual data collection considering limitations of statistical package and objectives of the study. Analysis of primary data Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Version 17) was applied to examine the data. Techniques of descriptive statistics, like proportions, frequency, percentage, minimum, maximum and average (arithmetic mean) were calculated and reported.

2.15 Pre-testing of questionnaire A pilot study was conducted in one district, Badin (total 25 respondents interviewed) to check the workability of the questionnaire. A further purpose of this pre-testing of questionnaire was to make sure that respondents in the real sense understand the questions and give correct answers. The ambiguities encountered during this testing phase were cautiously resolved on modification and adjustment of the questionnaire. Some questions were rephrased in the light of pilot study and findings.

2.16 Layout of Research In the first context, a problem for the research was selected with the consultation of the seniors. Later enough time was given to review the literature related to the problem. Data was collected through the secondary research and a background reading material was accessed to create the background for the research. It was tried to know the existing as well as the past initiative on the subject matter. Objectives were developed and a hypothesis was created to initiate the research. After the hypothesis, methodology was developed and shared with the research guide.

A questionnaire was designed and shared with the research guide to give the expert view. After the necessary amendments, the questionnaire was finalized and a training of data collectors was arranged. The questionnaire was the pre-test some questions were revised and the final questianre was used for the data collection.

The teams were divided into the three zones. The data was collected from all the targeted districticts. After the data collection, the data base was generated on the SPSS to enter the data. All the forms were entered with all variables. After the successful data entry in SPSS software, different queries were run to generate the results. The results were led with the interpretation and a report writing was started and made final.At end of the process a defense semimar was organized to share the results with the experts. Please see below the Cycle of resrach.

Figure 2.2 Diagram Showing Research Cycle

training of data pre testing (pilot collectors study)

selection of research problem defence questionnaire quesionnaire seminar editing

reviw of developed data collection report writing literature methodology

developed hypothesis data entry results objectives

2.17 Conclusion In this chapter, the intent was to lay the foundations of the research. The problem was identified; the statements of objective, delineation of hypothesis variables, justification for the research as well as its possible limitations were laid out.

This chapter also presented the methodological aspects of the study. A quantitative research method was selected to collect, summarize and report the information in order to achieve meaningful results and address the study objectives. The subsequent sections described the research design, target population, sample and sampling method, development of questionnaire, collection and analysis of data.

One major and important key to the analysis of data is the attention paid to data entry. The researcher herself transformed data onto the computer using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 17), carried out data validation and checking, and data manipulation. The objective was to create a reliable database. All of these procedures require concentration and time and a careful attention to detail.

Chapter Three

Sociological Linkages between Education and Poverty

3.1 Introduction This chapter looks at the problems of education through the sociological lens. The relationship between sociology and education is developed and previous studies that have been conducted are described. There is a lengthy list of the benefits of education but it is not essential that all those benefits have an effect on poverty. Multiple studies confirm that, in Pakistan, lower fertility is strongly associated with higher female education. Mothers’ education is, moreover, a significant influence on health care and hygiene in households. In addition to the impact of poverty and cultural expectations on women’s education, school related problems are also a significant hindrance.

3.2 Sociology of education Education is the most important tool that can shape the whole nation and even the world. Without pouring money into the bowl of education, no nation can succeed in the world of information and technology. Poverty is highly associated with education and literacy of the nation. The more educated the nation the more prosperity there could be and low literacy and education could represent a poor nation with low productivity. In literature, investment in education is associated with economic development, political stability, increase in productivity of the nation, improving in health care facilities and technological developments (Babatunde & Adefabi, 2005). Education sector in Pakistan is facing abundant issues regardless of public or private sector. Education sector has always compromised over other industry sectors. Low budgetary allocations by government (only 2% of GDP during last 5 years); inequalities at gender, regional, social and public and private sector are major obstructions in the improvement of educational quality. Existence of multiple educational standards, poverty and un affordability of private fees and poor planning and implementation of government policies are all manifestations of this negligence. These have been the immense hurdles in the way of educational development and human capital accumulation in Pakistan. Indeed, education strongly linked with poverty, as parents seem reluctant to send their children to school due to poverty.

3.3 Poverty: A Sociological Perspective Two viewpoints of solving the issue of poverty could use, one is economic and other is social. Economic aspect is usually being the part of sociological field because society formed of various institutions including the economic one. Factors like income, production and distribution are core economic factors while culture and social structure are the core sociological factors. Difference between economic and social approach towards the issue of poverty has added implications. One can look at poverty from the lens of structural hierarchy to deduce conclusions for solutions. However, poverty is not stagnant factor rather it is a part of a process. Deprivation from food, shelter and income could lead an individual to particular position in the society, and without having clear and concise definition of deprivation, no complete picture of poverty profile can formed. Deeper knowledge and insights are required to shed the light and layout a road map to reduce the poverty in Pakistan through educational efforts.

A simple observation can made here; when we prepare our social profile, we concentrate on a variety of things, like lineage background, parent’s profession or social status. At the same time, as we look for the needs of the ‘poor’, we limit our focus on food status only. This is too narrow an approach. Poverty is defined as the incapability of persons, households or communities to control enough resources to satisfy a generally acceptable minimum standard of living. It is more than just income insufficiency. It contains lack of opportunity; lack of access to resources, as well as social segregation. Under the light of this concise definition, a matrix has developed to identify the status of poverty in the community. Mix of qualitative and quantitative aspects are included from the social profile. Social profiles are not always quantifiable, therefore this matrix is also not as quantitative as income or calorie intake measurement, but developed on the principles that generally well accepted in developing social profiles.

Conceptual Framework about Poverty Figure 3.1: Matrix to Assess Poverty Status Qualitative Quantitative

Depends on own income Not owning valuable assets Member of a right based group Critical about unequal social structure

Poverty has broader meanings and explanations that not merely bound by income or expenditure. Poverty landscape is vast as it is a situation in which individuals have lack of freedom to access to opportunities of education, health, jobs, and all those elements which would help him/her to function properly in the society (AmartyaSen 1992, 2001). This has led away poverty from financial context to non-financial aspects like those that lack of education could considered as form of poverty in many societies.

There are two elements to understand the poverty; absolute and relative. According to absolute term, poverty considered as insufficient financial resources to maintain minimum living standard in any society. Absolute poverty line could be determined by setting minimum income level to get basic needs of life like food, shelter and cloths (Fields, 2000; Deaton, 1997).

On the other hand, relative poverty seen as poverty that is partially determined by the society in which a person lives. Someone who may not be considered poor in Pakistan may (with the same financial resources) is regarded as poor in India. The relatively poor are excluded from the mainstream of economic and social life. Such groups might experience poverty via sources such as social marginalization, lack of education, low income, poor language skills, and other factors that prevent a genuine integration into mainstream society.

3.4 The Link between Education and Poverty The citizens of better-educated nations have a larger likelihood of being employed, are economically extra productive and, furthermore, get higher earnings. Although social mobility can be dissimilar across the nations in the developing world, education generally improves job expectations in favor of deprived groups. Although upward social mobility is

far more difficult for groups that socially marginalized, such as women, migrants, refugees or ethnic minorities; even amongst such groups, education lowers poverty. However, the profits of education might be lower for deprived groups than for non-deprived members due to inherent biases.

The relationship of education with economic growth is an established fact. Education causes financial expansion and the growth of poor nations, when both the quantity and the quality of education are considered. It creates possibilities for persons to earn additional income. Education also improves social living situations. Many social benefits can obtained, apart from high earnings, particularly through girls’ education. For example, many researchers have proved that in Pakistan, the infant and child mortality rate is lower for the children of educated mothers although these changes not directly related with poverty. In general, these outcomes have long-term impact on a society and are predominantly huge when the female literacy rate improves. There is no doubt that there is an inverse link between education and poverty in Sindh. Absolute poverty decreases the ability to study.

In developing countries like Pakistan, extensive absolute deprivation hinders education, because of malnutrition and poor health, low parental education, inadequate economic resources for education, as well as deplorable household conditions.Absolute poverty (where people have an extremely small number of resources andthe majority of their essential requirements are not met) is most common in Pakistan, particularly in rural areas like those of the Badin and Thatta districts. There are a few significant factors, particularly for girls in Sindh that decrease the ability to learn, such as a lack of lighting, spending much time on domestic chores, taking care of younger siblings and inadequate resources for investing in female education. Poverty also shrinks educational enrolment.

The high financial and opportunity costs of education (for instance, children who work on agricultural land or in households, engaged with livestock, fetching wood or water) and inadequate expected profits of education sometimes decrease the demand for education especially for schools in rural Sindh. Sending children to school has an opportunity cost for the household. In Sindh, there is generally a tough gender aspect to this option: girls usually have additional household responsibilities, and there are fewer well-paying professions available for educated girls than for boys.

The demand for education depends on many things, such as the financial and opportunity costs of education, the quality of education, and its expected benefits. On the other hand, rural poor people also seem to be extra responsive to school quality. If the quality of education is not good, then poor people are less likely to attend school than wealthy people; specifically in rural areas, the profits of education may be less or not well understood yet. Girls taught subjects that are not pertinent to their lives in terms of survival skills or economic empowerment. Hence, the motivation for going to school is less. Moreover, deprived people, even when they are educated, face difficulties finding jobs that reimburse them sufficiently for their education. This might be because the education they get is of a lower quality. It can also be for the reason that jobs are limited in rural areas; the financial profits of education are consequently not visible to parents. These factors are responsible for lower enrolment trend of girls in Sindh. Inadequate resources are also another reason for not getting an education. There are many schools, which are closed or lacking facilities.

3.5 Theoretical Perspective on Education From the sociological viewpoint, the educational structure does not offer females the same sort of opportunities for upward mobility as it does for males. This is a form of sex inequity being applied in the education system that affects women both for the duration of and after their educational training (Pearson, Jennifer, 2007). Social Stratification Theory is important to understand that gender is the basis of social stratification in the world. We can see gender differences in all spheres of society (Huber, 1990).People categorized according to gender and their access to the public benefits provided by the society is assumed to be on this basis. It is observed that this difference has always helped men more than women. For example, everywhere in the whole world the income of males is more than that of females. According to (Fagerlind and Saha, 1997), there are economic gains of investment in education at both the macro and micro levels. Efforts to endorse investment in human capital seen to effect speedy economic development for society as a whole. For individuals, such investment seen to provide profits in the shape of individual economic achievement and accomplishment. Disparity in earning between men and women is due to inequality in educational attainment and training. Under the Functionalism Theory perspective, which developed in the 1940s and 1950s, genders are analyzed as having opposite functions - women take care of the house whereas men supply for the family. Much recent research, particularly after the

women's movement of the 1960s and 1970s, criticizes this approach for supporting the status quo and overlooking the coercion of women. Usually, education provided for both political and economic needs, which rectifies the purpose of education. Globalization has resulted in meticulous types of social omission for particular persons along with entire communities. This is apparent in the feature of spatial ghettoisation, health disparities, more unemployment, poor housing as well as poor infrastructure for such individuals and groups. Poor educational achievement is interconnected with these aspects. Since the late 1980s, there has been a shift towards using the ideology of ‘the market’ in education. Education has been transformed from a political tool to an economic instrument. Education competition is preparation for market competition or for the institutionalization of materialist values (Anita, 2003).

Nussbaum, who developed her theory of “human capabilities” (Nussbaum,M, 2000), explains that often all women are not treated according to their own right, people with self- respect who ought to have respect from laws as well as institutions. Instead, they are treated as meager instruments for the ends of others - reproducers, caregivers, sexual means and mediators of a family's common wealth. Sometimes, this active significance is strongly helpful; at other times, it could in fact be harmful (Nussbaum, 2000). Nussbaum's theory emphasizes the just equality of capability and not equal opportunity of resources.

3.6 Critics on Functions of Education In this category, we briefly review the work of Bowles and Gintis, (Bourdieu,1976) “Power, Hierarchy, Social Control and Cultural Reproduction”(Passeron, 1977), “The Nature of Curriculum Design” (Jackson and Marsden, 1966), and “Teaching and Learning Approaches” (Freire, 1970). The disappointing inability of education to create advantage for people existing in poverty is not just a malfunction in an otherwise benevolent structure; it is an effect of the disparities built into society and the education system equally. It postulates that, if educational profits are to be realized with certainty, a type of education is desired which can both face existing power structures and allow democratic development. The basic problem of any endeavors to understand the issues and take action is the relationship between poverty and education (Shain and Ozga, 2001). In spite of extraordinary change in gender roles and relationships, large differences persist in the roles and status of both sexes.

In general, women have made little improvement in economic wellbeing. It has been argued that the structural adjustment program of the World Bank and the IMF are creating trouble for women by imposing greater burdens on them through the obliteration of price controls and food subsidies, public service cutbacks and increased male unemployment. Therefore, the “feminization of poverty” has become a prominent discussion topic in recent years (Lewina, 1999).

Global financial policies by IMF and World Bank through structural adjustment program has not done any positive to the wellbeing of women. Eradication of price controls, food subsidies, cutback of public services and booming up male unemployment led to greater burdens on the women. This made topic of ‘feminization of poverty’ a hot debate in recent years. (Carlo,2007) revealed that globalization impacts on poor outcomes for education and rapidly changing culture of society, shortages of role models and lack of jobs.

Some communities or individuals are exposed to more advanced technologies and are given access to more high-tech expertise and cultural capital, than those in less privileged communities. One means to overcome these modern divides of class, gender, race, and education is to reform education so that all students have access to new technologies and new literacy, so that education is democratized ( Douglas Kellner, 2002).There is a question mark as to whether gender impartiality in education is a universal value (Geeta Gandhi Kingdon, 2002). There is a growing challenge to the principle of gender equality not just by religious fundamentalists but by others as well, especially in Asia, who expresses reservations about the universality of this principle, contesting it as a "western value". For instance, a current research study concluded that Pakistan experienced a decline in economic growth between 1970 and 1985 due to its large-scale failure to spend on the education of its females (N.Birdsall,1993).A group of irritated Pakistani economics academics labeled the education of females a "western value" and retorted that the education of females had led to increased numbers of divorce, family breakdown as well as social problems in western countries.

3.7 Previous studies The literature on female education issues is vast and full of complexities because most researchers have used secondary data sources to analyze the impact of female education and all employ quantitative research methods thus occasionally devolving into only a number game. An analysis of the various factors that affect income distribution in Pakistan is long overdue. Available estimates indicate that inequality in Pakistan is high and very little is known of the causative factors. The changes in the structure of earnings in the labour force occur due to a number of reasons. Income distortions arise from education patterns as well as the way the labour market compensates the educated class. Another important determinant that adds to income inequality is gender disparity. It is generally said that women are largely employed in low paid jobs that brought them a tag of low-income earners as compare to man. Higher education and professional development is usually subject to the marriage life and permission of parents and husband, which usually resulted in obstruction and avoidance. This could also result in drop out from universities and colleges and even from schools and hence from the workforce. This contributes to inequality of income and education disparities among women. Situation is worse in rural areas under the view of workable logic that unavailability of infrastructure and education lead to this situation for women. The aforementioned determinants of income differentials are mere assertions that need to be verified by empirical evidence.

Apart from education, various other factors such as age, knowledge, skills, experience, profession, gender, working hours, as well as other family and household characteristics are responsible for a person’s income. Gender is furthermore a factor inthe return on education. In the job market, men get greater benefits and pay than females in developing countries(Siphambe, 2000). (Hussain and Awan 2007) measured the gains of education in Pakistan and revealed that females earned less than their male counterparts did. Marital status also influences the rate of return. Married persons earn more than the single fellows (Green, 2003). (Khan and Irfan, 1985) exposed an important and positive association between the person’s family background and his earnings in Pakistan.

Though the number of educated persons and institutions increased in Pakistan,the labour market of Pakistan continues to lack skilled and educated persons. This is because of the mismatch between demand and supply of education, which leads to many other problems

like joblessness, low pay and other socioeconomic evils. We move on now to analyze and explore the role of education on factors other than earning for the economic benefits of a person.

Many studies have been conducted at national and international levels on the private returns of education and the determinants of income. Very few of them are based on primary data collected by the researcher himself in Pakistan. Some of these studies are described below: (ShabbirKhan, 1991)In “the case of Pakistan, education is crucial factor for individuals’ earnings”.While the study proves the association between education and improved work output, more focus was on increase in output. In a wider sense, this study is biased because of the omission of many other factors such as family background, rural urban divide, gender division and so on.

Another study used the statistics of PIHS (1995-96) to observe the outcomes of education by using Mincerian-earning function. It argued that different level of schooling conveys different ability; consequently, the study observed increase in earnings is associated with additional years of education. No doubt, this study was a pioneer regarding this topic but, apart from that, ithad many defects, including the fact that it used data from PIHE that is limited only to salaried persons (ZafarMueen, Nasir and HinaNazli, 2000).

(Aslam, 2009) study how the employment market rewards adult education and to see estimated outcomes of school attainment by gender in a constant way to decide whether childhood and adolescent education investments are affected by any other factors. To calculate rates of returns to education by gender, this study also adopted the standard Mincerian approach of estimating earnings functions. The 2002 PIHS, a nationally representative data set on more than 16,000 households across Pakistan, employed in this investigation. A household questionnaire used to gather information on employment and income of all males and females adults aged 15–65 covering waged work employment. All those currently enrolled in school barred from the sample. Hence, this study was unable to conclude clearly, why the gap in years of education between males and females in Pakistan is so high. It is noted that this research estimated just the private returns to schooling; social returns were not accounted for.

Another paper tried to find out the key determinants of income of the workers in institutions of general education in Lahore District, Pakistan. A sample of 3,358 collected in 2009 of teaching and non-teaching workers of universities, colleges, schools through a questionnaire method. The major purpose of this study was to find out the most important factors that influence an individual’s earnings and to estimate the private financial returns to education by different levels. Questions about education, age, experience, profession, gender, working hours, spouse education, family background and family status were asked. The results of the study exposed that personal financial outcomes of education differ by the level of education. The college level respondents have highest (9.1%) private financial returns among all the levels of education. The gender earning differential gap found to be uppermost at school level (Afzal, 2011).

“Poverty Dynamics in Rural Sindh, Pakistan”, This document examines the dynamics of poverty in rural Sindh by resurveying households from an IFPRI longitudinal survey after a break of over 15 years.The occurrence and intensity of poverty increased, with 70 percent of households living below the poverty line in 2004–05, contrasted with 55 percent in 1987–88. In general, households who remained poor in both phases had minimum per capita incomes, low resources for education attainments, possessed less land and cultivated a small number of crop (Lohana, Hari Ram, 2009).

“Women’s Involvement In Earning Activities: Evidence From Rural Pakistan” (AmtulHafeezGondal, 2003) This article has pointed out that there are so many causes responsible for the participation of married women in economic tasks in Pakistan. Married women living in rural parts of Sindh and the Punjab are more engaged in economic activity while those women living in rural Balochistan and NWFP are not as much occupied in economic actions. This research found that younger women’s participation is lesser in economic activities. The likelihood of women participation in earning behaviouralso declines with the migration of married women from one place to another.

The article on “Males’ Attitude towards Female Education and Employment (A Case Study in Tehsil Darya Khan, Distt.Bhakkar)” confirms an extremely important relationship among the age of the respondents and their rational attitude towards female employment. Research shows that the younger respondents exhibit a more rational attitude towards female

employment compared to elder age respondents (Hassan Ali, M. Iqbal Zafar and SabirHussain, 2005).

“The Socio-Legal Implications of Women’s Work in the Informal Sector: A Case Study of Women Domestic Workers in Pakistan” (Shahid, A., 2009). This article has investigated the limitations of law as a useful practice and means for empowerment of domestic women labourers. The facts from the field have been of use in understanding law in its societal perspective through listening to domestic women workers’ experiences of both formal and informal law. Basic living needs like education, health care, housing and water and sanitation are the part of state’s responsibility. State cannot get itself away from these responsibilities. Lack of civic amenities, education and health care are key problems described by women domestic workers in the interviews. Introduction of basic infrastructure, common living conditions of these workers can be improved.

“The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education on Rural Poverty in Pakistan: An Empirical Analysis of Education” (Imran Sharif Chaudhry, Saeed ur Rahman,2009). This research study has tried to examine the effects of gender disparity in education on rural poverty in Pakistan through using cross-sectional data and Legit regression analysis. The key result of the experimental analysis data is that gender discrimination in education has a major impact on rural poverty. The enrolment ratio of female-male, the female male literacy ratio, education of the head of the household, the earnings ratio of female-male,the huge occurrence of these variables boosts the likelihood of being poor. It is concluded that the occurrence of poverty is high in households with lesser number of enrolled or literate females, low educational level of females, larger number of females, less or no female contribution in earning activity, illiterate head of family as well as large family size.

A Study on Income Generation Project for Rural Women of Sindh province of Pakistan” (Ayse kudat, 1991). Major results of this survey was that the women of Sindh are dedicated to devote a remarkable quantity of time to income generation activities along with increased concentration to household chores as well as the nurturing of children, The Sindh province is well-known for its conventional cottage, craft and rilli work, embroidery, cap making and so on. The full potential of these activities has not been exploited.

“How do women decide to work in Pakistan” (Zareen F. Naqvi&LubnaShahnaz, 2002). Some important empirical results of this article are age; qualification and marital status are among the key factors that significantly obstruct female involvement in economics. Employment status of the family head (usually male), number kids and their ages are also major contributory variables towards the women role in economic activity of the country.

Results prove that all other things remaining constant, the probability of a woman to be a paid and productive member of the society is boosted through education and they progress considerably the better educated the woman is. Thus the focus on women’s education is important to start the uplifting cycle of higher human capital, lower fertility, enhanced care of children, etc, that demographers speak of as an investment to move forward the limits of the country’s production opportunity curve and have a higher GDP.

Previous Studies related to topic: S.N Study Author and Variables Sample and How Findings O topic and year Design Measure area d The This paper uses Estimates The study 1 The Role of panel data for 40 variables coefficient concludes, Education Pervez developing s by and Income ZamurradJanjuaan used in countries for the first, that in Poverty period 1999 to applying d Usman Ahmed this income Alleviation: 2007. the A Cross- 35 study are growth Kamal 2011 random Country poverty, plays a Analysis, effect per moderatel Pakistan. generalize capita d y positive income, leastsquare role in income s (GLS alleviating inequalit technique poverty, y, and ) but that educatio income n. distributio n does not

* 35Pervez ZamurradJanjua and Usman Ahmed Kamal,The Role of Education and Income in Poverty Alleviation: A Cross-Country Analysis,Pakistan, The Lahore Journal of Economics 16 : 1 (Summer 2011): pp. 143-172 57

play a key role in poverty alleviation in the sample overall. Second, it concludes that education is the most significant contributo r to poverty alleviation . 2 Impact of MasoodSarwar The The data for this A logistic It is found Education Awan, Nouman probability task has been regressio that on Poverty Malik, of an taken from the n model experienc Reduction, HaroonSarwar, individual Household is e and Pakistan Muhammad being poor Integrated estimated education Waqas36 as the Economic based on al dependent Survey (HIES) this data achieveme variable for the years nt is and a set 1998-99 and negatively of 2001-02. related educationa with the l poverty levels, incidence experience in both and gender years.

as Also the explanator higher the y levels of variables. education, the chances of a person being non-poor increases. Moreover, being a male person provides an advantage in retaining a position above poverty level. 3 The Muhammad To Household The The Impact of Imran Niazi analyze Integrated Scheme present Education Atta Ullah Khan37 the Economic of study on Multi- incidenc Survey (HIES) Weights, highlights dimension e of and Pakistan Dual the role of al Poverty Multi- Social & Living cutoff education across the dimensio Standard Method, in Regions in nal Measurement Multi- alleviating Punjab poverty Survey (PSLM) dimensio the rather datasets nal incidence

37Muhammad Imran NiaziAttaullah Khan, Journal of Elementary Education, Vol.21, No. 1 pp.77-89(Year Missing) 59

than for the year Headcou of poverty income 1998-99, 2001- nt Ratio, while denials, 02, 2004-05, Adjusted offering three 2005-06 & Headcou governme other 2007-08. nt Ratio nt some dimensio policy ns lessons (educati for on, constructi health, ng housing Poverty & Reduction services) Strategy were Papers consider (PRSP,s) ed rather than merely addressing the monetary phenomen on and achieving the core objective of millenniu m developm ent goals. 4 Defying Balk. 1994, Years of Survey sample Women’s Education Gender 1997 schooling. of 6681 married decision- is Norms in Bangladesh 38 Age, women from 218 making, positively

38 Balk, Deborah. 1997. “Defying Gender Norms in Rural Bangladesh: A Social Demographic Analysis.” 60

Rural spousal villages in the control of related Banglades age Abhoynagar and resources, with all h: A Social difference, Sirajgong autonomy indexes Demograp age at first districts and except hic marriage, mobility. mobility, Analysis head of Measured with household, by 4 which it is dwelling indices: negatively size, land Authority associated ownership, , . husband’s Attitudes, Context: occupation Leniency, Village , number Mobility level surviving predictors children explain and sons, substantial work ly more outside the variation home. in outcome measures than do individual level variables, such as education, etc. 5 Women's Jejeebhoy and Level of Comparative Women’s Secondary Autonomy Sathar. 2001 schooling: surveys of decision schooling in India India and none, currently making, is and Pakistan39 primary, married women control associated

Population Studies 51(2): 153-172. 39Jejeebhoy, Shireen and ZebaSathar. 2001. “Women's autonomy in India and Pakistan: the influence of religion and region.” Population and Development Review 27(4): 687-712. 61

Pakistan: secondary. aged 15-39 in over with the Age, wage Punjab, Pakistan resources, higher Iinfluence work, (n=1036), and mobility, autonomy of surviving Uttar Pradesh and in all three Religion sons, (n=859) and freedom areas. and daughters, Tamil Nadu from Primary Region residence (n=983), India, threat. schooling with conducted in the Combine is mother-in- early 1990s. d into a moderatel law, size summary y of dowry, index of associated household women’s with consumer autonomy higher goods, autonomy district, only in and Tamil religion Nadu. Context: In settings where gender relations are more egalitarian such as Tamil Nadu, education plays a more prominent role in enhancing almost every dimension

of autonomy, than is the case in settings with wider gender disparities . Increase in education means greater decision making autonomy for women in attitudes and behaviour on all three indices. 6 Public Ilahi and Literacy 1991 Pakistan Time Being Infrastruct Grimard. 2000 Age, adult Integrated allocated literate ure and 40 female in Household to all increases Private Pakistan household, Survey (based work leisure Costs: SES, on Living activities time and Water spouse’s Standards and time reduces Supply wages, Measurement allocated time

40Ilahi, Nadeem and FranqueGrimard. 2000. “Public Infrastructure and Private Costs: Water Supply and Time Allocation of Women in Rural Pakistan.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 49(1): 45-75. 63

and Time estimated Survey) of 2400 to water allocated Allocation non-wage rural households. collection to water of Women income, . collection. in Rural distance to Pakistan market, estimated market wages, seasonality 7 Changes in Duraisamy. Level of NSS Wage Graduate Returns to 200241 education employment work and above Education India (primary, surveys of participat education in India, middle, 66,651 male and ion. increases 1983-94: secondary, 21,444 female Log of probabilit By gender, higher wage earners in the daily y of age-cohort secondary, 1983 and 63,507 wage. women and graduate), male and 20,393 entering location technical female wage regular diploma earners in 1993- salaried Potential 94 aged 15-59. governme experience nt or , residence private in rural sector areas, non- wage labour work. income Returns to women’s education are higher than to men’s education at the

41Duraisamy, P. 2002. “Changes in returns to education in India, 1983-94: By gender, age-cohort and location.” Economics of Education Review 21(6): 609-22. 64

middle, secondary and higher secondary levels. Between 1983 and 1993/4 returns to middle level schooling declined for both sexes but the change is stronger for women. 8 Private Aromolaran Number of 93,999 Log Returns to Wage 200242 years of individuals aged hourly school for Returns to Nigeria each 15-64 surveyed earnings. both men Schooling school by the Nigerian and in Nigeria: level General women 1996-1999 Potential Household increase experience Survey, 1996- with each , year 1999. level of dummies education and are higher for women than for men.

42Aromolaran, A. 2002. Private Wage Returns to Schooling in Nigeria: 1996-1999. New Haven, Yale University. 65

9 Does Imran Sharif The study The study Linear The link Education Chaudhry, chooses chooses time interpolat of Alleviate ShahnawazMali the series data, for ion education Poverty? k, Abo ul absolute thirty five technique to poverty Empirical Hassan43 (2010) poverty years (1972- is is one of Evidence (poverty 2007) for employed the most from headcount Pakistan important Pakistan index), dimension education s of literacy policies rate, towards primary poverty. school Education level may affect enrolment poverty in rate, many middle ways. It school may raise level and the the incomes university of those level with enrolment education. widely It may in used addition, proxies for by education) promoting as the key growth in variables the economy raise the incomes of those

43Imran Sharif Chaudhry, Shahnawaz Malik, Abul Hassan International Research Journal of Finance and Economics ISSN 1450-2887 Issue 52 (2010) © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2010 66

with given levels of education. 10 Impact of Anwar Education, Researcher A The study Gender Alam442010 employme selected 50 (25 questionn indicates Discrimina nt, male and 25 aire was that tion on decision- female) used for women Gender making respondents in educated have no or Developm and HazarKhuaniPes and an low share ent and providing hawar interview in income Poverty legal, schedule / earnings Alleviation political, was used of the economic for family, and social illiterate that there rights to responde was no women. nts. equal status of women, females were not allowed to work outside home, women are more vulnerable to poverty, women share more burden of

44Alam, A. 2010.Impact of gender discrimination on gender development and poverty alleviation.Sarhad J. Agric. 27(2): 329-339 67

productive and household work, if household and productive burden shared equally it could help in poverty alleviation , household poverty could be reduced when both male and female members earn. 11 Muhammad Education, This study The Investing Relationsh Afzal poverty, utilizes time present in ip among Muhammad physical series data on study education Education, Ehsan Malik capital and education, uses is the key Poverty Ishrat Begum 45 economic poverty, physical various to and KafeelSarwar growth in capital and unit root economic Economic Hina Fatima Pakistan economic tests to growth Growth in growth for the check the process. Pakistan: span of 1971-72 robustnes Education An to 2009-10 in s of the helps in

45Afzal, Ehsan, Ishrat, Kafeel&Hina “Relationship among Education, Poverty and Economic Growth in Pakistan Journal of Elementary Education”Vol.22, No. 1 pp.23-45 68

Econometr case of Pakistan results. reducing ic Analysis Augment poverty ed Dicky- and Fuller improving (ADF), the socio- Phllips- economic Perron status of (PP) and both the Ng- individual Perron s as well unit root as the tests are society. used in The this present study. research work explores the short- run (SR), long-run (LR) linkages and causal nexus among education, poverty and economic growth in the presence of physical capital as a fourth

important variable. 12 Gender The World This paper This paper Micro The Equality, reviews level Bank46 2007 goes evidence Poverty empirical effects of and beyond findings from gender presented Economic economic equality education in this Growth analyses of the on and role of gender individua paper equality and l presents suggests women’s productiv evidence empowerment in ity and gender reducing poverty human on the equality is and stimulating developm impact of economic ent also growth. outcomes two other desirable types of from an opportuniti efficiency es and perspectiv empowerm e: ent — increases women’s access to in markets opportunit (labour, land, and ies for credit) and women women’s decision lead to making improvem power within ents in households human —on poverty developm reduction ent and productivit outcomes, y at the poverty individual and reduction, household and— level. although evidence on this

46Working Paper No. 234. Paris: OECD Development Centre. Morrison, Andrew, DhushyanthRaju, and NisthaSinha. 2007. Gender equality, poverty, and economic growth. Policy Research Working Paper No.4349. Washington, D.C: The World Bank 70

last point is relatively weak— potentially accelerate d rates of economic growth

3.8 Gaps in the present literature There are many gaps in the present literature that examines the impact of female education. Factors affecting female education were included as variables but none of them addressed the impact on poverty alleviation. There is lack of disaggregated data on gender in Pakistan, for example, female per month income, extent of feminization of poverty, number of working women, occupational categories, and number of households headed by females are not available. Non-availability of statistical data makes it difficult to study in detail women’s economic participation or income disparity, causes of difference in educational level from one class to another or the reasons which hinder women’s employment.

In conclusion, an additional distinction between this study and previous research is that we observe the outcome of education on diverse sources of earnings of females plus total household income, instead of per capita income or income-to-needs ratio. We consider it more pertinent to study the connection between education and different kinds of income. In sum, the aim of our research is to draw attention to the returns of female education on their economic well-being by educational level.

In the research on women’s decision-making, mobility, and matter of gender equality, the majority of studies were not particularly concerned with the question of how female education profits women themselves. Instead the focus of much work was on a series of further determinants including active participation in labour force, income, time distribution, or physical wellbeing, and female’s education was integrated frequently as a control variable. With/without comparison is missing through which one can compare the domino effect of the intervention (educated women) without the intervention (uneducated women). Consequently, several of these researches provide little explanation or analyses of their 71

results with respect to the association between education and the effects. Therefore, the prevailing priority of this study is to answer the question of how education of females benefit them directly, as well as what type of hindrances women face during getting education and employment and suggest strategies to speed female education which provide improved skills for better economic activity which ultimately leads to a better life for women.

3.9 Nexus of Barriers, Poverty and Female Education The education of female members of society is crucial for overall national development. One house is one unit of society and together, many educated homes can make a difference. In conservative cultures like in Pakistan, girls’ education is most ignored since many relate it primarily to earning capability. This research will highlight the many barriers that females face in order to acquire education. Many factors affect the education propagation of girls in Pakistan and influences like family background, cultural context and the location of school cannot be put aside when it comes to educating girls.

3.10 Family Background The first factor of family background has three aspects. These are poverty, family size and pattern, and household chores. Poverty is a significant hurdle in educational success because most poor families tend to make their child start to earn rather than waste their time in an activity most undesirable to them. Education is undesirable to the poor since it does not generate any earnings immediately rather utilize their children’s time to go and earn. The children brought up in poverty thus tend to remain deprived even when they grow up (Joint policy forum, 2007).

The poor are unable to bear the costs of school fees, which hinders their education (Ove, Celestine, 2007). Many of the uneducated in Pakistan deny the role of education in society as they think of it is a luxury only for the rich. The things that matter to them are distance of their house to the school, female students’ parents comportment, the level of education their parents have, lack of skilled educators, housing condition, parents’ job conditions, and little availability of scholarships for girls. All these concerns discourage girls from excelling in their education (I.A. Adetundeand Akampae Peter Akensina, 2008).

Strong and staunch family restrictions limit the level of education acquired by most girls

(UNESCO, 2008). Social norms play a significant role in this matter. The girls themselves get discouraged when they reach puberty. The social norms, like the assignment of home chores to girls who are supposed to take care of their younger siblings, and have to cook and collect drinking water, make it difficult to balance it all (Koolwal and Van de Walle, 2010). Gender discrimination in many areas of Pakistan, like Sindh province, contributes tremendously to poverty. The possibility of poverty keeps soaring when certain variables that exist in society are unfavorable. These are the literacy ratio of female to male, female male enrolment ratio, earning share of both female and male members and education level of the head of the family (Imran Sharif Chaudhry, SaeedurRahman, 2009). Some other education inducements, based on economy,that can be spent in the promotion of female education is evaluated over time (Aslam, 2009). All of these factors keep creating more ambiguity and partial estimation in studies.

The latest studies that gather opinions of Pakistani local boys show surprisingly varied results depending upon their age. The younger boys have a much more rational attitude when it comes to giving women their rights and the right of getting an education (Hassan A, 2005).

Education serves as a way to develop the country and female education speeds up development. There are various interpretive articles on how the investment in education creates and polishes human capital (Psacharopoulos, 1994); (Psacharopoulos and Patrinos, 2004); and (Heckman, Lochner, and Todd, 2006)). There are two constant results from past studies. Firstly, in Pakistan, the return on investment on education is lower when compared to developed countries and other developing countries. Secondly, profits boosted with the rise in educational levels. This improves the overall condition of the country and its economy.

Many countries where gender disparities are not high have less concentration of the assessment of profits to education by gender. The developing countries estimates are ambiguous. Some studies discover that profits from schooling are irrespective of gender (Behrman and Wolfe, 1984 and Schultz, 1993). However, according to some research, there are inferior profits to female schooling (Kingdon, 1998) or even superior returns (Behrman and Deolalikar, 1995 and Asadullah, 2006). This study makes the research much more strong as it entails the calculation of both genders’ returns to education (Aslam and Kingdon,

2006).

It confirmed that females less supported in their effort to excel academically as well as in their careers. The expenditure on boys for educational reasons is remarkably higher than that of girls (Aslam, 2007b). Along with this, some who are semi-believers of women’s contribution in the economy also send their daughters to inferior quality schools in Pakistan. There are a lower number of girls in private and more expensive education centers; most of them are in public schools. The comparative results found by Aslam with respect to private and public schools are supported through many previous studies conducted in this area (Alderman, Orazem, and Paterno 2001; Andrabi, Das, and Khwaja 2002; Arif and Saqib 2003).

Education eliminates poverty from the face of the world. It gives a smaller, healthier and well-educated population to every country. The family pattern within Africa, Asia and Latin American sound the same. The educated women have less children and have healthier families because they can afford to take good care of their children and family. They educate their children better than others. They quality of life improves due to education and their horizon expands and opens up better earning opportunities. This in turn improves the family and society with fewer children and controlled population. These families are more sustainable (Klasen 1999).

UNESCO ran a survey in Brazil which shows that illiterate women have an average of six children whereas literate women had an average of 2 or 3 children (UNESCO 2000). Another survey shows that with increasing education, women are older at marriage and first childbirth. The late marriage automatically reduces the fertility rate. They have bettercareer prospects, which motivate them to produce less children, and a high living standard is guaranteed. These women are more likely to use contraception which reduce fertility and delay child birth (Samina Malik, 2011).

A study conducted in India’s village determines that the mother’s literacy improves her children’s performance in their course work and attainment of their further academic goals. There are thus higher social profits for females who have the basic level of schooling (Behrmanet al.1997).

Even the children who are home schooled influence society (UNESCO, 2008). Research show that the socioeconomic slopes between achievement and home background differs between countries. In some conservative countries, these aspects might differ for girls but a generous economic environment reveals the return of education with respect to many educational interventions to eradicate poverty.

3.11 Cultural Context It is undeniable that through the education of girls, many profound challenges that are required for the healthy development of the country may overcome easily in the Pakistani society. It is a benefit for all to help girls finish their education (UNICEF, 2004). The social benefits of schooling, in particular, suggested, in theory to be higher than the private benefits. The empirical evidence shows estimates of social returns to be lower than private ones. This is because researchers have accurate information regarding costs but very little information on the idea of social benefits. These are not the aggregate of private and social estimates of benefits. Some interesting estimates already exist. The analysis of effect of investment on education on private wagers show that there are more social returns than private returns (Acemoglu and Angrist, 2000). With education, there are greater health, educational and family benefits that cannot be replaced.

Among other problems of female education, educated girls face a considerable wage gap in Pakistan according to estimates (Ashraf and Ashraf, 1993). It is the story of all five provinces of Pakistan. The household income and expenditure survey shows how the wage estimation is calculated separate from males through Mercerian Wage equation. The study also showed that the gain in the level of education changed the salary earned in the period between 1979 and 1986.

A research conducted by Siddique and associates provides evidence of gender discrimination. The standard decomposition method used to split gender gap of wage into two parts (Oaxaca, 1973). The statistical estimates give discrimination to a highest level of 55 to 77 percent, which is the percent of earnings differential found between the genders in the labour market. He also gave estimates from the Survey Data of the export industry in

Sialkot, Faisalabad and Karachi. The results are almost the same as gender discrimination in export oriented industry. The conclusion addresses the effect of adjustment policies leading to liberalization, and the resulting change in the labour market.

Nasir and Nazli (Nasir and Nazli, 2000) used the survey results from 1995-96 of Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS Preliminary Industrial Hygiene Survey (UK)). The estimates are Mincerian wage equation. A significant and positive gender coefficient of 0.264 was gained after controlling for the region and education acquisition. Literate women are better able to take good care of children and save them from infant diseases and lower the mortality rate. With more educated mothers, the mortality rate has reduced 5-10%. This rate is striking in low income countries (Schultz, 1993).In Africa, the children of mothers who have received at least five years of education are 40% more likely to reach the age of 6 and beyond (Summers, 1994).

Educated mothers immunize their children 50% more than the uneducated ones (Gage et al. 1997). These mothers promote education for their children. The cross-country study in Pakistan found out that women’s education influences society much more than the impact of males’ education on children’s schooling (Filmer, 2000). In India, a study revealed that an educated parent’s children study two hours more than the uneducated ones (Behrman et al, 1999). No wonder they excel in their careers. Children with primary education read books and newspapers, and listen to the news and keep abreast with the times. The secondary school education gives them a sense of evaluating and analyzing situations and participating in political arguments. These awareness indicators serve as building blocks to civic participation, empowerment and democracy. More girls that are educated yield more primary school girls teachers (May A. Rihani 2006).

The economic empowerment is so important that even at the most basic level, it is likely to suppress and eliminate the corruption from society and political sectors which otherwise flourishes in poorer societies. Another study in Africa showed in 2005 that people who attended primary school are less likely to favour democracy than those who have carried on their education through secondary school and college level. The less educated women also are less likely to favor democracy to the ruling out of other government forms at the same

time (Stasavage, David, 2003). All these findings show that education of women without discrimination can build or destroy a country or a civilization in the end.

The daughters of educated women are 40% more likely to enroll in school (World Health Organization, 1998). These women spend greater proportion on health and education of their families. According to a survey of Thomas, women’s resources influence their family’s health twenty times more than their husbands’ (Thomas, 1990). They contribute at democratic and political level and can bring a revolution in a country. A survey done in 100 countries reveals that more educated women and a lowering of the gender gap promotes democracy. These findings link to the fact that girls’ expanded educational opportunities go in the same direction with a social structure which is more participatory and more prone towards democracy (Barro,1999).In Bangladesh, women participation in politics is homogenous (UNESCO, 2000). Sadly, there is a greater correlation between trafficking of women and less education and lack of opportunities for education (Panudda, Boonpala, and Kane, June, 2002).

Social comparison continues with the neighboring countries of Pakistan. The empowerment of women has changed India’s society on a great level. Since 1947, the economy of India has transformed substantially. Looking into the agricultural aspect, it accounts for not more than one third of the GDP i.e. Gross Domestic Product. In democracies like India, productive employment is an integral part of poverty deduction strategy. The contribution of women has been unrecorded over time. The worth of women and their efforts are not recognized and appreciated at any level. The same is the case with Pakistan.

Women’s contribution in every aspect whether it is social, religious, cultural or economical is considerable and undeniable. There is a different standard of behavioural expectation from men and women at work. The role of women in South East Asian Countries considered to chaste and very modest in all situations and actions. This tends to act as a constraint in their ability to perform well in the workplace and that too on an equal basis with males. Another expectation from them is to remain in the house and not move out. Their limited mobility and seclusion is like a duty to them. Beside other womanly problems, these restrictions put them in hierarchal practices. In India, the women have second status or even lower caste in a paradoxical situation when a family is facing economic crisis. Even in these situations, it is

considered inappropriate for women and utterly wrong to be social and go out very often. It would rather be definitely dangerous for their virtue.

Women have been facing discrimination at the academic and professional level. The cases of sexual harassment are ofa significant number in India. In some cultures, women have to work harder to get the same benefits as men in the same post. The exposure to the global network has been attained only by women of elite and the upper middle classes. Now there are places and cases within these conservative cultures where women are engaging in business enterprises and gaining fame on international platforms. The welfare organizations show a revolutionary role of women on international platforms and interdisciplinary unions. They have opened up greater opportunities for the upcoming liberal women who are ready to contribute to their economy (Population Reference Bureau, 2001).

Frequently, women remain marginalized when they employed in a chain of work and barely given a chance to share their responsibility on the job. Making independent decisions is quite a remote possibility. Economic independence enhances their ability to take decisions and exercise freedom of choice or actions. The single women have to face overwhelming trouble in this regard. Some, who control their income themselves share and contribute towards family’s economic needs. Their participation in discussions is evident. If not the whole, at least a percentage of their contribution added to the final decision. In all of these cases, the discussion starts from permitting the girl to get education and its impact then reaches the overall economic growth and cultural development of civilization.

When talking about women and their cultural contributions, globalization must also consider as a precursor for development. This increasingly rigorous phenomenon has raised hopes for women for better education and work, which in turn is the key to consistently developed global concepts. Women who are eligible to work but tied up in the cultural and social limitations influenced when they see women in other countries participating effectively and actively in the economic and social spheres. They become conscious of their contradictory situation when the economically independent paid workers are not able to gain economic liberty.

A couple of generations have passed since the women took the initiative to move out and work. The children of those women who took the initiative at the first place are now in the job market. They are now quite liberal and India is the first country that gave women equal franchise. The records show enactment of laws of protection and women’s interests have been promoted. Unfortunately, women have continued to deny economic, legal and social privileges and rights. They are equal partners in progress and yet they are regressed and marginalized, even exploited (AmartyaSen, 1990).

Independent earning opportunities reduce the economic dependence of women on men. It increases their bargaining power within the family. This power depends on the type of work they have been employed in. It is not undeniable that it only increases their workload of activities unless men are willing to share in domestic work. Globally, men and women are equally participating in these issues to enjoy a quality of life.

With the upgrading of new technology, the women are being marginalized in economic activities and, like men, are offered new opportunities to learn and get trained. South East Asian women hardly have the ability to choose from various activities. This is conspicuous by absence. Although, majority of women contribute to economy in one way or the other, much of their work remain undocumented or unaccounted for in the statistics at national level. From plowing of fields to harvesting of crops while working on farms to weaving and making handicrafts while staying home and contributing in home industry, from selling of vegetables to collection of wood and selling for cooking, they have been working hard and contributing to society. The uneducated women, working in the informal sector also, have been contributing a significant percentage that has yet not been recognized. In addition to all these activities, their traditional household responsibilities remain, like cooking, looking after children and fetching water from the pond. Even though, the cultural restrictions have liberalized, they are still not free to participate in the economy (P. Sen 1999).

The social influence has given a 180-degree turn to the cultural restrictions that were primary impediments to employment of women. In India, the workers divided into two categories: the main and the marginal. The main are the ones who work for six months or more within a year. The marginal ones are those that work for shorter periods. Majority of them are agricultural labourers. Main workers include the unpaid farm and family enterprise

workers. Women are only a small proportion of the main workers, which has been growing remarkably fast during the recent years. Besides these, the other jobs like working in a store, factories or in public sector, the informal sector is primarily fundamental for women. More girls and women may be involved in undocumented work like disguised work than in formal labour. According to an estimate, more than 90% of women are involved in the informal sector and are not officials according to statistics. The informal sector includes jobs like domestic servant, artisan, small trader or the field labourer. These jobs are usually unskilled and the pay is quite low. Besides these, they provide benefits to workers at the same time. Even though these jobs should be recorded in census, they are not. The undercounting is most certain because the boundaries between these activities and other forms of household work are clouded. Therefore, the actual labour force participation rate for ladies is supposed to be higher than calculated from available data.

The social contradictions and practical problems remain. The workers are susceptible to critical financial risks. The most vulnerable of those are the poorest class. It becomes even harder for their survival if they become sick, they lose their job, get bullied and become unable to continue working. They start falling into terrible series of debts that they pay off over generations. At risk are those who depend on the income made by one or more women of their home. These women also do not have the regular salaried employment with any benefits like those that the workers of organizations have. The girl workers are likely to be younger than men are.

The census of 2001 gives outstanding statistics. The average age of working women is 33.6 as compared to males, which is 36.5 on average. These data reported by local employment offices that register working population. The data accuracy is questionable because most unemployed people might not be registered or may not attempt to get registered, if there are no benefits for doing so. Moreover, these offices are operating in urban areas, thus, they are likely to be undercounted.

Besides, one problem that aged women face is that older women hardly manage to find work for themselves at a later age. Throughout the economy, women hold lower level positions in society than men do, even if they do have sufficient skills to prevail in the market. Researchers found out that almost 40 to 60 percent of female agriculture laborers’ are paid

less than men. No matter that they hold similar positions and are doing equal amount of work, they still earn 80% of what men get (Everette, 2000). The public sector hires women who are educated and barely have any prejudices. The private sector hires fewer women as compared to the public sector of the job force. Along comes the technology that casts a negative impact on working women and opportunities. With the introduction of new technology in manual labor work, women lose their jobs because they were mostly responsible for the manual work that was replaced by technology. For example, one village irrigates its crops through a bucket system of water in which women do their jobs quite actively. When the tube wells replaced the bucket-water irrigation system, women lost their jobs. Other informal work like wheat grinding and weeding was taken over by machines, herbicides, and other technologies so women kept losing their jobs. The traditional occupations kept changing over time. The more literate women came up with education and started doing primary school teaching (Everette, 2000). Women might not get any benefit out of updating and developing societies with technology. New jobs like wheat grinding machine operator emerged for women. It was mostly a man’s job. Factories would rarely employ women for these jobs. The National Sample Survey Data gives recorded proof of that. Since the 1970’s, the overall female employment and regular employment decreased in villages while casual labour increased (NSSO, 1994).

The data supported by other data that concludes that employment opportunities for female agricultural workers declined. Still most women seek casual work that they can perform better even if it is at low wages and low productivity. Other workers at farms include livestock workers, fishing and hunting, orchards, forestry and plantation work. It is often the case that even if women are allowed to contribute in the economy, domestically they have got limited say in how to spend the money they earn because their family assumes that this money is supposed to be for the household and wellbeing of the family. This is because in these areas, women are supposed to devote virtually all of their time, effort and earnings to their family. Men can spend their earnings on outside the home activities. Research also confirms that women spend majority of their pay in the household and tend to spend least on them. The results suggest that as the income of a woman increases so does the likelihood that she will manage the income. This buries women under a pile of never ending responsibilities. However, their control over their own income varies from household to household and region to region. The areas that are much more developed, women who have

been working formally for many years now and the level of development ignores these aspects. Many women have to take permission from their family to spend their earnings.

The cultural values expect women not to do anything that is away from the ordinary. They find themselves dependent on men. The educated culture is just not allowing women to take up independent roles. Despite improvement in their status, man in patriarchal society has always been the only one independent. The decision-making considered a manly trait. Their roles have been passing through transitional phases. The women remain vulnerable to exploitation of their independence. The society has to accord recognition to women to take the lead when they can. At the same time, their family orientation assumes their role in society. The issue does not end with the acquiring of education by women until they use it to the benefit of society.

A survey conducted by Hoffman shows that the education performance of children who have maternal employment status varies significantly from the other children who are different (Hoffman, 1980). Likewise, young children’s socio emotional development observed tremendously impacted by early and extensive maternal employment. Belsky gave a postulate in her research that the children whose mothers have been working for a year and are starting their second year of professional life perform poorly on compliance component of adjustment measure than those whose mothers employed for longer than three years (Belsky and Eggebeen, 1991).

However, Baruch states that working women working outside their house has a salutary effect on girls in particular. Her studies’ results show that the girls whose mothers work admire their mothers much more than the girls whose mothers do not work (Baruch, 1972). This is a more positive role of women’s perception. If it makes a big difference on children’s thinking, then it also gives a hint of the relationship among working women and their children. One more researchers’ group, Nock and Kingston find some peculiar differences. The difference in amount of time parents spend with their children depends on the maternal employment status. This time called the parents of preschoolers and non-child centered time (Nock and Kingston, 1988). According to Muller, these parents, especially working mothers, impose lesser structures or regulations on children’s outdoor activities (Muller, 1995).

The influence also extends to the father child relationship. The fathers of such children like to spend more time with their children and on domestic work. The shared home responsibilities relieve some stress on women. These men employed part time instead of fulltime especially in those cases when their wives have non day shifts. On the contrary, when mothers have the rotation schedules, it makes their husband not want to spend their time with children (Pleck and Staines, 1985).

The research conducted on this topic is concerned with the influences of women working on the development of household tranquility and family life. The interaction of parents with their children has been found to have focus on educated women. The problems of working women are never going to end. There are various dimensions of family life relationship and the relationship with the husband gets affected. The study undertaken at Ludhiana by Sardar Marco Singh also categorizes the employed parents and unemployed parents’ children to be the sample of the research (Singh, 2005).There seems to be little difference in parent child relationship in case of the relationship of child parent under employed parent and unemployed parent categories.

3.12 School location In addition to poverty and cultural expectations, another major hindrance is distance problems. Some of the children have to come from far off areas to school. This is pleasant for them when it is summer, but in winter, it becomes a problem and dangerous for children to walks miles. This discourages parents from sending their children to school in order to keep them safe from the cold and frost. When considering schools, the variables studied in this research are lack of educational opportunities, perception of little or no return of female education, distance between home, school, and quality of education.

One survey bases its data on the attendance of boys and girls from six villages in West Bengal, India. It examines the relationship between a mother’s literacy level and the number of their children’s enrolment in school. The completion of primary schools that are differentiated by gender of children is also a part of it (Kambhapati and Pal, 2001). Factors like age and household characteristics control tends to increase the opportunities for daughters sent to school. These both considered in terms of being school enrolled and

attaining primary schooling. This has little impact on boys. The data is different in India when it comes to figuring out the relationship between education and gender inequality in two diverse settings. One of these is a peri-urban area in the highly patriarchal, less developed state of Rajasthan. The second one is a rural area in the more industrialized as well as less patriarchal state of Maharashtra (Kumar and Vlassoff,1997) and Vlassoff (Vlassoff 1992; Vlassoff, 1994). The focus has been on gender relations in family and society, in terms of preference for and trusting sons, dowry and girls’ schooling, their attitudes about marriage, reproductive decision making, husbands’ roles relative to one another, and concepts of honor and shame.

The author identifies that despite contextual differences, the impact of education of girls on relations is very little due to gender ideology, lack of economic opportunities for women, and poor quality of education. Greater modernization and more widespread education of girls has reinforced patriarchal structures by defining the role of women as economically dependent with respect to their husbands. It remains only in theory that education causes financial independence of girls. In practice, girls are educated to secure husbands, not to work.

Another study that has a different setting of household in Taiwan, argues that despite increased level of education of girls, the gaps between sons and daughters in family and economy increased in the time duration between postwar (Greenhalgh, 1985). The gender gap soars with girls when they acquire lower level skills and low access to jobs that pay higher. The autonomy goes to sons to leave home, build their own higher-level jobs, and earn a handsome income, lower level of remittances to parents and greater acquisition of property that they own personally. The author also argues that the increasing level of gender differentiation despite advances in education is the major contribution of Chinese family system with strong sexual and generational hierarchies, as well as Taiwan’s export oriented economy based on female labor’s low wages. Since the new economy encouraged young unmarried women to get jobs at factories, Taiwanese parents raised their investment in education so that their daughters excel in good jobs before marriage. Another purpose was that this way, parents get good returns from their investment at increased rates. On the other hand, the sons always belong to their parents, so their investment in their sons was more substantial.

3.13 Feminization of Poverty Poverty is a household concept. Persons are defined as poor if they are members of a household in which the household earning is lower than the poverty level for the household. On the other hand, the latest research studies propose that intra-household as well as intra- family poverty could represent an unnoticed ground of disparity, which has portrayed a picture of underestimated poverty among women and children. Availability of economic resources does not always mean it is allocated equally within the family members. As in, a family male could have complete command over the allocation that could be inequality within the family.

Furthermore, in several cases, women residing in marriages where their partner is the main income earner are exactly one-step away from poverty; if a separation were to happen, they would find themselves incapable of providing for themselves and their kids. In addition, in spite of the constant indication of the feminization of poverty in the economic, sociological, and women’s studies literature, a reliable measure of the quantity to which poverty has turned out to feminized in current history remains indefinable.

The phenomenon in which women experience poverty at extreme higher rates than men called feminization of poverty. Diana Pearce firstly introduced the term “feminization of poverty” in the 1970s, though the definition of poverty is the incapability to meet fundamental needs such as food, clothing, or shelter. Being poor, in addition, implies the lack of choice, the refutation of opportunity, the lack of ability to attain life objectives, and eventually the loss of hope. Therefore, the fact of feminized poverty goes beyond the economic sphere of income and material desires to the center of person and family life (Fukuda-Parr, S, 1999). The feminization of poverty affects more than just the woman. The feminist approach to poverty focuses on the gender inferences and social costs of poverty. They comprise the rising participation of women and children in the informal economy; dissimilar treatment of girls and boys in family; force to get girls married quickly; higher school dropout rates for girls; less power over fertility; and resort to prostitution. Research on female poverty has given rise to policy suggestions that there be poverty- alleviation or employment-generation program planned specially for women, or that households maintained by women alone targeted for public program. 85

Women are the poorest of the world’s poor though they perform two-thirds of the world’s work. Yet, they get just one-tenth of the world’s income and have possession of less than one percent of the world’s property (Barber B. Conable, 1986). Segregation in the labourmarket is the key cause of feminization of poverty. Women represent 70 percent of of 1.3 billion poor people across the globe. This poverty is not related to absolute poverty but also means the truncation of opportunities, denial of rights and silencing the women voice. See the following:

• United Nation Millennium Campaign to bring half of the world’s poverty by the year 2015. Two third of total world’s working hours are belong to women but mostly they are involved in non-paid jobs of raising the family— cooking food, raising children, caring for the husband and elderly, maintaining the house and even hauling the water. These activities are not usually the part of economic production cycle and value.

 Largely low pay, low status and non-significant job roles enable women to only earn 10 percent of the world’s total income.  Around the world, women hold only 1 percent of property. Customs, cultures and other social factors do not allow women to hold productive assets like land and machinery. This also does not allow them to avail credit or loans to perform more productive role in the economy. No share in inheritance and unavailability of assets to leverage for sustainability and growth of their own family and future of their children.

 Estimated two third of 876 million adults who cannot read or write are women and young girls make up 60% of the 77 million children not going to elementary school. Human development is associated with the education and low number of children correlated with the education of women as it has been observed the educated women have low number children as compared to non-educated women. In United Nations, population fund it was noted each additional year of schooling is related with 5 to 10 percent decline in child deaths. Delay in pregnancy and healthier children are associated with the education of women.

Pakistan is a country where the sex ratio is unequal and there is a shortfall of women (90 girls are born per 100 boys). The age of marriage is low and the fertility rate is high, the bulk of women remain uneducated, the paid labor force is mainly male, and women are economically reliant upon men (World Bank, 2000). Lower-income households seek care more often for males than for females (Gertler& Alderman, 1992). The poverty in urban Sindh stood at 11.5% in 2005-06as against 10.8% by 2004-05, presenting small boost in occurrence of poverty. Though in rural Sindh, poverty increased significantly as it was 22.7% in 2004-05, and jumped up to 31% in 2005-06. This was an increase of about 8.3 per cent in one-year47.The data for feminization of poverty in Sindh is not available.

The key sources used for poverty statistics in Pakistan are income and expenditure data composed through the “Household Integrated Economic Survey” (HIES). The HIES does the calculation of poverty lines, family unit based poverty ratio as well as headcounts intended for a variety of target populations. Unluckily, such information is insufficient in order to calculate gender disparities, because it deals with whole households rather than individuals. In addition, HIES information provides a picture of household poverty at a particular moment; it does not detect changes over time. While as an outcome, poverty- aggregated figures in the country by sex would not be helpful to estimate poverty among women.

The share of women employed in the nonagricultural sector (percentage of total nonagricultural employment) in Pakistan reported at 12.60 % in 2008, according to the World Bank. Women are working in non-agricultural sector, like mining, quarrying, manufacturing, construction, electricity, gas and water. Service sector includes insurance, real estate, consultancy services, personal and social services and hotels, transport, financing and community services. Pakistan's economy has suffered in the past from decades of internal political disputes, a fast growing population, mixed levels of foreign investment, and a costly, ongoing confrontation with neighboring India.

3.14 Conclusion Education is a social institution that sociologists are very interested in studying. Sociologist have been working to figure out the ways in which different social and political factors

47http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=124802 87

contribute toward the inequality of education for women that will lead to their low participation in the economic growth of any country. There are economic aspects of education that shape school practices and how schools identify female productivity and earnings.

The education of girls casts a deep impact on the socio-cultural aspect of a country. Creative agriculture gives better yields and shows the contribution of educated women (Smith and Haddad, 1999). Thus, education has deep impact on the increased productivity of farmers. The farmers with basic education have a 7.4 per cent higher agricultural efficiency. This impact is stronger in environments experiencing modernization than those that are still not very educated (Lockheed, Jamison and Lau, 1980) Some of the effects of female education on economic opportunities were described in detail. The relationship is positive between female education and women’s labor force contribution, sometimes U-shaped and sometimes void and null, the characteristics of marital status and labor market. The relationship between girls’ education and women’s earnings is also conditional when it is seen in the schooling and economic sector. The evidence mixed on the relationship between gender difference in wages and women’s education. Some studies showed higher returns at educational levels of women at a certain level and others show higher returns for males. The most consistent and optimistic relationship exists in higher levels of education and increased economic opportunities and returns.

As compared to previous literature, the current studies of agricultural productivity of girl farmers shows little impact of education on the probability that female farmers will adopt new technology and give improved yields. The examination shows the relationship between female education and some aspects of participation of female labor. A smaller number of studies examine the connection between education and female earnings while, some studies explore the relationship between education and male female wage gap. A few studies also covered agricultural aspect and rural labor and production results. Majority of studies reflect the participation of economists even though there are fewer studies conducted by other social scientists and anthropologists. The foundation laid by the early work of three economists for what is now a mega-sized literature on determinants of women’s labor force participation globally (Mincer, 1962), (Cain, 1966), and (Becker, 1986). The major focus of this literature is on people’s education and experience. The other considerations that also been examined

side by side are urbanization, social norms, industrialization and culture. A close examination gives the results that all studies depend on large-scale labour force or the household surveys undertaken by statistical agencies (Malhotra and DeGraff, 1997; Esim 2001; Olmsted, 2001).

The majority of researches focus on Pakistani and other Asian countries closer to Pakistan’s culture. There have been hints from Bangladeshi, Taiwan, Latin American and some African countries and Indian surveys results too. In this literature, the investment is for sure when it comes to education that turns unskilled human force into skilled labor. This in turn increases the returns in the labor market. Conclusively, education is expected to be positively linked to labor market outcomes for women although empirical studies show that as a general case, the majority of studies show the relationship to be on a conditional level.

Chapter Four

History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan

4.1 Introduction This chapter covers two main themes regarding educational policy making and planning in Pakistan. Implications drawn from the Pakistan’s educational policymaking are also analyses in this chapter. It includes the analysis right from the beginning of Pakistan that is 1947. Over hundred years of British colonial rule on Pakistan did left some positive elements for the educational improvement. However, during that rule only Indian region largely get the benefits in all aspects and the Pakistani region was always backward in receiving the benefits of British policies particularly regarding education. In 1947, the literacy rate was only 15 % in Pakistan and more unfortunate regions like Baluchistan where literacy rate for women was virtually zero.

4.2 Findings of National Education Conference 194748 In 1947 Quaid-e-Azam had take the first step to improve the educational and literacy in Pakistan by gathering a first National Educational Conference. In his address to the conference, he said, that education and types of education are not the matter of emphasized as there is no second thought about its role in the economical and cultural development has key importance. This greatly depend up on us that how we bring up our children for the future citizen of Pakistan. He also points that world is moving very fast to achieve educational excellence (Bengali, 1999).

In that conference various directions have been put forward to spread the literacy among the masses of the nation. Illiteracy was 85% at that time that surely requires well committed

48 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of the Interior (Education Division), Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference, 1947.

efforts to overcome this problem. Committee member assume that it could take 140 year to liquidate the illiteracy problem. Literacy supposed a ladder for the further education among the masses including women. “The basic objective of that campaign was not only to literate the adults but to keep them literate”, stated by the committee. Realizing the urgency, it called to launch a system in which education for adults must promoted at widest scale besides educating children in the free primary schools. Furthermore, primary education should be compulsory and should treated as complementary to one and other. Using these recommendations for adult and compulsory primary education, it was estimated that the problem could be solve within 25 years.

The report issued by a committee was divide into various stages that recommend various guidelines for the execution of adult education. In the first phase, planning, training and recruitment of teachers recommended. Providing literacy to 500,000 was the target of sixth year with an annual increase of 300,000 thereafter. Rural population was not alone illiterate but the urban population was also illiterate to the greater extent as acknowledge by the conference. It was also decided that all the employers, government department and trade unions would stress on the literacy of their employees in order to achieve the desired results in the 25 year time. Tax levying for those who adopt better policies for their employees in regard of their literacy improvements also put forwarded for the consideration. In addition to the tax levying proposal, other recommendations includes, obligatory social services for the university students for the defined time period, utilization of mechanical aid to learning such as radio, cinema, gramophone and magic lantern.

Report Policy Year Main Features All Pakistan 1947 Islam should serve as the base of education, Education conference primary education must be free and compulsory, focus on the technical education. Education commission 1951 Various problems were noted in executing the plan. Shortage of trained teachers was the principal constraint, acknowledging the fact that 50% of the primary school teachers were not trained and the recent expansion would additionally require 86000 trained teachers. National commission 1959 Religious education was aimed to improve

on Education character, mandatory education for age group 6- 11, improvement in the curricula via introducing more technical subjects, bachelor level should be target of degree programs. Education policy with 1972 Ensuring equal opportunities for education, nationalization countering the declining standard of education, balancing the increasing imbalance among multiple types of education. National educational 1979 Various key points were put forward by the policy 1979’s National Educational Conference that are aimed to improve the education system. Among them following are the major points, Promoting loyalty for Islam, nurturing the concept of Muslim Ummah, increasing awareness for science and technical education and equal opportunities. Education policy 1992 This policy came in December with the following focal points, 1. Using education for promoting Islamic values. 2. Advancements in women education. 3. Improvements in technical and science education at secondary level. 4. Curriculum should demand oriented. 5. Graduation and post-graduation spans need to be extended. 6. Use AV aids to enhance literacy by pushing private sector. National education 1998-2010 Focal points of the policy were as follows, policy 1. Education system must host Quranic Principals and Islamic perspectives. 2. Primary education should be at universal level. 3. Every individual must be given basic education according to their needs. 4. Expansion of basic education at widest level. 5. Ensuring equal opportunities at higher education level.

6. Acknowledge the importance of diversification. 7. Curriculum should be revised at regular basis. 8. To introduce in-service training opportunities to improve the delivery of education.

4.3 National Plan of Educational Development 1951-5749 For the period of 1951-1957 an Educational Plan was devised in 1951 in an education conference to achieve higher literacy rates. This plan was of first kind that provides six year plan that deliberately provide and anticipate the requirement of various educational aspects in the country. This plan logically or coherently identified the constraints and problems that are restricting to carry out the task for improving the educational system. Major and unacceptable constraint was the unavailability of trained teachers to fulfil the requirement of the educational system particularly at the primary level. Almost half of the teachers were untrained and additionally 86000 teachers were required to meet the expansion of primary schools. Previous educational plan need revision in order to increase number of training institutions to overcome the shortage of the untrained teachers otherwise quality of education might remain poor and deficient, agreed in the conference. Increment in school buildings, lab equipment and schooling aid were identifies to urgently fulfil the school expansions. Realizing the target of 3.7 million pupils to be educated in 24000 schools during this six year period could help to educate two thirds of children belong to age group 6-11 who were currently out of school. By the end of 1957, around two third children of the said age group would be enrolled. Furthermore, adults would also be educated on regular basis through Village Agricultural and Industrial Development (V-AID); total 2.8 million adults were educated every year with the help of various teacher training centers and teaching material provided.

49 Government of Pakistan, Education Division, Proceedings of The Educational Conference, 1951 93

4.4 First Five Year Plan: 1955-6050 In December 1957, first five year plan was launched with a two and half year delay. Universal system of primary education was the major concern in this plan and is regarded as essential. It had associated the primary education for the development of such citizen that would be able to develop the skills and abilities to effectively discharge their efforts in the fulfilment of civil and democratic responsibilities. Furthermore, equal opportunities for cultural and economic advancement must also be given to the citizens in order to utilize their developed skills and knowledge. System of secondary and higher education would serve as a base for the production of skilled labour and professionals to fulfil the leadership requirement in agriculture and industry. This plan does not set any specified targets, however, universal free compulsory primary educational system would be in place both for girls and boys in twenty years time that is by 1975 -1980.

This plan had outlined the additional number of schools and trained teachers. 4000 new schools were added to 15602 schools that were already functional. Village AID programme was developed to financed these new 4000 schools. Trained primary teacher percentage was increased from 65 to 85 by adding up 43500 new primary teachers in the stream of 75000 trained teachers. These developments were able to host about 600,000 to 1 million new children enrolments that improves enrolment percentage from 43 to 49 per cent. It was recognized that the teaching material and content was poor and significant provisions and aid was required to improve the curriculum. It was claimed that the these provisions would help to achieve the universal free compulsory education system rapidly and effectively.

4.5 Analysis of report of the Commission on National Education: 195951 This report had criticized the provision of first five year national plan on various grounds. It was mentioned in the report that undesirable steps were taken toward the government building, public duty and education. This report had stressed over the issue of concept of the first five year plan and asked to revise the concept of government and its role in education. Furthermore, this report recommends altering the views of people towards the education. It was strongly condemn that less 50% of children enrol in primary schools and advised that

50 Government of Pakistan, National Planning Board, First Five Year Plan: 1955-60, 1957 51 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Report of the Commission on National Education, 1959. 94

education for up to eight years should be given to make the child functionally literate. This report had acknowledged that various step were taken to improve the literacy among adult, however only few improvement were noticeable in this regard and result were not achieved as planned.

4.6 Discussion on Second Five Year Plan: 1960-6552 This plan approved noticeable financial aid of 990 million rupees that is equivalent to 66 per cent for primary education of total outlay for the social sector. Enrolment of age group 6-11 was also proposed to increase from 42.3 to 50 per cent by 1965. Following the provisions of previous educational plans, this plan also aimed to open 1500 new primary schools to raise the primary school enrolment from 36 to 56 per cent by achieving 1.2 million enrolments in the West Pakistan. Comparatively this plan had given considerable attention to the teacher training, provision for teaching aids and improving the content of curriculum. Acknowledge the role of girls in the prosperity of the country, special attention was given to their primary education. Only 1.1 million girls were getting education out of 4.7 million total children in the primary schools. Promoting girl’s enrolment and by ensuring separate education facilities were aimed to be provided for their primary education. This had helped to increase the educational opportunities for the girls.

4.7 Analysis of Third Five Year Plan: 1965-7053 Finance was also the top priority in this plan and around 2652 million rupees were allocated that equals to 5.1% of the total outlay for the primary education. In this plan, it is acknowledge that financing primary education is the key for economic and social development of the nation. This plan had set following objectives,

1. To achieve such an educational system, which incorporates science and technology to facilitate the transition process and promote the social and economic advancements and leading the country’s spiritual and cultural heritage into the

52 Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Second Five Year Plan: 1960-65, 1960 53 Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Third Five Year Plan: 1965-70, 1965

synchronization with the modern world.

2. To develop such an environment that would allow youth to brought up their self as competent personal for the modern era.

3. 3. To improve the educational system quality at every level so that the target of nation building would be achieved.

Third five year plan greatly aimed to widen the base of primary education and suggest to increase the enrolment rate from 45 to 70 per cent by the end of 1970. For this, achieving 2.8 million additional enrolments with the help of establishment of 42500 new schools in west region of Pakistan by 1970 were also the agenda of the plan. The distinguishing feature of this plan is that it not only focus on teacher training, physical condition of the schools, curriculum improvements but also stress on the retention of the trained teachers and increasing the salaries.

4.8 The innovative Education Policy: 197054 This policy aimed at improving the compulsory free education up to level 5 with special attention to the girl’s education. 100 million Pakistani were identified as illiterate of whom 90 per cent reside in rural areas. Adult school leavers and government employees were also the part of this policy. It was agreed that educational courses to the on job employees according to their work requirement will be given, establishment of national education corps was also the part of this policy but never meant to use for the military purposes to respond the war with India due to separation of East Pakistan.

After the separation of East Pakistan in 1972, the literacy landscape of new Pakistan was not up to the international standard. Overall literacy rate was only 21.7 percent out of which 41.5 percent was in urban areas and rural literacy was 14.3 percent. Males were stood at 30.2 percent on the literacy pie chart and female accounts for only 11.6 percent. In rural areas area only 4.7 percent women were literate.

54 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education and Scientific Research, The New Education Policy, 1970. 96

4.9 The Education Policy: 1972-8055 This is the first policy which was drafted under the solid practical basis and refrained from the philosophical proclamations. This policy adopts clear direction to eradicate the illiteracy by introducing universal elementary education system within shortest possible time and induct adult people at large number in the educational system. Ensuring equal opportunities by additional facilities for women, mentally-retarded children, physically challenged people and under-privileged groups in most areas of the country and particularly in the villages.

Free education up to class X was also declared in this policy at both government and privately managed schools throughout the country. In achieving the free education by private schools, government would compensate their fees. Primary education up to level 5 will be universal for boys by 1979 and for girls in 1984. Elementary education is also promoted by providing it for free up to class VIII by 1982 for boys and for girls it would be available by 1987.In this policy infrastructure of is improved by adding 61000 new classrooms for primary classes, train around 150000 teachers and hire around 75000 new train teacher through National Literacy Corps to achieve this target.

4.10 Discussion on Fifth Five Year Plan: 1978-8356 This plan had criticised the neglect of previous plans about primary education and stated that due to the improper implementation previous plan did not provide the results as a consequence illiteracy was so high that is 78 percent for the population above 5 years age. Social backwardness is highly associated with this situation of the illiteracy in the country. This plan therefore, claimed to note a significant restructuring of the national priorities in favour of elementary education and had outlined comprehensive guidelines that not only ensures the physical facilities but also put forward the measures for reducing the dropout rates, quality of teaching and effective supervision.

4.11 Discussions on National Education Policy and Implementation Programme: 197957 After one year of fifth five year plan, this policy had been issued with a reset of target dates.

55 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, The Education Policy, 1972. 56 Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Fifth Five Year Plan: 1978-83, 1978 57 Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, National Education Policy and Implementation Programme, 1979

The deadline of achieving 100 % enrolment rate of boys of class I by 1982-83 and achieving universal enrolment for the entire group (5-9) by 1986-87 had moved to 1987 and 1992 respectively. This had made the policy more realistic to achieve the target but at the same time showed the lack or resources available to the government in order to achieve these targets. Indigenous institutions were aimed to be used effectively so that their true potential can bring significant development in the educational development. Avoiding alien models and improving and developing own model according to the ground realities would be more effective. All the educational facilities and grants were aimed to be utilized for All citizen regardless of their caste, creed, faith and colour in order to achieve better productivity at the national level. Total 9 point educational policy was adopted in the name of “National Aims of Education” that is enforced using 12 point implementation strategy. Implementation program had following provisions.

1. By the end of 1987 universal class 1 education should be achieve for boys and for girls it would be by 1992.

2. Retention rate would be achieved up to 60 percent in 1983 by eliminating wastage and 100 percent thereafter

3. 17000 primary schools’ physical conditions need to be improved or might require reconstruction.

4. Rural areas will be given 13000 new primary schools.

5. For boys 5000 mosques schools will be opened.

6. Ensuring the availability of equipment to 12000 existing schools.

7. Text books will be given to all students at primary level.

8. At least one teaching kit will be provided to all existing and new schools.

9. Execute the determination of large-scale investment by using mix of inputs at

primary educational level.

10. School location planning should be carried out by executing nationwide school mapping exercise.

11. Adult literacy should be given due importance because no serious attempt was made in this regard and unavailability of viable programs to improve the adult literacy pose serious concerns over the management. Only proclamations were seen in all previous plans regarding the adult literacy improvements. With the help of Ministry of Education, Allama Iqbal Open University, Pakistan Television Centers, IRDP Markazes and social welfare centre, 10000 adult literacy centers were proposed to function effectively. It was also envisaged that volunteer students of masters or bachelor level could serve in the training centers. It was assumed that the program would improve the literacy rate by 11% and take to 35% by the end of 1983 and attain 100% by 2010. Repairing of primary schools will be determined by the nationwide survey.

4.12 The 10-point Program: 198358 In 1983, 10 point agenda on women literacy issues has been issued in the speech of Chief Martial Law Administrator in National Workshop. These 10 points cover the following main issues, 1. A suggestion put forward was the annual drive that demonstrates the commitment for the literacy and mass education was taken place in summer. This drive will serve as national movement for literacy and large scale education. It was agreed that all educational institutes and governing bodies must participate in this drive. Particularly armed forces, non-government bodies like guides and scouts and NGOs were also encouraged to participate in this drive.

2. Quranic Education in the form of particular syllabus like "Yassarnal Quran" was associated with the award of degree at both graduate and post-graduate level even

58 Khwaja, Sarfraz, Eradication of Illiteracy in Pakistan: An Analysis 1947-87, Academy of Educational Planning and Management, Government of Pakistan, 19??

when the students completed all other requirement of the degrees and passed the requisite examinations.

3. Government organizations held responsible for the literacy education for their illiterate employees.

4. Illiterate prisoners given special remission in their cases based on their desire to learn and write. These remissions in sentences also given to those prisoners who are already educated and want to achieve education that is more public or to move the higher degree level.

5. Literacy had been set as an obligatory requirement for achieving various kinds of licenses like driving and armed licenses.

6. Incentives and rewards in the form of provisions of government facilities like dispensaries, electricity and roads were given to those villages, communities and Muhallas who achieved 100 percent literacy rate.

7. Various types of awards and incentives were decided to be given at national level and personal level achievements in the field of literacy and education. Shields, trophies, and civil awards will award outstanding performers or Pride of Performance will be given to those who achieve excellence at national level.

8. Government grants for social and welfare institutions are also associated to their efforts for achieving 100 percent literacy in their organizations and quality of their programs in this regard.

9. Religious institutions are requested to provide basic level of science modern education along with the understanding of Quran and Reading of Quran and Hadidth.

10. Government media channels as if radio and TV will be more effectively use for educational and literacy purposes particularly for the education of adults.

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4.13 Discussion on Sixth Five Year Plan: 1983-8859 During the same year, another five-year plan was introduced that mainly proclaimed that educational investment is the significant contributor for any socio-economic development. Future generations will be affected due to ignorance from this fact. There is not a single case study in the world that shows that the non-educated society had achieved economic and political power. The educated societies cannot be left behind in the race of economic and political achievement at international and global level. Second plan were also full of such statements but not achieve the required results.

The plan aimed to increase the primary school enrolment from 48 percent to 75 percent by adding around 5 million children to the schooling system. This objective is 80% above the base year. Girls in rural and neglected areas were largely concerned in this plan. The plan has following main features,

1. Overcrowded schools from class I to Class III will be given relaxation by utilizing Masajids to cover the additional enrolments.

2. Both existing and shelter less schools building facilities provided provisions from class Iv and V after completing class III from Masajid schools.

3. Construction activities including sheds and building in the Masajids schools are fuelled to cover the shortage of buildings for primary education.

4. Class I to III was included in the mixed education system.

5. Separate girl schools will be constructed where mixed education is not possible.

6. Two teachers for class level IV and V for schools in Masajids.

7. Independent agency will be created for the primary education at provisional, Federal and subsequent levels.

59 Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Sixth Five Year Plan: 1983-88, 1983

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4.14 National Literacy Plan: 1984-86 Within in the one year of sixth five-year plan, national literacy plan: 1984-1986 was also launched bearing a cost of Rs: 318 million to literacy rate from 26.2 to 33 percent educating 2.2 million persons. It was envisioned to open 25000 new literacy centers with support of Provincial Literacy Council and non-government voluntary organizations under the supervision of LAMEC. Numerous project launched that are enlist as follows,

1. RazaKar Projects.

2. Iqra Projects.

3. Sipha-e-idrees projects.

4. Mosque Projects.

5. Azafi Literacy Centers.

6. Literacy Village Projects.

7. NGO’s Volunteer Literacy Corps Project.

8. Afternoon School Projects.

9. Social Welfare Agencies Literacy Projects.

4.15 Drop-in schools: 1986-1990. This scheme envisioned following key factors,

1. School leavers and out of schools children particularly who belong to low income families will be provided an opportunity to complete their primary education.

2. . To reduce non-formal education for 225000 children and enable them to achieve

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formal education at upper secondary classes by 1989. 3. To increase the literacy rate in 9 selected districts from 30 to 32.56 percent by 1989.

4. To achieve 67.73% over all participation rate in nine selected districts by 1989.

5. Socio-economic evaluation of the project to facilitate its replication in the future.

4.16 Countrywide Literacy Program: 1986-9060 Newly inducted government of Junejo has taken over the Drop-in scheme within few months of its launch by introducing Nationwide Literacy Program in December 1985. This plan was more wider in scope and covering 14 million new person to be literate by the end of 1990 by utilizing 2657 million rupees. This could help to raise the literacy rate up to 53 percent. Provincial Literacy Councils and Union Council Literacy Sub-committees under the supervision of LAMEC were held responsible to implement the Plan. Rural areas, particularly those villages where illiteracy is quite high, were set as main target for the opening of new literacy centers. 89 districts and 7 agencies of Federally Administered Tribal Areas, 4 Districts of Azad Jammu o Kashmir and 3 districts of Federally Administered Northern Areas were mainly mapped for the program.

4.17 The Nai Roshni Schools Scheme: 1986-9061 Replacement of educational plans continues as Nai Roshni Schools, another new scheme has taken over the Nationwide Literacy Program for the declared 1986-1990 period. This program was based on the following initiatives, “The nationwide literacy scheme was not showing results as were expected, mentioned in the Nai Roshni scheme. Nationwide scheme had a estimated cost of PKR 317.016 million for 1985-1988. Lack of coherency was the major weakness in the nationwide scheme due to which marginal improvement was observed. Since no significant impacts of nationwide scheme were seen, therefore, there was no need to implement that plan. Prime Minister of that time promised to nation a five points manifesto to improve the literacy rate up to 50%. This plan covers the most likely regional parts who respond most positively and their

60 Government of Pakistan, Literacy and Mass Education Commission, PC-1, Nationawide Literacy Programme, 1986 61 Government of Pakistan, Literacy and Mass Education Commission, PC-1, Nai Roshni Schools, 1986

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coverage will yield more rewarding results.” Nai Roshni scheme was just an old wine in new bottle and merely an extension on the previous schemes like Drop-in schools with same objectives. In particular, this scheme focused on non formal education in and proclaimed that it can help to raise the literacy rates up to 31 percent by 1990.

Afternoon timings were utilized by the Nai Roshni school scheme and in all districts the existing building and new ones were used for the purpose of improving literacy rates. Huge funds of Rs 3153.2 million were allocated for the scheme that was administered by LAMEC through Provincial Literacy Councils, provincial development and administrative departments, and urban and rural local bodies.

The scheme had envisaged following objectives. 1. To create opportunities for formal primary and higher education for those who left the schools along with vocational education for those who have finished their primary level education.

2. To provide condensed course curricula for school dropouts who were not able to get admission in the schools via non-formal education system.

3. A target to cover 1.65 million children particularly, of age group 10-14, was set in this scheme.

4. literacy percent will be increase by 5 percent including inter censal percent by 1.8 percent contributing to total literacy rate that will reach up to 33%.

5. The Nai Roshni scheme aim to encourage semi literate and illiterates groups of population belong to all age groups and expect to increase admission in formal primary education.

6. Provide bias less and equal opportunities of jobs to educated un-employed people so that their human capital must be utilize for the national growth.

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7. This project aimed at enabling 165000 children to get education up to level 5.

8. To take step of introducing non-formal education system so that universal education environment should be achieve for the primary education.

9. To consider the policies for drop out school children.

10. To create a system that offers equal employment opportunities for the educated person.

11. To develop the awareness among the masses for the importance of the literacy.

4.18 Discussion on Seventh Five Year Plan: 1988-9362 During the 6th five-year plan period it was noticed that in rural primary schools the physical conditions of the school building and availability of the facilities like shortage of trained female teachers, are not up to the mark that creates many issues. Among these issues, absenteeism, low girls enrolment (i.e. one-third of the boys) poor retention rates and high dropout rates. During the review of the sixth plan, it was highlighted that rupees 13.6 billion were yielded by levying Iqra surcharge on all imports. Realizing the importance of literacy and education, this plan has taken education as the base for economic growth and there is no substitute for it. It was committed in this plan that the literacy rate will be improved by the expansion of the primary school facilities. It was estimated that the literacy rate will increase by 40% during 1992-1993 and will reach up to 80% by the end of the century. 1.5-kilometer area was set as standard area in which every child must have an access to the basic education through the primary schools during 1992-1993. This strategy will help to ensure that no child will deprive of basic education due to unavailability of basic schooling infrastructure and facilities. Legislative initiative was also taken for the primary education up to class V in every locality to make sure that they have school within the 1.5-kilometer radius. This plan proclaimed that 100 percent of the infrastructure facilities for ensuring schools in 1.5- kilometer radius will be provided. Almost 100 percent facilities are provided in the plan for the desired objectives. School building and their refurbishing comprises 70 percent of the

62 Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Seventh Five Year Plan: 1988-93, Chapter 29, 1988

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infrastructure facilities, opening of new schools and increasing in the number of classrooms are primary objectives. Unequal distribution of facilities and services among both villages and urban schools was also addressed in this plan. Considering other objectives, the plan addressed the issue of improvement in both human and physical facilities and comprehensive school mapping. Primary school teaching certificate will no longer restrict the recruitment process of teachers.

4.19 State Education Policy: 1992 Various loopholes and weaknesses in the previous education policies and programs are identified in this policy. This policy commented that although the previous policies mentioned that the illiteracy should be removed within minimum possible time as per the requirement of the constitution. This policy also criticizes the ignorance of LAMEC and unavailability of the adult literacy program. Lack of coherence among the various education policies and programs had reduced the impact on illiteracy and only marginal improvements were seen. Adult literacy programs were highly varied and lack in standardizes curricula that on yield marginal results in various districts.

In 1992, policy document contains two parts, one is conceptual consisted on 17 points and other contains 15 objective statements. This policy had covered very broader objective by stating that basic education will be given to all and no regional barriers will be tolerated in the development of human capital. Disparity should be removed to end the drama of under development and collective national values will be developed regarding education and literacy through efficient and effective educational facilities via efficient system and mechanisms. These measures will help to achieve the excellence in the education up to the respectable level in the next 10 years. Year 2002 had been selected for the eradication of illiteracy among children by ensuring 100 percent enrolment rate by utilizing both formal and non-formal education system. It was promised to take the literacy rate to 70 percent and made primary education compulsory by 2002.

From strategic point of view, this policy has shifted the role of adult education toward provincial level by ensuring the grants from provincial and federal organizations and both government and non-government institutes will take part in this movement. Excellence in education was associated with the term innovation and considered it as important tool. Key factors of the policy were as follows, 106

1. Non-government organizations were included to propagate the non-formal education.

2. Ensuring 100 percent literacy in particular districts.

3. To establish model schools both for male and females in both rural and urban areas.

4. Social service made compulsory for the students.

5. General schooling system was launched in evenings to cover the school drop outs of general education.

4.20 Discussion on Eight Five Year Plan: 1993-98 This plan had comprehensively reviewed all the previous plans and policies to correct the mistakes in past. This plan has proclaimed that education is the fundamental right of every individual and serves as backbone of economic growth. This plan had noticed that previous plans were proclaimed various improvements but half of the girls and one-fifth of the boys are not enrolled in the primary education. Furthermore, adult literacy rate is barely 35% that clearly demonstrates the weaknesses of the previous plans and policies. This plan has acknowledge that previous plans aimed at improving the infrastructure and availability of trained teachers to reform the curricula, improve conditions of school building and ensuring the reduce dropout rates. However, lack of maintenance and controlling of the established system, all the outcomes start diminishing which has posed serious questions on the previous plans and policies. One major cause of failure is also that school start performing without proper infrastructure and facilities, which at the end result in poor quality of education and destruction of the system.

Major issues that were causing the system failure are mainly relates to poor physical condition of schools (35000 schools were without shelter), unavailability of essential facilities like latrines, potable water and teaching aids etc. Relevance level of curricula is very poor, testing system is outdated and methodologies of teaching were not up to date. This put our education system well below the international standards. Availability of facilities was highly biased on the bases of region (ruler-urban) and gender basis. All these circumstances contributed to higher dropout rates particularly at terminal level. 107

This plan had a clear focused on improving the primary education both for boys and girls in achieving universal level in minimum possible time having acknowledged the fact that it is the only instrument for achieving mass literacy in the long run. It has promised to provide buildings for shelter schools and increase number of classes in the existing overcrowded schools. Furthermore, the facilities like, latrines, potable water, furniture and teaching aid will also be provided to achieve the maintenance and minimize the dropout rates. It has envisioned trade schools in the evening to produce skilled labour in the various domains like poultry, mechanical skills, farm skills, embroidery, carpet weaving, silkworm, etc.

Three major decisions were taken in this plan. First is to establish a school where there is a population of 300 children and arrange the school in Mosques where 25 children could avail the basic primary education. This step was supported by detail mapping exercise. Second commitment was to facilitate the purchase of land/building in the cities for schools, as they are expensive. Finally, legislation was proposed that requires all private and government societies to ensure the availability of land for the schools at no cost.

As the girls enrolment always been the problem, therefore, a special campaign was launched to motivate the parents to send their girls to the existing schools. Legislation was also made by the enforcement of which every Child under age group 5-9years must be enrolled in the schools if the primary schools are in reachable distance of 1.5 kilometers. This legislative move could help to enroll 5.5 million boys and 3.4 million girls in to the primary schools that could improve the enrolment rate for boys from 84.8 to 95.5 percent and for girls 53.7 to 81.6 percent. Literacy rate of 48 percent should be achieved by the end of plan period. Finally this plan stressed on girl’s education repeatedly.

4.21 Nationwide Education Policy: 1998-2010 Bengali (2003) noted that education is acknowledged universally for the moral, political and socio-economic progress of nations. Last two decades have seen miracles and revolutionary performance of those nations who had taken rigorous steps for improving the quality of education. Considering Pakistan in this regard, it was noted in this policy that it has history of brilliant plan and policy papers but were remain unable to implement them due to various reasons. Criticizing the eight five year plan, this policy has noticed that rupees 1.750 billion 108

(UE $ 43.75 million) were allocated for the improvement of education promising the target that can provide education to 16.86 million which only come rupees 1000 per head which was very low and therefore targets were not achieved as planned due to non-realistic approach. Therefore, there is a need of comprehensive, pragmatic and realistic plan that could help to achieve such targets. Acknowledging the statement of Universal Declaration of (Human rights, 1984), this policy has stated that education is fundamental right of every individual and it should not be related to race, creed, culture, religion and other such factors. (Convention on the rights of Child, 1989) declares state as responsible body for the education of the child at primary level and it must be compulsory and free. This policy included the commitments of Pakistan that it had made with international community to strengthen the education. For example, in World Declaration on Education for All (1990) and the Dehli Summit Declaration (1993), Pakistan promises to double the literacy rate. Another bold step taken in this policy is the involvement of the foreign agencies and NGOs to aid the education programs in Pakistan Major agencies that are helping in the elementary education programs include World Bank, World Bank, ADB, UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF, DFID, JICA, NORAD, GTZ, OPEC, EU and various others. Non-formal education was not the objective of the seventh educational plan and only formal education was opted. In the 1998 policy a clear strategic shift has been opted for the non-formal education, realizing the fact that many children and adults could not continue their education on full time basis due to the necessity of the job therefore, part time non-formal educational programs were proposed in the evening and after noon shifts.

4.22 Conclusion Historically review of the policies and plans regarding the educational reforms and improvement in Pakistan is necessary to put the issues in historical perspective. Historical review revealed that during the first fifty years of independence, Pakistan largely remained illiterate country. Categorically, around 80 percent of the rural women population was illiterate and around two third of the total population was illiterate. Considering child education, only quarter of children, age five to nine, attend the schools. Surprising ly, those who attend the schools were deprived of quality of education. Testing system for arithmetic and Urdu language were used to see the literacy standard. However, only 33% students pass the grade 3 test in 1992, conducted in Lahore. Similarly only 22 percent students pass both the grade 3 taste in five district of Punjab in 1996. Teachers were also evaluated using 109

similar test approach that revealed similar results. Pakistan’s government had addressed the educational and literacy issues periodically. Various policies and plans come in 1947, 1951, 1959, 1966, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1979, 1992 and lastly in 1998. In most of the policies, Islam and National unity was the major concern and leaving these two objectives, other fundamental objectives were never achieved due to impractical approach and poor commitment for the funding. Therefore, these policy papers and plan were now only the part of historical dustbins. Improper changing and quick replacement of plans also ignite the failure. One more reason of the failure is the over promising outcomes without availability of sufficient funds.

In last, it was realized the education is the backbone for the national building and economical progress and without it no nation can achieve the heights of economical and cultural successes. Therefore, during the same year a conference was conducted and it was aimed to achieve the universalisation of primary education within 20 years time. All governments are held responsible for the educational development and education was remained the most important goal for the governments. Until now, various resources have been allocated for the infrastructure development, teacher training, teaching aids and other necessary services required for the improvement of the quality of education. However, no substantial success has been achieved yet which show the miss management of funds and improper estimation of needs. Therefore, no qualitative and quantitative study reveals the outcomes of the educational policies and plans.

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Chapter Five

Education in Sindh

5.1 Introduction In this chapter, all sectors of education are analyzed, namely, education from childhood to the tertiary level, and including non-formal and technical education with the spotlight on key issues like policy, status, inequities and other areas. The analysis is done using both quantitative and qualitative data in terms of statistical and secondary data. The information related to quantitative analysis based on some surveys like Pakistan Social and Living Standard Measurement, Education Department’s SEMIS and Academy of EDPM (Education Development Planning and Management).

The analysis done based on gender, geographical locations and various classes in Sindh where the availability of data assured. The major focus is on highlighting the most important concerns in the educational sub-sector that need constant attention by studying the impact of relevant policies, status and inequalities. These considerations help to measure the critical requirements of developing education in Sindh.

The following section also highlights the socioeconomic situation in Sindh, especially with regard to women and their level of education, and various kinds of indicators related to geographic position that help to assess the immense impact on educational development. During the many decades, there have been continuous struggles in Sindh province to overcome the backwardness of women’s education and to help achieve the considerable development desirable in the socio-cultural and economic sectors for women. The authentic data collected from demographics indicate that the supply and demand situation have a major impact but there is a dire need for more work in creating a positive image for education.

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Map 5.1

Source: SEMIS 2009‐2010

5.2 Analysis of Education Sector in terms of Policy, Status and Key Issues It is more important to highlight the effective salient features of education in Sindh before going into more details about the sub-sectors in education.

Figure 5.1 below indicates the overall number of institutes in Sindh working at primary, middle and higher secondary levels. In Sindh, the total number of educational institutions is 49,605 and out of this, the largest share belongs to the primary section, which is 90.8 percent. The educational institutes at the middle section are 5.4 percent of the total and there is little chance that this ratio may increase. The data collected by SEMIS shows that a significant dropout rate of 35 percent has been observed from class 5 to 6. There is a dire need for a greater effort to lessen this ratio. It will need an increased number of teachers at the middle level to achieve this. Data from past years indicates that 0.6% is assumed as the average growth rate for the middle schools which does not seem which does not seem to be sufficient for higher rate of inflow of primary students.

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Figure 5.1: Institutions in Sindh in terms of Level and Gender Number of Institutions Boys Number of Institutions Girls

10,416

7,283

679 889 663 518 1 73 71

Primary Middle Secondary H. Secondary

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

A 2nd feature of education in Sindh is seen in the form of the strong prevalence of huge number of schools with varying mediums of instruction like Urdu, Sindhi and English as mentioned in Table 5.1. In Sindh, 87% of schools are Sindhi language-based of which representation of primary sectors is around 93%.

Table 5.1: Medium of Instructions in Schools. Medium Number of Institutions Boys Girls Mixed Total Institutes Institutes

Urdu 1,147 1,184 1,634 3,962 Sindhi 10,114 7,082 25,978 43,174 English 43 34 89 166 Mixed 528 462 1,314 2,304 Aggregate 11,832 8,762 29,015 49,606 Source: SEMIS (2009‐10)

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Figure 5.2 shows that 4.5 million of children have been enrolled in primary schools. It is also seen that the majority of enrolment at 76% is at the primary level with girls making up 41 percent of that. There is a drastic fall in enrolment at the middle level followed by a slightly higher number at the upper middle level.

Figure 5.2: Enrolment in terms of level and Gender in Sindh. 2,500,000

2,000,000

1,500,000 Boys

1,000,000 Girls

500,000

0 Primary Middle Secondary Higher Sec.

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

The SEMIS data collected for the years 2009-10 help to identify the educational elements and provide the various ratios of students to teachers, schools and classroom with respect to education from pre-primary to higher secondary level.

These ratios are highlighted in Table 5.2. During the years 2006 to 2009, the ratio of student to teachers remained constant with 30 students allocated per teacher overall. The ratio of students to classroom and students to schools also saw little variation. There was fluctuation between the ratio of students to schools between 134-148 students enrolled per school and the ratio between students to classroom varied between 42-44 students per classroom. In the urban areas, the ratio between students to teachers was significantly better than in the rural areas.

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Table 5.2: Different Ratios of Students over Teachers, Schools and Classroom with Rural Urban Divisions.

Year Students/ Students and Classroom Teacher Ratio Students and School Ratio Ratio

Urban Rural Overall Urban Rural Overall Urban Rural Overall 2006 24 36 30 232 64 148 43 43 43 2007 24 37 30 198 70 134 41 44 43 2008 23 35 29 210 70 140 40 44 42 2009 24 37 30 221 72 147 42 45 44 Source: (SEMIS -2009‐10)

5.3. Early Childhood Education (ECE) The recognition of the importance of education globally during previous years and the growing body of literature shows that improvement was seen in the education sector with vast investment in motivating the children’s readiness for acquiring formal education. Their rate of retention in school also showed better progress subsequently (Lunenburg, 2000).

In the early years, various terms were used like ECE (Early Childhood Education), ECCE (Early Childhood Care and Education) and ECD (Early Childhood Development). The ECD emphasizes education and health issues and the major focus of the ECE is on educational provisions. The following report emphasizes the ECE and takes into consideration the various initiatives of government and non-governmental organization in the field. It is the firm belief of some government sections that various stages of early life need huge assistance in both education and health. Various government ministries, including the Ministry of Women’s Development and Social Welfare and Health Ministry, cooperated in preparing welfare strategies for women including health care beginning from the pre-natal stage.

The Education Ministry looks into the early education of children who are from 3 to 5 years of age. Several international conventions like CRC (Conventions on the Rights of Child), Global Summit on Children, CEDAW (Convention on Elimination of all forms of 115

Discrimination Against Women), MDGs (Millennium Development Goals), and EFA that indicate the provision of early education and care have been kept in mind. The sub-section below explains the policy, status, role of private sector, inequalities and other key issues in early childhood education.

5.3.1 Policy Guidelines Until the 1990s, in public sector institutions, katchi class was dominant but unrecognized. Immense struggle both at local and global level force the government to acknowledge the status and value of Katchi class and, during the years 1998-2000, a policy was formed to recognize the katchi class as the preprimary class in government schools to provide education to children of age 3 to 5 years of age.

The establishment of private schools also had an indirect impact on the various government policies on education and it enabled the private schools to consolidate their position in society. The introduction and implementation of Education Sector Reforms (2001-2005) was the strong point and provided impetus to the early education of children. It also resulted in the introduction of curriculum designed for ECE in 2002 with a revision in the year 2007.

5.3.2 Status of Primary Education

Access to primary education

Pre Primary Schools The data collection by SEMIS in 2009-10 primary schools do not denote the exact number of primary schools in the public sector since it does not include any kind of pre-primary schools as these pre-primary schools did not have their own identity. Improper allocation of the rooms to the pre-primary class (katchi). Therefore, many students admitted in those schools are assumed to be unadmitted and they are not counted as enrolled students.

Enrolment in Pre Primary Schools The enrolled number of students at the pre-primary level in various schools in Sindh was 704,570 out of which 81 percent are supposed to belong to the rural areas (See Table 5.3). The Pakistan Education Task Force survey revealed that the biggest share of student enrolment is achieved by the private sector in the urban areas and even in those areas where income level is low. This trend explains the low level of enrolment in urban areas where pre- primary education is prevalent. In the years 2008-09, Pakistan education statistics with the 116

collaboration of AEPAM (Academy of Education Planning and Management) indicates that 82 percent of the share of education goes to the private sector in Sindh.

Figure 5.3: Pre-Primary Enrolment Level-Sindh

Source: (SEMIS -2009‐10)

For achieving the targeted EFA goals, the Provincial Plan of Action suggested that enrolment at the ECE level would have to be around 60% in Sindh by 2015. Around 10,600 centers were established in the existing government schools with an estimate of appointing 24,737 teachers at the ECE level. Sadly, progress seems to be dismal. According to PSLM, in the year 2010-11, the NER is supposed to be 52% in Sindh from ages 4 to 9 years. NER, including the katchi classes, suggests that the target set at the provincial level is still far away and harder to achieve in context of the availability of material. Under the DEEP project, 103 classrooms were built for the ECE in 2009. Apart from those classrooms, SEF under the Early Learning Programme (ELP) built around 150 ECE classrooms but these contributions seem to be minimal compared to proposed targets in Sindh.

Teachers Various programmes had been started to appoint teachers for the Early Language Programme (ELP) by SEF for government schools but only for starting childhood classes. Training mechanisms were in place but little recognition had been given to these teachers. However, they fall in the PST and JST categories. Similarly, no information has been related to the number of pre-primary teachers by SEMIS. On the other hand, the private sector schools recognized early childhood teachers in different grades with tags like Montessori Mistress or Montessori Director.

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Quality The government recognized the Katchi class more formally and enrolled students in these classes were counted as formally enrolled students, which exist under the formal ECE curriculum from the age of 3 to 5 years since 2002. The initiatives taken by the Early Language Programme for the improvement of the quality of ECE classes in Sindh since 2008-11 have been spread over 5 districts in which 150 schools have been showing the best performance. These projects have seen more effective outcomes at the administrative, pedagogical and behavioural level. The impact of the teacher on students has been reported in positive form with vigour and good presentation shown in classrooms. Parents have also shown good confidence and more willingness for keeping longer association with these schools. The same kind of programme must be replicated in the entire province for the achievement of better results.

5.3.3 Inequalities and disparities Sindh Education Foundation presented its reports that enrolment for girls at the primary level has increased in Sindh and SEF is implementing the strategy used by ECE for enhancing the enrolment of girls in the province. There is a ratio of 66:34 of boys to girls according to the research report published by RCC Programme. Despite the novelty of work in the education sector, the role and opportunity of various accomplishments of NGOs is assumed to be limited in this sector.Another major point to highlight is the difference between the katchi class in the public sector and “Montessori and kindergarten classes” in the private sector.

5.4 Primary Education Primary education in Sindh province refers to study from class I - V and it is considered to be for the age group of 5 - 9 year old boys and girls. Middle education refers to education up to grades VI-VIII and for the age group 10 to 12 years. Both primary and secondary education together makes up elementary education. The resource distribution system (ADP) was not properly managed. All fund allocations were given to overall elementary education. This undermined the importance of individual departments, like primary and middle educational divisions. This part consists of policy discussions, contribution of private sector, imbalances, substantial issues and needs of elementary education. Different bodies have classified the primary and middle age groups differently. It is

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significant to note N-E-P- 2009 suggests the age group of 9-10 years as primary and 11-13 years as middle age group. This is different from the classification of SEMIS which classifies 5-9 years for primary and 10-12 years for middle levels. In PLSM report, both the age groups were taken for the gross and net enrolment run by SEF.

5.4.1 Policy National policy for education includes special consideration for the elementary level to achieve all the goals set by EFA. This ensures access, higher retention and bringing evolution to higher level of schooling. In Sindh, similar educational reforms known as SERP (Sindh Education Reform Programme) have been adopted with four main elements: • Bringing improvement in fiscal sustainability • Improvement in education sector management • Improving the quality of schooling • Enhancing the applicability of teaching and learning.

Funding of SERP is provided by World Bank and European Commission and Department of Education provided monitoring support through Reform Support Unit (RSU) under the supervision of Government of Sindh. Several programs has been introduced under SERP for improvements as follows: • Strictly following Procurement Act of Sindh Public • Shutting down non-viable schools; 1158 • Development of budgets and strategic and feasible postings of teachers across all schools • Free books distribution were strictly followed at primarly level during 2003 and was expanded to matriculation level during 2005-2006 and finally expanded to grad 12 in 2010-2011. • Formation and Activation of Management committees for schools. • 23 Districts were inducted in school restoration programs under the terms of partnership agreement. • Girls of classes VI-X were provided stipends. • Data Records of schools were made available through RSU website. • Recruitment of around 1200 teachers on the need and merit bases. Following were the allocation of funds during 2010-11 under the ADP program which was based on priority assessment at elementary and middle level education. 119

• By investing Rs 299.241 Million, 400 closed schools were opened to improve girl’s education enrolment under Rural Support Program during Jan-Jun 2010. • Expenditure of Rs. 800 million was incurred to promote private schools in Villeges and Urban Slums during the period of 2008-12 • Public Private Partnership was strengthen by investing Rs.100 million during 2007-12 to support community based schools in rural areas. • Implement an integrated program for learning called Integrated Education Learning Program (IELP) with a cost of Rs. 2085.109 million during 2009- 11.

5.4.2 Status

Admittance

Elementary Schools Data collected by SEMIS in the year 2009-10 indicates that the total number of primary schools in Sindh is 45,044. The majority of these schools fall within the mixed category at 61 percent of the total number of schools. 91 percent are in the rural areas while the remaining 9 percent are located in urban areas. (Table 5.3; Figure 5.4). Not only the quantity of Primary schools but also the status of primary schools as ‘Functional/Non-Functional’ was also mentioned in the data of SEMIS. This has helped to identify 5185 non-functional schools which are previous included as schools in the national and institutional reports. Therefore, SEMIS data base has listed these schools. In the following table all number of schools including functional and non-functional are listed.

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Table 5.3: Number of Primary Schools ‐ Sindh. Public Rural Urban Total Boys 9,306 1,110 10,416 Girls 6,188 1,095 7,283 Mixed 24,838 2,507 27,345 Total 40,332 4,712 45,044 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Figure 5.4: Number of Primary Schools ‐ Sindh

Source: (SEMIS -2009‐10)

Data from the private sector is erratic - according to some SEMIS authorities, the private sector schools do not cooperate in compiling data - and the government is less interested in procuring data from the private sector.

Enrolment Considering statistics regarding number of children and in primary schools in the public sector, it was noted that 75% of children belong to rural areas. However number schools will be short as compare to population projection of 5-9 years of age of children will reach to 6.4 million as compared to 3.4 million in 2005 that mean around 2.8 million children would be out of school (Girls 1.5m and Boys 1.3 million). Considering above statistics, private schools were excluded therefore, precautions should be considered while interpreting them and include figures of NER and GER presented below (table 5.4; Figure 5.5).

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Table 5.4: Sindh’s Primary Level Enrolment. Public

Rural Urban Total

Boys 15,78,373 4,37,812 20,16,185 Girls 9,82,187 4,04,019 13,86,206 Total 25,60,560 8,41,831 34,02,391 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

SEMIS calculation appears to be incorrect. The figures for enrolment in primary schools were 34,02,391 which was too close to the number of children of ages 5-9 out of school that is 27,73,724 without giving any explanation.

Figure 5.5: Sindh’s Primary Level Enrolment.

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Male and female gross enrolment rates (GER) are increasing at a steady pace as shown in Table 5.5. The GER at primary level during 2004-05 and 2010-11 is observed to be rising in urban areas; however, this rate is steeper in rural areas, that is, from 58% to 72%. It is noticeable that during 2008-09 and 2010-11, only a marginal increase was seen in GER from 83% to 87% in rural areas for males and a decline for females from 57% to 55%. This corresponds to an overall decline in female GER and a marginal increase in male GER.

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Table 5.5: Gross Primary (5‐9 years) Enrolment Rates by Sex (percentage) 2004‐05 2008‐09 2010‐11 Urban Male 103 107 107 Female 94 99 99 Both 99 103 103 Rural Male 70 83 87 Female 44 57 55 Both 58 72 72 Overall Male 84 93 94 Female 65 75 72 Both 75 84 84 Source: PSLM 2008‐09 and 2010‐11; excluding katchi class

A similar situation can be observed in the net enrolment rate (NER) as well; it has shifted from 48% to 54% in Sindh during 2004-05 and 2008-09 respectively, and improved more in rural than in urban areas, except for a decline in the rural areas between 2008-09 and 2010- 11 due to a drop in rural females’ NER.

Various factors, including the public sector, private sector and NGOs, have contributed to the steeper rise in enrolment rate. The SEF has supported the community system to run schools and establish more schools through public private partnership. Other incentive based policies by the Government of Sindh, such as free textbooks and stipend for girls, has also encouraged girls to get elementary education and hence led to improved enrolment rates. However, rural females’ NER remained low during 2008-09 and 2010-2011.

Teachers 101,944 primary teachers are performing their roles in 45,044 primary schools. 66 percent of the teachers are from rural areas compared with 34 percent in urban areas. Male teachers dominate in rural areas and female teachers are dominant in urban areas. Cultural restraints and mobility issues for females in rural areas could be the cause of this imbalance.

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Table 5.6: Number of Teachers at Primary Level ‐ Sindh Public Rural Urban Total Male 56,331 16,648 72,979 Female 10,559 18,406 28,965 Total 66,890 35,054 101,944 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Figure 5.6: Number of Teachers at Primary level ‐ Sindh

Source: (SEMIS -2009‐10)

Middle Schools Middle level education refers to classes VI - VIII and it includes the age range from 10-12 years. It is indicated in Table 5.7 that there are 2668 middle schools in Sindh; the majority of schools are co-educational (41%), girls’ schools represent 33% while boys’ schools make up only 26% of the total. It is interesting to note that 90% of middle schools are located in rural areas despite low enrolment and low interest of the people of rural areas. Further, the existence of 45,044 schools for primary education and only 2668 middle schools reflects low migration from primary to middle schools.

Table 5.7: Number of Schools at Middle Level ‐ Sindh

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Public Rural Urban Total Boys 432 247 679 Girls 639 250 889 Mixed 991 109 1,100 Total 2,062 606 2,668 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Figure 5.7: Number of Schools at Middle Level ‐ Sindh

Source: (SEMIS -2009‐10)

Enrolment According to an estimate, 0.23 million children are enrolled in middle level schools in Sindh and as reflected in Table 4.10 above, a complete disparity exists between urban and non- urban schools.

SEMIS noted that population growth trends in the population of children age 10-12 years by 2009-10 were observed that totals 3.3 million out of which 1.8 million boys and 1.5 million girls. Comparing this with enrolment figures it was assumed that 3.1 million children will be out of school which is 93%. Private sector schools were not included in this data therefore these projections must be analysed cautiously and in context of figures of NER and GER shown in table 5.8 and figure 5.8 below.

SEMIS provided the data in 2009-10 in which enrolled students in classes 5 and 6 number 125

3,89,457 and 2,40,083 respectively. This indicates that percentage of students who do not continue in class 6 from class 5 is 38%.

Table 5.8: Enrolment statics at middle level-Sindh Public Rural Urban Total Boys 81,530 35,616 117,146 Girls 60,688 50,998 111,686 Total 142,218 86,614 228,832 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Figure 5.8: Enrolment statics at middle level-Sindh

Source: (SEMIS -2009‐10)

There is a significant rise in GER at the middle level from the year 2004-05 to 2008-09 but it 126

dropped to a minor extent in the year 2010-11(Table 5.9). It is because of the lag between rural and urban GER. It is also worth mentioning that the GER in rural areas is half the GER in urban areas. Thus, growth of GER is faster in rural than in urban areas but the drop in GER between the years 2008-09 and 2010-11 is not a positive indication.

Table 5.9: Gross Middle Enrolment Rate (10‐12 years) by Sex (percentage) 2004‐05 2008‐09 2010‐11 Urban Male 64 68 67 Female 58 68 72 Both 61 68 69 Rural Male 34 45 43 Female 13 19 18 Both 25 34 32 Overall Male 47 54 52 Female 35 41 42 Both 42 49 48 Source: PSLM 2008‐09 and 2010‐11

Only 19% of eligible age children were enrolled at the middle level classes which was very alarming for the concerned authorities. Again NER of male students is higher than female NER and also rural population was behind the urban population.

Table 5.10: Net Middle Enrolment Rate (10‐12 years) by Sex (percentage) 127

2004‐05 2008‐09 2010‐11 Urban Male 28 24 26 Female 25 24 30 Both 26 24 28 Rural Male 14 19 18 Female 5 8 8 Both 10 14 13 Overall Male 20 21 21 Female 15 15 17 Both 18 18 19 Source: PSLM 2008‐09 and 2010‐11

Teachers At the middle level, the majority of teachers are male rather than female and the total number of teachers is 9,610 (Table 5.11; Figure 5.9). There are a higher number of teachers in rural areas than in urban areas. Also, male teachers in rural areas are 305 times more than female teachers, while in urban areas, female teachers outnumber male teachers.Comparatively number of school teachers in rural areas is higher than urban areas. Females teachers are higher in number than male teachers in urban areas which is reverse in rural areas where male teachers are 305 times. .

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Table 5.11: Number of Teachers at Middle Level ‐ Sindh Public Rural Urban Total Male 4,047 1,538 5,585 Female 1,168 2,857 4,025 Total 5,215 4,395 9,610 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Figure5.9: Number of Teachers at Middle Level ‐ Sindh

Source: (SEMIS -2009‐10)

Quality Condition of Buildings for Public Schools A majority of schools in the primary sector is shelterless and, according to an estimate, there are 10,268 schools in that category (Table 5.12). What is even more alarming about this situation is that 4,724 of these schools are classified as dangerous. The condition of the middle schools is better compared to primary schools with only 362 are shelterless of which 298 schools are classified as more dangerous.

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Table 5.12: Condition of Buildings for Public Schools ‐ Sindh Level Other Rental Shelter Total ownership Govt. ownership less Satisfactory Repairable Dangerous

Primary 1,133 12,398 16,328 4,724 193 10,268 45,044

Middle 65 778 1,139 298 26 362 2,668

Total 1,198 13,176 17,467 5,022 219 10,630 47,712

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

School facilities Considering the availability of basic facilities, it was found that middle schools were better than primary schools. 50% primary schools did not have proper sanitation, security and clean drinking water. Electricity connections were given to only 14% schools. Middles were better in this sense and had 26% electricity connections but can never be considered as ideal in any sense.

Table 5.13: Basic Facilities Available at Public Schools ‐ Sindh Electricity Toilets Drinking Boundary Water Wall Primary 6,292 24,412 21,979 22,119

% 14% 54% 49% 49%

Middle 695 1,828 1,467 1,774

% 26% 69% 55% 66% Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Class wise Dropout Rates The dropout ratio of boys and girls in the schools seem to be quite similar. The biggest dropout occurs from grades 1 to 2 and from grades 5 to 6 at 33% and 36% respectively. Table 5.14 below shows the dropout rates for the years 2006-07 through 2008-09, which indicate a decline in the dropout rates over the years. The dropout rate from grades 5 to 6

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occurs because of the transition from primary to middle level.

Table 5.14: Class wise Dropout Rates ‐ Sindh (percentage) Total Dropout of both boys and girls (in %) Average Dropout

Grades 1 to 2 2 to 3 3 to 4 4 to 5 5 to 6 2006‐07 36 19 17 16 36 25 2007‐08 38 12 10 10 37 21 2008‐09 26 14 12 13 35 20 Average 33 15 13 13 36 22 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10, Sindh Education Profile p.21

Teachers Professional Qualification Majority of teachers had essential qualifications at professional level both at middle and primary level. PTC certificates and B.Ed were the most common qualification that the majority of teachers had. (See table 5.15). It indicates that quality of teaching and student’s achievement rate must by higher along with low dropout rate and higher enrolment ratios. Unfortunately, this was not the case and pose serious concerns over the credentials of the teachers. Bogus certifications and non-professionalism must also be taken into consideration for the policy provisions to regularly assess the competence among teachers. This would help to improve quality of education.

Table 5.15: Professional Qualification of Teachers ‐ Sindh Level PTC CT B.Ed. MEd Other Un‐ No Total trained Info Primary Male 38,791 5,634 19,009 3,753 253 3,581 1,958 72,979

Female 15,291 3,361 6,252 1,848 79 1,226 908 28,965

Middle Male 896 746 1,748 1,250 681 169 95 5,585 Female 926 713 1,259 796 181 81 69 4,025

Total 55,904 10,454 28,268 7,647 1,194 5,057 3,030 1,11,554 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

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Total numbers of 68 institutes were present in Sindh for the training and development of teachers. Among these institutes 48 were government and 18 were controlled and managed by private sector and 2 were autonomous. These institutes were divided according to gender basis as 13 were for females only, 11 for males and 44 for both. Certifications for primary teaching and general teaching were provided through these institutes. These certificates were called Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) and Teaching Certificate (TC). However these qualifications will be phased out gradually and would be replaced with proper associate degree in teaching and education.

Student Teacher Ratio Both at higher secondary and primary level it was calculated in SEMIS 2009-10 that 31 students were managed by a single teacher. Dividing it into more categories, 25 students per teacher at secondary level and at primary level 33 students per teacher and comparatively smaller number of students per teacher at middle level that is 24 students per teacher. At higher secondary level 35 students per teacher. This means at higher secondary level teachers have most loads.

Curriculum and Textbooks Bureau of Curriculum (BoC) and Sindh Textbook Board (STB) are mainly responsible for the development of curriculum and textbooks in Sindh. Role of BoC has been changed and improve through 18th amendment as it is allow the curriculum development at provincial level. Curriculum updating and consultation with in service professionals for the development of more quality and up to date curriculum has been initiated in 2006.

STB has the responsibility for the printing of the text books and their distribution to the schools. However, in 2007 this responsibility has been shared with some private sector companies. However, this was not implemented yet which cause shortages of books. SBT official said that it would be challenging to hand over to the private sector therefore this policy is not implemented yet. However, they seem interested as in past AKU-IED partnership underpin this public private partnership model.

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5.4.3 Inequalities and Disparities Income inequality and disparities reflects the school attendance in both urban and rural areas. In table 5.16 below, it can be seen that where income is low school attendance is low. As in higher income quintile in urban areas, around 90% of the population got education as compare to 51% in lowest quintile. However, difference can been observed on gender bases which are highest in rural areas. Only 15% females attend school in lowest income quintile in rural areas that is 34% in terms of attendance.

Table 5.16: Percentage of population that has ever attended school according to income quintiles (percentage). Income Quintile Urban Rural Male Female Both Male Female Both Sindh 82 66 74 59 22 41 1st Quintile 60 43 51 49 15 33 2nd Quintile 67 50 58 60 19 40 3rd Quintile 74 58 66 60 26 44 4th Quintile 86 68 77 66 30 49 5th Quintile 93 81 87 79 41 61

1st Quintile shows the lowest income group while 5th shows the highest. Source: PSLMS 2007‐08

Income quintile is closely related to primary level GER in table 5.17. low income quintile reflects low GER rates and high income quintile reflects higher GER rates. Only 54% GER is seen in rural areas of low-income quintile compared with 74% in urban areas. Again, females are more deprived of basic education in both quintiles regardless of rural or urban differences.

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Table 5.17: Gross Primary Enrolment Rate by Income Quintiles (percentage) Income Urban Rural Quintiles Male Female Both Male Female Both SINDH 102 100 101 78 54 66 1st Quintile 83 66 74 63 44 54 2nd Quintile 84 84 84 80 48 65 3rd Quintile 102 115 107 91 71 82 4th Quintile 118 120 119 95 78 87 5th Quintile 110 105 107 127 81 105 Source: PSLM 2007‐08; excluding katchi

A similar prevalence of the inequalities is observed at the middle level too. Table 5.18 shows that with an increase in the income, absorption in the middle level schools can be increased.

Table 5.18: Gross Enrolment Rate at Middle Level (ages 10‐12) by Income Quintiles Income Quintile Urban Rural Male Female Both Male Female Both SINDH 70 66 68 41 14 28 1st Quintile 46 40 43 34 5 20 2nd Quintile 44 63 53 42 10 27 3rd Quintile 61 73 67 44 23 33 4th Quintile 106 70 87 44 38 41 5th Quintile 75 72 74 82 41 66 Source: PSLMS 2007‐08

5.4.4 Key Issues Some of the specific issues faced at the elementary level can be classified into policy, governance and quality issues. These are described below: Policy It is important to acknowledge the very serious issue of the low transition from primary to middle level. Only 2,668 middle schools are available as compare to 45,044 primary schools. Therefore, in case of higher transition, there will be no infrastructure available. The enrolment at the primary level is 2.8 million, but it is only .06 million at the middle level. ‐ Encourage more students to enroll.

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Retention rates need to be improved both at primary and secondary level. However, there is a need to ensure provision of schools and teachers at the middle level to improve retention up to grade 10. The 18th Amendment and Article 25A should be applied to deal with resource constraints for province. ‐ Division on the basis of rural and urban and gender disparities ‐ Enrolment disparities due to level of income ‐ Negligible non-salary budget Governance ‐ Insufficient institutional and human resource capacity ‐Unavailability of control and monitoring mechanisms and the absence of performance evaluation systems. ‐ Political influence for transfer of teachers rather than need or data based. Quality ‐ Curriculum needs to be revised and updated for the latest economic requirements of the country. ‐The teaching language should be to resolved amongst the English and Urdu medium schools to achieve basic standards in the quality of education. ‐ Promotion of both teachers and managers should be associated with their performance in order to improve their capacity and capabilities.

‐ Ensure availability of infrastructure and buildings ‐Provision of educational and reading materials to support a quality learning environment.

5.5 Secondary and Higher Secondary Education With reference to Sindh province, class 9-10 is known as secondary education for students between the age of 13-14 years, while higher secondary education includes class 11-12 within the age of 15-16 years. This section discusses the strategy present, conditions and main issues pertaining to secondary education in Sindh.

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5.5.1 Policy For this caliber of education, two vital strategies are proposed by the NEP 2009. Firstly, supplication of coaching services resembling students’ psychological demands and pertaining their career and secondly aligning standards 11th and 12th with that of schooling, not with college academics. Still, the application of these frameworks in Sindh depicts no chances. The NEP 2009 has recommended a comprehensive research of the latter before implementation, due to its great sensitivity in nature.College Education's funding apportions in 2009-10 was Rs 10.7 billion, with 76.6% allocated to recurrent and 23.4% assigned to development, and it accounts for approximately 16.5% of the entire total education budget. An ample share of the development apportion is meant for the construction of cadet colleges in Sindh.

5.5.2 Status

Access

Secondary Schools Secondary schools are almost evenly distributed between rural and urban locations. The ratio of secondary schools for boys is higher, 40% that of girls secondary schools, 31%. But the presence of combined co-schools is also remarkable, which is 29%. In rural areas, the likelihood of girls preference to enroll in combined schools is less, specifically at secondary level academics mostly due to the prevalence of the cultural sensitivities.

Table 5.19: Number of Schools at Secondary level ‐ Sindh Public Rural Urban Total Boys 270 393 663 Girls 154 364 518 Combined 417 64 481 Accumulated 841 821 1,662

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

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Figure 5.11: Number of Schools at Secondary level ‐ Sindh

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Enrolment

When the numbers of registration of girls at secondary caliber are studied, the concern gets even greater about the above cited rationale of girls reluctance in enrolling in combined schools. The figure of girls registration at secondary level falls short (40%), vis-a-vis with boys (60%). The rural girls enrolment hits a new low (28%) in comparison with urban girls registration (72%) overall. This clarifies the low representation of rural girls in secondary academics than their urban counter parts. The scenario of urban areas is above par since the registration ratio of both boys and girls is almost striking balance.

Table 5. 20: Enrolment at Secondary level ‐ Sindh Public Rural Urban Total Boys 196,822 179,944 376,766 Girls 72,063 181,508 253,571 Accumulated 268,885 361,452 630,337 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

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Figure 5.12: Enrolment at Secondary level – Sindh

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

A sweeping glance of GER growth of duration 2004-5 to 2010-11 reveals remarkable increments in both rural and urban locations comprising both genders. Urban areas, though, leads ahead in GER growth from rural ones. In the midst of 2004-5 and 2010-11 tenure, GER ascended by 12% in urban areas whereas a climb of 7% was experienced in rural areas. Though the GER growth was greater between 2004-05 and 2008-09 in rural areas, it was out matched by GER growth of urban locations by a large extent.

Teachers Significant differences exist between both male-female teachers of rural and urban locations. The proportion of total secondary teachers was dominated by male, 60%, with 40% female teachers and the resembling situation is apparent as urban teachers 63% leads the ratio from 37% of rural counterparts.

Higher Secondary Institutions

Institutions of higher secondary education are equally matched in number for both boys and girls. Moreover, a remarkable of 38% combined /co institutions exist. But severe differences are apparent when comparing rural and urban. Shockingly, a whopping 62% of institutions exist in rural locations, with remainder 38% in urban areas. As cited above, furnishing education at standard 11-12 are intermediate colleges that are not even considered in the 138

SEMIS archive. Intel from AEPAM reveals additional 38 intermediate colleges existing (15 for boys, 18 for girls and 5 combined).

Table 5.21: Number of Higher Secondary Schools ‐ Sindh Public Rural Urban Total Boys 41 32 73 Girls 26 45 71 Combined 77 10 87 Total 144 87 231 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10 Teachers

Equivalency exists in the apportion of teachers in rural and urban locations about 51%-49%. Extreme disparities are present when comparing males with females, with males occupying a huge 68% of the total, with remainder 32% for females. And this disparity is dragged even large in rural and urban locations, with 87% of teachers being male and only 13% female. The vital logic of low female enrolment in rural areas is by large affirmed with the presence of low no. of female teachers.

Table 5.22: Number of Teachers at Higher Secondary level ‐ Sindh Public Rural Urban Total Male 2,897 1,549 4,446 Female 428 1,656 2,084 Accumulated 3,325 3,205 6,530

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Quality

State of Buildings for public schools

Approximately 14% of the buildings servicing both secondary and higher secondary standards are classified as shelter less (Table5. 23). Repairing is aspired for buildings of both levels. A closer glance reveals buildings of secondary education requiring repairs are 55% where as an urgency of fixing 59% of higher secondary education buildings is present. And a

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residual of 27% government owned secondary caliber buildings and 25% of higher secondary standard buildings are deemed satisfactory for furnishing education. The diminishing growth in GER and NER is also resulting due to the ill-physical state of school buildings.

Table 5.23: Condition of Buildings for public schools at Secondary & H. Sec. level

Level Other Govt. ownership Total owned Satisfactory Refurbish Critical Rented No able premises Secondary 32 450 918 223 29 10 1,662

High. Sec. 1 58 136 33 2 1 231

Accumulated 33 508 1054 256 31 11 1,893

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

School facilities

In terms of availing the amenities, both secondary and higher secondary standard schools fare better as depicted by table 36. Nearly all schools are blessed with every nature of facilities, with the exception of electronics and 80% of schools of both standards possess these facilities. It is apparent that the state of school buildings is ill, unsatisfactory but they fare better as far as availing the basic amenities are concerned.

Table 5.24: Schools having basic facilities available at Secondary & H. Sec. level Electricity Wash Drinking Premises rooms Water Walls Secondary 1,169 1,448 1,355 1,467 % 70 87 82 88 Higher Sec. 204 204 210 200 % 88 88 91 87 Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Lab Facilities It is impending on secondary and higher secondary schools to grasp proper laboratories to conduct necessary practical. It is a misery that not all schools are blessed with lab facility,

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with the exception of higher secondary schools as they possess viable labs than those of secondary schools.

Table 5.25: Lab facilities available at Secondary and H. Sec. Levels

Lab/ Biology Chemistry Physics Home Computer Science Economics Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab Lab

Secondary 825 624 552 599 60 299

% 50 38 33 36 4 18

Higher Sec. 160 129 130 135 16 122

% 69 56 56 58 7 53

Source: SEMIS 2009‐10

Professional Eligibility of Teachers

In general, teachers of both secondary and higher secondary holds professional graduation degrees typically B.ED and M.ED. This is largely due to the reason that at upper hierarchy of education, teachers are expected to possess upscale qualifications and proficiency.

5.6 Tertiary Education

Managing higher education at federal level is a core responsibility of Higher education commission which has classified three dimensions of institutions falling within territorial education. • Degree colleges

• Universities

• Degree awarding colleges and universities

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5.6.1 Status

Access

The only resorts in Pakistan where territorial education is furnished are universities as in Sindh province where there are a host of colleges indulged in awarding the degree level educational course by only supplicating tuition, not conducting exams. They are recognized and are affiliated with certain concerned universities. Another face of education is termed as degree awarding institutions which do not perform as that of universities, but attain the status and eligibility of degree awarding due to the abundance of scholars possessing several and viable competencies and proficiency. Significantly a large no. of these institutions exist in Karachi and only Jamshoro is the city to have 3 universities instead of one, and only one of them is performing satisfactory.

Institutions The quantity of institutions is further elaborated by the two tables annexed below. These two tables depict the quantity of tertiary institutions. A total of 240 degree colleges exist in Sindh, with a overwhelming majority of 92% are located in urban areas and the residual 81% in rural ones, table one clarifies. The second table portrays how many universities and DAI's are present in both of the government and private sectors in Sindh. The private share leads by 62%.

Table 5.26: Number of Degree Colleges in Sindh (Public and Private)

Urban Rural Total

Bo Gir Combin Tot Bo Gir Combin Tot Bo Gir Combi Tot ys ls ed al ys ls ed al ys ls ned al

85 75 61 221 4 4 11 19 89 79 72 240

Source: Pakistan Education Statistics 2008‐09; AEPAM

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Table 5.27: Universities/ Degree Awarding Institutions Sindh

Public Institutions Private Institutions Aggregate 14 23 37

Source: Pakistan Education Statistics 2008‐09; AEPAM

Enrolment

In both public and private sector colleges, 81,541 students are registered. Synonymous to the concentration of more degree colleges in urban locations more no. of students are registered in cities than in rural areas. Boys’ enrolment ratio surpasses that of girls.

Table 5.28: Enrolment at Degree Colleges (Public and Private)

Urba Rur Total n al Boys Girls Aggrega Boy Girl Aggrega Boys Girls Aggrega te s s te te 43,40 33,79 77,200 3,77 569 4,341 47,17 34,36 81,541 7 3 2 9 2

Source: Pakistan Education Statistics 2008‐09; AEPAM

1.5 million Students are registered in both government and private sector universities. The Bachelor cadre possess the lion's share of enrolments, more than a million, with the remainder existing in the domain of PGD to PHD cadres. Again, male dominate enrolment as their numbers surpasses that of females in both of the government and private sectors. In reality, females are at a disadvantage in private sector than that of public one. Reason can be contended of emulation of cultural perception, since educated males are given more priority to females and hence are more prone of attaining valuable and costly private education than females.

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Table 5.29: Enrolment in Universities in Sindh (Public and Private)

Level Publi Privat Tot c e al

Mal Femal Tot Mal Fema Tot Mal Fema Tot e e al e le al e le al

Bachelo 37,58 26,16 63,75 28,65 16,793 45,45 66,24 42,960 1,09,20 rs 9 7 6 7 0 6 6 Master of 16 yrs. 7,391 8,485 15,87 11,09 3,902 14,99 18,48 12,387 30,870 Of 6 2 4 3 Educati on Master 4,679 1,613 6,292 924 203 1,127 5,603 1,816 7,419 of 16 +yrs.

Ph.D. 1,051 688 1,739 89 44 133 1,140 732 1,872 PGD 614 422 1,036 360 336 696 974 758 1,732 Total 51,32 37,37 88,69 41,12 21,278 62,40 92,44 58,653 1,51,09 4 5 9 2 0 6 9 Source: Pakistan Education Statistics 2008‐09; AEPAM

Teachers

A no. of 5814 teachers are servicing in degree colleges, with a majority located in urban areas, correlating with the existing no. of degree colleges. Synonymously more male teachers are present in contrast of females.

Table 5.30: Teachers at Degree Colleges in Sindh (Public and Private)

Urba Rur Tota n al l Male Femal Tota Male Femal Aggrega Mal Femal Aggrega e l e te e e te 3,097 2,436 5,53 256 25 281 3,35 2,461 5,814 3 3 Source: Pakistan Education Statistics 2008‐09; AEPAM

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Universities and DAI's comprises of 9314 faculty members. Visiting faculty members in universities account for some 28% of both the total, with majority engaged in private sector as that of government institutions. Similar to the abundance of private sector universities is the large indulgence of faculty members in private sector.

Table 5.31: Faculty at Universities/ DAIs in Sindh (Public and Private)

Faculty Public Private Total Teachers Teachers

Permanent 3,362 3,290 6,652 Visiting 717 1,945 2,662 Total 4,079 5,235 9,314 Source: Pakistan Education Statistics 2008‐09; AEPAM

5.6.2 Key Issues Following discrepancies are identified in conjunctions with research and discussions with senior university professors which must be addressed to enhance the tertiary education in Sindh, falling in the subjects of policy, governance and quality. ‐ Striking a balance between social and physical sciences. ‐ Implying the examples set by the developed countries, government policy committees should summon research to a University’s concerned facility. Will emit in a win‐win situation especially for the social sciences. ‐ Creation of a provincial concern augmenting research in Policy Universities, in education sector especially.

‐ Curtailing political intervention in decision making. - Establishing affordability, according to need based, as poor are less privileged to attain good education and remain in the lower brinks of educational achievements. - Politically intervened VC appointments should be curbed. - Universities are being handicapped in appointments and academic quality due to enhanced corruption. - Threats to faculty and staff members, implementation of violence should be put to a halt. - Accountability factor diminishing. - Mallefide hiring especially in faculties. - Vague admission policy. Governance

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‐ Obsolete and outdated curriculum. - Ability of faculty to conduct research and provide tuition require increment. - Presence of multi-medium education system. - Absence of honesty and discipline in academics. - Faculty proficiency diminishing. - Less educational aids/ sponsorships. - Unjust tutorial burden. - Less viable research. - Absence of cordial educational ambience. Quality

5.7 Conclusion Though female education is experiencing improvement, the few no. of female educational institutions and less enrolment are causing grave concerns in the province of Sindh. In Sindh, there are 29510 educational institutions, with a majority dominated by primary sector. Even though there's an increased transition from primary to middle, less middle level institutions exist with most of them insufficient. The quitting ratio of students from standard 5 to 6 is 35% as per the data from SEMIS is concerned. Making this a viable objective, improving the transition rate will definitely call for increasing the no. of schools and teachers for middle level. Past five years trend data signifies the average growth rate of middle schools as 0.6%, largely insufficient to cater to a large incoming of primary students, if this scenario happens.

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Chapter Six

Demographic Details of Study Area

6.1 Introduction Demography presents population data in a systematic manner. Its importance could be gauged from the growing application of population figures in several disciplines of study. Its significance to the individual and society hardly requires any emphasis. It provides information on individual demographic characteristics such as total number of children, age, gender, marital status, education and working status of the respondents and housing conditions of the household. Sindh has the second highest Human Development Index out of all of Pakistan's provinces at 0.628. The 1998 Census of Pakistan indicated a population of 30.4 million. Just under half of the population are urban dwellers, mainly found in Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, Mirpurkhas, Nawabshah District, Umerkot and Larkana. Sindhi is the sole official language of Sindh since the 19th century.

Box 6.1: Sindh Demographic Indicators Description Statistic % Urban Population 49.50 Rural Population 50.50 Population Growth Rate 2.80 Gender Ratio (Male Per 100 Female) 112.24 Economically Active Population 22.75 Population Growth Rate 2.8 Number Of People Per Household 6.0 Persons Per Room 3.33 Life Expectancy (1996) 55.4 Literacy Rate 45.29 Per Capita Monthly Income Rs.1, 036 Population Engaged In Agriculture 47.54 Crude Death Rate* 8.6 Crude Birth Rate* 35.5 Infant Mortality Rate* 87 Source: Official Web Portal of Sindh Government 2013

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Sindh has the second largest economy in Pakistan. Its GDP per capita was $1,400 in 2010, which is 50 per cent more than the rest of the nation or 35 per cent more than the national average. Historically, Sindh's contribution to Pakistan's GDP has been between 30 percent to 32.7 percent. Its share in the service sector has ranged from 21 percent to 27.8 percent and in the agriculture sector from 21.4 percent to 27.7 percent. Performance wise, its best sector is the manufacturing sector, where its share has ranged from 36.7 percent to 46.5 percent63. Since 1972, Sindh's GDP has expanded by 3.6 times.64

Figure 6.1 illustrates the different education levels according to specific age groups. It reveals that the educational profiles of young women are better than that of the older ones. As far as age groups observed, that in 16-30 years of age 35.4 percent reported as illiterate but 76.5 percent are middle pass and 76.6 percent have completed their intermediate; graduate/masters are only 68.4 percent in the first age group. Similarly, in 31-45 age group, 50 percent are illiterate, 16.7 percent pass their middle, 23.4 percent are metric/intermediate and only 28.9 percent are graduate/masters. In the most senior age level, that is 46-60 years, 14.6 percent are illiterate, 6.9 percent are middle pass, 2.6 percent reported graduates/masters but no one is in the group matriculation/intermediate. Therefore, we can say that the education profiles of young women are relatively better than the profiles of older women. We can clearly state that women 16-30 years of age are more educated than senior women. Similarly, in primary and middle, matriculation/intermediate and the last category, which is graduates/masters, younger women are more educated than senior women.

63"Provincial Accounts of Pakistan: Methodology and Estimates 1973-2000". http://www.spdc.org.pk/pubs/nps/nps5.pdf. 64"World Bank Document" (PDF). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051- 1241610364594/6097548-1257441952102/balochistaneconomicreportvol2.pdf. Retrieved 2012-11-07.

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6.2 Demographic Profile of Respondents Figure 6.1: Percentage Distribution of Educational Levels by Age (N=375) 100 90 80 76.5 76.6 68.4 70 60 50 16-30 50 40 35.4 31-46 28.9 30 23.4 46-60 20 14.6 16.7

Proportion(%) of Respondentsof Proportion(%) 6.9 10 2.6 0 0 Illterate Primary and Matric/Inter B.A/M.A Middle

Source: Survey Data, 2011

This comparison below in Table 6.1, Figure 6.2 shows that highest female educated district is Benazirabad with 37 percent educated females as well as the highest in getting higher education at 4.8% women with Masters degree. The Badin District has lowest position in the female education ladder as it comprises of 14% illiterate females.

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Table 6.1: Respondent Education District Wise Distribution

Name of District * Respondent Education Cross Tabulation Name of District Respondent Education % Total Primary / Matric / BA / Non Middle Inter MA formal/ Illiterat e Badin within Name of 39.5 12.9 4.8 42.7 100.0 District within Respondent 47.6 20.5 15.8 34.0 33.1 Education Total 13.1 4.3 1.6 14.1 33.1 Larkana within Name of 22.3 21.4 12.5 43.8 100.0 District within Respondent 24.3 30.8 36.8 31.4 29.9 Education Total 6.7 6.4 3.7 13.1 29.9 Benazirabad within Name of 20.9 27.3 12.9 38.8 100.0 District within Respondent 28.2 48.7 47.4 34.6 37.1 Education Total 7.7 10.1 4.8 14.4 37.1 Total within Name of District 27.5 20.8 10.1 41.6 100.0

within Respondent 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Education Total 27.5 20.8 10.1 41.6 100.0 Source: Survey Data, 2011

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Figure 6.2: Respondent Education District Wise Distribution 100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0% Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Non formal/Illiterate

Respondent Education %

Badin Larkana Benazirabad

Source: Survey Data, 2011

In Table 6.2, the education level of women by marital status is presented. In this survey, we have observed that of the females who reached Masters level, 50 percent are unmarried, 47 percent are married, 3 percent are divorced and none are widows. Similarly, we have seen that of the women who completed their education till matriculation/intermediate, 53 percent are unmarried, 47 percent are married but no one reported for the divorced and widowed. Of the women who have taken primary/middle education, 55 percent are unmarried, 43 percent are married, 2 percent are divorced and widowed is only 1 percent. In this table, we also categorized the females as illiterate. Of those who reported in this group, 22 percent are unmarried, 66 percent are married, 3 percent are divorced and 9 percent are widowed.

Therefore, we can easily conclude that women who are highly educated belong to the group of unmarried women and most of the illiterate women belong to the group of married women.

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Table 6.2: Marital Status Marital Non formal / Primary / Metric / BA / MA Total Status Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Un married 35 22 56 55 41 53 19 50 151 40

Married 105 66 43 42 36 47 18 47 202 54 Divorce 4 3 2 2 0 0 1 3 7 2 Widow 14 9 1 1 0 0 0 0 15 4 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011 Table 6.3 represents that 47 percent illiterate, 61 percent primary literate respondents, 50 percent Matric, and 68 percent graduate had 1-3 baby boys when they were less than 18 years old. The table depicts that 4 percent respondent’s primary literate, 8 percent Matric, 5 percent graduate and 18 percent illiterate have 4 – 6 boys of age less than 18. The table depicts that 35 percent respondents that are primary literate, 42 percent Matric, 26 percent graduate and 35 percent that are illiterate have no children aged less than 18 years.

Table 6.3: Number of Children If Married Boys Less Than 18 Years Children Non formal Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total / Illiterate Middle Inter

N % N % N % N % N %

1 – 3 58 47 28 61 18 50 13 68 117 52

4 – 6 22 18 2 4 3 8 1 5 28 13

None 43 35 16 35 15 42 5 26 79 35

Total 123 100 46 100 36 100 19 100 224 100

Source: Survey Data, 2011 Table 6.4 represents that 36 percent illiterate, 20 percent primary literate respondents, 19 percent Matric, and 26 percent graduate had 1 – 3 boys: they were older than 18 years old because they spent their time on education. The table depicts that 13 percent respondent’s primary literate, 6 percent Matric, 11 percent graduate and 22 percent illiterate have 4 – 6 boys of age less than 18 years. The table depicts that 67 percent respondents that are primary literate, 75 percent Matric, 63 percent graduate and 42 percent that are illiterate have no boy child less than 18 years of age. 152

Table 6.4: Number of Children If Married Boys More Than 18 Years Children Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % 1 – 3 44 36 9 20 7 19 5 26 65 29 4 – 6 27 22 6 13 2 6 2 11 38 17 None 52 42 31 67 27 75 12 63 121 54

Total 123 100 46 100 36 100 19 100 224 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

Table 6.5 above represents that 53 percent illiterate, 57 percent primary literate respondents, 50 percent Matric and 32 percent graduate had 1 – 3 baby girls that were less than 18 years old. The table depicts that 4 percent respondent’s primary literate, 11 percent Matric, 0 percent graduate and 12 percent illiterate have 4 – 6 girls of age less than 18. The table depicts that 39 percent respondents primary literate, 39 percent Matric, 68 percent graduate and 35 percent illiterate have no girl child less than 18 years old.

Table 6.5: Number of Children If Married Girls Less Than 18 Years Children Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Illiterate Middle Inter

N % N % N % N % N %

1 – 3 66 53 26 57 18 50 6 32 116 52

4 – 6 14 12 2 4 4 11 0 0 21 9

None 43 35 18 39 14 39 13 68 87 39

Total 123 100 46 100 36 100 19 100 224 100

Source: Survey Data, 2011 Table 6.6 represents that 9 percent primary literate respondents, 14 percent Matric, 11 percent graduate and 35 percent illiterate have 1 – 3 girls: they were over 18 years old. The table depicts that 13 percent respondent’s primary literate, 6 percent Matric, 16 percent graduate and 18 percent illiterate have 4 – 6 girls less than 18 years old. The table depicts that 78 percent respondents primary literate, 80 percent Matric, 74 percent graduate and 47 percent illiterate have no girl child less than 18 years old.

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Table 6.6: Number of Children If Married Girls More Than 18 Years Children Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % 1 – 3 43 35 4 9 5 14 2 11 52 23 4 – 6 22 18 6 13 2 6 3 16 35 16 None 58 47 36 78 29 80 14 74 137 61 Total 123 100 46 100 36 100 19 100 224 100 Source: Survey Data, 201

Table 6.7 represents that 44 percent illiterate, 43 percent primary literate respondents, 42 percent matric, and 53 percent graduate had 1 – 3 school-going boys attending school. The table depicts that 11 percent respondent’s primary literate, 19 percent Matric, 11 percent graduate and 19 percent illiterate had 4 – 6 school-going boys of age less than 18 attending school. The table depicts that 46 percent respondents primary literate, 39 percent Matric, 37 percent graduate have no boys attending school and 37 percent of illiterate women do not send their children to school.

Table 6.7: Number of Children Attending School (Boys) Children Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % 1 – 3 54 44 20 43 15 42 10 53 99 44 4 – 6 23 19 5 11 7 19 2 11 37 17 None 46 37 21 46 14 39 7 37 88 39 Total 123 100 46 100 36 100 19 100 224 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011 able 6.8 represents that 40 percent illiterate, 39 percent primary literate respondents, 42 percent Matric respondents and 32 percent graduate respondents had 1 – 3 school girls that were attending school. The table depicts that 9 percent primary literate respondent’s, 15 percent illiterate, 25 percent Matric, and 0 percent graduate had 4 – 6 school girls of age less than 18 that were attending school. The table depicts that 52 percent respondents primary

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literate, 33 percent Matric, 68 percent graduate have no school girls less than 18 years old and 45 percent of illiterate women do not send their girl child to school.

Table 6.8: Number of Children Attending School (Girls) Girls Non Formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % 1 – 3 49 40 18 39 15 42 6 32 88 39 4 – 6 19 15 4 9 9 25 0 0 32 14 None 55 45 24 52 12 33 13 68 104 46 Total 123 100 46 100 36 100 19 100 224 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

Table 6.9 represents that 60 percent primary literate respondents, 52 percent Matric, 26 percent graduate and 54 percent illiterate had 1 – 3 male family members who got education. The table depicts that 30 percent respondent’s primary literate, 21 percent Matric, 47 percent graduate and 22 percent illiterate have 4 – 6 male family members who got education. Of primary literate respondents 6 percent, Matric 27 percent, graduate 18 percent and illiterate 1 percent have more than 7 male family members who got education. The table depicts that 4 percent respondents’ primary literate, 0 percent Matric, 8 percent graduate and 23 percent illiterate have no male number of educated family members.

Table 6.9: Number of Educated Family Members (Male) Male Educated Primary / Matric / BA / MA Non formal / Total family members Middle Inter Illiterate N % N % N % N % N % 1 – 3 61 60 40 52 10 26 85 54 196 52 4 – 6 31 30 16 21 18 47 35 22 100 27 More than 7 6 6 21 27 7 18 2 1 36 10

None 4 4 0 0 3 8 36 23 43 11 Total 102 100 77 100 38 100 158 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

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Figure 6.3 indicates likely impact of female education at household level. Data reveals that female education level influences other females within the household.

Figure 6.3: Percentage Distribution of Number of Educated Female Members (N=375)

90 85 80 1 – 3 70 58 60 49 47 4 – 6 50 37 40 32 32 30 19 More than 14 20 11 7 6 4 10 0 2 2 2 0 None Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate Middle

Source: Survey Data, 2011

Figure 6.4 reflects the proportion showing gender-disparity in education. 60% of illiterate women stated that 1-3 males are educated in their household; despite that, these women are still illiterate.

Figure 6.4: Percentage Distribution of Male Educated Family Members (N=375) 70 60 60 52 53 50 45 1 – 3 40 29 27 26 4 – 6 30 23 21 20 22 20 More than 7 8 9 10 3 None 0 2 0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011 156

The proportion showing gender-disparity in education as male are 53% illiterate women stated that 1-3 males are educated in their household, despite that these women are still illiterate. Figure 6.5: Percentage Distribution of Educated Family Members (N=375) 60.0 54.3 51.9 50.0

40.0 27.5 30.0 26.1

20.0 17.3 10.9 8.8 10.0 2.4 .0 1-3 4-6 More than 7 None Male Educated Family 54.3 26.1 8.8 10.9 members Female Educated family 51.9 17.3 2.4 27.5 members

Source: Survey Data, 2011

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6.3 Hypothesis One: Education of Female in Study area is significantly low to that of

Male members at Household level. Table 6.10: Chi-Square Test Chi-Square Test Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 116.522a 9 .000

Likelihood Ratio 94.590 9 .000 Linear-by-Linear 55.205 1 .000 Association N of Valid Cases 375 4 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .79.

Source: Survey Data, 2011

6.4Results of Hypothesis One The statistical Analysis revealed that education among female is low in sample districts. The statistical analysis using chi square technique suggesting that male segments in the society have substantial opportunities in terms of facilities to seek education under difficulties faced by female in education resistance by family members along with lack of purchasing power are major hindrances for female at Primary and secondary level. Hypothesis one accepted.

Figure 6.6: Comparison among Three Districts Concerning Source of Income 50 47.5 45 40 34.8 35.5 Badin 35 30 22.321.6 21 21.8 25 17.9 17.7 18 20 16.1 Larkana 11.5 15 8.9 10 4 5 1.4 0 BenazirAba d

Source: Survey Data, 2011 158

Graph 6.6 above and table 6.10 below shows the highest unemployment of females is observed in Badin District with contrast of lowest education while the majority of females of Benazirabad district are employed in the Government Sector, which is considered in Pakistan a very respectable source of income. Through personal observation of researcher, it observed that the majority of females are working as teachers

6.5 Hypothesis Two(i): There is significant relationship with employment status and Education in rural Sindh Figure 6.7:Percentage distribution of Source of income(N=375) 60 55

40 39 40 36 34 35 31 30 25 24 19 19 20 18 16 15 16 14 13 10 9 10 7 8 5 5 5 2 0 Govt./Pvt. job Handicraft/Labour Agriculture/Livestock Other Unemployed

Non formal / Illiterate Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Total

Source: Survey Data, 2011 The figure shows that 10 Percent of respondents having primary education engaged in private jobs, 34 Percent of metric education respondents are doing private jobs, 55 Percent graduate women are doing private jobs and surprisingly 2 Percent of illiterate women have private jobs. Likewise 31 Percent women with Proportion (55%) of service group is primary education, 36 Percent metric, 19 higher for Govt./Pvt. Jobs. Percent graduate and 40 Percent illiterate are Higher the level of education, higher earning through handicrafts, whereas figure the chance of Govt./Pvt. Jobs. shows that the 15 Percent primary literate respondents, 7 PercentMatric, 8 Percent graduate and 25 Percentilliterate are engaged in Agriculture / Livestock. 5 Percent primary literate respondents, 5 Percent matriculation, 5 Percent a graduate and 14 Percent are

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illiterate are earning through other options. The figure shows that the 39 Percent primary literate respondents, 18 Percent matriculation, 13 Percent graduate and 19 Percent illiterate women are Unemployed or have not any source of income. Table 6.11 Chi-Square Tests Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 114.252a 12 .000

Likelihood Ratio 108.638 12 .000

Linear-by-Linear 9.980 1 .002 Association N of Valid Cases 375

1 cells (5.0) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.43.

Source: Survey Data, 2011

6.6 Results of Hypothesis Two (i) The test of independence has been used to data given in contingency table. The chi square test applied to test the independence of two variables. The value of chi square calculated from the data 114.252 with 12 degree of freedom and the P value is .000, which is less than .05. By conventional criteria, this difference considered extremely statistically significant. It shows that variables are strongly dependent or there is association between variable. While the test of independence of variable is rejected by chi square test. Therefore, it concluded that two factors work together. The source of income changes with the level of education, as educated women prefer to do govt job and avoid to do work in the agriculture field. In addition, illiterate female and less educated female are engaged in agriculture, as they do not have any other choice to earn money. As can be seen, most of the female in our study area are illiterate and they presented dissatisfactory quality of lives. In addition, female with low education has lower lively opportunities, less access to health services as compared with higher educated female. In the rural areas, the girl child performs household and agricultural duties. This is one of the many reasons restrict girls’ education. Cleaning the house, food preparation, looking after their kids, the elderly and the ill, grazing the livestock and gathering firewood are some of the important everyday jobs they have to perform. Families are consequently unwilling to 160

spare them for education. In the urban areas, however, there is a noticeable disparity in the opportunities that girls get for education and employment. Though the figures for girls would still be low overall. women being involved usually in low skill, low paid economic activities specially if they are from rural areas families. Shortage of employment chances for women caused low education level of female. Table 6.12: Comparison among Three Districts Concerning Source of Income Name of District * Source of Income Cross Tabulation Source of Income % Total Name of Govt / Handicraft Agriculture/ Other unemployment District Pvt Job /Labour Livestock Badin within Name 4.0 21.0 21.8 17.7 35.5 100. of District 0 within 8.3 19.8 42.9 64.7 50.6 33.1 Source of Income Total 1.3 6.9 7.2 5.9 11.7 33.1 Larkana within Name 22.3 34.8 17.9 8.9 16.1 100. of District 0 within 41.7 29.8 31.7 29.4 20.7 29.9 Source of Income Total 6.7 10.4 5.3 2.7 4.8 29.9 Benazirabad within Name 21.6 47.5 11.5 1.4 18.0 100. of District 0 within 50.0 50.4 25.4 5.9 28.7 37.1 Source of Income Total 8.0 17.6 4.3 .5 6.7 37.1 Total within Name 16.0 34.9 16.8 9.1 23.2 100. of District 0 within 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100. Source of 0 Income Total 16.0 34.9 16.8 9.1 23.2 100. 0 Source: Survey Data, 2011

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Figure 6.7 shows that 1 percent, 3 percent, 2 percent, and 12 percent women who are illiterates or have primary, matriculation, and graduate education respectively had income between 1-1000 rupees. 29 percent, 28 percent, 16 percent, 6 percent of illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduate women respectively had income between 1001-2000 rupees. and 6 percent, 11 percent, 36 percent, and 64 percent women who are illiterates, or have primary, matriculation, and graduate education had income of more than 3000 rupees.

Figure 6.8: Personal Income per Month 70 64 64 58 60 From 1 to 46 50 1000 36 40 1001 to 2000 29 28 30 18 20 16 2001 to 3000 11 12 10 6 6 1 3 2 0 Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate Middle

Source: Survey Data, 2011

The personal income is the entire earning of an individual of wages, interest of investment. The models of income are clear on the base of educational characteristics.

Graph clearly shows the relationship between personal income and level of education.

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Again in fig 6.8 and table 6.11 data confirms that there is highest education in Benazirabad district so there is high personal per month income of female.

Figure 6.9: Comparison among Three Districts Personal Income Per Month

Badin Larkana Benazirabad

50 46 40 41.1 36 33.9 30 25.2 25.9 20 18.7 16.1 16.5 16.1 10 10.5 8.1 3.6 0 0.91.6 From 1 to 1001 to2000 2001 to More than unemployed 1000 3000 3000

Source: Survey Data, 2011

More unemployment on female side is observed in district Badin which ranks among highly poor districts of Pakistan. The reason is lack of education as ell as lack of quality education and less economic opportunities for women.

6.7 Hypothesis Two (ii): Personal income significantly related with level of Education Table 6.13: Chi-Square Tests Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 113.479a 12 .000 Likelihood Ratio 97.449 12 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 11.750 1 .001 N of Valid Cases 375 a. 4 cells (20.0 ) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .83

Source: Survey Data, 2011

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6.8Results of Hypothesis two (ii) The test of independence has been used to data given in contingency table. A Pearson chi square test was carried out to observe whether there was a relationship between level of education and monthly income. The value of chi square calculated from the data is114.660 with 12 degree of freedom and the P value is .000 which is less than .05. By conventional criteria, this difference is considered to be extremely statistically significant. It shows that variables are strongly dependent or there is association between variable. While the test of independence of variable is rejected by chi square test. Therefore it is concluded that two factors work together. 1. The level of education has positive association with personal income per month. 2. The low level of education has positive association with low personal income per month 3. The high level of education has positive association with high personal income per month. As the level of education increased the income of women also increase. Hypothesis stands true.

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Table 6.14: Comparison among Three Districts Concerning Source of Income Name of District * Personal income Per Month Cross tabulation Personal income per month % Total Name of Fro 1001 2001 More than unemployed District m 1 to20 to 3000 to 00 3000 1000 Badin within Name of 1.6 10.5 46.0 8.1 33.9 100.0 District within Personal 25.0 19.7 37.3 16.1 48.8 33.1 income per month Total .5 3.5 15.2 2.7 11.2 33.1 Larkana within Name of .9 16.1 41.1 25.9 16.1 100.0 District within Personal 12.5 27.3 30.1 46.8 20.9 29.9 income per month Total .3 4.8 12.3 7.7 4.8 29.9 Benazira within Name of 3.6 25.2 36.0 16.5 18.7 100.0 bad District within Personal 62.5 53.0 32.7 37.1 30.2 37.1 income per month Total 1.3 2.3 9.3 17.1 6.9 37.1 Total within Name of 2.1 17.6 40.8 16.5 22.9 100.0 District within Personal 100. 100. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 income per 0 0 month Source: Survey Data, 2011

In Table 6.16, 63 percent, 67 percent, 64 percent, and 32 percent of women with illiterates primary, matriculation, and graduate said that their husband’s age at the time of marriage was in the range of 14-25 years. 33 percent, 29 percent, 36 percent, 58 percent of women 165

with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduate stated that their husband’s age at the time of marriage was in the range of 26-40 years. And 3 percent, 4 percent, 0 percent, and 11 percent of women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that their husband’s age at the time of marriage was in the range of 41-50 years.

Table 6.15: Age of Husband At The Time Of Marriage

Age of Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Husband Illiterate Middle Inter at the N % N % N % N % N % time of Marriage 14-25 80 63 32 67 23 64 6 32 141 62 26-40 42 33 14 29 13 36 11 58 80 35 41-50 4 3 2 4 0 0 2 11 8 3 Total 126 100 48 100 36 100 19 100 229 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

Figure 6.9 shows that 33 percent, 52 percent, 78 percent, and 74 percent of women with illiterate, primary, matriculation, and graduation stated that they have taken consent during marriage. 67percent, 48 percent, 22 percent and 26 percent women with primary, matriculation, graduation and illiterate women said that they did not take any consent while getting married. The percentage of ‘Yes’ is less than ‘No’ because there are more illiterate women than educated women.

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Figure 6.10: Percentage Distribution of Consent During Marriage (N=375) 90 78 80 74 67 70

60 52 48 50 Yes 40 33 26 No 30 22 20 10 0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011 Figure 6.11: Percentage distribution of number of Age of Respondent at the time of Marriage (N=375) 100 83 81 80 74 64 60 13 – 20 36 40 21 – 25 15 16 20 14 11 26 – 30 2 4 0 0 Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate Middle

Source: Survey Data, 2011

Total 74 Percent women told that their age were while getting married between ranges of 13- 20 why it happened because they were not involved in education activity only 11 Percent women reached at BA/MA: 23 Percent women told that their age were while getting married between ranges of 21-25 range because they were involved in education activity in this age group 74 Percent women reached at BA/MA it was maximum Percentage: 3 Percent women told that their age were while getting married between ranges of 26-30.

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6.7 Conclusion In this chapter, different background indicators in percentage terms are drawn through tables and charts; an effort has been made to find out the link and the level of association between dependent and independent variables using Chi-square test. Age, marital status, level of education, number of children were taken as independent variables while monthly income, type of occupation, decision making, number of educated family members etc are treated as dependent variables. Research indicates that there are male family members educated than the female, Study depicts that more educated female send their children to school. Educated female have less children illiterate.

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Chapter Seven

Perceptions of Female about Education

7.1 Introduction Education provides better work opportunities and thus increases the level of income of an individual. Perception of majority shows the present picture that how many females are aware about education. In developed societies education is perceived to be an important factor in human capital formation. Knowledge generates wealth. This chapter will look at the perception towards the importance of education and impacts of female education on the individual, household level and on society. Some indications regarding impact are highlighted such as impact on behaviours , impact and economic opportunity have been measurement. Respondents were asked several questions to find out whether they noticed if any financial, social and psychological changes occurred after acquiring an education and how they feel about these changes.

7.2 Main Changes that have occurred after getting your education Women tend to reinvest their income in improved nutrition, health and education for We are not getting quality household members, thus increasing living education properly, as in all over standards and reducing “non-income poverty” in Sindh, there is copy culture. The the long term. 33 percent of women with primary degree that we acquire is not education, matriculation and masters are of the fruitful so it cannot be a source of view that education does not bring any change. acquiring a job. (A girl told ground reality in Badin district)

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Figure – 7.1: Percentage Distribution of Main Changes Have Occurred After Getting Your Education (N=217)

Reductions in income-poverty Reduction of child malnutrition

Husband's Earnings Not at all

80 66 60 46 41 40 40 30 32 33 28 26 16 20 10 13 3 6 5 5 0 Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Total

Source: Survey Data, 2011

7.3 Impact on family relations after getting education 94 percent of women with matriculation education stated that education results in good behaviour. 77 percent with primary education and 84 percent graduate women supported this view. Surprisingly, 5 percent women with Masters’ degree are of the view that education creates a bad impact on family behaviour. Women shared that a highly educated women is self-sufficient, independent and with strong thoughts, which is not good for a patriarchal family. They may not able to get married early or they will not obey husband and in-laws’ instructions properly. 14 percent, 5 percent and 3 percent women with primary, matric and Masters’ education said that there is no impact of education on family behaviour. Illiterate women respondents felt there is no impact on family relations. Only educated respondents felt that it had an impact on family relations. They were more sensitive than the illiterate respondents were.

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Figure 7.2: Percentage Distribution of Impact On Family Relations After Getting Education (Behavior) N=217

Good Bad Same Don’t know No response 94 100 84 77 80 60 40 14 20 8 8 0 1 0 5 1 0 5 3 0 0 Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA

Source: Survey Data, 2011

Table 7.1: Impact on Family Relations After Getting Education (Importance) Importance Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Total Middle N % N % N % N % Increase 69 68 54 70 32 84 155 71 Decreased 2 2 0 0 1 3 3 2

Same 22 21 15 20 4 10 41 19 Don’t know 9 9 8 10 1 3 18 8 Total 102 100 77 100 38 100 217 100 Source: Survey Data, 201

The above table depicts that 68 percent, 70 percent and 84 percent of women with primary, matriculation and graduation education stated that education brings importance. Whereas again shockingly, 3 percent graduate and 1 percent primary educated women said that education decreases importance in the family because society and family expect more from educated females. 21 percent, 20 percent and 10 percent women with primary, matriculation and graduates don’t agree that education brings any importance in the family. 9 percent primary, 10 percent matriculation, and 3 percent graduate women said that they don’t know whether their importance increased or decreased due to education.

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Table 7.2: Rights of Selection Life Partner Rights of Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Total selection N % N % N % N % life partner Yes 34 33 41 53 23 61 98 45 No 56 55 27 35 8 21 91 42 Same 4 4 0 0 3 8 7 3 Don’t know 8 8 9 12 4 10 21 10 Total 102 100 77 100 38 100 217 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

33 percent, 53 percent and 61 percent women with primary, matriculation, and graduation are in agreement that education gives them the right to select a partner, while 55 percent, 35 percent and 21 percent women with primary, matriculation, and graduation said that education does not give them the right to select a partner. 10 percent women said they did not know. In Table 6.2, illiterate and educated women replies were not the same because illiterate women did not have the right of selection of life partner - that’s 0 percent. And 61 percent graduate women replied yes, but the total results were almost the same - 45 percent women replied Yes and only 42 percent women replied No.

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7.4 Financial conditions before getting education Figure 7.3: Percentage Distribution of Financial Conditions Before Getting Education (N=217) 80 70 68 70 60 50 Good 42 40 40 Bad 30 Same

20 16 14 16 16 Don’t know 10 10 4 4 0 0 Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA

Source: Survey Data, 2011 16 percent, 14 percent, and 16 percent women with primary, matriculation, and graduation said that their financial condition was good before getting education. 10 percent, 42 percent and 68 percent women with primary, matriculation and graduation told us that their financial condition was bad before getting education. A major portion - 70 percent, 40 percent, and 16 percent women with primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that their financial condition was the same before getting education and 3 percent women said they did not know. Illiterate respondents did not contribute in financial condition before getting education; only educated respondents contributed in financial condition.

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Figure 7.4: Percentage Distribution of Do You Have Any Land or Property? (N=375)

73 80 69 71 71

40 31 27 29 29 Yes

20 No

0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate Source: Survey Data, 2011

31 percent, 27 percent, 29 percent, and 29 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that they have land or property, 69 percent, 73 percent, 71 percent, and 71 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that they do not have any land or property. Women perceived as devoted mothers, admiring daughters as well as sacrificing sisters have no access to property and position in society.

Figure 7.5: Percentage Distribution of If Yes, From Where You Received This Land or Property (N=375)

Inheritance Purchased Dowry

70 64 59 60 57

50 41 41 40 35 37

30 27 18 20 8 9 10 4 0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011

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35 percent, 59 percent, 18 percent, and 64 percent illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduate women told us that their property was inherited. 57 percent, 37 percent, 41 percent, and 27 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that they purchased the property. 8 percent, 4 percent, 41 percent, and 9 percent illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation women told us that they got property in dowry. The possession of inherited property is always passed on to husbands and sons.

Figure 7.6: Percentage Distribution of “Do You Have Permission or Right To Purchase of Sale”? (N=375)

100 90 85 86 80 67 70 60 55 50 45 Yes 40 33 No 30 20 15 14 10 0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011

67percent, 85 percent, 86 percent, and 55 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation stated that they have the right to sell or purchase the property. Most respondents replied Yes to this question - that is, 74 percent. Only 26 percent women replied No; thus, most women had the right to purchase or sell, according to survey results.

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7.5 Literate women’s activities inside the household Table 7.3: Literate Women’s Activities Inside The Household Literate women’s Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total activities inside the Middle Inter household N % N % N % N % Stitching clothes 70 68 41 53 19 50 130 60 Business 0 0 4 5 3 8 7 3 Agriculture 3 3 0 0 0 0 3 1 Poultry 3 3 4 5 0 0 7 3 Livestock 11 11 11 15 4 10 26 12 Other 15 15 17 22 12 32 44 21 Total 102 100 77 100 38 100 217 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

60 percent of respondents were involved in stitching clothes, 50 percent of graduate respondents were involved in stitching clothes.

7.6 Do literate women contribute to the income of household?

Figure 7.7: Percentage Distribution of Do Literate Women Contribute To The Income Of Household? (N=375)

Up to more extent Up to some extent Don’t know

100 82 82 79 80 61 60

40 30 21 16 17 20 9 2 1 0 0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011

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61 percent, 82 percent, 82 percent, and 79 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that literate women contribute in household income. 30 percent, 16 percent, 17 percent, and 21 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduate told us that literate women contribute up to some extent in the household. 5 percent women said they did not know. Women usually devote more of their income to the family's welfare compared to men, may be because of children.

7.7 Benefits derived from female education Table 7.4: Benefits Derived From Female Education (Water supply)

Water Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total supply Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Partially 56 35 37 36 30 39 13 34 136 36 Fully 55 35 55 54 26 34 18 47 154 41 No 47 30 10 10 21 27 7 18 85 23 benefits Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

35 percent, 36 percent, 39 percent, and 34 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has partially benefited in getting water supply. 35 percent, 54 percent, 34 percent, and 47 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has fully benefited them in getting water supply and 30 percent, 10 percent, 27 percent, and 18 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has not benefited in getting water supply.

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Table 7.5: Benefits Derived From Female Education (Latrine sanitation / Kitchen sanitation) Latrine Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total sanitation / Kitchen Illiterate Middle Inter sanitation N % N % N % N % N %

Partially 27 17 18 18 23 30 13 34 81 22

Fully 88 56 46 45 41 53 21 55 196 52

No 43 27 38 37 13 17 4 11 98 26 benefits

Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100

Source: Survey Data, 2011

17 percent, 18 percent, 30 percent, and 34 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told that education has partially benefited in getting sanitation facility. 56 percent, 45 percent, 53 percent, and 55 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has fully benefited them in getting sanitation facility and 27 percent, 37 percent, 17 percent, and 11 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has not benefited in getting sanitation facility.

Table – 7.6: Benefits Derived From Female Education (Improvement in Housing Sector) Improvement in Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total housing sector Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Partially 35 22 13 13 29 38 5 13 82 22 Fully 86 54 48 47 40 52 28 74 202 54 No benefits 37 23 41 40 8 10 5 13 91 24

Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

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22 percent, 13 percent, 38 percent, and 13 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has partially benefited improvement in the housing sector. 54 percent, 47 percent, 52 percent and 74 percent women with illiterates primary, matriculation, and graduate told us that education has fully benefited improvement in housing sector and 23 percent 40 percent, 10 percent, and 13 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has not benefited improvement in housing sector.

Table – 7.7: Benefits Derived From Female Education (Increase Number of Literate Persons) Increase Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total number of literate Illiterate Middle Inter persons) N % N % N % N % N %

Partially 24 15 6 6 3 4 1 3 34 9

Fully 124 78 92 90 71 92 36 95 323 86

No 10 6 4 4 3 4 1 3 18 5 benefits

Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100

Source: Survey Data, 2011

15 percent, 6 percent, 4 percent and 3 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation stated that education has partially benefited in literacy. 78 percent, 90 percent, 92 percent and 94 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation and graduation said that education has fully benefited in literacy and 6 percent, 4 percent, 4 percent, and 3 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation and graduation said that education has not benefited in increase of literacy.

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Table – 7.8: Benefits Derived from Female Education (Increase Number of Skilled Persons) Increase number of skilled Non Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total persons formal / Middle Inter Illiterate

N % N % N % N % N % Partially 45 28 18 18 33 43 12 32 109 29

Fully 74 47 48 47 32 41 23 60 182 49

No benefits 39 25 36 35 12 16 3 8 84 22

Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100

Source: Survey Data, 2011

28 percent, 18 percent, 43 percent and 32 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has partially benefited in increased number of skilled persons. 47 percent, 47 percent, 41 percent and 60 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told that education has fully benefited in number of skilled persons: and 25 percent, 35 percent, 16 percent, and 8 percent women with illiterates primary, matriculation, and graduation told that education has not benefited in increase of number of skilled persons.

Table – 7.9: Benefits Derived from Female Education (Other Social Services) Other Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Total social Illiterate Middle services N % N % N % N % N % Partially 41 26 17 17 18 24 4 11 83 22 Fully 105 66 77 75 52 69 34 89 271 72 No 12 8 8 8 7 7 0 0 21 5 benefits Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 99 Source: Survey Data, 2011

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26 percent, 17 percent, 24 percent, and 11 percent of women who are illiterate, have primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that Female education gets better education has partially benefited in access to child wellbeing because health and other services. 66 percent, 75 percent, educated mothers have better 69 percent, and 89 percent of women who are awareness of the value of illiterate, have primary, matriculation, and graduationhygiene told andus ofthat simple education cures. has fully benefited in access to health and other services. And 8 percent, 8 percent, 7 percent and 0 percent of women who are illiterate, have primary, matriculation and graduation told us that education has not benefited in access to health and other services.

Table –7.10: Benefits Derived from Female Education (Access to Hospital) Access Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Non formal / Total to Middle Illiterate hospital N % N % N % N % N % Partially 72 46 26 25 26 34 15 39 139 37 Fully 86 54 69 68 42 55 18 47 215 57 No 7 7 9 12 5 13 21 6 benefits Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

46 percent, 25 percent, 34 percent and 39 percent women with primary, matriculation, graduation and illiterates stated that education has partially benefited in increased access to hospital. 54 percent, 68 percent, 55 percent and 47 percent women with primary, matriculation, graduation and illiterates said that education has fully benefited in increased access to hospital. And 7 percent, 12 percent and 13 percent women with matriculation, graduation and illiterates said that education hasn’t benefited in increased access to hospital.

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Table 7.11: Benefits Derived from Female Education (Increased Immunization of Children) Increased Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total immunization Illiterate Middle Inter of children N % N % N % N % N % Partially 45 28 31 30 17 22 13 34 106 28 Fully 92 58 58 57 57 74 23 61 230 61 No benefits 21 13 13 13 3 4 2 5 39 10

Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 ource: Survey Data, 2011

28 percent, 30 percent, 22 percent, and 34 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has partially benefited in increased immunization of children. 58 percent, 57 percent, 74 percent, and 61 percent women with illiterate, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has fully benefited in increased immunization of children. And 13 percent, 13 percent, 4 percent, and 5 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that education has not benefited in increases of immunization of children.

Table 7.12: Benefits Derived from Female Education (Reduction of Morbidity And Mortality) Reduction Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total of Illiterate Middle Inter morbidity N % N % N % N % N % and Mortality Partially 27 17 17 17 19 25 5 13 68 18 Fully 115 73 81 79 53 69 31 82 280 75 No 16 10 4 4 5 6 2 5 27 7 benefits Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

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17 percent, 17 percent, 25 percent, and 13percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation Lower infant mortality, which in turn means that a stated that education has family does not need to have a large number of partially benefited in reduction children’s possibility of premature death and expenses of morbidity and mortality. 73 on morbidity percent, 79 percent, 69 percent, and 82 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation stated that education has fully benefited in the reduction of morbidity and mortality. 10 percent, 4 percent, 6 percent, and 5 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that education has not benefited in reduction of morbidity and mortality.

Table 7.13: Benefits Derived from Female Education (Increased Livelihood Opportunities) Increased Non formal Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total livelihood / Illiterate Middle Inter opportunities N % N % N % N % N % Partially 52 33 29 28 23 30 14 37 118 31 Fully 81 51 57 56 43 56 21 55 202 54 No benefits 25 16 16 16 11 14 3 8 55 15

Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

33 percent, 28 percent, 30 percent, and 37 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that education has partially benefited in increased livelihood opportunities. 51 percent, 56 percent, 56 percent, and 55 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that education has fully benefited in increased livelihood opportunities. And 16 percent, 16 percent, 14 percent, and 8 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that education has not benefited in increased livelihood opportunities.

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Figure-7.8: Percentage Distribution of Diagram Showing Data District Wise on Impact of Education on Livelihood Opportunities (N=375) Badin Larkana Benazirabad

40.0% 34.2% 35.0% 33.1% 32.7% 30.0% 25.0% 20.8% 19.2% 20.0% 15.2% 15.0% 10.0% 8.5% 9.4% 10.0% 7.2% 7.8%

5.0% 1.9% .0% Partially Fully No Benefits Total

Increased livelihood Opportunities

Source: Survey Data, 2011

Figure shows positive association between livelihood opportunities and female education. A family has more income opportunities if there are educated women.

Table 7.14: Knowledge Regarding Inheritance Law Knowledge Non formal Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total regarding / Illiterate Middle Inter inheritancelaw N % N % N % N % N % Yes 61 39 39 38 55 71 25 66 180 48 No 97 61 63 62 22 29 13 34 195 52 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

39 percent, 38 percent, 71 percent, and 66 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that they know about the law of inheritance and 61 percent, 62 percent, 29 percent, 34 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, graduation said that they do not have knowledge of the law of inheritance.

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Figure-7.9: Percentage Distribution of Knowledge about Family Planning (N=375) 70.0% Yes No No response 60.0% 57.5% 48.8% 50.0% 40.0% 40.0% 28.6% 30.0% 26.4% 21.3% 19.40% 20.0% 14.2% 15.0% 12.0% 10.6% 10.0% 6.3%

.0% Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Non formal/Illetrate

Source: Survey Data, 2011

The negative correlation between female education and fertility is well established.

Table – 7.15: Did You Ever Vote Do Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total you Illiterate Middle Inter ever N % N % N % N % N % voted Yes 122 77 40 39 37 48 31 82 230 61 No 36 23 62 61 40 52 7 18 145 39 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

77 percent, 39 percent, 48 percent, and 82 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation stated that they have voted and 23 percent, 61 percent, 52 percent, and 18 percent women with illiterates, primary, matric, and graduate women have not voted ever. In Table 6.15, almost all illiterate (77%) and educated (graduate 82%) women replied the same which was ‘yes’; thus, almost the same result for illiterate and educated women, but the total results were different whereby 61 percent women replied ‘yes’ and only 35 percent women replied ‘no’.

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Figure- 7.10: Percentage Distribution of Consent to Cast Vote (N=375) 120 99 100 86 80 66 61 60 34 39 Yes 40 14 20 No 1 0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011

66 percent, 61 percent, 86 percent, and 99 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that they have consent to cast vote and 34 percent, 39 percent, 14 percent, and 1 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that they did not have consent to cast vote. Though the more illiterate female cast votes, despite that, the study reveals that they do not have right to decide whether to cast vote and education has a positive relationship with the consent to cast vote.

7.8 Decision Making Figure – 7.11: Percentage Distribution of Decision Making (Household Management) (N=375)

Female Non formal / Illiterate Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA

10%

35% 24%

31%

Source: Survey Data, 2011 186

10 percent, 24 percent, 31 percent, and 35 percent women illiterate, with primary, matriculation, and graduation said that females take decisions in household management. The level of education is the main factor which catalyzes female decision making such as household management. Therefore, educated females had more power to take household decisions.

Figure 7.12: Percentage Distribution of Decision Making -Family Matters (N=375) Female

Non formal / Illiterate Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA

8 13 46

Source: Survey Data, 2011

8 percent, 13 percent, 33 percent, and 48 percent of illiterates, primary, matric, and graduate women said that they have the right to decide regarding family matters.

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Table –7.16: Decision Making (Land and Crops) Land Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Total and Illiterate Middle Crops N % N % N % N % N % Male 90 57 72 71 54 70 25 66 241 64 Female 12 8 3 3 3 4 0 0 18 5 Both 33 21 19 19 15 19 8 21 75 20 None 23 15 8 8 5 6 5 13 41 11 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

57 percent, 71 percent, 70 percent, and 66 percent women with illiterates’ primary, matriculation, and graduation said that males have the right to decide regarding land and crop. 8 percent, 3 percent, 4 percent, and 0 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that females have the right to decide regarding land and crop. 15 percent, 8 percent, 6 percent, and 13 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that both males and females take decisions regarding land and crop.

Table – 7.17: Decision Making (Health) Health Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Male 41 26 26 25 16 21 8 21 91 24 Femal 30 19 19 19 6 8 4 11 59 16 e Both 87 55 57 56 55 71 26 68 225 60 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

26 percent, 25 percent, 21 percent, and 21 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that males have the right to decide regarding health seeking. 19 percent, 19 percent, 8 percent, and 11 percent illiterates, primary, matric, and graduate women told us that females have the right to decide regarding health seeking and

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56 percent, 71 percent, 68 percent and 55 percent women with primary, matriculation, graduation and illiterates told us that both males and females take decisions regarding health seeking. Males had more power to take health decisions than females, but here illiterate male and female or educated male and female were also concerned about health decisions, males had 24 percent and females had only 16 percent, so males were more involved in health decision.

Table 7.18: Decision Making (Matrimonial) Matrimonial Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Male 82 52 60 59 31 40 10 26 183 49 Female 18 11 13 13 5 6 4 11 36 10 Both 58 37 29 28 41 53 24 63 152 41 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 371 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

52 percent, 59 percent, 40 percent, and 26 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduate told us that males have the right to make matrimonial decisions. 11 percent, 13 percent, 6 percent, and 11 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation women told us that females have the right to make matrimonial decisions. 37 percent, 28 percent, 53 percent, and 63 percent illiterates, primary, educated, matriculation and graduate women told us that both males and females make matrimonial decisions.

Males had the maximum percentage of matrimonial decisions than females, and interestingly, educated males and females were both involved in matrimonial decisions, some illiterate males and females were also involved, males had 49 percent and females had only 10 percent, so males were more involved in matrimonial decisions.

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Figure-7.13: Percentage Distribution of Decision Making (Property/Ownership) (N=375) Female

40 32 30 27 22 19 20

0 Non Primary / Matric / BA / MA formal / Middle Inter Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011 As education increases, decision making by females on property matters also rises.

Table 7.19: Decision Making (Marketing of Fish) Marketing Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total of Fish Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Male 30 19 41 40 18 23 8 21 97 26 Female 8 5 0 0 0 0 6 16 14 4 Both 18 11 4 4 4 5 0 0 26 7 None 102 65 57 56 55 71 24 63 238 63 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

19 percent, 40 percent, 23 percent, and 21 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that males have the right to decide regarding marketing of fish and 5 percent, and 16 percent illiterate and graduates women said that females have the right to decide regarding marketing of fish. 11 percent, 4 percent and 5 percent, women with illiterates, primary and matriculation said that both males and females take decisions regarding marketing of fish. A large number of 63 percent of women belong to families that are not related with the fishing profession.

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Table – 7.20: Decision Making (Sale of Agriculture Production) Sale of Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Agriculture Illiterate Middle Inter Production N % N % N % N % N % Male 76 48 72 71 49 64 20 53 217 58 Female 14 9 1 1 0 0 2 5 17 5 Both 25 16 5 5 8 10 1 3 39 10 None 43 27 24 24 20 26 15 39 102 27 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

48 percent, 71 percent, 64 percent, and 53 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduate stated that males have the right to decide regarding sales of agriculture production and only 9 percent, 1 percent, and 5 percent illiterate, primary and graduate women stated that both males and females take decisions regarding sales of agriculture production. Only 10 percent females said that both decide about sales of agriculture production while 27 percent women’s families are not concerned with the occupation of agriculture. The total percentage of Sale of Agriculture Production of males is greater than that of females, males had 58 percent and females had only 4 percent so males were more involved in the Sale of Agriculture Production than females. 7.9:HypothesisThree:Decision making regarding property matters related with level of Female education.

Table 7.21: Chi-Square Tests Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2- sided) Pearson Chi-Square 25.935a 12 .011 Likelihood Ratio 32.285 12 .001 Linear-by-Linear Association 3.776 1 .052 N of Valid Cases 375 a. 7 cells (35.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .91.

Source: Survey Data, 2011 191

7.10Results of Hypothesis Three It is analyzed through chi-square test that level of education is associated with hold of decision making regarding property matters. By encouraging female education and status in society, participation in decision making about property can be enhanced. It is analyzed that female with low education possess low decision-making power regarding property or power for sale and purchase of property. Women's autonomy in decision making is positively associated with their level of education. Table – 7.22: Decision Making (Livestock Management) Livestock Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Management Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Male 66 42 62 61 34 44 16 42 178 47 Female 23 15 12 12 8 10 6 16 49 13 Both 49 31 17 17 20 26 8 21 94 25 None 20 13 11 11 15 19 8 21 54 14 Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011 42 Percent, 61 Percent, 44 Percent, and 42 Percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation and graduation told that males have right to decide regarding livestock management: 15 Percent, 12 Percent, 10 Percent and 16 Percent primary matriculation, graduation and illiterates women told that females have right to decide regarding livestock management and 31 Percent, 17 Percent, 26 Percent and 21 Percent primary, matriculation, graduation and illiterate women told that both males and females take decisions regarding livestock management.14 Percent families does not have any livestock. The total Percentage of Livestock Management of male is greater than female, and secondly which is more interesting educated male and female both were involved in this business or activity, male had 47 Percent and female had only 13 Percent so male were more involved in Sale of Livestock Management.

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Figure-7.14: Percentage Distribution of Community Participation (N=375)

Non formal / Illiterate Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA

80 73 59 60 45 40 34 28 24 21 20 15 15 18 16 15 20 11 5 1 0 NGO membership Local bodies Collective community Entertainment/cultural activities activities

Source: Survey Data, 2011

21 percent, 15 percent, 34 percent, and 45 percent women with illiterate, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that they have NGO membership. Only 5 percent, 15 percent, 28 percent and 24 percent women with illiterate, primary, matriculation and graduation told us that they participated in local bodies elections. Only 1 percent illiterate women, 11 percent with primary, 18 percent matriculation, and 16 percent graduate told us that they participate in collective community activities and 73 percent, 59 percent, 20 percent and 15 percent women with illiterate, primary, matriculation and graduation told us that they participate in cultural activities. The relationship between education and political participation is well established. Educated females are to some extent more likely to participate and be active in the political process. In addition, females that are more educated are members of local NGOs.

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7.11 Hypothesis Four: Social awareness is significantly related with Female education in Sindh. Table – 7.23: Awareness Awareness Non Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total formal / Middle Inter Illiterate N % N % N % N % N % Human Rights 2 1 101 99 76 99 38 100 217 58 NGOs 2 1 96 94 77 100 38 100 213 57 District Government 0 0 0 0 76 99 38 100 114 30

Election 156 99 102 100 77 100 38 100 373 99 Law and Order 0 0 0 0 18 23 38 100 56 15 New Dress 158 100 102 100 76 99 38 100 374 100 Beauty Cosmetics 57 36 102 100 76 99 38 100 273 73 Women’s Rights 1 1 99 97 77 100 38 100 215 57 Family Courts 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 3 1 Family Planning 127 80 49 48 32 42 19 50 227 61 Tribal Chiefs 156 99 102 100 76 99 38 100 372 99 Towns / Large Villages 59 37 54 53 61 79 32 84 206 55

Loss of Fish 0 0 0 0 76 99 38 100 114 30 Quantity of Water 0 0 0 0 76 99 38 100 114 30 Quality of Water 1 1 99 97 77 100 38 100 215 57 Loss of Forest 0 0 0 0 76 99 38 100 114 30 Base 158 455 102 888 77 134 38 143 375 852 0 4 Source: Survey Data, 2011

It can be said that women who had a graduate degree had most awareness of human rights, NGOs, district government and elections, etc. Women who had Matric/Inter had awareness of social activities. Illiterate women had awareness of election, new dress and family

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planning but they were mostly unaware of human rights, district government and the law and order situation. Even if there was awareness, it accounted for a very low percentage of illiterate women. Table – 7.24: Major Source of Information according to level of education Major Source of Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total Information Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Radio 12 8 11 11 2 3 0 0 25 7 TV 121 77 78 76 45 58 23 61 267 71 Newspaper 0 0 2 2 22 29 15 39 39 10

Neighbor 24 15 9 9 2 3 0 0 35 9 Family head 1 1 2 2 3 4 0 0 6 2 Educated children 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 3 1

Base 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011 8 Percent,11 Percent, and 3 Percent, illiterate primary, and matriculation women told that Radio is the main source of information for them, 76 Percent, 58 Percent, 61 Percent and 77 Percent women with primary, matriculation, graduation and illiterates women told that TV is their source of information, 2 Percent, 29 Percent,and39 Percent women with primary, matriculation, and graduation told that newspaper is the source of information, 15 Percent, 9 Percent and 3 Percentilliterate women, with primary, matriculation, graduation and illiterates women told that Neighbors are the source of information, 2 Percent, 4 Percent and 1 Percent women with primary, matriculation, and illiterates women told that family head is the source of information, only 4 Percent female with matriculation education told that their children are the source of information.

7.12 Results of Hypothesis four: Hypothesis accepted. Educated women are more politically active, better informed about their legal rights and how to exercise them and more socially aware. Quality-of-life scores were lower in illiterate female The greater amount of knowledge a women possesses, the more she can influence and contribute to her society. Through education women gain "political awareness, participation and organizational skills which enables them to become effective community member.

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7.13 Conclusion Research revealed that education is an important element in human capital. Investment in education will enhance the skill and knowledge of an individual. An individual with more education will be more productive and subsequently enjoy a higher level of income. This will improve the standard of living of the individual. There can be no doubt that the acquisition of education is vital. From the study, it is found that most women perceived that education is very important. They are of the same opinion that education can influence future income. They agreed that a higher level of education leads to a higher level of income. Besides a direct increase in income, education is important for the indirect impact on income through improvement in multiple aspects including health, hygiene conditions, decision making, increased awareness and a decreased mortality rate.

On the other hand a good number of women are of the view that education has no any significant impact on their economic opportunities, study discovered that only higher education have negative relationship with poverty, education at the primary and secondary level does not have direct link with economic opportunity or poverty alleviation. It can be because of lack of quality education or lack of basic skills for life in curriculum.

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Chapter Eight

Barriers and Obstacles Faced By Females While Getting Education

8.1 Introduction This chapter describes barriers and obstacles faced by females during getting education. Understanding these is important because the barriers perceived by women are likely to influence such critical decisions as whether to finish school or to pursue higher education. A variety of barriers to education and occupations are likely to be perceived by females. In addition to financial barriers, gender role socialization is often noted as an obstacle with respect to the educational and career attainment. Family problems, not being smart enough, family attitudes towards girls’ education and job, a belief that education would not help in the future and the distance between school and home are perceived to be important hurdles against acquiring an education.

8.2 Difficulties Faced During Education Figure-8.1: Percentage Distribution of Type of Difficulties Faced During Education (N=217) 70 63 60 50 3939 40 35 35 36 33 Primary / Middle 30 22 19 20 13 16 16 Matric / Inter 9 7 8 10 10 BA / MA 0 Total Resistance of Lack of Early marriage Any other family capacity to pay for education

Source: Survey Data, 2011

35 percent, 9 percent and 13 percent women with primary education, matriculation and graduation respectively stated that family resistance is the cause of not getting education. 39 percent, 39 percent and 16 percent women with primary education, matriculation and graduation respectively, said that lack of paying capacity is the cause of not getting an education. 7 percent, 16 percent and 8 percent women with primary, matriculation and 197

graduate education stated that early marriage is the major cause, 33 percent women stated that they faced other difficulties like cultural attitude and reproduction. These were the barriers against getting an education. In this scenario, lack of capacity to pay for education has come out as an empirically significant obstacle in getting an education. This is a very common factor particularly in rural families.

Figure-8.2: Percentage Distribution of Who Restricted You from Seeking Education? (N=375)

Non formal / Illiterate Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Total

84 79

58 53 43 30 22 20 23 20 19 10 13 5 5 4 5 1 3 3

Parents Husband Any other No one

Source: Survey Data, 2011

More than half (58 percent) of the women said that there was no restriction The social restrictions interact in whether to get an education or not from astonishing ways to limit educational any family member, especially in Badin chances for girls. Schooling is district. However, girls’ education in significantly discouraged when girls have districts such as Larkana is discouraged to travel more than one kilometer. due to social and cultural taboos.

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Table – 8.1: How Far Is The Last Educational Institution From Home? Distance Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Total N % N % N % N % Within 1 km 35 34 2 3 4 11 41 19

Away 1 km 49 48 39 51 19 50 107 49

More than 1 km away 18 18 36 47 15 39 69 32

Total 102 100 77 100 38 100 217 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

34 percent, 3 percent and 11 percent women with primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that access to education is close to their homes. 48 percent, 51 percent and 50 percent women with primary, matriculation and graduation told us that access to education is one km away and 18 percent, 47 percent and 39 percent women with primary, matriculation and graduation told us that access to education is more than one km away from their homes. Physical security of the girls, particularly when they have to travel a long distance to school, and fear of sexual harassment are other factors that hinder girls' education and poor families cannot afford the traveling cost of a girl child for education. Hence, long distances to schools is also one major reason of low education level of women.

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Table -8.2: Mode of Girls’ Access To School. Mode of Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total access Illiterate Middle Inter N % N % N % N % N % Walk 63 40 83 81 3 51 10 50 204 54 9 Cycle 9 6 1 1 5 6 2 5 17 5 Bus 84 53 16 16 2 38 26 45 146 39 9 Other 2 1 2 2 4 5 0 0 8 2 Total 158 100 102 100 7 100 38 10 375 100 7 0 Source: Survey Data, 2011

40 percent, 81 percent, 51 percent, and 50 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that girls walk to school, 6 percent,1 percent, 6 percent, and 5 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation , and graduation said that girls go to school on cycles, 53 percent,16 percent 38 percent, and 45 percent women with illiterates, primary , matriculation and graduation said that girls go to school by bus. 1 percent, 2 percent, and 5 percent women with illiterates, primary, and matriculation, said that girls go to school by other modes of transport.

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8.3 Reasons of Getting Education

Figure 8.3: Percentage Distribution of Why Women Get Education (N=375) 60 52 To be literate 50 40 3737 40 3534 31 31 To get job for 27 30 25 24 support of 21 family 20 To increase awareness 10 3 1 2 0 For any other 0 reason Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate Middle

Source: Survey Data, 2011

25 percent, 40 percent, 31 percent, and 21 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that education helps to be literate. 37 percent, 31 percent, 35 percent, and 24 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation , and graduation said that education helps to get jobs for supporting family, 37 percent, 27 percent, 34 percent, and 52 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that education increases awareness, which leads to poverty alleviation. Only 1 percent women feel that women get education for other reasons, a majority of total women (34 percent) think that motivation behind getting education is to get a job and to support family.

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Table- 8.3: Type of Difficulties Faced During Education and Respondent Education Total Type Of Difficulties Faced During Education

Resistance Lack of Early Any other of family capacity to marriage pay for education Respondent Primary / 36 40 7 19 102 Education Middle Matric / 7 30 11 26 74 Inter BA / MA 5 6 2 21 34 Total 48 76 20 66 210 Source: Survey Data, 2011

Figure -8.4: Percentage Distribution of Reason for Not Sending to School (N=375) 70 61 60 Girls do not need 50 46 to be educated 38 40 34 Due to poverty 29 30 25 23 22 22 22 Distance from 17 18 20 home to school 12 13 10 8 10 Any other reason

0 Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate Middle

Source: Survey Data, 2011

34 percent, 17 percent, 22 percent, and 8 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that there is no need for girls education. 29 percent, 38 percent, 46 percent, and 61 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that poverty is the cause. 25 percent, 22 percent, 22 percent, and 18 percent 202

women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that distance is the main reason, while 15 percent women said there are other reasons for not sending women to school such as men do not allow, purdah or, due to insecurity, parents do not send girls to schools. Girls’ lack of access to education isn’t always associated to shortage of schools but the major reason of gender disparity in education is inadequate money. Economic costs limit girls’ educational chances. The second main reason in gender disparity in low educational attainment is rooted in cultural perceptions that girls do not need to be educated.

Figure-8.5: Percentage Distribution of If Opportunities Are Limited, Who Should Get Priority To Get Education? (N=375) 90 85 79 80 70 57 58 60 50 43 42 40 Male 30 21 Female 20 15 10 0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011

85 percent, 79 percent, 57 percent, and 58 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that males should be given priority for education if opportunities are limited. 15 percent, 21 percent, 43 percent, and 42 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation told us that females should be given education if opportunities are limited. Attitudes and biases in communities and families restrict female education. Males have better opportunities. 75 percent said males should be given chance to get education if limited opportunities and only 25percent said female.

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Table -8.4: Do You Think That Female Education Can Play A Role In Marital Adjustment? Role in Non formal / Primary / Matric / BA / MA Total marital Illiterate Middle Inter adjustment N % N % N % N % N % Yes 128 81 87 85 67 87 31 82 313 83 No 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 8 2 Up to some 13 8 12 12 8 10 5 13 38 10 extent Don’t know 12 8 2 2 1 1 1 3 16 4

Total 158 100 102 100 77 100 38 100 375 100 Source: Survey Data, 2011

81 percent, 85 percent, 87 percent, and 82 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that education plays a positive role in marital adjustment, whereas total 2 percent women said that there is no positive role of education in marital adjustment. 8 percent, 12 percent, 10 percent, and 13 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that, to some extent, marital adjustment and education are correlated because of the patriarchal family system. 4 percent women reserved their views by saying ‘do not know’.

Figure 8.6: Percentage Distribution of Is There Any Negative Impact of Female Education? (N=375) 80 75

70 Up to some 58 extent 60 52 49 Up to more 50 extent 40 Not at all 28 30 27 19 19 19 18 Don’t know 20 16 8 10 5 5 1 1 0 Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate Middle

Source: Survey Data, 2011 204

27 percent, 19 percent, 16 percent, and 19 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that, to some extent, female education has negative impact. Surprisingly, 5 percent with a Masters degree and 5 percent illiterate women agreed that female education has a greater negative impact, but there is a difference. Women with a Masters degree feel that education is the reason of triple burden on women because society expects more from educated women. Therefore, she faces more psychological and social problems whereas illiterate women perceive a negative impact because when educated women use their right of selecting partner, exogamy or taking role in decision making, these have a negative impacts on family honor in a patriarchal system. On the other hand, 49 percent, 52 percent, 75 percent, and 58 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation oppose it by saying that there is no negative impact of female education. 20 percent women reserved their views by saying they do not know.

Figure 8.7: Percentage Distribution of Family Attitude To Women’s Work (N=375) 80 73 68 70 65 59 60 50 Positive 40 Negative 27 30 22 22 No interference 20 14 15 10 12 10 5 5 3 Don’t know 0 0 0 Non formal / Primary / Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate Middle

Source: Survey Data, 2011

59 percent, 68 percent, 65 percent, and 73 percent of women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that family attitude was positive for women’s work. Only 14 percent, 5 percent, 10 percent, and 12 percent women with illiterates, primary education, matriculation, and graduation said that family attitude was negative for women’s work. 22 percent, 27 percent, 22 percent, and 15 percent women with illiterates, primary, matriculation, and graduation said that the family did not interfere in women’s work, whereas 3 percent women said they ‘do not know’. 205

Figure8.8: Percentage Distribution of Role of Family and Others In Paid Work Decision Making (N=375)

Positive Negative Up to some extent No any role

80 67 70 57 60 55 50 44 40 30 26 21 22 21 20 14 16 14 14 10 12 7 10 0 0 Non formal / Primary / Middle Matric / Inter BA / MA Illiterate

Source: Survey Data, 2011

44 percent, 55 percent, 57 percent, 67 percent, and 100 percent women with illiterates primary, matriculation, and graduation stated that there is positive role of family and others in business decision making about jobs for females. 14 percent, 10 percent, and 7 percent women with illiterates, primary, and matriculation stated that there is negative role of family and others in business decision making about jobs for females. 16 percent, 21 percent, 14 percent, and Education is major factor in 12 percent women with illiterates primary, formatting the decision-making matriculation, and graduation said that there is, to authority regarding women own some extent, role of family in business decision life. The higher the education, the making. 26 percent, 14 percent, 22 percent, and 21 greater the possibility that the percent women with illiterates, primary, woman makes her own decisions. matriculation, and graduate said that there is no role of family and others in business decision making about jobs for females. Mostly, women alone cannot take decisions regarding employment, they consult with family members of the household in making their employment decisions. If they are not willing, women cannot do any jobs.

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8.4 Hypothesis Five: there is an association between Socio economic difficulties and female education Table-8.5: Chi-Square Tests Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2- sided) Pearson Chi-Square 411.568a 15 .000 Likelihood Ratio 470.315 15 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 2.452 1 .117 N of Valid Cases 210 a. 6 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .71.

Source: Survey Data, 2011

8.5 Results of Hypothesis Five The Chi-Square value for the association between Socio economic difficulties and female education was obtained as 411.568a with 15 degrees of freedom and a Significance Probability less than .05 - i.e. extremely statistically significant result. On the evidence of this data there would appear to be no doubt that there is an association between Socio economic difficulties and female education in the population from which this sample of 210 respondentswas drawn.

Poverty is the most pervasive barrier to the female education. Economic conditions conspire to encourage early termination of the education of girls. Other cultural factors such as girls at puberty, early marriage, Resistance of family because of concern for girls moral, physical welfare limit, and the practices of the segregation and seclusion of women restrict education. The barriers faced generally by women in attending courses apply: family commitments, lack of partner support, financial, living in rural/isolated areas. Fees requirements are major barriers. Situational and cultural factors intersect in the barrier of significant distances to travel to school. Social pressures that operate demands for females to care for siblings and do household/farm work.

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8.6 Conclusion Study revealed that being a female, girls face more financial obstacles than the male, female face negative attitudes accruing education. Research indicates that female have to participate in household chores, females education has take less priorty than male Apart from economic obstacles female face more, female face more social restrictions and negative attitude by family. Numbers most of the female can not go alone to school and she has to take care of her siblings. Illterate women are of the perception that female does not have any need to be educated.

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Chapter Nine

Conclusions and Recommendations

 This study was aimed at finding out the correlation between female education and poverty alleviation. Poverty was described by unawareness, illiteracy, being sick, have no access to hospital, no right to decide about their selves, and so on. Education which is acknowledged at present to a certain common number to be international as a right human being and an imperative of development, one of the spheres is that was subjected to this question feminine . The priority to the males on females in education was characteristise since ancient societies,

 Analyzing the history of concept of education, one can see that in education, oral traditions were central in societies without written texts. Similarly, the literacy in the pre-industrial era and societies showed much association with the civil administration, law, trade and commerce, and religion. It also shows that formal schooling was given to rich groups either at holy places or at splendid palaces of rich and influential people. For the last hundred and fifty to two hundred years, education for children developed immensely. The third world countries have experienced development for the last fifty years. In addition, old trends for educating girls still exist in the modern era.As It was agreed that the brains of women were less brilliant than those of men and the foremost need was to educate girls in reading the holy books.

 The study confirms the close relationship between female education and the state of poverty in the study area. The data reveals that female/women’s education strengthens democratic norms in the society, and provides economic opportunities within the household.It empowers females/women to take decisions on socioeconomic matters within the family; thus, women, along with society, contribute to the wellbeing of the state. The study confirms the poor state of female education in the study area and poor net enrolment with high dropout ratio among

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females in schools.

 In history of education in Pakistan, assessment of the strategies and plans regarding the educational reforms and improvement in Pakistan is necessary to put the issues in historical perspective. Historical review revealed that during the first fifty years of independence, Pakistan largely remained illiterate country. Categorically, around 80 percent of the rural women population was illiterate and around two third of the total population was illiterate. Considering child education, only quarter of children, age five to nine, attend the schools. Surprisingly, those who attend the schools were deprived of quality of education

 The statistics drops some attention-grabbing evidences about education in sindh, the gender differences in education are lower in urban region as compared to rural regions, it can be because of tribal or feudal type and patriarchal tradition of society. furthermore there are very limited opportunities for female employment in rural areas.

 Purposively selected districts are representatives of the entire Sindh province in the context of exploring the position of poverty and the causes of female education, scientifically designed for selecting samples from the major districts of Larkana, Benazirabad and Badin.

 Through the literature review this study confirms education and literacy rates increased by 45 to 54 percent though the Pakistan’s participation rate remain lowest in South Asia also there is wider gap between male and female, rural – urban and regional differences. only 22 percent girls get primary education as compared to 47 percent boys.

 In order to get more enrollment and more girls in schools life skills should be provided through education, because education is not a tool for development but education itself is development.The study has been conceded utilizing different sources of secondary data. Available information indicates that to address poverty, women have made in informal work , and largely non-agricultural activities in rural

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areas . Retail disabled education for human development , job skills , poor health , lack of mobility and information , opportunities for women are very limited, forcing national children and low-skilled jobs with low wages, both rural and urban areas .

 Poverty is a deprivation of resources, capabilities and freedoms that are commonly called dimensions or spaces poverty. The term feminization can be applied to indicate a change of gender bias in any of these dimensions . The feminization of poverty requires changes , so should not be confused with the existence of high levels of poverty among women or female-headed households . Feminization is a process , " the highest poverty " is a state. It is also a relative concept based on one of the women - men (or female-male/couple headed households ) for comparison , where what matters are the differences between women and men at all times.

 Social conditions such as health, nutrition, education, housing and the influence of productivity, thus affecting the state of poverty. These, in turn, are influenced by poverty, which affects the ability of families to achieve adequate in order to improve productivity social conditions. Efforts to reduce poverty, therefore, require a complete system of intervention, not only in economic, but also includes social aspects, so that poverty can be addressed as a socio-economic phenomenon.

 Lack of capacity to pay for education has come out as an empirically significant obstacle in gaining an education, which is very common particularly in rural families. The proportion (55) of service groups is higher for government/private jobs. The higher the level of education, the higher the chance of government/private jobs.Findings of this study enhance our understanding that illiterate or primary literate women send their girls to school less than matric or graduate-level educated women, because more literate women have their own source of income and are more aware about importance of education.

 This study has shown that major change that has occurred after getting education includes reductions in income-poverty. One of the more significant findings emerging from this study is that majority of women covet the view that education increases awareness that also leads to poverty alleviation.

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 It was also shown that major reason of gender disparity in education is inadequate money. Economic costs limit girls’ educational chances.Moreover, this study has found that attitudes and biases within communities and families also restrict female education. Education is a major factor in formatting the decision-making authority regarding a woman’s own life. The higher the education, the greater the possibility that the woman makes her own decisions.

 Restricted possession of property (through inadequate inheritance or lack of power over their own assets) also partially explains women’s limited access to economic services.Female education results in the betterment of children’s wellbeing because educated mothers have increased awareness of the value of hygiene and of simple cures.The level of education is a main factor that catalyses/increases female decision- making in activities such as household management.

 The proportion of respondents in higher income groups increases with the level of education. This is one of the essential impacts of education on the economic status of the respondents.  Personal income per month has a positive correlation with decision-making in household management.

 The proportion showing gender-disparity in education as 53 illiterate women told that 1-3 males are educated in their household, despite that these women are still illiterate. On the other hand surprisingly 5 women with master’s degrees are only educated member of their families.A wide majority of women accept that there is a positive impact on family relations after getting education. Family members behave well with educated girls and education gives girls the right to self-selecting a partner.

 The social restrictions interact in astonishing ways to limit educational chances for girls. Schooling is significantly discouraged when girls have to travel more than one kilometer.  There is positive role of education in marital adjustment.Female education, however, can be said to have negative impact. Women with Master’s degrees feel that

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education is the reason for the triple burden on women because society expects more from educated women. Therefore, women face more psychological and social problems. On the other hand, illiterate women perceive the educated women’s right to selecting a partner, exogamy or taking role in decision-making as negatively impacting family honor in the patriarchal system

 Majority of women clearly respond to “why girls do not get education” by stating that the unavailability of school and distance are common causes for not sending girls to school. These statistics are obvious signals to planners that the lack of access to schools is a major barrier to education.Years of schooling make a visible difference, and primary education is not sufficient to improve the financial conditions of poor females. Secondary education should be given high priority. Transportation systems should be introduced to pick and drop off older girls to enable them to continue secondary education and also for female teachers who are appointed to teach in remote areas.

 Part-time educational programs to encourage continuing education for females should be introduced or expanded. One approach to stem school dropouts is by identifying at-risk students early on, trying to find out the roots of expected school departure, and taking action immediately. Teachers should be involved in monitoring attendance, performance and participation in school activities.

 Education is promoted as a tool of getting away from tough agricultural life and to get urban government jobs. In fact, these are not true promises. The majority of rural female in Sindh are engaged in agriculture. They have to spend their whole life contributing to the rural micro economy. Education will not be functional and applicable until and unless it provides women with the ability to succeed within their communities.

 There are some fears regarding female education in Sindhi society which should be addressed through curriculum, these fears include fear of change, fear to lose their cultural uniqueness, fear of moving towards the unknown or the unwanted, fear of dissolving and many others. Resistance against female education can be minimized 213

through the dissemination of knowledge regarding local economic dynamics with the purpose of increasing economic and social opportunities. In this regard, the contents of education are crucially important.

 Education of basic life skills : providing programs and activities to enhance the acquisition of knowledge , skills and attitudes in the field of health, employment , productivity, and the professional and technical skills sessions provided by training , rehabilitation programs and technical training , and other essential life skills provided by States to youth and adults in and out of school.

 The second dimension relates to education for a better life through modern media , has programs available through all education channels including the mass - media and other forms of modern and traditional communication , and social work are intended to provide information , knowledge and values to individuals and families to support the educational process in and out of school.

 Special attention should be given to the quality of education as it is much important than years of schooling. The poor suffer more when the quality of education is weak. Contents of the curriculum should be relevant to life skills, and should embrace the key values of topics including, human rights, health, peace and political awareness. Child-centered approach should be utilized and the methods of teaching should be improved.

 Mega-policy and structural changes need to allow for greater participation of women in all levels of education and in all fields.A serious attempt should be made to appoint top locally qualified women to key positions in Government and Private Sector. Developing role models from the communities can have a significant impact on women’s outlook on education.The child-care facility is the most effective way to free women to grow intellectually and to follow professional careers. Child-care centers at the school level will be beneficial for both teachers and students, because it is noted that siblings are the responsibility of the eldest girl at home, and she has to take care of them.

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Annexes

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Annex A .Questionnaire

Social Assessment of Female Education and Its Impact on Poverty Alleviation in Sindh

Respondent profile

Respondent Name: ______Caste: ______Age: ______Village: ______UC: ______Tehsil: ______District: ______

2. Marital Status: Unmarried Married Divorcee Widow

3. Educational level of respondent Primary/Middle Metric /inter mediate Graduate/post Graduate Informal /Illiterate

4. Number of children if married:

Sex Minor (up to 18 years) Adult (>18 years)

Male (1)1-3 (2) 4-6 (3) More than 7( 4) No child (1)1-3 (2) 4-6 (3) More than 7( 4) No child

Female (1)1-3 (2) 4-6 (3) More than 7( 4) No child (1)1-3 (2) 4-6 (3) More than 7( 4) No child

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5. NO of Children attending School: Male: (1)1-3 (2) 4-6 (3) More than 7(4) No one Female: (1)1-3 (2) 4-6 (3) More than 7(4) No one

6. NO of Educated family members: Male: (1)1-3 (2) 4-6 (3) More than 7(4) No one Female: (1)1-3 (2) 4-6 (3) More than 7(4) No one

7. Source of Income of Respondent (if any) Govt. Employee or Private job Handicraft or labour Agriculture or Livestock Any other

8. What type of difficulties have you faced during getting education? Resistance of family Lack of capacity to pay for education Early marriage Any other

9. Who restricted you from getting education? Father, Mother Husband Any other No one

10. Which changes have occurred after getting education? Reductions in income-poverty Reduction of child malnutrition Husband's Earnings Not at all

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11. Impact on family relations after getting education

1. Behaviour 1.Good 2.Bad 3.Same 4.dont know 2. Importance 1.Increase 2.decreased 3.Same 4.dont know

3. Rights of selecting life partner 1.yes 2.No 3.Same 4.dont know

12. How far is the last educational institution from home? within 1km 1km away More than 1km away Don’t know

13. Mode of Girls’ access to school Walk Cycle Cart Other (specify)

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II. General Impact of female Education

1. Why women get education? To be literate To get job for support of family. To increase awareness For any other reason

2. Reasons for not sending women and girls to school or not allowing womenfolk to acquire education, Girls do not need to be educated Due to poverty Distance from home to School Or any other please specify

3. If opportunities are limited to who should be educated? Male Female

4. Do you think that female education can play a role in marital adjustment? Yes No Up to some extant Don’t know

5. Is there any negative impact of female education? Up to some extent Up to more extent Not at all Don’t know

III. Work and income

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Personal income per month Rs: From 1 to 1000 1001 to 2000 2001 to 3000 More than 3000

2. How were your financial conditions before getting education? Good Bad Same Don’t know

3. Family Attitudes to Women’s Work Positive Negative No interference Don’t know

4. Role of family and others in business decision-making about job of female Positive Negative Up to some extent No any role

5. Literate women’s activities inside the household: Activities Tick Stitching clothes Business Agriculture Poultry Livestock Other(specify)

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7. Do literate women contribute to the income of household? Up to more extent Up to some extent Not at all Don’t know

8. Do you have any land or property? Yes No

9. If yes, from where you received this land/property? Inheritance Purchased Dowry Government

10. Do you have permission to purchase or sale? Yes No IV. Social development indicators

1. Benefits derived from the female education Category Fully Partially No Benefits (A) (b) (c) 1.Water supply

2. Latrines Sanitation Kitchen sanitation

3. improvement in Housing sector

4. increased no. of literate persons

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5.increased no. of skilled persons

6.Health and other social Services increased no. of mothers accessing the social services

7.increased immunization of children

8.Reduction of morbidity and Mortality

9. Increased livelihood Opportunities

2. Do you have knowledge regarding inheritance law? Yes No No response

3. Do you have knowledge about Family Planning? Yes No Not applicable

4. Have you ever voted? Yes No No response5. Consent to cast vote Yes No No response

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6. Role in Decision Making Matters Male Female Both House Hold Management Family Matters Land and Crop Health Matrimonial Property/Ownership Livestock Management Marketing of fish Sale of agriculture production

7. Sources of information (please tick the most frequent source of information) Radio TV Letter Newspaper

Neighbor Family head Educated children Social/NGO worker

8. Community participation (please tic if yes, leave blank if no) NGO membership Local bodies Collective community activities Entertainment/cultural activities

9. Awareness (please tick if yes, leave blank if no) Election Dist. Govt NGOs Human Rights Women’s rights Beauty cosmetics New Dress Law And Order

Family courts Family planning Tribal Chiefs Towns / Large Villages

Loss of fish Quantity of water Quality of Loss of forest water

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Age of Husband at Marriage Time ______Year Age of Respondent at Marriage Time ______Years Consent during marriage: 1) Yes 2) No

Thank you very much for your cooperation.

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Annex B. Operational Definitions

Education: The definition of education in common usage, that education is merely the delivery of knowledge, skills and information from teachers to students, is inadequate to capture what is important about being and becoming educated. Being educated measured by adult literacy and gross enrolment in education Literacy: “The ability of a person who can read a newspaper and write a simple letter in any language” (Census1998) Social Assessment :A process that provides a framework for prioritizing, gathering, analyzing, and incorporating social information, The Social Assessment used a mixture of many methods, including a desk review, focus groups, in-depth interviews, and a case study. The desk review consisted of an examination of bibliographies, reports, official and legal documentation, and other exiting information Poverty: Has been defined as a state in which income, resources, and assets, usually of a material nature, but sometimes of a cultural nature, are lacking (UNDP, 1997). Illiterate women: Who cannot read or write. Sindh: Region has been divided into three zones: Costal South of Thatta Southern from Thatta through Hyderabad to Nawabshah, Northern from Nawabshah to Jacobabad (Sindh Agriculture department) Feminization of Poverty: The phenomenon in which women experience poverty at far higher rates than men.

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Annex C. Map of Sindh

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Annex D. List of sample Districts, Talukas, UCs and villages

NAME OF DISTRICT NAME OF TALUKA NAME OF UCS NAME OF VILLAGES

MARVI MARI JALBANI MARI SABKI MEHRABPUR MISRI KHAN KHOSO DANG GHORAM MARI SANJAR MARI GHORAM MARI BENAZIRABAD SAKARAND DALEDERO MAJEED KEERIO FAREED KHIPRIO KHADHAR JADU KHAN MOHD FAIZ MOHD AQIL LAHNO SAMTIO DOULAT KHUHRO, MITHO GABOOL. DAHMRAH DILAWAR SANGI KHUHRA LARKANA LARKANA DAHMRAH NANGAR SANGI FATEHPUR PALYO GOUPANG FATEH PUR CHOHARPUR MOHD:SALEH BROHI ABDULLAH SHAH SULAMAN HINGORCHO NOOR MOHD KALHORO BHUGRA MEMON GAZI MALLAH MISIRI MALLAH KADHAN HAJI MITHAN BADIN BADIN DEH SEENGHARI SEERANI PIR ALI MUHAMMAD BACHAL JAKHRO

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Annex E. List of Data Collectors

NO. Name 1 Musrat Soomro 2 Mehtab Ghangro 3 Nusrat Shaikh 4 Irum Panhwar 5 Sana Asif 6 Ghazala Shoukat Facilitators

1. Nasir Ali

2. Shoukat Ali Sathio

3. Mukhtiar Sehto

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