Children's Drawings A STUDY OF Interests and Abilities

DATA COLLECTED BY THE CHILD STUDY COMMITTEE OF THE INTERNATIONAL KINDERGARTEN UNION

Edited by and Compiled under the direction of STELLA AGNES McCARTY, PH.D. Chairman

WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, U. S. A. 1924 COPYRIGHT 1924 WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY

Made in United States of America

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

COMPOSED AND PRINTED AT THE WAVERLY PRESS BY THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY BALTIMORE, MARYLAND, U. S. A. FOREWORD This study represents the purposing, planning, and collective labors of the Child Study Committee of the International Kindergarten Union for the three years from 1919 to 1922. Each member has made some contribution—either by way of counsel, of materials, or of ratings for the scales. Some members have contributed in every aspect. With­ out this whole-hearted cooperation the study could not have been completed. The Committee extends grateful acknowledgment to the many public and private school officials—superintendents, supervisors, principals, and class-room teachers—who contributed the materials and who judged the drawings for the scales. It would be impossible to mention the names of all individuals. The following cities are represented in some phase of the work:

Anderson, Indiana Grand Rapids, Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Indianapolis, Indiana Baltimore, Maryland Kansas City, Missouri Bangor, Maine Los Angeles, California Berkeley, California Milwaukee, Wisconsin Boston, Massachusetts New Orleans, Louisiana Buffalo, New York New York City, New York Cambridge, Massachusetts Pasadena, California Chicago, Illinois Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Cincinnati, Ohio Richmond, Indiana Cleveland, Ohio Richmond, Virginia Denver, Colorado Rochester, New York Des Moines, Iowa St. Louis, Missouri Detroit, Michigan Trenton, New Jersey Washington, District of Columbia

To the Presidents of the International Kindergarten Union for their sympathetic interest and generous contributions, to the members of the Educational Department of Goucher College for their participation, to Dr. Knight Dunlap, Professor of Psychology, Johns Hopkins Univer­ sity, special thanks are due. The report of the investigation has been prepared with the interests of two diverse groups of readers in view: first, the scientific student 3 4 FOREWORD of educational research, for whose benefit the original data and statistical tables have been presented; and, second, the class-room teacher, for whose benefit the practical conclusions, the bearings of the investiga­ tion upon school procedure, have been emphasized. To those of the latter group who are untrained in statistical methods it is suggested that Chapter II be omitted from the reading. The Committee presents the results of this first attempt to apply the principles and methods of scientific measurement in education to the achievements of the kindergarten-primary group with due modesty. If it should prove a stimulus to further progress in this direction, and in the meantime provide an instrument for clarifying some issues con­ cerning interests, values and results in the earliest period of school life, It will have been worth while. In this hope we send it forth. Child Study Committee. EDNA DEAN BAKER, President National Kindergarten and Elementary College, Chicago, Illinois. AGNES BURKE, Instructor in Kindergarten Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York. WILLIAM H. BURNHAM, Ph.D., Professor of Pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts. HELEN G. DWYER, Instructor in School of Elementary and Home Education, Chicago, Illinois. MARY E. ELY, (then) Instructor in Armour Institute, Chicago, Illinois. KATE A. HOPPER, Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan. ALICE V. MCINTIRE, Supervisor of Kindergartens, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ETHEL I. SALISBURY, Supervisor of Primary Grades, Berkeley, California. MEREDITH SMITH, (then) Director of Childhood Education, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. ALICE SMITHECK, Instructor in State Normal School, Montclair, New Jersey. JOHN BROADUS WATSON, Ph.D., (then) Professor of Psychology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. STELLA A. MCCARTY, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Education, Goucher College, Baltimore, Maryland, Chairman. CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

CHILDREN'S INTERESTS AS MANIFESTED BY THEIR DRAWINGS 7 Results of previous investigations. Methods and results of the present investigation. Analysis of results as to general trends of interest. Changes with age. Sex differences. Educational deductions.

CHAPTER II

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SCALES 37 Reasons for the construction of the scales. Methods used. Statistical results. The scales and supplementary drawings.

CHAPTER III

THR APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 54 Distribution of drawings by ages and grades. Sex differences. Compari­ son of cities. Drawings of retarded children. Of foreign groups.

CHAPTER IV

THE APPLICATION OF THE SCALES, CONTINUED 84 Correlation of drawing with general intelligence.

CHAPTER V

POSSIBLE USES OF THE SCALES , 92 Instructions to experimenters. Possible uses to be made of results. Limi­ tations in the use of the scales.

CHAPTER VI

SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 100 Outline versus mass drawing. Full-face versus profile. Balance or sym­ metry of arrangement. Evidences of a sense of proportion in drawing. Evidences of perspective. CHAPTER VH

GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 133

5

CHAPTER I

CHILDREN'S INTERESTS AS MANIFESTED BY THEIR DRAWINGS The most universal mode of human expression, other than oral language and gesture, is drawing. It constitutes the means by which our primitive ancestors conquered time by permanent records, and annihilated space by communication with others at a distance. Con­ ventionalized and symbolically interpreted, it became picture-writing, out of which the modern phonetic alphabet has been evolved. Its contribution to human progress has been incalculable. Drawing is also among the earliest instruments for the expression of ideas in early childhood. It is the most typical and universal form of manual representation employed in the kindergarten and the pri­ mary school. When the Child Study Committee undertook to select for intensive investigation some phase of the spontaneous activity of young children, it was natural that their choice should be drawing. Other considerations of a practical nature influenced this choice: the results of drawing activity are easily collected, preserved, and sub­ jected to analysis and critical judgment. The data thus obtained gave promise of special interest in their bearing upon certain unsolved prob­ lems of child psychology. Some of these problems had been definitely formulated and passed on to us as suggestions by the previous Committee on Child Study. Since the interest of the investigators was primarily in the years of early childhood, the study was arbitrarily limited to the period covering the kindergarten, first, and second grades. This period formed a convenient and seemingly valid unit—in view of the increasing tend­ ency of psychologists to regard the ages represented in these grades as comprising somewhat closely related stages of child development, having many psychological traits in common; and the equally significant practical tendency of school administrators to regard these grades as one unit for purposes of school organization and supervision. However, the well-known effect of retardation in school progress is to hold many children in the kindergarten, and more especially in the first and second grades, far beyond the normal period, so that these grades have the widest distribution of ages to be found in the whole 7 8 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS school system. But the chronologically older children are not typical of the grades. Either they are accidentally retarded, normal children who by rights belong in higher grades, or, more frequently, they are subnormal, actually accelerated children, who belong in a segregated class from the beginning. In order that the study might be freed from the complications pre­ sented by these two groups, arbitrary age limits were fixed at four years and eight years, eleven months. Considerable data were secured on the over-age groups, but they have been rigidly excluded from the main study, and treated separately in so far as it has been possible to use them at all. The investigation was then defined as a study of the spontaneous drawings of children of the kindergarten, first, and second grades, and of the years from four to eight inclusive. Further definition of purpose was necessary, however, and after careful consideration it was decided that an examination of the sub­ jects drawn, as possible evidence of children's trend of interests, was the fundamental problem, the results of which would determine some­ what the direction of further research. The construction of a series of scales for the measurement of abilities seemed the logical next step. The application of the scales to the drawings available, for the deter­ mination of age norms, relative abilities of ages, grades, and sexes, and correlations with general intelligence, naturally followed. Finally, certain subsidiary problems as to the trend of development in drawing technique—in the use of outline and mass, full-face and profile repre­ sentation of the human form, proportion, balance, and perspective— presented themselves as at least of minor interest to those who are practically concerned with primary education. The study proceeded in virtually this order. The first task was the collection of a sufficient mass of material— a large number of drawings, as spontaneous as could be secured under class-room conditions, made by children of the desired ages and grades, and from as wide a geographical distribution as possible. Letters were sent to thirty-four cities, asking the cooperation of public school superintendents or supervisors in securing this material. The cities were so selected as to represent North and South, East and West, central and Rocky Mountain areas, metropolises, and smaller towns, the one uniform condition being that there should be kindergartens connected with the schools. Some private schools were also included. Twenty-six cities responded favorably: Anderson, Indiana; Balti- CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 9

more, Maryland; Bangor, Maine; Berkeley, California; Boston, Massa­ chusetts; Buffalo, New York; Cambridge, Massachusetts; Chicago, Illinois; Cincinnati, Ohio; Cleveland, Ohio; Denver, Colorado; Des Moines, Iowa; Detroit, Michigan; Indianapolis, Indiana; Kansas City, Missouri; Los Angeles, California; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; New Orleans, Louisiana; New York, New York; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Richmond, Indiana; Richmond, Virginia; Rochester, New York; St. Louis, Missouri; Trenton, New Jersey; and Washington, D. C. At once, typewritten directions were sent to each city in sufficient number for each teacher who was to participate. It was suggested that the schools be selected with regard to social conditions of the population, so that all levels should be represented; and that the dis­ tribution of drawings from the three classes, kindergarten, first, and second grades, be equalized as far as possible. The instructions to the individual class-room teachers were as follows:

We are desirous of making some very definite investigations with regard to chil­ dren's drawings. As the first step we wish to know what subjects children of the ages from four to eight inclusive choose for their spontaneous drawings. Will you assist us by carrying out the following instructions: 1. Give to each child, or have him procure for himself, wax crayon in brown or black, and drawing paper 6 by 9 inches. 2. Say, "I want you each to make me a picture today. You may draw anything you wish. Do not let anyone know what you are going to draw. When you have finished, bring it to me, and see if I can tell what it is. Draw anything you want to." Give no further suggestion, or guidance, or criticism, except to repeat if necessary the above directions. 3. Write on the back of each drawing the sex and age of the child in years and months, and the name of the object, or objects, represented. The response was gratifying. In most instances the returns were sent from the three grades and represented all ages, although in some cases this was not possible. Since the age of admission to kindergartens in many cities is five years, the representation of four year old children was relatively small. As partial compensation for this, in one city where a complete representation was not practicable, but where there is an unusually large enrollment of four year old children in the kinder­ gartens, only the four year old children were included. The represen­ tation of eight year children is also smaller for two reasons: since the majority of children enter the primary school at six years and progress regularly by annual promotions through the grades, many eight year children have passed beyond the second grade. Owing to a misunder- 10 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS standing of the directions, some drawings from those who still remained in the lowest grades were discarded before the results were forwarded to the committee. Nevertheless the returns from all grades and ages are sufficiently large to have scientific significance. Numbers of drawings not clearly designated as to sex and age were discarded as useless for our purposes. Those for which the grade was not indicated were retained and grouped together as "unclassified." Table 1 presents the number of drawings actually used in the study, classified according to grades, sexes and ages.

TABLE 1

UN­ KINDER­ FIRST SECOND GRAND CLASSI­ GARTEN GRADE GRADE TOTAL FIED

4years 1,192 1,194 {GX'.*::::::: 1,355 1,355 2,549

- /Boys 3,816 145 133 4,096 5yearS\ Girls. 4,078 129 4,303 8,399

, /Boys 1,211 3,153 151 362 4,877 1,076 3,359 169 420 5,024 9,901 6yearS \ Girls 73 1,786 1,799 323 3,981 7 years 77 1,704 2,070 373 4,224 8,205 {S::::::::: 1 279 652 180 1,112 8years 3 243 645 182 1,073 2,185 {S.'.'.'.'.'.'::: 6,278 5,365 2,604 1,013 15,260 T 6,573 5,435 2,884 1,087 15,979 ^{S::::::: 12,851 10,800 |5,4 2,100 31,239 31,239 Totals, boys and girls Two restrictions were imposed upon the liberty of the children: the dimensions of the drawing paper were to be 6 by 9 inches, and the crayons were to be of neutral tone, either brown or black. Although the committee was fully conscious of the present tendency toward very large materials, with its psychological and hygienic significance, the limitation on the size of paper seemed imperative for practical reasons. In handling the large mass of material required for the study, even 9 by 12 inch paper, which is the minimum size demanded by present standards, would have been prohibitively unwieldy. CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 11

Color was eliminated for the purpose of simplifying the problem of evaluating the drawings in the construction and use of the scales. The Committee wished to limit its objective to the consideration of one type of ability—the ability to express meaning through line and mass. It was assumed that ability to handle color effectively might very probably be a specialized trait, not necessarily associated with power of expression in line and mass. An individual who handled color quite well might therefore be deficient in his representation of form, and, vice versa, an individual with considerable power in representation of form might be deficient in feeling for color. The attempt to evaluate the two to­ gether would thus be exceedingly difficult. Furthermore, a nice use of color may conceal many crudities of form, and on the other hand faulty coloring may detract from an other­ wise good representation. The difficulty of judging form as distinct from color is thereby increased at least twofold. It seemed advisable therefore to eliminate color from the present investigation, although with a keen realization that it plays an important part in the educative use of drawing, and that its investigation offers an alluring field for future study. Undoubtedly for some children who had been accustomed to the free use of color and to paper of large size, these two restrictions were distinctly limiting factors in expression. Nevertheless the results seem to justify the procedure. The wide range of subjects represented is not suggestive of serious restraint in self-expression. The excellence of many of the drawings is a sufficient denial of the deterrent effect of either limitation. The fact that young children frequently choose deliberately some one color or paper of small size suggests that neither of the conditions is wholly contrary to normal tendencies. Finally, there is some definite evidence confirming the basic assump­ tions. A number of teachers, not content with following directions, sent two sets of drawings—one made under the specified conditions, the other on larger paper with unrestricted color. Their avowed pur­ pose was to prove that the children's powers had been hampered by the restrictions. In fact, when the pairs of drawings were evaluated by trained judges, strictly on the basis of their representative value in form, there was no appreciable difference. Whether this would be true of large numbers of drawings remains to be seen. The state­ ment is not to be interpreted as implying that the Committee would advocate the habitual elimination of color, or the encouragement of hygienically questionable materials. The procedure was thought justi- 12 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS flable for the purposes of scientific experiment, not for educational practise. Each drawing had been labeled by the teacher with the age and sex of the young artist, and the subject, or subjects, represented. On receipt of the packages at headquarters, each set was stamped with two symbols, one for the grade, and one for the city, so that it was possible to arrange and classify the drawings in any desired way without de­ stroying the identity of any sample. The first project—the investigation of the range of subjects selected by the children—was now undertaken. A number of previous investi­ gators have been interested in this question. Shinn, Major, Brown, Hogan, and Jordan have collected drawings of individuals or small groups of children, extending over a period of years, and indicating changes of interest with age. These studies cover in general the period from one to three, four, or five years, and are especially valuable for the light they throw upon the development of technical ability in repre­ sentation. Several investigators have made mass studies of considerable num­ bers of children. Lukens1 (1897) collected 1232 drawings of children under ten years of age. He found that 44 per cent of all children repre­ sented the human form, or, if illustrations were included, 75 per cent. Twelve per cent illustrated stories, 7 per cent drew animals, 3 per cent plants, 2 per cent geometrical forms, design, and scribble combined. Mrs. Maitland (reported by Lukens, 1897) collected 1570 drawings of children ranging in age from five to seventeen years, from the public schools of California and the Experimental School of Leland Stanford University. Of these, 45 per cent of the younger children had drawn the human figure, 40 per cent still life, 35 per cent plants and flowers, 32 per cent houses, 5 per cent design, and 3 per cent ornament. "The drawings of children from eight to ten years of age remained substanti­ ally the same in content as those of the younger children." IvanofF (reported by Katzerofl,2 1910) examined 2062 drawings of children from the public schools of Geneva, Switzerland, to discover the range of interests. He found again that the human form predominated, and of the persons drawn, 95 per cent were adults. He also indicates certain sex differences. The boys drew a wider range of subjects, while the girls tended to draw objects from their immediate environ­ ment. The girls drew more landscapes, flowers, and geometrical forms 1 Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 4. 2 Archives de psychologie, 1910. CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 13 than the boys, suggesting either a more limited mental content or a more docile attitude toward school instruction. None of these studies states the conditions under which the samples were obtained. Since none of them covers definitely and specifically the period of the present investigation, and since the most recent of them was reported fourteen years ago, it seemed worth while to attack the problem anew. Each of the 31,239 drawings of our collection was therefore examined and, with the aid of the interpretation written on the back, its con­ tent was recorded. Each separate idea represented—or attempted— was noted, and also, in case of compositions, the subject of the com­ position. No object is listed separately which occurs only as an es­ sential part of a larger whole. For instance, if hair, eye, nose, and hand are inventoried it is because they were drawn as separate units, distinct from the human form of which they are organic parts. Simi­ larly, steps, door, window, and chimney are listed because they were portrayed quite apart from the house of which they are essentially details. An idea was recorded only once for each sample of drawing. If two or more trees, or houses, or boats occurred in a single picture, only one of each was noted. Ground and smoke from the chimney were omitted as non-essential. From the vantage point of present expe­ rience, this is perhaps unfortunate. In the early stages of the work the teachers giving the test were requested to make the records, using a standard form. Later it was found best to spare the teachers, and incidentally to secure uniformity of method, by having all tabulations made by a clerical force under the supervision of the chairman. The records made by the teachers were afterwards revised by this same clerical force, and thus made com­ parable with the other results. The work of each class was first recorded on a separate sheet, of which a sample is presented in table 2. Next, all the returns for each grade were combined into a table for the city. These summaries were then combined into a graded table representing the returns from all cities. Finally the three grades were combined into a general sum­ mary by ages and sexes. At each stage of the process, the specific character of the data was preserved in all its detail, so that it might be possible to refer back to any aspect, to analyze and compare by sex, age, grade, or city. The complete list by ages and sexes is pre­ sented in table 3. (See Appendix for table 3.) TABLE 2 Sample tabulation sheet City: X. Grade: Kindergarten. School: No. 11. Teacher: Mary Brown. Number of children represented: 55.

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS

3 Scribbling, no idea expressed, even crudely Man or woman Child, boy or girl Baby Special character—Indian Animals: Bear Toad Spider Tree, unspecified Flower, unspecified Flower, specified, sunflower Other nature forms: Pear Pumpkin Buildings: House Garage Window Door Steps Sidewalk Tent Furniture: Table Bed Vehicles: Automobile Wagon Sleigh Kiddie Kar Miscellaneous: Box Ball Heart. , Candle Numbers , Letters Composition: Humpty Dumpty Skating children , 14 CHILDREN'S INTERESTS IS

The data in this detailed form were too complex to suggest any general tendencies or to lend themselves to analysis and comparison. It was necessary to classify the materials, reducing them to a few generic groups. After considerable study of the lists, they were finally reduced to thirty-five headings, exclusive of compositions, which were reserved for separate treatment. Several larger groupings naturally suggested themselves—human beings, nature forms, buildings, and ideas arising from social experi­ ences. Further subdivisions were necessary within each of these groups. They were made either on the basis of the frequency with which the subclasses appeared or of the interest attaching to particular trends of selection. Human beings of generic type—"a boy," "a lady"—were classified as adults or children and infants. In case a definite type or individual was portrayed—a policeman, an Indian, Little Jack Horner—it was listed as a "special character." Nature forms naturally fell into the rubrics animal, vegetable, meteorological and geographic; but because of the special interest that might attach to certain minor divisions, birds and insects were segre­ gated from the generic group of animals. Vegetable forms were sub­ divided into trees, fruits, flowers, and vegetables. Meteorological ideas were distinguished into two groups—sun, moon and stars comprising one; rain, snow, water (except in geographical conceptions, as lakes, and streams), Aurora Borealis, and similar ideas, the other. Nature forms which did not lend themselves to any logical grouping—either flesh or fowl, or good red herring—were grouped together as miscellaneous nature forms. Buildings were further specified as dwelling houses, parts of houses (windows, doors, etc., occurring separately); public buildings, includ­ ing churches, hospitals, jails, factories, shops, post offices, etc.; animal houses (dog kennels, rabbit hutches, cages for wild animals, and barns); and miscellaneous buildings. Ideas relating to social experiences include a wide range, necessitating several sub-headings. Vehicles were of special interest as indicative of certain sex differences. They embrace virtually all mechanical means of locomotion; for example, wagons, automobiles, trucks, sleds, doll buggies, aeroplanes, and boats. Tools connote all types of per­ sonal and household utensils, farm implements, weapons, and machinery. Receptacles are defined as containers of every sort; as, barrels and suit-cases. 16 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

Under toys were listed all materials and apparatus for sports and play; as, see-saws, golf clubs, and skis. Furniture covers all forms of house furnishings not otherwise listed—rugs and pillows, as well as tables and chairs. Foods were limited, by the classification of fruits and vegetables under nature forms, to manufactured products—bread, candy, meat, etc. Clothing includes articles of personal use and adornment as well as covering; for example, eye-glasses, bracelets, and necklaces. Flags were segregated because they might be indicative of differences in the attitude toward the larger social life. Design offered illumination on two points—interest of children in esthetic interpretation, and changes of attitude resulting from the present tendency away from emphasis on design in instruction, especially in the kindergarten period. Letters and numbers were listed in order to indicate the interest of children in printing or writing for its own sake. They do not in­ clude the purposive writing of the name on the back of the paper to designate ownership (found almost exclusively in the second grade), but the numerous attempts to write or print words, or letters, or num­ bers, either in relation to a picture, or, more frequently, as isolated items of interest—attempts which were found at four years, and more frequently at five or six years, possibly as hints of a dawning interest in symbols. The classification in some instances may seem arbitrary. It repre­ sents the most convenient and economical mode of reducing to order the vast array of heterogeneous material, without doing serious violence to the major facts as to general trends of selection. The preservation of the data in their entirety, in table 3, will serve to indicate the de­ tails of the grouping and provide means of further study and inference. The first impression is one of astonishment at the variety and range of ideas represented—or attempted. Nothing seems beyond the ef­ forts of the child artist, whether in the heavens above, or the earth beneath, or the waters under the earth. About nine hundred different ideas are depictedj the distribution of which is indicated in table 4. The distribution of drawings under each of the headings and sub­ headings varies enormously. Since the number of drawings for the several grades and ages, and to a less degree for the boys and girls, is also a variable quantity, the facts are not comparable until they have been reduced to a percentile basis. The basis selected was the total number of objects drawn. Table 5 (page 18) gives the summary on which CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 17 these percentages have been calculated. It reads, the four year old boys in kindergarten drew a total of 2191 objects, those in first grade, 11, making a total of 2202 objects drawn by four year old boys, etc. By the use of this table and the table showing the numbers of objects of each of the thirty-five classes drawn by each group, the percen-

TABLE 4 Total range of different ideas represented in the drawings Human beings of divers character 72 • Domestic animals 15 Wild animals , 31 Domestic birds 8 Wild birds 18 Insects 15 Trees 6 Flowers 32 Fruits 16 Vegetables 19 Meteorological ideas 15 Geographical ideas 25 Miscellaneous nature forms 32 Houses and parts of houses 13 Public buildings 20 Animal houses 10 Miscellaneous buildings 29 Vehicles 44 Tools. 114* Receptacles 24 Toys 69 Furniture 70 - Dishes 25 Foods 23 Clothing 37 Anatomical ideas 14 Miscellaneous ideas , 102 Total 898 tages were computed, as given in table 6 (pages 20-23). This table is to be interpreted as follows: reading across the page, of the four year old boys in kindergarten the drawings consisted of 6.5 per cent scribbling, 12.1 per cent adult human beings, 4.7 children and babies, and 1.6 per cent "special characters," making a total of 18.4 per cent drawings of human beings, etc. Reading down the page, of the drawings 18 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS secured from kindergarten children, scribbling constituted 6.5 per cent of the total content for the four year boys, 5.1 per cent for the four year girls, 1.7 per cent for five year boys, etc. The data are first presented for each grade by ages and sexes, and then summarized for the three grades, for the total number of boys and girls, respectively, and finally for all children irrespective of age, grade or sex. Several comparisons are at once possible. Observing first the grand totals, we may discover certain generic trends of interest. It is evident that the human form is most popular, comprising 16.5 per cent of all the objects drawn. The adult form is slightly more popular than the

TABLE 5 Total number of objects drawn

UN­ KINDER­ FIRST SECOND GRAND CLASSI­ TOTALS GARTEN GRADE GRADE TOTAL FIED

A / B°ys 2,191 11 2,202 4yearS\Girls 2,565 2,565 4,767 c / Boys 8,006 511 15 193 8,725 SyearS\GirIs. 8,903 452 21 138 9,514 18,239

A / B°ys 2,841 8,169 458 470 11,938 6years\Gixls 2,670 8,911 532 535 12,648 24,586

7yearS 153 4,880 4,831 715 10,579 {oWs 1 130 4,985 5,738 896 11,749 22,328 8years 747 1,671 413 2,831 {Ss 6 667 1,775 445 2,893 5,724 Totals 27,475 29,323 15,041 3,805 75,644 75,644 child. Houses come second, with 13.9 per cent. These two are in harmony with all previous studies, although the different basis of computation makes it impossible to compare numerically. Trees, with a percentage of 9.3 and furniture (S.3) were less expected. The low status of animals (4.0 per cent) and of toys (3.8), which are on the same level as flowers, were even less to be anticipated. The meagre showing of design (0.5), in view of the past emphasis which the kindergarten has placed upon it, is significant. The facts of the general summary are presented graphically in figure 1 (page 24), which needs no explanation. CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 19

Grouping the facts still further, we find that interest in nature claims 30.4 per cent of the content of these drawings, while interest in man and the activities, tools and buildings connected with social life may fairly be said to claim all the rest—excepting only the 0.9 per cent that represents the survival of the scribble stage, and possibly the 0.5 per cent that represents design. The 0.1 per cent of geometrical forms, which is limited to one or two cities, and exclusively to the kindergarten group, might also be excepted, although it is too insignificant to be included in the classification, and is probably a survival from an earlier era of kindergarten training. It seems fair to say that while nature in all its aspects holds one-third of the representative interest of these children, human life and its relationships monopolize the remaining two-thirds. Certain constant tendencies are manifested in the change of subjects with age. Of these, the most striking is the steady decrease in the number of reproductions of the human form (21.4, 19.5, 16.1, 14.7, 11.6 per cent respectively for the four, five, six, seven, and eight year groups). The generic adult form—"a man," "a lady,"—is constantly diminishing (12.6, 10.8, 6.6, 5.5, 5.1), while child drawings appear to reach a maximum at six years, declining at seven and eight. Special characters, on the contrary rise steadily, though slightly, in value (1.2, 1.4, 1.4, 1.5, 1.9). The several classes of nature forms show varying tendencies. Ani­ mals, domestic birds, and "miscellaneous nature forms" fluctuate from year to year. Fruits and vegetables, and insects decrease steadily from the fourth to the ninth year; but wild birds, sky, sun, moon, and stars, trees, flowers, and geographical conceptions rise consistently, so that the general tendency of nature forms is steadily upward (25.8, 27.5, 29.2, 32.7, 37.7 per cent). Buildings as drawing subjects also appear more attractive to older children, though with a decided drop at eight years (16.7, 18.9, 23.0, 23.9, 20.3). This same tendency is seen in the subordinate groups,— houses and miscellaneous buildings—though parts of houses, public buildings and animal houses vary independently. Dishes, flags, and letters and numbers show an upward trend, with slight deviations. Furniture increases until seven years, when there is a slight downward movement. Interest in toys as drawing subjects appears to reach its culmination at five years, decreasing steadily thereafter (4.5, 5.2, 3.8, 2.9, 2.4). Tools, receptacles, clothing and food, miscellaneous forms, oz Cn

Tota l kindergarten.. . i °°

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to vo 12. 1 10. 7 13. 2 14. 1 8. 1 Ov vo ov oo MEN AND WOMEN bo b b vo 1 10. 0 4. 7 7. 3 VO Cn vO Cn CHILDREN AND BABIES Ov Cn (-* to •A 1 O O ** Oo O H* © •-»• SPECIAL CHARACTERS Cn to to ^» vo •*» VO Ov 29. 1 22. 5 19. 3 18. 4 18. 9 19. 3 16. 7 16. 7 16. 5 TOTAL PERSONS 2. 0 *•*• to i-» to Co Oo DOMESTIC ANIMALS 1 *» vo Cn O tf* OO 1. 5 © H- O H» S3 S3 WILD ANIMALS •vj tO oo oo to oo 0. 6 1. 4 © o O O © H- DOMESTIC BIRDS to bo 4* •** VO H* 1. 0 O H* © H* o o WILD BIRDS 00 Ov i-*- cn VO H* VO K 0. 5 0. 8 1 © © O © © © INSECTS tU CO Oo Cn L» vo ±1 o o to oo to to S3 S3 SUN, MOON AND STARS 00 Ov VO O Cn to S3 rf* 33. 3 13. 0 15. 5 7. 3 VO «^» »4 Ov Cn ** TREES b oo ^» bo b vo 1 Cn t-* rf*. tO rf>. to CO H* FLOWERS, UNSPECIFIED 1 to OO S3 -a to Cn CO 0. 4 1 © © o o o o FLOWERS, SPECIFIED #> S3 i cn to -o to .1 to O O H* FRUITS OO tf* i to ov vo h- ov to I O O o o VEGETABLES 00 Ov 00 -» CO Cn 2. 3 I •-* to to oo to to 3 SKY, CLOUDS, ETC. tffc Cn Ov O •a vo 0. 6

1. 4 1 © © © © © © GEOGRAPHICAL CONCEPTIONS Cn Cn *» b rf* cn 2. 4 1 O0 H* Oo to to to h* S3 MISCELLANEOUS NATURE FORMS •^ to to Ov OS tO -J S3 J25. 0 26. 8

33. 3 26. 0 25. 4 I 25. 9 26. 8 27. 7 33. 7 29. 3 TOTAL NATURE FORMS 12. 1 11. 5 10. 3 16. 7 14. 0 12. 4

12. 6 1 9. 0 00 vo HOUSES If* Oo 3. 2 to to oo to Oo to Cn »•* PARTS OF HOUSES to In to b tO VO © u | 0. 4 © © © © © © PUBLIC BUILDINGS *». to to rf* S3 »-I

0. 9 I O *- o H*. © H* © H» ANIMAL HOUSES -4 VO oo -i •

33. 4 31. 4 I 17. 5 16. 9 I TOTAL BUILDINGS 10. 5 10. 5 5. 7 7. 0 00 1 rf* 00 •-I Cn FURNITURE Cn tf* S3 S3

10. 1 10. 4 10. 8 1 3.5 3. 1 3. 3 6. 7 O vo VEHICLES 00 Ov | 1. 9 •->. to H* S3 ••* CO TOOLS 1 rf=» to Oo O Cn Cn rf* CO

1. 2 1 Co O RECEPTACLES •

33. 3 1 5. 3 Cn Oo Ov rf* Ov CO Cn Co TOYS Co to Cn vo

1. 2 1 O O CLOTHING 00 Ov Cn O Oo © Cn Ov

0. 8 1 H- © © © DISHES 1 rf*. Oo bo b vo vo 0. 3 bl 1 © © © © © © FOODS io to bo S3 In Co 0. 6 1. 2 1 .'-'. tO © O FLAGS #- © © 00 Co -^ 2. 0 to to S3 H» 1 LETTERS AND NUMBERS Oo U Cn vo it* b

1. 7 I H* S3 H* S3 MISCELLANEOUS FORMS ^ OY rf* Oo Ov © 00 CO I o © © © f © DESIGN | b' 4* tO b ** 00 In b b 1 First grade

4yearS\Girls

r /Boys 1.4| 10.0| 8.4 1.4 19.8 1.8 1.2 0.2 1.0 0.2 1.9 10.41.8 1.0 1.4 2.2 23.1 14.3 6.0 0.2 0.2 7.6 28.3 5.1 9.0 1.2 2.1 2.0 1.4 0.6 0.2 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.8 5yearS\Giris j 0.9 7.7j 8.5 0.7 16.9 1.3 0.9 0.4 1.3 0.4 2.7 9.83.7 0.4 1.3 0.9; 1.3 1.5 25.5 15.8 9.7 0.7 0.4 2.7 29.3 5.3 4.9 0.9 0.7 3.3 1.1 0.9 2.0 3.3 2.2 2.4 , /Boys 0.4 8.1 6.9 1.7 16.7 3.0 1.1 0.7 1.5 0.1 3.0 9.22.1 0.3 1.3 0.4 2.5 0.6 2.2 28.0 14.6 5.9 0.5 0.8 2.6 24.4 6.1 10.6 1.3 1.0 3.1 0.6 0.9 0.1 2.7 2.1 1.7 0.3 6yearS\Girls 0.3 5.3 9.1 0.9 15.3 2.4 0.7 0.5 1.4 0.3 2.9 9.55.2 0.7 2.0 0.7 2.1 0.4 2.1 30.9 14.2 6.1 0.3 0.6 1.5 22.7 11.9 4.1 1.2 1.0 3.5 0.8 1.8 0.2 2.0 2.2 1.8 0.3

,. /Boys 0.2 7.2 6.4 1.7 15.3 3.5 2.0 0.9 1.7 0.1 2.8 8.82.2 0.1 0.8 0.5 3.4 0.9 2.4 30.1 14.6 4.7 0.7 0.8 2.8 23.6 6.3 11.4 1.4 0.6 2.9 0.4 0.7 0.2 2.8 2.9 1.6 0.3 7yearS\Girls 0.1 4.3 8.3 0.6 13.2 2.6 0.9 0.6 1.6 0.2 3.2 10.14.3 0.5 1.9 0.9 2.2 0.2 2.5 31.7 14.8 4.4 0.4 0.5 2.1 22.2 11.7 4.7 0.6 1.7 4.0 1.2 2.1 0.3 2.2 2.3 1.6 0.4

5.1 2.0 ! 1.7 2.7 1.2 2.4 1.9 0 /Boys 0.7 6.4 13.5 3.6 10.01.3 0.1 0.4 5.4 1.2 2.3 34.2 17.2 1.3 0.7 0.8 3.4 23.4 6.7 9.4 0.9 0.8 2.4 0.5 0.1 0.1 3.4 2.8 1.1 8years|G.rIs 5.0 4.8 1.2 11.0 1.9 1.8 1.2 1.9 0.3 2.8 5.65.2 1.2 2.1 0.4 2.4 0.2 2.5 29.5 15.4 2.8 0.4 2.5 21.1 18.2 4.3 0.4 1.0 3.7 0.9 3.7 2.1 1.5 2.2 0.4

Total first grade 0.3 6.4 7.6 1.2 15.2 2.7 1.2|o.7 1.6 0.2 3.0 9.33.5 0.5 1.6 0.6 2.5 0.5 2.3 30.2 14.6 5.3 0.4 0.7 2.2 23.2 9.0 7.4 1.1 1.1 3.4 0.8 1.4 2.4 2.3 1.7 0.3 t 0.2 to *-*• Second grade /Boys 6.7 6.7 6.7 20.0 13.3 6.6 33.9 26.7 26.7 13.3 6.7 5yearS\Girls 4.8 9.5 9.5 9.5 4.8 14.3 9.5 4.8 42.9 4.8 9.5 14.3 9.5 9.5 9.5 , /Boys 0.9 5.2 10.2 1.5 16.9 4.2 0.4 0.7 0.9 0.2 2.6 10.3 2.0 0.9 0.9 2.2 2.0 3.1 30.4 16.7 5.0 1.5 0.4 1.8 25.4 6.1 8.1 1.1 0.2 3.5 0.9 0.2 2.8 2.2 1.1 0.2 6yearS\Girls 0.8 5.3 10.2 0.8 16.3 2.4 1.1 1.7 0.2 3.9 12.5 3.0 1.3 0.6 0.9 1.1 0.4 3.2 32:3 16.0 10.0 0.9 1.9 28.8 6.4 5.1 2.3 0.6 1.5 0.6 1.9 1.3 1.3 0.8

/Boys 0.1 6.9 6.9 2.3 16.1 4.3 2.0 0.6 2.4 0.2 | 2.6 11.0 1.8 0.3 0.5 0.5 3.2 1.0 1.8 32.2 14.7 5.1 0.8 0.5 4.0 25.1 5.4 10.0 1.1 0.6 2.2 0.3 0.8 0.1 2.5 1.9 1.4 0.2 7years\Girls 4.3 7.6 0.9 12.8 3.0 1.3 0.5 i2.5 0.2 3.2 [13.5 3.6 1.0 0.9 0.4 2.3 0.9 2.2 35.5 15.8 6.0 0.3 0.3 3.9 26.3 8.8 4.5 0.8 0.9 2.3 1.0 2.0 0.1 1.7 2.0 1.0 0.3

0 /Boys 6.4 3.4 2.0 11.8 3.0 1.7 0.9 2.8 0.1 4.5 10.7 2.0 0.3 1.2 0.1 4.3 1.3 4.2 37.1 13.9 1.9 0.5 0.3 3.1 19.7 5.3 10.1 1.7 0.5 1.6 0.7 1.3 0.2 3.5 4.8 1.3 0.4 8yearS\ Girt 0.1 3.9 4.6 1.5 10.0 2.0 1.1 0.5 3.7 0.3 5.3 11.1 5.5 0.4 0.8 0.2 5.3 1.4 3.4 41.0 12.9 2.1 0.2 0.3 2.7 18.2 10.4 3.9 0.4 1.2 2.1 1.2 2.9 0.1 1.9 5.0 1.4 0.2

Total second grade.. 0.1 5.4 6.7 1.5 13.6 3.3 |1.5 0.5 2.5 ]0.2 3.5 11.9 3.0 0.6 0.8 0.4 3.1 1.1 2.5 34.9 14.9 4.9 0.5 0.4 3.6 24.3 7.4 7.0 1.0 0.8 2.2 0.8 1.6 0.1 2.2 2.6 1.2 0.2 zz 1 00 Ov ** Tota l unclassified... . B fi JLI \ O W :S"3 8*3 g; i:| 0. 1 0. 4 5. 7 1 Cn Ov SCRIBBLING 1 i-* If* 13. 1 12. 6 12. 0 4. 1 CO tf* Cn tf* tO tf*. Co tf* MEN AND WOMEN H* if*. to O Ov Ov 10. 5 13. 3 15. 1 10. 1 13. 3 4. 8 7. 4 7. 6 Cn Ox tfs* **• CHILDREN AND BABIES vo oo if*. I-* 2. 1 1. 2 to co *-* tO to »-* Pr o to SPECIAL CHARACTERS 1 © vo Cn vo Ov 00 to b 21. 4 20. 5 21. 3 16. 7 24. 1 11. 0 15. 1 10. 2 17. 9 14. 2 18. 4

! vo Ov 9. 7 TOTAL PERSONS |3. 3 I CO CO 2. 7 to Cn to Co to co DOMESTIC ANIMALS 1 1 Co Co tO H* cn vo H* vo 'tO H-* 2. 4 j IO tO 1. 1 tO h-* O H» 1. 6 O © WILD ANIMALS 1 I— "

« 1 -° © © INSECTS IP p if*, to *

i ! 00 I-*

b vo 2. 7 CO H* to to Co Co 1 f- r FLOWERS, UNSPECIFIED 1 O vo •^J CO OV H* bv bv 0. 9 2. 2 0. 7 0. 3 1 cn co 1. 5 P ° FLOWERS, SPECIFIED If* tO Co Co 0. 7 1. 7 o © OO 1 P P P !"* FRUITS VO If* bv bv •--I Cn

» -~* "tO 0. 4 0. 2 0. 7

» vo In P P VEGETABLES Co Cn 1 2. 9 1. 8 CO Co to co to co h-* tO I SKY, CLOUDS, ETC. •<» o | ON 0\ Ov *-* tf*. tO If*. *-* 1 1. 3 0. 5 H* tO O to O *-* p p GEOGRAPHICAL CONCEPTIONS Ov to Ov Cn VO H* 11 b 1 If- In 2. 1 Co to H* CO O to | MISCELLANEOUS NATURE FORMS ^j to 1 H* tf*. to »f* Cn Ov 33. 0 48. 3 37. 9 31. 1 32, 7 28. 0 29. 3 26. 0 26. 4 25. 8 25. 9 25. 5 TOTAL NATURE FORMS 17. 7 17. 6 20. 9 15. 4 15. 6 10. 4 18. 8 17. 9 18. 2 15. 6 9. 0 9. 7 HOUSES 0. 8 4. 9 Cn >f* o *-* o o PARTS OF HOUSES If- Co O Ov VO tf*. if*. O 1 m «** o 0. 5 O O 0. 2 1 o o P I"* PUBLTC BUILDINGS to "-^ vo "

1 *•* 20. 7 23. 2 21. 7 21. 8 21. 7 20. 7 16. 7 18. 0 16. 9 TOTAL BUILDINGS b i •7. 3 11. 6 10. 2 12. 5 4. 8 *•* v» Cn to VO tf*. FURNITURE rf* tf* O CO 10. 4 10. 8 10. 0 12. 5 13. 6 2. 9 6. 7 8. 0 3. 3 5. 0 5. 6 8. 8 VEHICLES

I-' CO 1 1. 2 O H-* cn Co j o o TOOLS In Co Ov i-* «a Co i-* bv I a " 1 to *-» to to [ 1 to 1 RECEPTACLES to If*. LI ^» © to ov VO vo vo v-* 1 3. 5 4. 8 Cn Co to co co to Co >f*. <* •£* 1 TOYS bo "»-» b o\ Co VO If*, b to I-» i 0. 2 r i 0. 7 P P !"* P 1. 6 In bv CLOTHING 0. 9

1. 5 vo bv I— "o O O to i-* I DISHES v© vo Ov to vO 00 VO vo to b\ 1 0. 4 0. 1 0. 2 op © o FOODS

0. 5 Cn CO 1 2. 0 O O »-* to to co to co 1 FLAGS ' co bo Co (f*. CO CO Ov to to bv 1 1. 6 1. 0 O *- *-* tO o o LETTERS AND NUMBERS If* vo «*» Cn tf*. O CO H»- if*, bv 1 2. 0 1. 3 »-* to H» O 1. 4 MISCELLANEOUS FORMS bo co | bo 'vo to Cn Cn b> 0. 2 0. 3 0. 7 1. 2 © © r* P DESIGN | CO I if*- vo bv b\ ' 1 to © 1 CO TJ4 1 co co 1 CM CO 1 **. ^ 0. 4 0. 5 o- l 0. 3 d »-" 0. 8 ©' © © © ©* © © © to t^. 1 vo tO co vo sO i vo i O 00 ] ©\ 1 "* CO N 1 to

© to 1 CO co © vo to 1 to CM CM I CM

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NH 1 N CM* -4 J CM CO TH ' CM CM TH 1 TH CM CO 1 CO i-l CM 1 ^ CM CM I CM d d 1 d © O 1 O © © 1 © © © 1 © © © 1 © , © t- | •<* 00 "•* | TH 00 ©• 1 ** Os Os | Os oo oo | co © 1-4 1 TH © CM © CM 1 TH © TH | TH TH r»4 1 CO *» © 1 Os rJ4 © vo © 1 00 NH I O © »-i 1 © © TH 1 ©' © TH 1 © ©' TH 1 TH j Os "«J4 l CM ^ TH 1 °° VO 1-4 1 °* TH vo . rJ4 CM Tt4 l oo CO T}4 CO VO j lO CO CM CO CM : CM CM CM CO "* CO CO CO 1 CO VO CO 1 ° vo TH I Os © CM I TH 1 s:i:- © i-l © T-4 1 © to VO j O to co | rt< CM N 1 °* CO •* | Os 00 TH I TJ4 CM 1-4 1 CM TH © ©" T-4 © 1 © . to to tO 00 I TH N © O CO vo* © •>* © Tj4 ©' CO 1 !>. © •*

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N N [ O -1 ^ 1 °i to VO t-» 1 t- ON VO 1 00 1 i-i d 1 d »H © 1 © © © © © © J © © © 1 © to co I •<* lO CO 1 Tf4 t- CO to VO CM 1 T»4 VO co 1 r}4 d d 1 d do'!© © © © ©'©Id d © 1 © CM vo I -*> Os to 1 CM CM 00 to VO TH Os © vo 1 co

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1-4 CO CM vo Os 00 TH © CO co co CO CM CO 1 CO CO CO CM •* TH j CM CO rj4 j rJH i-l CO 2. 3 26. 2 2. 6 28. 8 2. 5 27. 2. 4 28. 2 2. 4 30. 7 2. 4 29. 2 co co 1 co CM CM 1 CM CM CM VO to I to © vo oo Tf4 TH I CM 00 lO | t- d old © © 1 © TH © © © old T»4 CM 1 CO *- CM i TH CO CO 00 to TJ4 1 rJ4 Os co | vo

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TH VO 1 00 00 CM j i* 00 00 I CO ON © 1 TJ4 ON CO | vo N H 1 H | CM CM 1 CM 1 CO CM 1 CO CM CM 1 CM_ CM CM 1 CM | ON CM j to © *- j JO CO I so I CM 00 to O* 00* ON* VO lO VO vd co' CM © j TH *-- to vo

00 © 1 TJ4 00 © I rJ4 T-4 OS j to CO to j Os ON © I rJ4 j CM* ©" 1 CM TH 1 TH CO TH CO 1 © CO 1 •^ 00 J vo to to o VO Os 00 t- oo *-* vd oo"

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& .a o\S 11 II II PQ O PQ O PQ O PQ O : CO 3 PQ O 3 3 6 "if "o T & H i\ 1 i\ Si 1 00 3 ft 23

VO 24 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS and design decline in value consistently from the fourth to the ninth year. The scribbling stage has evidently been outgrown by most /e 17 '1 m iJ i J 121 11 14 9 8

Ol 1 • 1-.IHL.

ssl §1* III ^siilliiiiiiltlltiiii FIG. 1. SUMMARY SHOWING PERCENTAGE or EACH CLASS OF OBJECTS DRAWN children before the fifth year, though it persists in a few cases until eight years (5.7, 1.6, 0.4, 0.1, 0.1). To summarize the most significant of these facts, while the human form steadily diminishes in importance as a subject for expression CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 25 in drawing, nature in nearly all its phases as steadily increases. Toys and furniture reach their high point of interest at five years, tools and vehicles at six, buildings, at seven. Figure 2 gives these data in graphic form (page 26). While sex differences appear with striking constancy at every age and in every city, those differences are never great. The following summary gives the subjects in which there is an appreciable variation:

TABLE 7 Percentage of excess of boys over girls percent Scribbling 0.2 Adult human figure 3-. 1 Special characters 0.9 Domestic animals ...0.6 Wild animals 0.6 Domestic birds 0.3 Sky, clouds, etc 0.6 Geographical conceptions 0.3 Public Buildings 0.3 Animal houses 0.3 Miscellaneous buildings 0.6 Vehicles 6.7 Tools. 0.7 Flags. 0.7

Percentage of excess of girls over boys per cent Children and babies 2.6 Sun, moon and stars 0.2 Trees 1.0 Flowers, unspecified 2.5 Flowers, specified 0.5 Fruits 0.4 Vegetables 0.1 Miscellaneous nature 0.1 Houses 0.2 Parts of Houses 0.6 Furniture 4.7 Receptacles 0.2 Toys 1.2 Clothing 0.4 Dishes 1.0 Design 0.2 26 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

Boys and girls chose equally wild birds, insects, foods, letters and numbers, and miscellaneous forms. Since an absolute difference of small degree may be more significant in case of a small number than of a larger one, it may be interesting to express the more striking dif­ ferences as ratios. Selecting those items in which one sex differed from the other by 20 per cent or more, and converting the absolute percentages into the per cent which the smaller number was of the larger, we arrive at the results shown in table 8. The same facts are represented in figure 3 (page 28). In so far as these differences can legitimately be made the basis of generalization, it may be said that boys tend to select for representation objects connected with a wider range of adult social interests; as, adult

FIG. 2. COMPARISON OF AGES FOR CLASSES OF SUBJECTS DRAWN I. Nature. V. Tools and vehicles. II. Human beings. VI. Toys, in. Buildings. VH. Scribble. IV. Furniture and domestic. VTH. All other classes. human beings, special characters, public buildings and flags. Boys much more frequently select objects of mechanical value—vehicles and tools. In drawing from nature, they appear to attend more to the larger aspects, and to animal life. Girls are more likely to select among social interests those relating directly to childhood itself—children, babies, and toys; and to domestic life—furniture and dishes. In nature they prefer plant life—trees and flowers, fruits and vegetables. Con­ sidering also the slightly greater interest in design, it might be said that the girls tend toward the esthetic, as the boys toward the mechani­ cal, or scientific aspects of life. Far more significant than these differences, however, are the corre­ spondences. In only eight classes is there a difference of more than 1 per cent between the choices of the two sexes. In only three, adult CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 27

human beings, furniture and vehicles, is the difference 3 per cent or more. In the last named only does it exceed 5 per cent. Of the thirty- five classes, five are chosen equally by boys and girls. In twenty-one, the variation is less than 1 per cent; in thirteen it is less than 0.5 per cent. Moreover, there is no class of objects which has not been selected by both sexes at least thirty times. An examination of the detailed list in table 3 shows that the sex line is nowhere sharply drawn. Boys have selected dolls, doll buggies, hair ribbons, clothes-pins, skirts, and pillows; while girls have drawn wireless, a threshing machine, a gun,

TABLE 8

Vehicles and tools Public buildings Special characters Adult human beings Animal houses Flags Animals Sky, clouds, and geographical conceptions. Miscellaneous buildings Scribbling

Flowers Furniture and household objects. Design Children and babies Toys Fruits and vegetables : a farmer, and doctor. In fact the differences, with few exceptions, are so slight as to suggest the accidents of environment as their causes. The question naturally arises: just how significant are the facts con­ cerning choice of subjects? Obviously, it must be recognized that one drawing is not an adequate measure of any child's range or trend of interest. Just as obviously all such data must be regarded as, at least in part, the result of environmental and accidental causes. First, the influence of the school itself is to be reckoned with. Lin­ coln's cabin, the Pilgrims, Indian camps and wigwams are undoubtedly the outcome of class instruction. A preponderance of illustrated nur­ sery rhymes, of identical or similar landscapes, of boys skating, in 28 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS any one school or city-grade gives indication of previous art training, and frequently of a mental set due to a lesson just received. The tendency to draw something that will please the teacher also weighs heavily upon many children.

Vehicles and Tools

Flowers

Public Buildings

Special Character

3 Furniture, etc.

B Adult Human Being

B Animal Houses

3 Design

B Flags

3 Children and Babies

J Toys

B Animals

g Sky and Geographic

g Miscel. Buildings

3 Fruits and Vegetables

• Scribbling % 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

FIG. 3. SEX DIFFERENCES IN SIXTEEN SUBJECTS. ABSOLUTE PER CENTS CONVERTED INTO RATIOS BETWEEN SEXES

Black—boys, white—girls Next there is the factor of technique, the consciousness of difficulties in the expression of one's real interest, which doubtless impels some children to follow the line of least resistance—to choose something easy, to copy their neighbors (in spite of the injunction), or to repeat yesterday's lesson. Technical difficulties do not have weight with CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 29 most four and five year old children. The spirit of self-criticism is probably present in a low degree in the maturer five year old, and develops coincidentally with a clearer vision of reality. It is this which has been suggested as the explanation of the decreasing tendency to draw the human form—not loss of interest, but a growing consciousness of difficulties, and doubt of one's own ability to surmount them. There is finally the more subtle, yet far-reaching influence of the wider social environment. Valentines, Easter rabbits, Jack o' Lan­ terns, and Christmas trees mark the progress of the social calendar. Charlie Chaplins, Kaisers and bogie men are the product of experience beyond the reach of schools. Other influences, less measurable, are probably at work in deter­ mining the sex differences which occur. The fact that boys, from early childhood, are provided with mechanical toys—balls, blocks, and vehicles of motion,—'and are exposed to a wider social environment on the street or city pavement; while girls, by social usage, are pro­ vided with dolls, toy dishes, furniture, and sewing materials and are more closely confined to the home and the backyard, would inevitably lead to just such differences as were found—a wider social horizon for the boys, and an emphasis on domestic and childish interests for the girls— in so far as the differences were great enough to call for any explanation at all. That school influence was a potent factor was evident, not only from the similarities in content within certain schools and systems of schools, but from the range of interests represented. In some cities, the drawings revealed a rich and varied imaginative content; in others, even the maturer children of the second grade were satisfied to draw a box, a square, or a ball, and individuals varied little from the group as a whole. Expressed in numerical terms, in one city only forty dif­ ferent ideas per hundred children were expressed, while in another seven hundred different ideas were represented. It seems fair to assume that the former city either gave to its children a wider range of interesting experiences, or developed in them greater freedom and power of expression, or both. This suggests a possible dual explanation, which appears to be substantiated by a knowledge of educational methods in a number of the cities in question. Meagerness of content may have come as a result of extreme formal­ ism of instruction at the time when the drawings were made. Em­ phasis on the three R's may have allowed little time for enlarging 30 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS experience, and practically none for self-expression. At the other ex­ treme were some cities experimenting with freer organization, where the emphasis on the children's initiative may have limited the range of experience; or children's free choice and free use of materials may have provided too little practise in drawing, or too little guidance in its use. Other causes, for example, the chance selection of classes below normal, may have been operative, though this is not likely to have been the case for all the classes representing any one city. In conclusion, it can only be said that certain choices, showing defi­ nite tendencies were consistently made by widely separated groups. In the main, these tendencies corroborated the findings of previous studies. How far they are the result of innate characteristics, and how far thley are dependent upon social circumstance is probably one of the many aspects of the larger issue—heredity versus environment— which must remain unsolved.

COMPOSITIONS The individual objects making up compositions were included in the foregoing report, but composition itself was reserved for separate treat­ ment. Composition for the purposes of this study was defined broadly as any attempt to create a unified picture, or to portray two or more objects in relation to each other, without regard to esthetic or interpre­ tive values. The picture might be illustrative of nature, social life, or literature. One drawing is described as "a horse climbing a Jree." Neither horse nor tree is recognizable, but by definition the effort or intention to represent two ideas in relation to one another constitutes the product a composition. The essential problem was the extent to which children of the several ages were interested in representations having narrative or descriptive content, rather than in mere catalogues of unrelated ideas. A summary of the facts as to the number and general character of compositions, is presented in table 9. These values are expressed as per cents of the total number of drawings (table 1). The table is to be interpreted: of the total number of four year old boys included in the study (2202) 0.7 per cent attempted to reproduce a story; 0.3 per cent a nursery rhyme; 0.3 per cent some phase of child activity, for example, playing ball, having a tea party; 1.1 per cent an idea of social or industrial life, and 0.8 per cent an incident or scene from nature— making a total of 3.2 per cent of four year old boys who tried to express ideas in relation to each other. CHILDREN'S INTERESTS

O Tj< | Tj< **» CO 00 CN mox CS -r-l I CO* CN CN CN i-^i 5* T-4 vt* j lO 00 CN ON >r> SPIO CN *H | CO CN CN CN *H i—,_t, o\»o i <* lO TJ< W o sA"og: H H I CO CN CN CN i-H H VO \Q 1 CN t-H CO CO ON l^ox NH I ^ CN lO ON O to CN 00 lO I CO VO ^ CO VO g SPIO CN H I r{i CN r^ ON O CN 00 ^ ^ vO | O VO CO CO CN sA-og; NH TjJ TH vo ON CN

«o u"5 I *"< rt< co ^ CN m<>X CN T-1 T* "^ CO CO lO to rH 3 r— ir i | CM lO lO CN ^ £ si«0 CN *-< 1 ^ "# CO CO to lO -3* 1 ON r}< H VO o sA^og CN r-< CO •^H co co to

rH C> 1 -H y-< O iO J>.

moj. CN cv CO CN CN i-H i ^ TH CN 0C) | O ^ ON 00 1-4 SP!0 CN •«-< ^ CO TH CN CN 6 YEA R O T- 1 TH 00 O CN TH sA^og CN CV CN CN CN i 1 "# ^H VO C> I vo CN lO ^ *>- F^ox i-l i-* CN TH I-4 i-H vo

t^ C 1 *** CN VO tO ON SP!0 i—1 r- CN TH i-l TH VO 5 YEAR S ^ C> | ^ CN VO CO LO sA*og T-l 1-4 CN VO *- rt< | i-l ^o\o ^ l^ox O C> i-l O O rH O O w CO

4 YEAR S *>- c CO TH 00 CN sA*oa o c 1r H ° O -rH O

*

:l tur e t an d in MS activit y 73 • t 4-> & 32 "^ =J U Ho Sto i Nu r 1 Soc i Na t 32 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

It is evident that this tendency is not strong in the four year old children, 96.6 per cent of all having chosen either single objects, or numbers of objects unrelated to each other, as parts of a scene or ele­ ments of a story. There is a gradual development of the tendency from year to year—3.4, 6.7, 11.7, 15.2, 20.9 per cent respectively, at four, five, six, seven, and eight years. This might have been anticipated from the evidence of the Binet-Simon tests on the verbal interpretation of pictures. Enumeration is characteristic of the younger children; interpretation, in terms of narration or description or better, is expected of the children at seven years. The ability to interpret verbally, however, would presumably precede the ability to represent graphically. A continuation of the study with the mentally maturer eight and nine year old children would probably show a marked rise in the curve. Sex differences are not marked. The girls show slightly greater maturity at each age until eight years, the difference being greatest at six years. The amounts of the differences for the several ages are 0.4, 0.4, 1.0, 0.4 per cent, while at eight years the boys lead by 0.8 per cent. The subjects of the compositions have been roughly classified into five groups, which are self-explanatory. The general tendency in this respect conforms somewhat closely to that for single objects: the same sex differences are evident in the slightly greater percentage of boys drawing social and industrial subjects, of girls drawing activities relating to child life (with the exception of the six year group), and nature (except at six and eight years). The girls lead in representation of literature. Again the differences are not marked. The most striking age difference in the type of composition is in nature subjects, rising from 1 per cent at four years to 9.3 per cent at eight years. Nursery rhymes seem to reach their high point at six years, declining at seven, and remaining stationary at eight. There is however such evidence of class instruction in the drawings of nature scenes and the illustration of certain popular nursery rhymes that no definite inferences may be made.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS What practical conclusions, if any, concerning education may be drawn from this study of children's interests? Certainly the greatest caution must be exercised in drawing psychological inferences. The many evidences of environmental forces in determining the direction CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 33 and range of representation, and the inevitable influence of technical difficulties in limiting graphic expression as soon as children become conscious of technique at all—both of these factors must be considered in relation to any attempt to arrive at native interests by way of pic­ torial expression. Some of the results of this study are suggestive however of probable trends of natural, if not of native interest. The first is the prepon­ derance of the human element over the natural, suggesting the validity of the present tendency to emphasize the social and industrial relation­ ships in early education and to approach the study of natural science by way of its social references. The second is the subordinate part played by child activities as compared with the interest in the larger social world of adult life. Perhaps equally significant is the emphasis upon buildings and vehi­ cles in contrast with clothing and foods. In so far as drawing is sympto­ matic, children are preeminently concerned with the fundamental economic needs of shelter and transportation, but only slightly with those of food and clothing. Perhaps again the normal approach to the latter is by way of the former, leading from transportation, for example, to the foods transported, and not, according to adult logic, from the foods to their transporation. Considering sex differences, we may be justified in suggesting greater effort in education to counteract the narrowing tendency of previous environmental influences in the interests of girls. Present day social organization no longer permits the domestic seclusion of women, but imposes on them a high degree of political and social responsibility. This implies as its pre-condition a wider outlook, a more impersonal attitude than their past status demanded. Since fundamental atti­ tudes are frequently fixed during the early years of life, it would seem wise to divert interest somewhat from the preoccupation with domestic ideas—dolls and house-keeping—to the larger view. The wide range of variation among cities and individual classes in the wealth of content represented is surely indicative of wide differences in the number and fertility of experiences presented by the school. It has already been suggested that meagreness of content may be due to two widely divergent causes—an over-emphasis on the formal sub­ jects of the curriculum on the one hand, or an over-emphasis on the freedom and initiative of the child on the other. Dr. Dewey long ago pointed out the dangers of this tendency in the "new education:" 34 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

The child is expected to "develop" this or that fact or truth out of his own mind. He is told to think things out, or work things out for himself, without being supplied any of the environing conditions which are requisite to start and guide thought. Nothing can be developed from nothing; nothing but the crude can be developed out of the crude—and this is what surely happens when we throw the child back upon his achieved self as a finality, and invite him to spin new truths of nature or of conduct out of that. It is certainly as futile to expect a child to evolve a universe out of his own mere mind as it is for a philosopher to attempt that task.1

Because of its renewed emphasis upon children's initiative, not merely in planning means and methods and judging the results of their activities but also in initiating problems to be solved and projects to be executed, the problem-project method has been particularly exposed to this danger. That its leading exponents are aware of the danger is clearly evident. Dr. Kilpatrick says in a recent symposium on "The Dangers and Difficulties of the Project Method,"

A school means children living and learning, with older people who embody the race experience, present to transmit and guide Our need of teachers is just as definite as is that of the ordinary school. The conception of the school devel­ oped earlier explains our position here: children living and learning, older people present to stimulate and guide, the race experience to furnish the basis of guidance, the resulting growth in the children implying the increasing appropriation of the race experience.2

That experience in the earliest period of education implies first hand contacts with reality needs no argument. Whether children draw directly from models seen or from images previously formed, the variety and adequacy of the ideas they represent will depend wholly upon the variety and vividness of the experiences upon which their representa­ tions are based. Concerning drawing itself, the most significant inference is that drawing must have a definite place in the activities of young children if its values are to be realized. These values are momentous and vital. On the intellectual side, drawing stimulates to closer observation of the objects drawn—whether drawn directly from the model or from images arising from previous experience—and thereby to a more ac­ curate and detailed knowledge of the visible world. It motivates ob­ servation, leading to more rigorous attention, and resulting in more permanent impressions.

1 Dewey, The School and the Child, pp. 32-33. 2 Teachers College Record, September, 1921, pp. 312 and 314. CHILDREN'S INTERESTS 35

Drawing is one means of promoting the development of apprecia­ tions—first of the beauties of form and color in the objects pictured, and later of the beauties of the fine arts through a rudimentary knowl­ edge of the technical difficulties which have been met and mastered. Finally, the development of some degree of technical skill is not without value as affording a special medium for the expression of ideas, supplementing and reinforcing language—one which affords immediate satisfactions and which may be of use in many lines of vocational or avocational activity in later life. While the old education frequently stultified drawing by an over­ emphasis upon technique and imitation, the new education frequently tends to neglect this phase of expression and interest. It is one of the functions of the teacher as guide and director of children's activi­ ties to stimulate interest in this fundamental mode of expression—by giving prominence to its materials in the school environment, by re­ warding its manifestations with attention and approval, and by positive suggestions from time to time, of the employment of drawing as a medium and of worth-while subjects to be drawn. In the details of drawing instruction several suggestions seem justi­ fied. The first is the encouragement of children in drawing the human face and figure. All studies of the content of children's drawings agree in designating the human form as the subject of major interest among beginners. Several agree with the present investigation in indicating steadily decreasing interest with age. While this may be attributable to an actual decline in psychological interest, it seems more probable that it is due to an increasing consciousness of the technical difficulties involved, to a growing self-distrust as the result of enhanced experience and greater definiteness of observation. A contributing factor is also the teacher's consciousness of technical difficulties, and frequently, of her own limitations, resulting in an emphasis upon nature and still-life. It may be seriously questioned, in view of the very evident trend of interest, whether this emphasis is justified—whether the dominant interest should not rather be en­ couraged and guided to fuller expression by assistance with the technical difficulties as they arise. The study also suggests, from the evidence on the development of composition, that greater emphasis during the earlier period be placed upon the ^cataloguing" phase of drawing—the portrayal of single ob­ jects rather than the attempt to organize them into a unified picture. 36 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

Only after a certain degree of power is attained in this phase, only as mental maturity indicates the dawning of descriptive or narrative power, should direct effort be made to stimulate children to the portrayal of nature scenes, stories, or other forms of related expression. In this respect, as in every other, wide individual variations among children indicate the necessity of individual treatment—of such adap­ tation to individual needs and abilities that no child is forced beyond his powers, no child is arrested whose abilities are beyond the general level of the group, and each is stimulated to his own best achievement. CHAPTER II

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SCALES The examination of the content of the drawings having established the presence of certain dominant interests in drawing (whether native or acquired) the next step in the study was the construction of a series of scales based on these dominant interests, for the measurement of abilities. Thus far no account had been taken of differences in the merit of the drawings. The interest centered on the mental attitudes evidenced by the intent to represent certain ideas. Differences in merit could be accurately measured only by reference to objective standards. Such a standard is offered by a arawing scale. Scales for the measurement of abilities have been in existence since 1910 when Thorndike published his "Scale for the Measurement of the Quality of Handwriting." Dr. Thorndike said in presenting this scale:

At present we can do no better than measure a handwriting as very bad, bad, good, very good, and extremely good, knowing only vaguely what we mean thereby; running the risk of shifting our standards with time, and only by chance meaning the same by the word as some other student of the facts means by it. We are in the condition in which students of temperature were before the discovery of the thermometer, or any other scale for measuring temperature, beyond the very hot, hot, warm, lukewarm, and the like, of subjective opinion.1

The fourteen years intervening since the publication of this work have seen the rapid development of scale-making in two directions: (1) scales of subjects in which quality of result must be evaluated, com­ monly known as "product scales," such as handwriting and English composition; (2) scales of subjects, such as arithmetic and spelling, in which achievement can be measured by definite objective standards of speed, accuracy, and difficulty, commonly known as "performance scales." Drawing obviously belongs to the former group. Two drawing scales are already in existence. The Thorndike scale appeared in 1913, the Kline-Carey scale in 1922. The question has therefore been asked, "Why not use one of these scales rather than

1 Handwriting, p. 1. 37 38 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS construct a new one?" The answer relative to the Thorndike scale is twofold. First, this scale is composed of drawings by children from eight to fifteen years of age, whereas our interest centered in the chil­ dren from four to eight. The lower range of the Thorndike scale, the first eight or nine drawings, undoubtedly overlaps the work of the lower primary grades, the poorest of the drawings being decidedly poorer than the best achievement of even the four year group. But the lower limit of this scale is considerably better than our worst, and the several upper values are so far superior to our best that the range of the scale is not coincident with our needs. By constructing a new scale, from materials derived from our own group, all the steps may be adapted to our needs, and a finer gradation within these limits may be attained. In the second place, according to Thorndike's statement, his scale is defective in that there is but one series, comprising a variety of sub­ jects, so that it is difficult to determine the exact value of any drawing by comparison with a standard of its own kind. "If we had in the scale a series of drawings of flowers, a series of horses, of book covers, of women, etc., the scale would obviously be more useful to measure the merits of horses, book covers, flowers, and women than it now is."2 The Kline-Carey scale, published when ours was well under way, remedies the second difficulty by presenting four series, each made up of drawings of one subject—house, rabbit, boy running, and tree. The scale also comprises drawings from the kindergarten-primary group, but since its upper limit is the work of high school seniors only a small number of values are within the range of abilities of our children. A scale constructed with special reference to the abilities of this lower group seems justifiable, as supplementing the more ambitious projects. This scale was to comprise several subjects, each represented by a graded series of drawings, progressing from the worst to something beyond the probable best achievement of the kindergarten-primary group. In accordance with the evidence of major interests, three subjects were selected. Persons and houses were easily determined upon, as the consensus of all studies of the content of children's draw­ ings had shown them to have the greatest frequency. Following the evidence of our own study, trees became the logical third; but since trees almost always occurred in relation to other forms—as background of a story, setting for a bird's nest, wigwam, house, etc.—it was de­ cided that compositions involving trees be used. The scale is thus 2 Measurement of Achievement in Drawing, p. 33. CONSTRUCTION OP THE SCALES 39 limited in its application, but within its scope it becomes easier of application and more secure in its results. The subjects once selected, the next question to be answered con­ cerned the type of values to be emphasized in the scales: should they measure primarily merit in representation or in artistic feeling and interpretation? Inasmuch as the drawings of these early years are generally conceded to be representative rather than esthetic in pur­ pose, it was decided that the emphasis should be upon ability to ex­ press ideas vividly, clearly and accurately. The general character of the scales having thus been defined, the collection of spontaneous drawing was again put into requisition for material from which the actual measures might be constructed. Such an embarrassing abundance of material presented itself that the first task was to reduce the supply to a workable basis. All the drawings were sorted into four groups—houses, persons, treeis or compositions containing trees, and discard. In case any draw­ ing could be placed in more than one group it was classed in accordance with its dominant subject. Next, each of the three selected groups was carefully examined and further reduced by a series of eliminations in the following manner: 1. All drawings which did not conform to the instructions, either in size or tbne of paper, omission of color, or use of wax crayon were ruthlessly discarded. 2. In case of houses or human figures, those drawings in which the desired form occurred only as a detail subordinated to other forms were excluded. It was thought probable that such drawings were not typical of the children's best in representing the single form. Frequently the house or person was sketchily clrawn or so small as to give little indication of the child's ability. Moreover it was thought that judg­ ment would necessarily be biased by the context. 3. In cases where drawings were quite identical in type and general merit, only one of the type was retained. These several processes reduced the total number of samples in each series to something over two thousand. 4. Finally those drawings which were nearly identical in type and general merit were paired, placed face downward, and one member of each pair was discarded by chance. The drawings at the upper level of merit were not subjected to this step, however, since they were neither so numerous nor so nearly identical in value as those in the 40 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS middle and lower ranges. A few drawings of children slightly older, or mentally more mature, were added to each series, to ensure that the final scales would meet the requirements of other, possibly more gifted, children than ours. The drawings now comprised 1153 samples of human beings, 1122 of houses, and 1070 of compositions. For the further steps in the construction of the scales the ratings of many competent judges were necessary. Three processes were used: (1) All the drawings were first graded roughly into groups according to merit, the total rating of the several judges being taken as the basis of a further reduction in numbers. (2) With these smaller groups, a second grading into groups was secured, and further eliminations followed. (3) There remained in each series thirty-four drawings, ranging from the poorest to the best, and, by the cruder methods thus far employed, representing fairly equal steps. These were now subjected to a more careful scrutiny, and arranged in serial order according to merit, by a larger number of judges. On the basis of these ratings the scales were made. To describe the processes in detail: for the first step the 1070 or more samples of each set were graded by twelve judges, each of whom received the following instructions:

Make ten groups of the drawings such that each group is separated from the next in merit by approximately an equal amount of difference. In other words, sort the drawings into ten groups ranking from the best to the worst. In case any drawing has absolutely no merit, place it in a zero group. If any seems to you to have even less than zero merit, place it in a still lower group. If any drawing stands out as markedly better than the highest group, place it in a separate class. You will thus have possibly thirteen groups. In evaluating, each drawing is to be considered from the standpoint of its repre­ sentative value, not artistic merit. Insofar as detail, accuracy, perspective, and proportion enter into its merit as the expression of an idea, these should be considered, and no further.

The total score for each drawing of the three series as rated by these first twelve judges, in terms of the distribution, is shown in table 10. The average score for each may be obtained by dividing each score by twelve. These distributions only very roughly approach the normal curve—a result which was to be expected from the method of selection of the samples, since many of those in the middle range of values had been eliminated. CONSTRUCTION OF THE SCALES 41

TABLE 10 Distribution of scores of first twelve judges 1 COMPOSITION S TOTA L SCOR E PERSON S COMPOSITION S SCOR E CONTINUE D PERSON S HOUSE S HOUSE S HOUSE S COMPOSITION S ! 1 i PERSON S

-10 37 10 16 23 O SCOR E CONTINUE D 3 5 8 -9 2 1 38 10 23 12 86 1 2 2 -8 2 2 39 9 19 12 87 3 6 3 -7 1 40 14 27 14 88 4 2 4 -6 2 4 41 12 24 23 89 3 4 6 -5 3 42 6 22 13 90 4 2 6 -4 7 2 43 13 18 17 91 5 2 5 -3 7 5 44 13 23 8 92 3 3 5 -2 8 2 2 45 12 15 18 93 2 3 5 -1 6 5 3 46 7 22 18 94 4 2 2 0 6 4 ! 47 7 23 13 95 1 1 3 1 12 6 3 48 9 24 12 96 1 2 2 9 5 2 49 8 18 16 97 4 3 2 3 12 6 1 50 10 19 23 98 2 2 4 17 8 3 51 12 15 18 99 4 3 2 5 18 4 2 52 8 25 22 100 1 1 6 16 3 1 53 10 17 12 101 2 1 7 13 9 1 54 8 20 23 102 1 8 27 4 3 55 7 19 14 103 2 9 18 4 6 56 I 7 21 14 104 1 1 10 18 7 3 57 | 7 23 11 105 1 3 11 32 6 7 58 5 22 11 106 1 12 30 7 3 59 6 4 15 107 1 13 26 6 8 60 7 15 16 ; 108 2 2 14 24 9 7 61 11 11 13 109 1 15 23 15 9 62 5 7 10 111 0 1 1 16 26 9 10 63 8 12 14 ! 111 2 1 17 23 6 9 64 8 9 8 112

18 26 14 18 65 2 8 17 i 113 ; 1 19 20 16 10 66 8 11 11 114 2 20 26 18 8 67 1 3 6 8 115 1 1 21 19 13 16 68 5 3 16 116 22 29 15 12 69 5 8 7 117 1 23 19 9 17 70 3 12 8 118 1 24 20 15 18 71 3 11 8 119 25 31 15 21 72 8 4 9 120 26 19 11 19 73 6 7 9 121 27 17 10 14 74 4 6 10 122 42 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

TABLE id—Continued o CO 1 6 9 B H o : fc1 !z; 1 u o B o CO fc CO a X CO CO J5 aCO o W o w o •3 o o W O £j CO P g CO t> » CO & o W Os o W o oa o W o Os H P* w u CO P4 fl o CO fc w o 28 17 17 22 75 3 1 5 123 29 19 23 22 76 5 6 5 124 1 30 11 23 15 77 6 11 9 125 31 12 20 16 78 9 4 5 126 1 1 32 20 14 23 79 1 5 3 127 1 33 22 20 22 80 6 3 7 j 128 1 34 19 23 20 81 4 2 7 129 1 35 12 19 16 82 6 3 6 130 1 36 9 15 23 83 2 3 2 84 3 3 3 Median 25.9 42.4 43.8 Q.D. 16.9 14.4 16.1

To determine the reliability of the judgments, in each series the first two hundred scores, which were assumed to be a random sampling of all the scores (the order was a purely chance arrangement), were used. The twelve judgments were divided, also by chance, into two sets of six judgments each, and the sums of the two sets of judgments respec­ tively were calculated for each drawing. The two sets of values were then correlated, the Pearson formula

2A2B XAB = *> V("-^)(—^) being used, in which A represents the several values of the first set of six judgments, B the corresponding values for the second set, and n the number of drawings correlated. The coefficients were, for human beings, .967, for houses .954, for compositions .851; with probable errors, respectively, of 0.0031, 0.0043, and 0.0133. The drawings were next distributed according to their values as measured by the sum of the twelve ratings above. From each numeri­ cal rank one drawing was then selected on the basis of least deviation from the average score for this group. In the extreme upper and lower ranks, however, some drawings having the same rank were retained, CONSTRUCTION OF THE SCALES 43 because of the wider gaps in the distribution and the more varied charac­ ter of the samples. This gave three sets of drawings which, according to the combined rating of the twelve judges, represented graded series of approximately equal steps. The method of selection was not refined, but was considered valid merely for purposes of elimination to a prac­ tical working series. The new groupings contained 158 drawings of human beings, 128 of houses, and 122 of compositions. The second step was the grading of these smaller series by a larger number of judges. The instructions were the same as before, except that only eleven groups were to be made—one for zero and ten for higher degrees of merit than zero. Thirty judges rated each of these series—supervisors or teachers of kindergartens, primary grades, or art. The treatment of the results was by the more refined method of "per­ centage of better and worse judgments." This method, first applied to scale making by Thorndike, is based upon the theorem advanced by Fullerton and Cattell, that "differences which are equally often noticed are equal unless they are always noticed or never noticed." ^ The values were computed by determining just how many judges rated each drawing as better than, equal to, or worse than every other drawing in its own series. Equal judgments were converted into better or worse judgments by taking the average of two figures—one derived by dividing the equal judgments equally between the better and worse judgments, the other by dividing them proportionally. Those draw­ ings were then selected which represented a graded series, of which each member had been rated as better than the one next below by ap­ proximately 75 per cent of the judges. Thirty-four samples were retained in each series. In the two preceding stages, the original drawings were used, the samples subjected to the second rating having been mounted on a good quality of tagboard for preservation. For the third rating the samples were photographed. Thus the wear and tear on the original drawings was obviated, and, ten prints having been made from every sample, the process of judging was considerably expedited. These series of thirty-four samples each were then submitted, in photographic reproduction, to a larger group of judges for rating on a more refined basis. The instructions for this stage were:

Arrange the drawings in a series from the best to the worst, so that, according to your judgment, each drawing represents a lesser degree of merit than the one preceding. In judging houses and persons, ignore all details of background, considering only the 44 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS house or person. The basis of judgment in every case is to be representative value or meaning, rather than artistic merit. Determine which one of the drawings represents the nearest approach to zero value, zero being defined as an attempt to represent the idea, with just not any merit as representation. Sixty judges rated the houses, seventy-two the human beings, and eighty-four the compositions. The percentages of better and worse judgments were again computed for each pair of drawings in each series. The samples, with one or two exceptions, were discarded whose per­ centages approached 50 or 100, on the assumption that a difference noted by 50 per cent of the judges means equality in the two samples, while a difference on which 100 per cent of the judges are agreed is measured with a high degree of unreliability. Seventy-five per cent agreement is taken as the point of maximum reliability, having a P.E. value of 1.00. Those samples were retained in the final scales which formed graded series, each specimen of which was rated as better than the one below it by approximately 75 per cent of the judges. The specimen with a median rating of zero was next determined for each series. The P.E. difference of the sample next above zero was then determined. This constituted its scale value. The P.E. differ­ ence between each sample and the one next above having been deter­ mined, the amount of this difference was added to the score of the lower sample. These sums constituted the scale values for the several draw­ ings of each series. The complete data for the samples finally selected for the three scales are presented in tables 11 and 12. Table 11 shows successively the values assigned by the three groups of judges to the several drawings, first of human beings, next of houses, and last of compositions. The drawings are numbered as in the original series. Columns 1 to 3 give the ratings of the first twelve judges. Reading down the column, drawing number 430, the best of the series of human beings, was rated better than number 566, the second best, by nine of the twelve judges. Number 566 was rated better than number 582, the third best, by ten of the judges, etc. The second column shows the number of judges who considered each drawing worse than the one next below. The third shows the number of judges who placed the two drawings in the same group. The same data for the thirty judges who rated the smaller number of drawings are presented in columns 4 to 6. Columns 7 to 9 combine the results of the first and second ratings as given in the preceding CONSTRUCTION OE THE SCALES 45

TABLE 11 Comparison of results of rating by the three groups of judges « FINA L EQUA L EQUA L Y BE - DNALL Y

12 ORIGINAL 12 AND 30 JUDGES ' 30 JUDGES fUDGES COMBINED GMENTS , ROPORT I GMENTS , D WORS E TW O AN D WORS E R JUDGMENTS , VIDE D EQUAL I R JU D IDED P E R A N xxa a AIQ S LAS 1 ETT E T S D I BETT E ETTE R n H ,, PH W 3 i 55 W r as a O 3g S5 JUDGM E TWEE N BETWE I RATIN G

O JUDGM E Equa l Wors e Bette r Wors e Equa l Wors e Bette r Bette r Equa l AVERAG E PE R CEN l S PE R CEN T PE R CEN T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 DR A Human beings 430 9 0 3 19 0 11 28 0 14 83.3 100.0 91.7 93.1 566 10 2 0 28 1 1 38 3 1 91.7 92.7 92.2 73.6 582 12 0 0 26 4 0 38 4 0 90.5 90.5 90.5 79.2 75 10 1 1 23 4 3 33 5 4 83.3 86.8 85.1 80.6 536 6 0 6 9 5 16 15 5 22 61.9 75.0 68.5 69.4 177 5 1 6 1 8 6 16 13 7 22 57.1 65.0 61.1 72.2 580 2 2 8 15 3 12 17 5 20 64.3 77.3 70.8 80.5 825 3 2 7 11 2 17 14 4 24 61.9 77.8 69.9 84.7 852 10 0 2 i 18 0 12 28 0 14 83.3 100.0 91.7 83.3 88 3 2 7 , 11 5 14 14 7 21 58.3 66.7 62.5 72.2 502 1 2 9 1 7 2 21 8 4 30 54.8 66.7 60.8 73.6 473 7 0 5 8 2 20 15 2 25 65.5 88.2 76.9 80.5 993 7 1 4 | 15 2 13 22 3 17 72.6 88.0 80.3 91.7 114 4 0 8 1 16 0 14 20 0 22 73.8 100.0 86.9 91.7 359 1 0 11 7 1 22 8 1 33 58.3 88.9 73.6 91.7 364

Houses 896 9 0 3 18 0 12 27 0 15 82.1 100.0 91.1 i 93.3 764 10 0 2 19 4 7 j 29 4 9 79.8 87.9 83.9 85.C 877 8 3 1 20 3 7 28 6 8 76.2 82.4 79.3 73.3 1108 7 2 3 16 5 9 23 7 12 69.0 76.7 72.9 75.0 879 7 3 2 13 4 13 20 7 15 65.5 74.1 69.8 85.0 873 9 1 2 122 3 5 31 4 7 82.1 88.6 85.4 i 78.3 604 4 2 6 13 4 13 17 6 19 63.1 73.9 68.5 78.3 577 9 0 3 21 3 6 30 3 9 82.1 90.9 86.5 78.3 78 8 1 3 14 6 10 22 7 13 67.9 75.9 71.9 83.3 361 3 2 7 11 6 13 14 8 20 57.1 63.6 60.4 73.3 46 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

TABLE 11—Continued

&M S3

12 ORIGINAL 30 JUDGES 12 AND 30 JUDGES JUDGES COMBINED US O « ft * fc ^ a "US -3

10 12

Houses—Continued 38 7 0 5 16 3 11 23 3 16 73.8 88.5 81.2 75.0 259 4 0 8 12 1 17 16 1 25 i 67.9 94.1 81.0 63.3 499 3 1 8 12 0 18 15 1 26 66.7 93.8 80.3 93.3 449 3 2 7 9 2 19 12 4 26 , 59.5 75.0 67.3 88.3 200 5 0 7 11 0 19 16 0 26 69.0 100.0 84.5 98.3 168

Compositions

1071 60.7 702 10 1 1 14 7 9 24 8 10 69.0 75.0 72.0 69.0 1070 8 2 2 21 5 4 29 7 6 76.2 80.6 78.4 64.3 178 5 6 1 16 10 4 21 16 5 56.0 56.8 56.4 67.9 355 10 1 1 21 3 6 31 4 7 82.1 88.6 85.4 78.6 850 8 1 3 24 3 3 32 4 6 83.3 88.9 86.1 83.3 931 11 0 1 18 5 7 29 5 8 | 78.6 85.3 82.0 81.0 773 6 0 6 20 1 9 26 1 15 79.8 96.3 88.1 81.0 801 4 2 6 17 3 10 21 5 16 69.0 80.8 74.9 69.0 923 2 2 8 6 1 23 ! 8 3 31 ! 56.0 72.7 64.4 89.3 1029 columns. Columns 10 to 12 convert the equal judgments into better or worse judgments, in order to make these 42 judgments comparable to those of the final judges. In column 10 the equal judgments are divided equally between the better and worse. This, however, mani­ festly distorts the probabilities, since the chances are that, if these drawings had been directly compared with one another, the drawing which was rated higher by the greater number of judges would have been rated higher by a proportionately larger number of those who CONSTRUCTION OF THE SCALES 47 placed the two drawings in the same rank. Column 11 distributes the equal judgments on this principle. For example, if 75 per cent of those who rated the two drawings as unequal in merit rated drawing A as better that drawing B, then 75 per cent of the equal ratings were as­ signed to drawing A and 25 per cent to drawing B. This method prob­ ably distorts the results in the opposite direction, especially in those cases where all or nearly all the judgments were either better or equal, and where, therefore, all the equal judgments were thrown with the better ones. Column 12 is a compromise arrived at by taking the average of the two preceding columns. This computation has been made merely to show the amount of correlation between the preliminary and final ratings. The twelve and thirty judges rated the drawings by placing them in a limited num­ ber of groups—from 11 to 13. The probability is that few of the draw­ ings were directly compared with one another. Moreover, the small number of groups provided threw together in one group drawings of several degrees of merit. The large number of samples to be evaluated, especially by the first twelve judges, makes it probable that there were some shiftings of standards in the progress of the grouping. For all these reasons these ratings are less reliable than the final ones. They were therefore used only as a means of elimination in selecting the smaller series from which the scales were constructed. They were not included in the final computation for the scales. The percentile values of the final ratings are shown in column 13, for purposes of comparison. It will be seen that in every case the two sets of judges agree on the superior merit of the upper drawing of each pair. The correlation coefficients computed by the formula, 2A2B XAB n ve-T)e-") are not high, the values for the three series, human beings, houses, and compositions respectively, being .46, .24, and .28, but they are all positive. The steps by which the scale values were obtained are presented in table 12. Column 1 repeats the percentile values of the ratings by the final judges. Column 2 shows the P.E., based upon this percentile difference between each adjacent pair of drawings. In column 3 48 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS the actual scale value of each drawing is computed by adding its P.E, value to the sum of those below it in rank. Column 4 shows the value finally assigned, which is the same as that of the preceding column, reduced to one decimal place. TABLE 12 Derivation of the scales from percentages of better judgments

SCALE VALUE = P.E.VALUE APPROXIMATE PER CENT BET­ P.E. VALUE ASSIGNED DRAWING OF DIFFERENCE VALUE, TER JUDGMENTS, ADDED TO VALUE VALUE AS USED NUMBER BETWEEN IN WHOLE FINAL RATINGS OF NEXT LOWER IN SCALES ADJACENT PAIRS NUMBERS DRAWING Human beings 430 93.1 2.1997 20.7103 20.7 20 566 73.6 0.9360 18.5106 18.5 18 582 79.2 1.2044 17.5746 17.6 17 75 80.6 1.2784 16.3702 16.4 16 536 69.4 0.7528 15.0918 15.1 15 177 72.2 0.8738 14.3390 14.3 14 580 80.5 1.2730 13.4652 13.5 13 825 84.7 1.5168 12.1922 12.2 12 852 83.3 1.4300 10.6754 10.7 11 88 72.2 0.8738 9.2454 9.2 9 502 73.6 0.9360 8.3716 8.4 8 473 80.5 1.2730 7.4356 7.4 7 993 91.7 2.0542 6.1626 6.2 6 114 91.7 2.0542 4.1084 4.1 4 359 91.7 2.0542 2.0542 2.1 2 364 0.0000 0.0 0 Houses 896 93.3 2.2231 21.7034 20.7 21 764 85.0 1.5360 19.4803 19.5 20 877 73.3 0.9225 17.9443 17.9 18 1108 75.0 1.0000 17.0218 17.0 17 879 85.0 1.5360 16.0218 16.0 16 873 78.3 1.1583 14.4858 14.5 15 604 78.3 1.1583 13.3275 13.3 13 577 78.3 1.1583 12.1692 12.2 12 78 S3.3 1.4300 11.0109 11.0 11 361 73.3 0.9225 9.5809 9.6 10 38 75.0 1.0000 8.6584 8.7 9 259 63.3 0.5040 7.6584 7.7 8 499 93.3 2.2231 7.1544 7.2 7 449 S8.3 1.7648 4.9313 4.9 5 200 98.3 3.1665 3.1665 3.2 3 168 0.0000 0.0 0 CONSTRUCTION OP THE SCALES 49

TABLE 12—Continued

P.E. VALUE SCALE VALUE PER CENT OP = P.E. VALUE BETTER DRAWING DIFFERENCE ADDED ASSIGNED APPROXIMATE JUDGMENTS, VALUE X 2 NUMBER BETWEEN TO VALUE OF VALUE VALUE ITNAL ADJACENT NEXT LOWER RATINGS PADJS DRAWING

Compositions 1071 60.7 0.4026 10.1585 20.3170 20.3 20 702 69.0 0.7360 9.7559 19.5118 19.5 19 1070 64.3 0.5437 9.0199 18.0398 18.0 18 178 67.9 0.6899 8.4762 16.9524 17.0 17 355 78.6 1.1736 7.7822 15.5644 15.6 16 850 83.3 1.4300 6.6086 13.2172 13.2 13 931 81.0 1.3000 5.1786 10.3572 10.4 10 773 81.0 1.3000 3.8786 7.7572 7.8 8 801 69.0 0.7360 2.5786 5.1572 5.2 5 923 89.3 1.8426 1.8426 3.6852 3.7 4 1029 0.0000 0.0000 0.0 0

In order to make the results of the manipulation of the three scales more directly comparable in their application to practical problems, the scores for compositions were multiplied by two. This in no way affects the reliability of the scale values. The scales themselves are presented in figures 4, 5, and 6 (see folders). In a number of instances in the selection of each series, two drawings had approximately equal rank. In such cases the rejected drawing frequently appeared to have value as supplementing the one selected, giving a sample of somewhat different type; for example, a man in profile, when the chosen sample showed the full-face, a house with gable roof, when the chosen sample had a flat roof, etc. These draw­ ings are presented in figures 4 A, 5 A, and 6 A (pages 50-53). 50 CHILDREN S DRAWINGS

469. Value 18.5 *2

71. Value 17.6

.^«fti*gfi(ft»S9te

584. Value 17.6

(! mm***

211. Value 17.6 U6. Value 16.4 FIG. 4A. DRAWINGS SUPPLEMENTING THE SCALE OP HUMAN BEINGS— EQUIVALENT MEASURES 505. Value 15.1 918. Value 14.3

60. Value 12.2 11. Value 10.7

FIG. 4A.—Continued, DRAWINGS SUPPLEMENTING THE SCALE OF HUMAN BEINGS— EQUIVALENT MEASURES 51 52 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

104. Value 11.0 390. Value 9.6

FIG. 5A. DRAWINGS SUPPLEMENTING THE SCALE OF HOUSES—EQUIVALENT MEASURES 675. Value 13.2 41. Value 10.4

\* L

19. Value 7.8 815. Value 5.2 FIG. 6A. DRAWINGS SUPPLEMENTING THE SCALE OF COMPOSITIONS—EQUIVALENT MEASURES 53 CHAPTER III

THE APPLICATION OF THE SCALES Three measuring instruments were now available for the further study of the drawings. The next problem of the Committee was the application of these instruments to the materials at hand. Their first purpose was to test the reliability of the scales themselves. Three criteria are frequently used to determine the reliability of a series of measures. The first is the distribution of the scores. If the measures are reliable, the scores for an unselected group should approach the normal curve of distribution: there should be a large number of cases in the middle range and a gradually decreasing number of cases as they approach the upper and lower limits. A second criterion applicable to scales is that the measures, if applied to unselected groups of several ages should reveal definite progress from year to year. A third criterion is their objectivity. A scale is perfectly objective when identical results are secured from ratings of the same material by different examiners. The application of these three criteria—approximation to the normal curve of distribution, increase in the average score for each increase in chronological age, and identity or close agreement in the ratings of different examiners— gives evidence of reliability. The use of the scales in measuring the material collected offered opportunities for interesting comparisons. What is the norm and the range of variation to be expected among children of any one chronologi­ cal age? Just how much more is to be expected of five year old children in drawing achievement than of four year olds? Are there significant sex differences either in the amount of ability or in its direction? Are there, apart from the differences of chronological age, significant changes from grade to grade? Does the six year old child in second grade differ in any way from the less accelerated six year old in first grade? How do the several cities represented in the study compare with one another in their achievement as indicated by these samples? Finally, how closely is drawing ability correlated with general intelli­ gence? Does the child of highest intelligence always manifest the highest skill in graphic representation? Is the child of high intelligence 54 APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 55 always inferior in graphic art? Or is there some degree of correlation between these two extremes, or none at all? All of these questions suggested themselves. As the first step in the construction of the scales all the drawings collected had been classified for the three subjects—human beings, houses, and compositions—and those which could not be included in any one of these groups had been thrown into the discard. The three classes were now subjected to careful rating by the scales. In order that the subjective element might be reduced to a minimum, three judges—the chairman and two assistants—rated each drawing. These judges were first instructed in the use of the scales, and rated a considerable number of drawings, under supervision and criticism, before the final evaluation was undertaken. Each judge in turn then rated each specimen independently, recording its scale value on the back of the drawing. After the three judgments had been made, their average value was determined. This became the final score of the specimen. In this way all the drawings of the original collection which were comparable to the three scales were evaluated. In addition a number of drawings of four and eight year old children which had later come into our hands were measured. In all, 7432 drawings of human beings, 7708 of houses, and 6543 of compositions—a total of 21,683 drawings— were thus measured. The results of this process for each subject are presented in the form of a general summary of the distributions for each of the grades and for the whole group, by sexes and ages, in tables 13, 14 and 15. The facts of the final summary, combining the three grades and the two sexes for each age, are shown graphically in figures 7,8 and 9 (pages 68-70). For this purpose, the original data have been reduced to a percentile basis. From an examination of the three figures it is evident that there is an approach to the normal curve of distribution. Some irregularities are due to the fact that the scale values do not present a perfectly regular series, progressing by equal increments; for example 1, 2, 3, 4, or 2, 4, 6, 8, etc. Hence the number of cases for certain values, which represent the averages from exceptional combinations, would necessarily be smaller than those for the adjacent values. This is particularly true of compositions. It is evident, from the tables, that there is in each subject a steady rise in the score from year to year, except that in the cases of houses and TABLE 13 Distribution of scores—drawings of human beings, by grades, ages and sexes

4 YEARS, 5 YEARS, 6 YEARS, 7 YEARS, 8 YEARS, 4 yEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS OTA L SCORE

to en CO CO to to CO to to CO to CO CO to to CO CO CO

PQ 3 PQ 3 PQ 3 PQ 3 I PQ 3 PQ 3 PQ 3 PQ 3 PQ 3 PQ 3 PQ 3 3 Kindergarten 0 1 1 2 3 I 4 1 2 4 3 2 3 4 I 1 2 12 8 20 3 2 3 1 1 5 2 7 4 7 3 11 9 5 6 2 2 I 25 21 46 5 6 8 8 12 4 12 7 5 I 25 38 63 6 14 21 18 26 16 24 15 18 5 3 3 I 1 I 72 94 166 7 12 16 18 32 27 25 29 22 7 3 1 I 1 95 99 194 8 20 29 52 61 69 55 79 59 27 13 5 5 2 252 224 476 9 20 29 33 42 77 84 81 69 20 24 7 7 1 2 l 239 258 497 10 12 25 38 55 115 125 107 147 62 49 16 18 2 4 2 358 419 777 11 7 19 23 40 75 108 121 162 70 72 16 24 3 5 1 1 317 430 747 12 1 3 7 23 21 73 51 103 25 38 7 10 2 2 l 114 253 367 13 6 4 11 17 43 16 54 9 26 3 10 2 2 1 52 152 204 14 2 2 4 8 23 14 59 6 31 20 1 1 4 32 143 175 IS 1 1 3 4 14 7 32 2 22 2 5 3 16 80 96 16 1 3 2 10 1 4 1 4 1 5 22 27 17 1 7 2 2 12 12 18 1 1 1 19 1 1 1

Total 104 167 220 322 444 598 534 750 236 287 61 109 13 18 6 6 3 1 l 1,622 2,258 3,880

Median 8.4 9.1 9.0 9.4 10.2 10.7 10.5 11.3 10.9 11.7 10.9 11.9 11.7 11.9 10.2 10.9 10.6 0- 2.1- 2.1- 0- 2.1- 2.1- 0- 2.1- 2.1- 6.2- 6.2- 4.2- 6.2- 7.2- 12.4 15.6 15.2 15.0 16.2 19.8 19.8 17.8 16.6 17.0 16.2 17.4 14.0 16.0 Quartile deviation 1.6 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.2 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.5 1.1 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.5

Median—boys and girls i; 8 9 2 10 5 10 0 11 4 11 5 11 8 Q.D.—boys and girls 1 .6 1.6 1.3 1 1.4 1 .2 1.5 1.7 1 4>. 0 10.7 11.4 12.0 i w rfi lO rf fO fO ^

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4 YEARS, 5 YEARS, 6 YEARS, 7 YEARS, 4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS 8 YEARS, 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS TOTAL

SCORE TOTA L 42 Ol 01 iri s iri s iri s iri s iri s oy s iri s oy s oy s oy s oy s oy s oy s 1-3 oy s oy s iri s oy s iri s iri s .AN D pq O pq O 1 w 1 ° pq O 1 M O pq O pq O pq O pq O pq O pq 1 ° O Second grade 7 1 1 1 8 3 1 5 1 1 1 9 3 12 9 1 1 1 11 4 1 l 1 18 3 21 10 1 3 19 9 13 6 2 4 2 1 37 23 60 Cn 11 1 2 6 4 27 20 29 27 6 1 4 3 73 57 130 12 1 6 4 17 25 21 31 10 5 6 55 71 126 13 1 2 4 2 10 26 21 30 7 9 6 7 49 76 125 14 1 2 3 9 28 30 41 52 5 11 1 4 79 108 187 15 1 2 12 36 16 32 5 14 7 10 41 94 135 16 1 6 12 7 15 3 10 1 1 17 39 56 17 1 1 6 10 1 12 7 4 8 34 42 18 1 3 2 2 4 3 3 1 2 9 12 21 19 1 1 2 2

2 5 6 21 29 142 172 160 212 42 65 23 39 395 523 918

12 8 14 0 12 7 14 2 13 4 14 2 13 4 15 1 13 8 14 5 13.1 14.3 13.9 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.6

13 i 13 7 13 9 14.5 14.1 1.3 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.5

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4 YEARS, 5 YEARS, 6 YEARS, 7 YEARS, 8 YEARS, 4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS OTA L SCORE H Boy s Boy s Girl s Boy s Girl s Girl s Girl s Girl s Boy s Girl s Girl s Girl s Boy s Girl s Boy s Boy s Boy s Boy s Boy s Boy s Girl s Girl s GRAN E

Kindergarten 0 1 1 1 1 3 1 4 1 2 3 1 1 1 5 1 6 3 8 4 6 3 4 4 4 5 1 1 23 17 40 4 6 10 5 12 11 7 2 7 1 1 1 26 37 63 5 3 9 7 4 9 12 11 8 3 3 1 33 37 70 6 3 8 12 10 15 5 6 8 3 1 1 31 35 72 7 8 16 21 29 53 47 37 24 21 17 5 4 1 146 137 283 8 4 1 7 14 33 34 29 18 20 8 4 1 2 2 97 80 177 9 3 9 15 20 50 49 55 39 39 17 2 1 1 2 1 1 166 138 304 10 1 2 5 20 61 69 77 88 65 46 12 8 3 1 1 225 234 459 11 2 4 6 6 40 47 38 63 36 32 2 4 3 2 2 129 158 287 12 1 3 3 26 37 42 44 31 40 4 7 2 2 2 108 136 244 13 1 1 2 2 36 32 44 33 35 43 5 4 3 3 2 128 118 246 14 1 1 11 13 10 12 9 13 6 6 1 1 37 47 84 15 4 8 9 8 7 9 4 1 2 1 1 27 27 54 16 7 4 9 5 4 2 1 4 1 2 21 18 39 17 1 2 1 1 2 3 5

Total 44 65 89 125 362 369 377 364 271 235 47 39 14 17 9 10 1,213 1,224 2,437

Median 6.5 7.1 7.7 8.3 10.2 10.4 10.5 10.8 10.8 11.7 10.8 12.1 12.9 13.3 10.3 10.5 10.4 1 o- 3.2- 3.2- 0- 0- 3.2- 0- 2.1- 4.9- 3.2- 3.8- 3.8- 9.5- 8.4- 7.2- 5.7- 14.1 13.3 13.7 14.1 16.2 17.0 17.3 17.0 16.7 16.2 15.5 17.0 15.5 16.7 16.0 16.2 Quartile deviation 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.5 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.5 2.3 1.7 2.0 1.9 2.0

7.0 7.9 10.2 10 7 11 1 11.3 12 $ 12 0 Q.D.—boys and girl 1.9 1.5 1.9 1.6 1 .5 1.9 2 .3 2.4

Median for year r.6 10 5 11 1 U \ 4 First grade •0^l»OVOt^000\O*HCSJ2Tti»ONO»«»00Ch ^HvOOvO^iOi-t^TfvOOOTHOOOes^-t MrtHaOifOlflvOMlO^HOOIOH TH eS©\CS-^covo©O\00eS©*>. CsvOtOtOi-Ht^cOvOcO00coco*O"<^ *-< esr^iococo©iooo©*^cs©*- HrHrttfJ^tOVJCNtOOOOiOiN CS N^NIO«*5tO«OHf<5 »-l •*COcot-NH T-tT}i*>-*^.©©*^VOCOC\VOC* HN<*--lNtM)0tOHrt rt NTf0\COS HHT)iO\NO\a^t«5N rlHinr(l»0«)NHNN cO00-*cO J 1-HVOt»i \ ON»-»©V*- ) N(O^H1 Total i NO") 383 180 181 64 69 15 1,683 1,784 3,467 1 Cv 1 O M NVO" 11.4 11.7 11.8 12.2 12.7 12.1 12.4 12.2 co <©*-»- 12.0 12.1 12.1 12.1

0 8.7- 10.1- 5.1- 4.3- 4.3- 4.3- 5.1- 7.9- 7.9- 7.4- 9.0- 14.3 16.0 16.7 19.8 18.0 17.7 17.0 17.7 17.0 17.0 15.5

Ouartile deviation 1 > Z « 1 7 1 <> 1 ; 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.7 1.6 1.6 Cv vfi 1 * N vc . OC . vc * vc 19 5 VC 19 * VC 4 19 i S s > O.D.—bovs and eirls 4 ) ) > > > 1 1 ©\ 0 "* n<

Median for vea» r . TABLE 14—Continued

4 YEARS, 5 YEARS, 6 YEARS, 7 YEARS, 8 YEARS, 4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 6 MONTHS OTA L SCORE H CO co co eg co ^2 co co co co co co co IN 1 In 1 •a 1 1 O O pq PQ pq PQ o o o '6 o GRAN D n o PQ o pq pq Second grade 6 1 1 1 7 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 5 7 12 8 1 3 5 2 2 4 3 3 2 13 12 25 9 1 2 1 14 18 10 9 4 8 4 3 34 40 74 10 2 3 4 38 37 33 44 11 18 5 4 93 106 199 11 2 3 4 7 27 32 26 41 6 12 8 10 73 105 178 12 3 13 6 58 58 59 62 29 33 22 15 184 174 358 13 2 8 8 58 77 62 77 36 42 17 18 181 224 405 14 1 1 6 5 36 39 30 35 13 30 11 7 97 117 214 15 1 2 2 2 20 26 14 30 21 16 1 6 59 82 141 16 1 2 4 23 30 17 29 19 12 6 4 67 80 147 17 2 2 5 6 9 6 4 1 3 15 23 38 18 2 1 3 1 3 6 4 10 19 1 1 1 20 1 1 1

Total 9 13 43 37 284 329 260 343 152 180 82 72 830 974 1.804

Median 12.8 13.4 13.0 13.2 13.0 13.2 13.6 13.3 12.9 13.1 13.1 13.2 13.1 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.4

12.2 13.0 13.1 13.1 13.5 13.0 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1

Median for year 12.8 13.1 13.3 i ^

COCOvOeSO\»HCNlOCOCO 1. 7 11. 9

7,70 8 i rtOOrtHO^HONM^t<5t|tNNMO« 1. 7 12. 0 3,98 2 co NMiOiO^MNNOvSNiONW)'* 1. 8 11. 8 3,72 6

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•a I •ll ~ A a 67 Percentage of Drawings

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Score

FIG. 7. DRAWINGS OF HUMAN BEINGS. DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES 68 Percentage of Drawings

22 20 Jl 18* 16 14 12 10 '—|lY«rs 8 6 4 2 0 c Ik 20 18 Jl 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

18 16 14 12 ^n 10 8 6 4 2 0

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 ru *y«*, 6 4 2 0

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FIG. 8. DRAWINGS OP HOUSES. DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES 69 18 16 _n 14 Ln 12 10 8&ir« 8 6 1 4 fir 2 0 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 7^ears 6 4 2

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 ^J fc Vcttf* 6 4 2 0«=

24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 $y«

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FIG. 9 COMPOSITIONS. DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES 70 APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 71

human beings there is a slight drop at eight years and six months. This may be accounted for either as a chance deviation from the normal tendency, due to a small number of cases, or, quite as prob­ ably, as a true deviation, due to the mentally retarded character of the older children. In the range of distribution there is enormous overlapping from year to year. The most gifted four year old children reach or exceed the median score for eight year old children, and, vice versa, the least gifted of the eight year group only approximate the median for the youngest kindergarten children; but in every case, either the lower end of the curve for any younger group is below the lower end of the curve for the next older group or the frequency for the lowest scores is greater for the younger children. Also the upper end of the curve for the older group is nearly always above the upper end of the curve for the next lower group. No eight year child draws as poorly as the poorest four year old, and no four year child draws as well as the best eight year child. Thus far the reliability of the scales is demonstrated. The distribu­ tion approaches the normal curve, and there is consistent rise in the norm from year to year. For the third test, the objectivity of the judgments, the ratings of the three judges on a hundred random sam­ ples of the drawings were compared by the correlation formula,

2AB /XA 25 n \n n Vv-(?)W?-(v)'' in which A and B are used to represent the values assigned to the hundred specimens by judges A and B respectively and n represents the number of drawings. By this formula, the ratings of judges A and B, A and C, and B and C for each subject were correlated. The coefficients of correlation are as follows:

JUDGES HUMAN BEINGS HOUSES COMPOSITIONS

A and B .85 .93 .84 BandC .85 .93 .81 A and C .83 .98 .71 72 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

That the judgments are not identical is due in part to the subjective factor. Each judge undoubtedly emphasizes different elements in rating the complex whole which is presented in each drawing; interprets from a slightly different viewpoint. In many instances, however, slight differences are not necessarily due to the subjectivity of the ratings. They may result from the fact that many drawings do not exactly represent the scale value. They may be located at some point between two adjacent values. In case the drawing is midway between two values, by chance half of the judgments would fall on the value just above and half on the value just below the true value. In such cases disagreement would lead to greater accuracy in the final score. The high correlations indicate a considerable degree of objectivity in the scales. The scale for houses is evidently most objective while that for compositions is the least. It seems justifiable therefore to use the medians and deviations dis­ covered as tentative norms for the further study of the drawings. Age differences have already been referred to. Grade differences are also significant. Do children of the same chronological age draw equally well, irrespective of scholastic attainment? Presumably, the five and six year old children in first grade are mentally maturer than those in the kindergarten, and six year old children in the second grade are mentally maturer than those in the first grade. This presumption seems more than justified because of the unfortunate school tradition which dictates that promotion from kindergarten to first grade shall be determined wholly by chronological age. Children are promoted at the beginning of the school term nearest the sixth birthday, regard­ less of mental maturity. Hence only the phenomenally precocious five year old child is usually found in first grade, and only the very superior child reaches the second grade before seven years. Do these children then draw better than those of their ages who are making just normal progress or who are slightly retarded? The facts are summarized in table 16, in terms of the median score for each age in each grade. Two general tendencies are evident. Comparing first the medians for the several ages within each grade (reading across the page), with one exception, we find consistent progress from year to year. Chrono­ logical maturity apparently brings fairly constant improvement in drawing ability, irrespective of school progress. APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 73

Looking next at the medians for the three grades (reading down the page) we find that with two exceptions there is definite increase in the score for every age from grade to grade (in the two exceptional groups the number of cases, 50 and 30 respectively, is relatively small). The five and six year old children in first grade rank higher than those in the kindergarten. The six year old children in the second grade rank higher than those in the first, etc. Several explanations may be offered. It is possible that those pupils who have advanced to higher classes, having been exposed to the stimulus of maturer children, have profited by their responses. It is

TABLE 16 Medians for ages and grades for the three forms

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS

Persons

Kindergarten. 9.0 10.7 11.4 12.0 First grade... 11.3 11.9 12.6 13.4 Second grade. 13.1 13.8 14.4

Houses Kindergarten. 7.6 10.5 11.1 12.4 First grade... 11.8 11.9 12.4 12.4 Second grade. 12.8 13.1 13.3

Compositions Kindergarten, 5.0 7.5 8.7 11.9 first grade... 7.7 10.3 10.7 10.8 Second grade. 11.7 11.9 12.4 possible that the instruction in drawing improves from grade to grade, though this may be seriously doubted. Finally, it may be that accelera­ tion in school progress and ability to draw are both the result of a common cause—superior "general intelligence"—or to a group of correlated causes. Further evidence will be presented on this point. It is quite possible that the first and third factors are both operative. Certain sex differences appear. According to the median scores, boys and girls are nearly equal in the quality of their representations of houses, with a slight advantage (0.1 per cent) in the total score in favor of the girls. Girls draw the human figure considerably better 74 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS than boys (0.7 per cent for the combined median for all the groups). This superiority, while not great, is consistent through all the years of all the grades. On the other hand, boys excel in the drawing of com­ positions (0.5 per cent for the combined median) except in the kinder­ garten group, where the combined median for the several ages is 0.2 per cent higher for the girls. Even here, the boys equal the girls at five, and in the six-year-six-months and seven-year groups. The data suggest that girls are more interested and therefore excel in the repre­ sentation of detail, of single objects, whereas boys are more interested and therefore excel in the representation of objects in relation to one another. Since the age-grade distribution of the drawings varies considerably, no valid comparison of the records for the cities represented could be made with the data in their original form. As the most convenient measure of the differences due to geographical distribution—and, prob­ ably, to the quality of instruction—the percentage of children in each city reaching or exceeding the median for all children of their respec­ tive ages was calculated. For example, for city A, the number of drawings of persons by four year old children which were equal to, or better than, the median rating for four year old children in general, was counted. This sum was then converted into a percentile value, based on the total number of drawings of persons by four year old children in city A. The same was done for all years and for the three subjects. The grade scores were kept separate, but the age scores within each grade were combined to form the total score for that grade. This provides a rough measure of the difference in drawing achievement from grade to grade within each city and from city to city. The figures are given in tables 17, 18 and 19 (pages 75-77). For obvious reasons, the symbols for the cities have been arbitrarily assigned. Each table gives first the number of drawings of the subject in ques­ tion, by grades and then in total. This represents the number of cases on which the percentages are based. Since the total amount of material sent by the cities differed considerably, and the number of drawings for each subject depended upon the choice of the individual children, there is a wide variation in the number of drawings from each city for each subject. The reliability of the score of any city depends upon the number of drawings included in it. Obviously a score based on 8, or even 30 drawings has no diagnostic value for that city, while a score based upon a hundred or more random samplings should have con­ siderable reliability. APPLICATION OE THE SCALES 75

There is manifestly a wide deviation in the ratings of the various cities. The percentages reaching or exceeding the median range from 21.0 to 88.3. The final composite scores (table 19A) which give the average achievement for the 3 forms for all grades and ages, range

TABLE 17 Percentages of drawings of human beings in each city reaching or exceeding the medians for their respective ages

NUMBER OF DRAWINGS PER CENT REACHING OR EXCEEDING MEDIAN

CITY Kinder­ First Second Kinder­ First Second garten grade grade Total garten grade grade Total

A 311 593 170 1074 53.7 41.5 39.9 44.7 B 483 75 21 579 56.9 58.7 61.9 57.3 C 178 178 46.6 46.6 D 352 161 60 573 50.9 53.4 28.3 47.5 E 79 134 98 311 48.1 44.0 44.9 45.3 F 70 41 30 141 64.3 82.8 70.0 70.9 G 93 93 58.1 58.1 H 182 159 113 454 60.9 50.3 74.3 60.6 I 15 76 28 119 60.0 65.8 50.0 61.4 J 51 35 86 47.1 62.9 53.5 K 11 2 13 81.8 50.0 77.0 L 208 248 114 570 76.9 58.5 56.1 64.7 M 113 70 39 222 47.8 60.0 43.6 50.9 N 223 30 16 269 55.6 56.7 37.5 54.6 0 213 58 18 289 44.1 43.4 61.1 44.6 P 34 43 5 82 56.9 27.9 20.0 39.0 Q 94 63 17 174 62.8 38.1 47.1 52.3 R 73 42 38 153 82.2 76.2 60.5 75.2 S 96 117 72 285 58.3 58.9 76.4 63.2 T 36 36 69.4 69.4 U 184 182 91 457 36.4 44.1 42.9 40.7 V 75 22 22 119 45.3 50.0 45.5 46.2 W 185 185 52.9 52.9 X 50 6 56 40.0 50.0 41.1 Y 129 51 29 209 56.6 45.1 37.9 51.2 Z 376 284 79 739 52.1 56.6 41.8 52.5 Za 22 17 39 77.3 70.6 ! 74.4 from 71.5 to 33.7. There is however a fair degree of uniformity in the position of each city for the several measures. In eight of the twenty- seven cities all the scores are grouped consistently either above or below the median. Five others have all but one of their scores on the same side of the median line. 76 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

Some of the facts are presented graphically in figures 10 and 11. In these, only those cities, nineteen in all, are included for which all the grades and all the subjects are represented. Figure 10 (page 79) compares the status pf the three grades of these nineteen cities in one

TABLE 18 Percentages of drawings of houses reaching or exceeding the medians for their respective ages

NUMBER OF DRAWINGS PER CENT REACHING OR EXCEEDING MEDIAN

CITY Kinder­ First Second Kinder­ First Second garten grade grade Total garten grade grade Total

A 224 553 383 1160 47.8 62.7 54.6 57.1 B 280 94 42 416 42.5 47.8 28.5 42.3 C 108 108 43.5 43.5 D 204 440 144 788 42.1 44.5 43.0 43.6 E 80 134 118 332 43.8 53.7 70.3 57.2 F 93 176 76 345 53.7 63.6 50.0 57.9 G 97 97 41.2 41.2 H 115 231 132 478 59.1 63.2 59.8 61.3 I 60 181 38 279 55.0 57.4 65.8 58.0 J 114 48 162 42.9 43.7 43.2 K 11 14 25 45.5 71.4 60.0 L 340 314 126 780 78.5 39.5 78.5 61.5 M 31 56 29 116 41.9 41.1 44.8 42.2 N 117 77 81 275 61.5 80.5 65.4 68.0 0 66 56 49 171 31.8 23.2 36.7 30.4 P 2 28 14 44 00.0 39.3 57.1 43.2 Q 39 79 93 211 56.4 50.6 51.6 51.9 R 42 58 69 169 69.0 68.9 50.7 61.5 S 80 273 98 451 53.8 60.8 60.2 59.9 T 29 29 53.4 53.4 U 68 56 38 162 27.9 32.1 21.0 27.8 V 30 49 24 103 70.0 67.3 37.5 61.1 W 8 8 56.3 56.3 X 13 18 31 23.1 61.1 45.1 Y 22 121 97 240 50.0 52.9 25.7 41.7 Z 275 373 84 732 45.5 58.9 58.2 53.8 Za subject—human beings, which was taken as typical. It should be inter­ preted, in city Z (first vertical series of dots), 57 per cent of the kin­ dergarten children, 51 per cent of the first grade children, and only 42 per cent of the second grade children exceeded the median scores for all children of their ages in drawing human beings. APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 77

The achievements of the same nineteen cities for the three subjects are compared in the same way in figure 11 (page 80), the total score of the three grades being used. It should be interpreted, in city Z 52 per cent of the children in the three grades who attempted to draw compositions

TABLE 19 Percentages of drawings of compositions reaching or exceeding the medians for their respective ages

NUMBER OF DRAWINGS PER CENT REACHING OR EXCEEDING MEDIAN

CITY Kinder­ First Second Kinder­ First Second garten grade grade Total garten grade grade Total

A 281 441 433 1155 56.9 51.2 41.8 49.1 B 202 79 30 311 53.9 65.8 56.7 57.2 C 127 16 29 172 36.2 75.0 72.4 45.9 D 74 148 85 307 54.1 36.5 36.5 40.7 E 57 80 104 241 36.8 80.0 42.3 53.5 F 67 120 139 326 80.6 88.3 85.6 85.6 G 71 71 22.5 22.5 H 81 45 152 278 75.3 54.4 53.3 59.7 I 2 37 43 82 50.0 67.6 51.2 58.5 J 4 59 86 149 100.0 71.0 53.5 61.8 K 22 8 30 31.8 75.0 43.3 L 159 178 157 494 83.6 74.7 59.9 72.9 M 66 65 56 187 74.2 50.8 41.1 56.1 N 188 64 106 358 69.1 71.9 68.9 69.6 0 32 67 41 140 46.9 25.4 48.8 37.1 P 11 28 11 50 63.6 32.1 63.6 46.0 Q 43 46 48 137 67.4 54.3 64.6 62.0 R 18 129 102 249 88.9 75.9 67.6 73.5 S 106 222 173 501 47.2 60.4 65.9 59.5 T 59 59 76.3 76.3 U 81 99 87 267 27.2 34.3 35.6 32.6 V 54 21 11 86 55.6 38.1 36.4 48.8 w 86 86 65.1 65.1 X 21 3 24 47.6 33.3 45.8 Y 114 63 95 272 42.1 71.1 44.2 49.6 Z 253 147 46 446 .51.8 63.3 56.5 56.1 Za 20 21 41 85.0 80.9 82.9 exceeded the medians for all children of their several ages; 54 per cent of those who drew houses exceeded the medians for houses, and 56 per cent of those who drew human beings exceeded the medians for that subject. 78 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

With few exceptions the three lines connecting the points rise and fall together. While this is more evident in figure 11, a comparison of the percentages for the three forms, than in figure 10, a comparison of the three grades, the same trend appears in both. The meaning seems clear: on the whole, those cities which excel in drawing tend to excel

TABLE 19A Percentages of drawings reaching or exceeding the medians for their respective ages—• average of three preceding scores

CITY KINDERGARTEN FIRST GRADE SECOND GRADE TOTAL

A 52.8 51.8 45.4 50.3 B 51.1 57.4 49.0 52.3 C 42.1 D 49.0 44.8 35.9 43.9 E 42.9 59.2 52.5. 52.0 F 66.2 78.2 68.5 71.5 G 40.6 H 65.1 56.0 62.5 60.5 I 55.0 63.6 55.7 59.3 J 53.7 53.4 K 53.0 65.5 L 79.7 57.6 64.8 66.4 M 54.6 50.6 43.2 49.7 N 62.1 69.7 57.3 64.1 0 40.9 30.7 48.9 37.4 P 40.2 33.1 46.9 42.7 Q 62.2 47.7 54.4 55.4 R 80.0 73.7 59.6 70.1 S 53.1 60.0 67.5 60.9 T 66.4 U 30.5 36.8 33.2 33.7 V 57.0 51.8 39.8 52.0 W 58.1 X I 36.9 48.1 Y ! 49.6 56.4 35.9 47.5 Z 49.8 59.6 52.2 54.1 in the three grades and in all subjects; and those which are deficient in one subject or grade tend to be deficient in all, probably because a common cause is at work in each situation. Comparing the scores by the scales with the factor of richness or poverty of content, mentioned in the first chapter, it was found that the same cities which drew well, usually drew from a wide range of APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 79

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Houses _-_-__-___» ao Compositions ______

City s y v v s BQPONML I H F E D £ A

FIG. 11. COMPARISON OF NINETEEN CITIES IN RATING OF THREE FORMS—AVERAGE FOR THREE GRADES APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 81 experiences, and those which drew poorly showed equal poverty in the variety of ideas they attempted to express. Since these facts relate to many children, located in numbers of schools, it seems fair again to infer that instruction, or lack of instruction, in drawing has been responsible for the differences. It is not assumed that the norms established in this study, and used as a basis for comparison, are true norms. The number of cases in each age group is too limited for such an assumption. Many thousands of drawings should be rated, and their scores combined before any valid norms of achievement could be secured. As tentative standards how­ ever, these medians have served their purpose in determining the rela­ tive merits of the drawings studied. It must also be emphasized that the method of comparison, using the per cent reaching or exceeding the median, gives at best but a rough measure, since it does not take into account how far the drawings of any city exceed or fall below the median. In fact, if this were con­ sidered, the differences between cities would be far greater. The cities varying about the median had many drawings near the median level, whereas those in which there is a high per cent above the median had numbers of drawings of a very high degree of excellency and those in which the per cent reaching the median is low had an equal propor­ tion of markedly inferior work. This is in accordance with the theory of probabilities underlying the normal curve of distribution. A further application of the scales was made in the study of the small number of drawings by retarded children received from the first and second grades. These were rated in the same manner as the rest. The ratings were then compared with the median for eight years, six months, and the percentage of each age reaching or exceeding that median was computed. The results are shown in table 20 (page 82). The numbers are too small for safe inference. They are presented as suggestive of possibilities for future study. For the nine and ten year groups it seems significant that, with the exception of drawings of the human figure they fall considerably below the norms with which they are compared. Since these norms are for younger children, it is probable that the retarded children are quite inferior in drawing ability to normal children of their own ages. 82 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

Two cities having large foreign populations had the nationality of the young artist recorded along with the other information on the back of the drawing. Again the numbers are too limited for any conclusions to be drawn, but they are presented as suggestive for further investi­ gation (table 21).

TABLE 20

Per cent of over-age children reaching or exceeding the median for 8 years} 6 months in drawing the three subjects

PEOPLE HOUSES COMPOSITIONS

AGE Per cent Per cent Per cent Number of reaching or Number of reaching or Number of reaching or drawings exceeding drawings exceeding drawings exceeding median median median 9-0 59 49.2 207 46.8 83 34.9 9-6 21 76.2 32 31.3 10-0 22 68.2 57 49.1 31 48.4 10-6 7 57.1 9 33.3 11-0 4 75.0 18 38.8 12 66.7 11-6 4 75.0 6 66.7 12-0 1 0.0 12 41.6 5 20.0 12-6 2 50.0 2 0.0 13-0 1 100.0 5 60.0 5 0.0 13-6 14-0 1 0.0 2 0.0 14r-6 1 100.0 15-0 2 50.0 15-6 16-0 1 100.0 16-6 Total 123 60.1 302 47.0 187 36.4

Of those nationalities which are represented by sufficient numbers for their ratings to have any significance at all, it is evident that the Japanese are notably superior, the Russians and Mexicans slightly so, while the English, Italians, Negroes and Poles are notably inferior to the average American children represented. APPLICATION OP THE SCALES 83

TABLE 21 Per cent of foreign children reaching or exceeding the medians for their respective ages in drawing the three subjects

PEOPLE HOUSES COMPOSITIONS

Per cent Per cent Per cent NATIONALITY Number reaching Number reaching Number reaching of or ex­ of or ex­ of or ex­ drawings ceeding drawings ceeding drawings ceeding median median median Chinese 3 66.7 18 44.4 9 33.3 English 8 50.0 24 29.1 7 57.1 French 4 100.0 German 11 54.6 19 47.3 7 57.1 Hawaiian 5 40.0 Italian 16 18.8 16 37.5 21 42.9 Japanese 12 50.0 22 77.3 30 80.0 Mexican 27 59.3 63 55.5 42 50.0 Negroes 35 42.9 34 26.4 40 47.5 Polish 18 50.0 80 33.8 24 58.3 Portuguese | 3 33.3 Russian 17 47.1 48 60.4 45 55.6 Spanish 10 70.0 CHAPTER IV

THE APPLICATION OF THE SCALES (Continued) CORRELATION WITH GENERAL INTELLIGENCE

One of the problems of major interest to those undertaking this study was the relation of drawing ability to intelligence. Some pre­ vious investigators have given evidence of this same interest, but no definite measurements, so far as is known, have been made. Lay1 states that in an experiment in drawing and modeling which he con­ ducted "five children of low rank showed surprising independence in this new field." Kerschensteiner2 states that graphic skill generally goes with intel­ lectual ability, but the converse is not necessarily true: intellectual ability does not go with ability in drawing. The best drawing, however, comes from children making the best school reports. The greatest artists have also been great thinkers. Nevertheless, superior drawing frequently comes from children of the socially inferior classes—from the families of cabinet-makers and other hand workers, rather than from the wealthy and upper classes. Hall3 quotes from IvanofT that there is a positive correlation between drawing and intelligence, and that this correlation is higher with girls than with boys: if a girl draws well she is more likely to be a good scholar than is the boy of like ability. Good drawers usually do well in history and geography, both of which involve visual memory. Arith­ metic is less closely related, but more commonly with girls than with boys. Drawing is more closely related to manual abilities than to any language studies. Defects in drawing however are attributed by Ivanoff chiefly to mental causes—sensory defects, weak mental content, an optic image incapable of guiding the hand, lack of attentive power, etc. None of these writers gives the data on which his conclusions are based.

1 Lay, Die plastisches Kunst des Kindes. 2 Kerschensteiner, Die Entwickelung der zeichnerischen Begabung. 8 Hall, Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 493. 84 APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 85

In order that definite measurements might be made, it was deter­ mined to secure drawings from a considerable number of children whose intelligence had been measured by a standardized test. For this pur­ pose the Leland Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon test was selected, as the best standardized and most widely used measure for kinder­ garten-primary children. Since it was not practicable for the Committee to conduct these tests with anything like an adequate number of sub­ jects, an appeal was made to a number of schools and school systems where the tests had been given under satisfactory conditions. From public or private schools of Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Denver, Detroit, Grand Rapids, New York City, Pasadena, Richmond, Va., and Ypsilanti came favorable responses. Directions were then sent to the teachers for securing a series of three drawings—one of each subject of the scales—from every child tested. In this case the subject of the drawing was to be imposed, but the mode of representation was to be left as free as possible. On every drawing was to be recorded the age and sex of the child, and his intelligence quotient. On receipt of the drawings all of those for which the data were com­ plete were subjected to the same process of evaluation as the earlier specimens. They were rated by the three judges, and the average rating for each drawing was determined. Next, the average for the three drawings was computed. Finally, this was converted into a "drawing quotient/' by dividing it by the average of the three medians for the age group to which the child belonged. The method is not so refined as the usual achievement quotient, because the medians used were determined for six months periods, whereas the usual method is based upon smaller chronological intervals. Moreover, the achieve­ ment quotient is usually computed as the ratio of the chronological age to the age value assigned to the product that is being rated. For our purposes, the method seemed justifiable since it gave a result vary­ ing directly with the ratio of the child's achievement to that of his age group, and one which was comparable to the intelligence quotient, in that it remained constant from year to year. The "drawing quotient" having thus been determined for each set of 3 drawings, its correlation with the intelligence quotient was cal­ culated by the formula:

n 86 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

The computations were made first for each half year interval, and then for the group as a whole. Table 22 gives the results. Considering first the coefficient for the total number of drawings, it is evident that there is a positive relationship between drawing achieve­ ment and intelligence, but the degree of relationship is not high. Ac­ cording to the P.E., the reliability of this correlation—the probability that it would generally hold true of random samplings of drawings— is considerable. On the basis of this value solely, it might be assumed that ability in drawing and general intelligence will accompany each^ other somewhat frequently. Children above the average in one will deviate in the same direction in the other by about 35 per cent. TABLE 22 Coefficients of correlation between drawing ability and general intelligence, as measured by the Binet-Simon tests

COEFFICIENT OF AGE NUMBER OF CASES P.E. CORRELATION 4-0l 47 .106 0.0971 4r-6j 5-0 183 .244 0.0469 5-6 239 .364 0.0378 6-0 308 .623 0.0235 6-6 214 .455 0.0366 7-0 220 .368 0.0393 7-6 107 .082 0.0648 8-0 75 .634 0.0466 8-6 27 .572 0.0877 Total 1,420 .350 0.0157

When we consider the values of r for the several ages, however, the situation is obscured. There appears to be a gradual rise in correla­ tion from practically no correlation at four years to 62.3 at six years, then a drop to practically nothing at seven years six months, with a rise to 0.634 and 0.572 respectively, at eight years and eight years six months. If we considered only the figures to 6 years inclusive, it might be inferred that drawing ability tended to rise in its correlation with in­ telligence because the more intelligent child responds more readily to the stimulus of school environment and instruction. The four year child, having newly arrived in school has not yet been exposed to school influences for a sufficient time to ensure his favorable reaction to it. APPLICATION OP THE SCALES 87

Moreover, it is quite probable that the intelligence quotient for the four year child is somewhat less reliable than that of maturer children, because of the far greater difficulty in securing the cooperation of the younger child in the test. Owing to both these factors, it might be anticipated that the correlation would rise with chronological age. The six year child does react favorably in most cases to the test situa­ tion, and the amount of exposure of 6 year children to drawing in­ struction is far more uniform. The sudden drop in the coefficient at six years six months however, is not explicable on this basis—or on any basis now apparent to us. It is quite possible that the rise at eight years is due to the selected nature of the group from which most of these drawings were received. By the usual organization of primary schools most of the eight year children of normal and supernormal intelligence have been eliminated from the first and second grades. The eight year groups therefore, are highly selected for subnormality. This is proven by a comparison of the medians of the intelligence quotients for these ages with those for all the children represented. The median for the intelligence quo­ tients of the 1420 children is 102.9, whereas the median for the eight year group is 90, for the eight year six months group 82. It is quite probable that the correlation is higher for the lower orders of intelligence. This is somewhat contrary to Kerschenstimer's con­ clusion. The chances are greater that inferior ability in drawing will accompany markedly inferior intelligence than the converse. How­ ever, in considering individuals, there were numbers of children of quite low intelligence who showed considerable skill in drawing, as well as several children of high intelligence who were deficient in drawing. The inference that correlation between representative power and intelligence is closer at the lower end of the scale is corroborated by a comparison of the quartile distribution for the two measures. For this purpose, the values for the four quartiles for both intelligence quotient and drawing quotient were determined. They were for in­ telligence, 48-93, 94^103, 104r-113, 114-172; for drawing, 48-97, 98- 106, 107-116, 117-195. The number of children whose drawing quotients for each quartile fell within the several quartiles of the intelligence quotients was then determined. These values were translated into graphic form in figure 12. The figure is to be interpreted: for the lowest quartile of the intelligence 88 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

FIG. 12. QUARTILE DISTRIBUTION OF DRAWING QUOTIENTS COMPARED WITH THAT FOR INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS

Reading: 160 drawings which fell in the lowest quartile of I.Q.'s were also in the lowest quartile of D.Q.'s, etc. APPLICATION OE THE SCALES 89 quotients, the drawing quotients of 161 children fell in the same quartile, 114 in the second, 58 in the third, arid 24 in the fourth. For the second quartile of intelligence quotients, the drawing quotients of 93 children fell within the first quartile, 105 in the second, 81 in the third, and 66 in the fourth, etc. The figure brings out clearly the fact of the wide variability of the two scores. Twenty-four children with intelligence quotients of 94 or less were among the upper 25 per cent in drawing achievement, while 46 children whose intelligence placed them in the upper 25 percentile had drawing scores in the lowest quartile of all the children. On the other hand, in all except the third quartile of intelligence, for which the upper quartile of drawing quotients is slightly higher, the number of children whose drawing quotients fall within the same quartile is greater than any other. That the overlapping should be considerable in the middle 50 per cent was to be expected. A significant fact is that for the lowest quartile of intelligence the number of children with superior ability in drawing is considerably less than the converse for the upper quartile—24 to 46. Stated in another way, while only 6.8 per cent of the children in the lowest group for general intelligence excelled in drawing, 13 per cent of those in the highest group were markedly deficient in drawing. The assumption seems justified that while individuals of very low mentality are rarely superior in graphic representation, it is not gener­ ally to be expected that intellectually brilliant individuals will excel in graphic arts. Drawing is probably a specialized ability, which never­ theless involves elements dependent upon such mental traits as ac­ curate observation, clear memory images, attention, and susceptibility to instruction. These general conclusions, while offered only tentatively, are in line with the evidence previously presented: that achievement in drawing among children of the same chronological age increases from grade to grade, and that over-age children in the first and second grades are usually less proficient in drawing than the pupils of the normal ages for these grades.

EDUCATIONAL CONCLUSIONS Some educational corollaries may be suggested. Concerning the feeble-minded group it may be said that proficiency in drawing, or any of the expressive types of manual arts, should not be expected. 90 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

For these pupils, emphasis should be placed wholly upon those types of manipulative activity in which manual skill alone is necessary for expertness; for example, basketry or weaving. Of the mentally superior, however, it cannot be prognosticated that they will excel in drawing. They may or may not, although it is prob­ ably true that in the greatest artists technical draughtmanship is united with superior mentality. That children moderately or even poorly endowed with intellectual gifts may excel in manual expression is especially significant. In the adaptation of instruction to individual differences these children may be led to feel and develop the power they have, finding immediate satisfactions in congenial activity, incentives to greater effort in other directions, and a hope for the future in vocations of intrinsic worth and social value—in the broad field of industrial arts. The recognition of these differences has been urged many times. Thorndike says,

Individual intellects can be divided roughly into two classes: those able to work with ideas and those able to work with things. Some children manage numbers, words, parts of speech, chemical symbols, and the like, but fail relatively in measuring boards, catching fish, cooking meals or making toys. They are the idea thinkers. Others make little headway with their arithmetic, grammar or text-book in chem­ istry but succeed in the shop, the woods and the laboratory. They are the thing thinkers Schools have hitherto been managed primarily in the interest of the idea thinkers. It has been left for shops, trades and the practical activities of life to give the other group the training which their natures crave. Moreover teachers, who are likely to be of the idea thinker type are, as a consequence, likely to be unfair to the thing thinkers—to look down on the children who do not do well in their typical school studies, however great their practical talents may be. But obviously the world needs both; the school should give opportunity for both; the teacher should esteem both.4

Clearly, the child artist of mediocre mental gifts should be classed with the "thing thinkers." The kindergarten, with its emphasis upon the manual arts, has frequently done full justice to this class. Perhaps this emphasis has been responsible for the fact that the kindergarten teacher's judgment on the intelligence and promise of her pupils has frequently been found mistaken when her children pass on to the pri­ mary school. The primary teacher, burdened with the responsibility of imparting the three R's, may just as frequently neglect to discover and encourage the "thing thinker."

4 Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, p. 87 f. APPLICATION OF THE SCALES 91

Finally, the positive correlation between drawing and general in­ telligence indicates that the two are not antagonistic. The majority of those who draw best are in the upper levels of intelligence. For these children drawing and other forms of manual expression offer all the educational values suggested above, and for the future, avocational interests of great worth, with the added possibility, in the case of the gifted few, of contributing to the development of artistic genius. CHAPTER V

POSSIBLE USES OF THE SCALES

The applications of the scales thus far made have in no way ex­ hausted the possibilities of their use. In fact, the ground has only been broken, and the Committee hopes that its product will become a helpful instrument in the hands of class-room teachers, administrators, and research workers. Certain practical points in their application must therefore be made clear. Since the scales comprise only three subjects, it is obvious that the first essential is to secure drawings in which these three subjects con­ stitute the dominant ideas. The most valuable specimens would doubtless be those produced spontaneously in the course of the days' activities. However, since this might entail considerable delay in securing complete returns from a class, it has been found justifiable to assign the drawings as class exercises, providing sufficient motivation to ensure interest and the maximum of effort. In the instructions given to the teachers who contributed the sam­ ples used in the study of correlation with intelligence, the following suggestions were offered:

The drawings, to be strictly comparable to the scales, should be done with wax crayons of neutral tone (brown or black) and on drawing paper 6 by 9 inches. We wish three drawings from each child: (1) a person (man, woman or child), (2) a house, and (3) a composition containing trees. The mode of procedure may be adapted to your general method. If the children are accustomed to individual activities, the suggestions may be made to each individual, at an opportune moment; or if they are accustomed to group instruction, the lesson may be. given at a regular drawing or manual arts period. The essential conditions are (1) that the work be properly motivated to secure the interest and best effort of each child; and (2) that each one express the idea without aid, suggestion, or criticism from teacher or other children. With kindergarten children, not more than one subject should be presented at one period. The following approach is suggested: "I want you to draw a picture for me today. I am going to send all your pictures on the train to some one far away. A great many other children are going to draw the same kind of picture, and I hope that each one of you will do your very best, so that I may be proud of yours. Will you each draw a picture of a house? The very best house you can make!,, 92 POSSIBLE USES OF THE SCALES 93

For the second drawing, "You remember the houses you drew for me yesterday (the other day)? I liked them very much. Now will you make me a picture of a man, or a lady, or a little boy, or a little girl who lives in the house? Which would you rather make? (Allow children to express their preferences freely.) Remember to do your very best, for this picture is going far away for other people to see, and I want to be proud of you." For the third, "You have made two pictures for me—a house and some people to live in it. Let us play that this family lived in the country (or near the park). Will you make me a picture with some trees in it to show that they lived in the country (or near the park)? Every one of you is going to try just as hard as you did before, so that this picture will be the best of all."

Other incentives would of course be offered. The one indispensable condition is that the samples be secured without previous preparation— instruction, suggestion or drill—and that no guidance or help be given to any individual during the drawing. Sufficient time should be al­ lowed for each child to finish his product to his own satisfaction, without interruption or hurry. All three subjects should be secured from each individual, since no one of them is a fair measure of his general ability in drawing. This was indicated in the graph showing the scores of a number of cities in drawing the three forms (fig. 11). While in most cases the scores for the three were fairly close together, in some instances they varied considerably—from 15 to 30 per cent. These scores represent the attainments of different children, but a comparison of the three draw­ ings of one child reveals similar inequalities. Before attempting to use the scales for practical or scientific purposes, some practise is necessary. Using any available samples of the sub­ jects, compare each one independently to the appropriate scale. Plac­ ing it beside the scale, approach its approximate value from each direction. Starting from the highest scale value, or from one unques­ tionably above the sample, compare with each value until the drawing most like the sample is reached. Then, starting from the lower limit of the scale, or from a value unquestionably lower than the sample, proceed upward until the value most like the sample is reached. If the two values are not identical, the midpoint or average of the two may be used as the measure of this sample. In case the drawing is very different in character from the specimen of its approximate value in the scale, ex­ amine the series of supplementary drawings for the nearest equivalent. Note the assigned value on the back of the drawing. 94 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

After a number of drawings (perhaps fifty) have been rated in this way, repeat the process, recording the second score with the first, and noting the difference between the two scores. Thorndike says that three hours' practise with the handwriting scale will bring considerable facility in its use. The same amount of practise with the drawing scales, if properly checked up for deviations in the successive ratings, should result in sufficient accuracy for practical purposes. Since in the use of every product scale there is a considerable sub­ jective element, greater accuracy is secured if each sample is rated by two or more judges, the average of the results constituting the final measure. A second, somewhat less reliable, method is for one person to rate the drawings several times, taking the average of the several results as the final measure. Variations of one or even two points in the ratings may not be an in­ dication of error, since the complexity of the qualities rated may war­ rant some latitude in judging, according to the quality emphasized; and also since some drawings may have a true value midway between two points on the scale. The chances are that repeated ratings, either by the same or different judges will serve to compensate for these uncertainties. The drawings of each subject having been rated as accurately as possible, and sorted according to ages, the central tendency, either in terms of the median or average, may be determined for each age group. While the average is the more familiar measure, the median is more reliable for scientific purposes, as it is not influenced by small numbers of cases falling near the upper or lower limits of the distribution. The central tendencies may then be compared to the norms estab­ lished for the several ages, to determine the general level of achieve­ ment. These norms, derived from tables 13, 14 and 15, are repro­ duced for convenience in table 23. As in this investigation, the comparison may be made more quickly and easily by determining the number of drawings that are equal to or better than the standards for their respective ages, and converting this total into a percentile value, based on the total number of draw­ ings rated. By this method, a percentile value of 50 would indicate achievement exactly equal to the norm. Any percentage less than 50 indicates proficiency below the norm. Any percentage above 50 signifies proficiency above the norm thus far established. POSSIBLE USES OF THE SCALES 95

In order that these norms may be made more reliable by the inclu­ sion of a far greater number of cases, the Committee would be glad to have reports on any groups of children tested. Blanks are provided for this purpose. The class-room tesacher however should be concerned not only with the general level of her class, but with the individual achievement of every child in the group. The individual scores, as compared with the central tendency either for the class or for the larger groups represented in this study, should indicate more definitely than the opinion of the teacher which children have special aptitudes for drawing, and which

TABLE 23 Norms thus far established for the several forms

HUMAN BEINGS COMPOSITIONS

Aver­ Aver­ Aver­ Median age Median age Median age

4 years 8.1 7.0 6 4. 4.4 4 years, 6 months 9.2 8.6 7.9 7, 5 4.9 5 years 10.5 10.0 10.3 9 7, 6.8 5 years, 6 months 11.0 10.5 10.8 10. 7. 6 years 11.7 11.3 11.5 11 9. 6 years, 6 months 12.0 11.8 12.1 11 10. 7 years 12.9 12.5 12.7 12, 11 7 years, 6 months 13.2 12.8 12.9 12. 11 8 years 13.9 13.4 13.2 12.5 11.7 8 years, 6 months, 13.6 13.1 13.0 12.5 12.4 11.9 children need special stimulation and guidance in order that they may obtain the maximum of educational value from this form of self- expression. The scales may be used a number of times during the year as a means of measuring progress, but the drawings of the scales should never be used as models for imitation by the children. While the handwriting scales have been profitably and legitimately used in the class-room as incentives in the teaching of handwriting, their several degrees of merit offering to each child an attainable goal just in advance of his present attainment, scales for the representative arts should have a different status. Drawing is not, like handwriting, merely a manual art, depending wholly upon motor skill for its development. It is a form of self-expres- 96 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS sion, in which spontaneity and freedom, proceeding from individual thinking and imagery, are vital to real proficiency. The mechanical imitation of a model is inimical to progress because it discourages initia­ tive and the search for clarity of imagery. It tends to fix habits of conventional reproduction. A class which, early in its kindergarten experience, had been taught by imitation to draw a flower crudely, using a rotary movement over and over, and adding a vertical line for a stem, remained content to draw flowers in this way the balance of the year. Another class of the same social status in the same city, with free representation, wise criticism, and frequent reference to living models, in the same period acquired a power which enabled them to represent tulips and jonquils of real individuality, beauty and naturalness. So in drawing the human form or houses or compositions, suggestion, with reference to the living model, to the products of children in ad­ vance of the group, to a wide range of pictures (not too complex for real appreciation) should stimulate to greater effort and more satis­ factory results; but the mechanical reproduction of any one model is dangerous and stultifying. The scales especially are not intended as models on which to base instruction, or by which to limit the self- expression of children, but purely as measuring instruments for as­ signing values to the results attained by sound educational methods. To supervising officers, the scales should be of service in comparing the achievement, within the system, of group with group, school with school, or grade with grade; and in comparing the work of the system as a whole with that of other school systems. It may frequently happen, as was illustrated by the graph comparing the work of the three grades in nineteen cities (figure 10), that the promise of the kindergarten is not fulfilled in the primary grades; that the work of kindergarten and first grade is brought to an untimely end in the second; or occasionally that better work in the second grade brings up the standard that has lagged in the two lower grades. The scale, as a definite objective measure, makes clear these differences and stimu­ lates to greater effort, or better methods, the failing teacher. It may also aid in bringing to light the relative values of different methods of teaching. To those interested in the scientific study of education a number of problems are suggested for solution. Several of the studies initiated in this investigation need to be pursued further. Among these one POSSIBLE USES OF THE SCALES 97 of the most fundamental is the establishment of norms for the several ages on the basis of the examination of many more drawings. The study of abilities of retarded children in the first and second grades, and of many more children whose intelligence quotients are known will throw additional light on the relation between representa­ tion and general intelligence. Comparison of the various nationalities among the children of foreign parentage offers possibilities of contribu­ tions of psychological interest in relation to racial differences. Several new problems also suggest themselves. A comparison of the abilities of kindergarten and non-kindergarten children in the primary grades may shed some light on the value of kindergarten training in one of its essential aspects. A comparison of drawings made under dif­ ferent conditions by the same children may lead to conclusions of con­ siderable interest and educational value. Among these, a comparison of drawings whose subjects were imposed by the teacher with others of the same or allied subjects produced spontaneously may indicate the extent to which free choice affects interest, effort and attainment. Again, a comparison of drawings of the same subject with and without color may suggest the strength or weakness of the color appeal. One of the subjects proposed when this study was undertaken was the extent to which young children draw from the model. The Committee was diverted from this problem partly because of a conviction that a series of scales would be serviceable in its solution. The problem today is by no means solved. The emphasis which some psychologists have placed upon the mental image as the sole stimulus to expression in drawing suggests a kind of divorce between impression and expression which we believe may lead to most faulty educational practise. Hence some decisive answer to the question is important in its practical as well as its theoretical bearings. It seems self-evident, from many observations of children at work with various expressive media—for example, drawing, painting and building—that even children of the kindergarten period, in drawing, painting or building, are definitely influenced by the model at hand. Not only are they stimulated to reproduce the objects seen, but they frequently check up their results by reference to the objects represented, and occasionally turn to the models during their activity for light on doubtful points. Whether a child draws directly from his image or by observation of the model, certainly he has need of recent, vital experience of the model 98 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS both as a stimulus and as an aid to adequate representation. A com­ parison of drawings of a number of subjects, made with and without the model, and evaluated by a standardized series of scales should throw additional light upon this question.

LIMITATIONS OF THE SCALES

The reliability of all measures is limited by the subjective factor in their application. Even measurement with so objective a standard as the foot rule is not infallible. Two individuals measuring the height of a person or the area of a room may vary from J to 6 inches in their results. In the use of the handwriting scales absolute agreement is less probable, because of the greater complexity of the qualities meas­ ured. In judging English compositions or drawings, because of the still greater complexity of the qualities measured, and the wider range of variability among the samples to be measured, the reliability is even less. Nevertheless it is claimed for all correctly constructed product scales that they are a far more objective measure than the judgment of any teacher, because they represent the judgment of many competent judges. With sufficient training in their use they are found to be much less variable in their results than the unaided grading of a teacher, and therefore provide a fairer means of rating individual children. The scale score for a class or grade is sufficiently reliable for purposes of comparisons of group with group which are otherwise impossible. These scales in particular are limited in their application in several ways. First, they consist only of three subjects. This shortcoming is in part compensated for by the fact that these three subjects con­ stitute the dominant interests of children in representation. Approxi­ mately 41 per cent of those children included in this study drew human beings, 34 per cent drew dwelling houses, and 21 per cent trees. It may be assumed that the majority of children will be able to demon­ strate their ability by the average score for these three subjects. How­ ever it is desirable that in the future other scales be constructed, based upon other concepts of demonstrated interest. Among these, vehicles, furniture, and animals would probably be of special value. Since color was debarred from consideration in this study, other measures need to be devised for the evaluation and investigation of color in representation, in all its aspects. POSSIBLE USES OP THE SCALES 99

The fact that emphasis in the study was placed upon representation rather than artistic merit leaves room for further research and possibly for the construction of other measures based primarily upon esthetic values. That the two are not identical was indicated in the course of the investigation. One judge, interested in impressionistic and cubist art, reversed almost completely the usual judgments on the composition series. One judge, an artist unfamiliar with children's work, after rating five drawings, in each of two series, wrote, "The rest are all equally bad." It is evident in both cases that esthetic bias made it impossible to judge the drawings on a representative basis. It is generally conceded, and borne out by the evidence, that the general trend of interest in young children is toward adequate repre­ sentation before esthetic expression. The very slight degree to which they select design is illustrative of this fact, as well as the slow develop­ ment of the tendency to balanced arrangement in representative draw­ ing, which is discussed in Chapter VI. It seems probable also that ability to express ideas clearly and truly is fundamental to good art, however much maturer interpretation may depart from photographic accuracy of representation. Nevertheless, it would be interesting if other scales could be constructed in which other standards—of beauty of form and color, proportion or balance in composition, etc., would be applied. In conclusion, the restriction of these scales to a specific period of education and to specific ages is in itself a limitation. It has already been suggested that this limitation was thought to be justifiable in the interest of a finer and more accurate measure within the prescribed limits. It might be compared to the construction of a millimeter rule to supplement the meter-centimeter rule, or the foot rule to supple­ ment the yard stick. Within its own limits it makes possible truer definitions of abilities, but for comparison with larger wholes, reference must be made to the more inclusive measure. A determination of equivalences between the several units of the kindergarten-primary scale and those of the Thorn- dike, the Kline-Carey, or any other reliable and comprehensive scales that may be devised, is therefore desirable; or else, in cases where comparison with achievements for all grades of a school or school system is wanted, one of the more comprehensive measures should be applied. CHAPTER VI

SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE

In view of the large mass of material available for their solution some questions concerning children's handling of the technique of drawing suggested themselves as worthy of investigation. Do children tend to represent objects in mass or in outline? To what extent do they draw the human face in full view or in profile? How far are definite ideas of the relative magnitudes of objects mani­ fested? What evidence, if any, is shown of the consciousness of per­ spective in a picture? As it was practically impossible to include the whole collection of drawings in these investigations, about half of the original material was examined, the selection being left wholly to chance. Later, all available drawings of the four and eight year children were added, and all the drawings of houses and of human beings that had previously been omitted. In all, 18,667 samples were examined. In this series of studies no attempt was made to segregate the work of the three grades, but the sex and age groupings were rigidly adhered to.

OUTLINE AND MASS DRAWING The drawings were first examined to discover wha,t proportion of the children had made use of outline or mass, an inquiry the answer to which would be of practical value to many teachers of art in the kinder­ garten and primary grades. For our purposes, mass drawing was interpreted broadly to include all products in which the surface of the object had been filled in, regardless of whether it was circumscribed by a definite outline or not. Only those products were considered as outline drawings in which the contour of the forms alone was indicated. Forms in which parts were represented by their outlines only, and other parts in mass (as defined above) were classed as "combination." The several objects of each drawing were considered individually. If any drawing contained all three types it was listed under the three headings—outline, mass, and combination. No specimen, however, was tabulated more than once under each heading—so that if it con- 100 SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 101

tained two or more objects drawn in outline, and only one in mass, this fact was not indicated in any way. To a certain extent this procedure obscures the results, but the probabilities are wholly in favor of a larger proportion of objects drawn with the predominating technique. The method used seems preferable, for its results are in terms of the number of children using each mode of representation. The data are presented in their original form—by cities—in table 24, which also shows the totals for girls and boys of each age and the number of draw­ ings on which the data are based. Finally, the original figures have been converted into a percentile value, calculated on the basis of the total number of drawings examined for each city and for each age group. The age and sex differences are also graphically represented in figure 13 (page 108). Considering first the totals for each year, there is a striking preference for outline drawing among the four year children—nearly 73 per cent of all four year old children choosing this mode of expression. The percentage decreases steadily up to eight years, with the most marked decline at six. Mass drawing obviously shows the opposite trend, starting with 26.6 per cent at four years and increasing steadily to eight years, rising most sharply at six years. That these findings are the result of the maturing of natural tendencies, however, is by no means clear. An examination of the returns from the various cities suggests at least a doubt of such an interpretation. In the drawings from some cities outline predominates throughout the five year period, whereas in others mass work appears in considerable quantity in the fifth year. A scrutiny of the percentages of mass and outline drawing for each city, even disregarding those cities in which the later years are inadequately represented, shows a wide range of variations. City L, having no eight year representation, has percen­ tages of 39.9 and 63.9 respectively for outline and mass, while City I, with approximately proportionate distribution of its age groups, has 63.6 and 41.9. The deviations are so wide that it seemed worth while to calculate a new group of percentile values, eliminating the six cities in which mass drawing was found in considerably larger amount than was usual throughout the five years—Cities E, F, J, L, R, and S. This series of values is given at the foot of table 24. It will be seen that for every year there is an appreciable increase in the percentage of outline drawings—1.0, 5.5, 9.1, 9.5, and 7.1 for the five years respec­ tively;—and a corresponding decrease in the percentage of mass draw- CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

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FIG. 13. COMPARISON OE SEXES AND AGES IN USE OF MASS AND OUTLINE the use of the side of the crayon, producing forms that were ill-defined, hazy and lifeless—is obviously imposed and unchildlike. In no other cases was there any considerable amount of work in which the outline was entirely omitted. The natural inference, in consideration of all the data, is that outline drawing is normal with the majority (at least three-fourths) of four year children and that the transition to mass is, at least in part, the result of school instruction. The question—just how far and at what SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 109

period instruction should attempt to modify this method of expression— is one for the future to answer. Sex differences are indicated in the table and more clearly presented in figure 13. It is evident that girls, from the beginning, and through­ out the five years, use the outline less frequently, and mass more fre­ quently than the boys. Two plausible explanations may be suggested —the greater precocity of girls, assuming that mass drawing is a matter of maturing power; or their greater docility or amenability to instruc­ tion, assuming that mass drawing is the result of school influence.

FULL-FACE AND PROFILE DRAWING OF THE HUMAN FACE

The drawings of the human figure were next examined, to determine how far children tended to draw the full face or profile. Four general types of representation were discovered: (1) the unequivocal full-face view; (2) the unequivocal profile; (3) the doubtful, in which the features are so undefined that it is impossible to determine whether the inten­ tion was to represent the full face or profile; and (4) the mixed type, which combines certain characteristics of the two views; for example, representing the forehead, nose and chin, the general contour of the face, in profile; the two eyes and mouth symmetrically placed as in a front view. The data for the several cities, with the totals and the percentages for the several ages and for both sexes are presented in table 25. These percentages are based on the total number of drawings of human be­ ings, which is shown for each city in the last column and for the general summary on the base line. The final summary is also represented graphically in figure 14 (page 114). There is a manifest tendency of four year old children to draw the full face, with a gradual increase in the number of profile drawings through the ninth year. With the exception of two cities, E and L, (K may be disregarded because of its small representation), the cities are fairly consistent in their percentile values, the differences being attributable to the differences in the age distributions of the children represented. These results are in harmony with the findings of earlier investigators —Ricci, Lukens, and Hall. Several explanations have been offered for the tendencies indicated. It has been argued that the young child draws the front view because he is representing his own image, which 110 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

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FIG. 14. COMPARISON OF SEXES AND AGES IN DRAWING OF HUMAN FACE of the technical difficulties in the portrayal of the human face, and of his own short-coming in attempting it. With the dawn of self-criti­ cism comes hesitation. The first result is a decided falling off in at­ tempts to reproduce man at all—as is evidenced in Chapter I. The second, it has been suggested, is the discovery that the profile is tech­ nically less difficult, less grotesque in its results. Hence a somewhat deliberate choice of the profile view, which continues to grow in favor through the years succeeding our own period of interest. It has also been conjectured that the mixed type marks the transition from full SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 115 face to profile, and may be taken as an indication of the approach of the period of self-criticism. There is no definite evidence in favor of this last inference. The fact that the mixed type at no period comprises more than 5.1 per cent of the total, whereas the profile drawings for this same year, the ninth, comprise 32.4 per cent, argues against the view that this type is transi­ tional in any general sense. It is probably transitional with these children. Like many other vagaries of children's drawings, the mixed portrait appears to be the result of an individual child's confusion either of images, or of purposes, or of imitative effort. He may have noted the profile and then added the features which he knows to be there, just as he frequently adds the furniture in the house to the ex­ terior view, or the second leg of the man on horse-back, which he knows to be on the other side of the horse. He may have started with a profile in mind and then reverted to the more habitual and familiar view. Or, finally, he may have copied from memory the view he has seen in adult portraits, and, forgetting its details, supplied the missing elements from his habitual modes of expression. The profile itself may quite possibly be the result of school instruc­ tion, as the exercises in drawing from the living model customary in many schools would suggest; or of wider observation both of the human form itself and of the technique of others, with the consequent desire to reproduce this new view. Certain deviations in the cities are at least suggestive of instruction as a large contributing factor—notably the high percentage of full face drawings and the correspondingly low percentage of profiles in City O, which is known to be a warm advocate of freedom and self-expression, and an arch enemy to the imposition of technique. Sex differences again appear: the percentage of full-face drawings is consistently greater for the girls in every year, and the percentage of profiles is correspondingly less. No sound explanation for this fact suggests itself. It is possibly the result of a more objective and im­ personal interest on the part of boys, leading them to see, and represent what they see, from the less naive and intimate viewpoint. Featureless drawings—in which the figure was so placed as to con­ ceal the facial features, or in which the face was represented but void of all its natural organs—appeared to be popular in certain cities. Number 582 of the scale is typical of this artifice—plainly a device to avoid the grotesquery of children's portraits, but a device of dubious 116 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS merit. For it might easily create the very self-distrust which it is meant to overcome. It might deprive the more courageous young artist of that sense of power which ultimately brings success; and of that practice which results in power. From the psychologist's stand­ point it suggests an unwarranted restraint upon self-expression.

BALANCE OR SYMMETRY OP ARRANGEMENT The same 18,867 specimens which had been examined for the use of outline and mass were again studied to discover how far the children seemed conscious of a sense of balance or symmetry in the arrange­ ment of their drawings. Balance for this purpose meant, not conven­ tional design, but the placing of forms in relation to each other; for example, a house with a tree or a shrub at each side, an interior view of a window flanked by two pictures, a table with two chairs sym­ metrically placed one on either side, the front elevation of a house with doors and windows nicely balanced. There is a subjective ele­ ment in this study, since there may be considerable variation in judg­ ment as to just what constitutes balance. There may also be a large element of chance in the arrangement of the drawings themselves, so that it is impossible to judge in all cases whether a balanced arrange­ ment is the result of conscious intention on the part of the designer or of accident or of direct imitation. Nevertheless the results are at least suggestive. They are given in detail for the several cities and ages for both sexes in table 26. The final summary is shown graphically in figure IS (page 118). It is quite clear, contrary to the opinion of a number of educators, that symmetry of arrangement plays but a small part in the drawings of these children, a little more than 3 per cent of their products, at most, giving evidence of its presence. Yet its presence in any degree at the kindergarten-primary period is of pedagogical interest. In some in­ dividuals it was manifested to a remarkable degree. One drawing by a six year old girl is distinctly decorative, showing a man well drawn but highly conventionalized, flanked on either side by a candle-stick holding a candle of relatively mammoth size, yet so proportioned as to form a distinctly pleasing whole. It is also clear that the element of balance or symmetry is seldom found in the products of the four year old children (one-half of one per cent), and shows a gradual increase from year to year—0.5, 2.4, 3.5, 4.8, and 4.6 per cent, respectively. Again there is a slight drop in the curve at SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 117

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FIG. 15. COMPARISON OF SEXES AND AGES IN USE OF PROPORTION, BALANCE AND PERSPECTIVE to the kindergarten group, declining from 0.6 per cent in the kinder­ garten to 0.3 per cent in the first grade and 0.2 per cent in the second. It seems safe to infer that, in so far as the younger children do lead in design, they lead because of direct educational influence, rather than naturally maturing interest. Sex differences in the use of balance are noteworthy. In every year the girls exceed the boys, with increasing differences of 0.1, 0.2, 1.1, 1.4, and 1.7 per cent, respectively. This is in accordance with the SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 119 other evidence presented of the greater interest of girls in esthetic values. The girls produced a greater proportion of conventional de­ signs than the boys. They also represented a greater proportion of landscapes and flowers—those aspects of nature which make the strong­ est esthetic appeal. The variations in the city scores for balance are slight enough to be accounted for by differences of age distribution and other accidental factors.

PROPORTION A study of the sense of proportion as revealed in the drawings was next undertaken. Proportion was defined as an approximately true representation of the relative sizes of the objects in a picture, propor­ tion of parts in a single object being excluded partly by reason of its greater difficulty of judgment. It is a matter of common observation among teachers of young children that many of them ignore completely the proportions of the various parts of a picture. Ea,ch object is drawn for itself alone, and even when several are related in a narrative or descriptive "composi­ tion," the man frequently towers over the house, the flower by the garden wall overshadows the tree beside it, the tail is quite competent to wag the dog. In order to determine the extent to which these children were conscious of proportion in its application to drawing, the same 18,867 specimens previously used were again examined. The question, Do the several objects depicted approximate the relative sizes of these objects in life? was asked concerning each drawing. The affirmative answers alone were recorded. The study departs from scientific accuracy in several respects. It was conducted on the "all or none" basis, taking no account of different degrees of failure or success, giving no credit in case part of the ob­ jects were in proportion to each other, or in case the defects were rela­ tively slight. Drawings in which only one object was represented were given no credit, although it is quite possible that the children producing them were competent to treat a composition proportionally. This defect however is probably not serious, since so large a proportion of the maturer children drew more than one object that the chances are that the successes and failures would have cancelled each other. There is also a large subjective element in a judgment of this character. Nevertheless, interest attaches to the results. The defects of method 120 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS are largely due to the nature of the problem. The results undoubtedly indicate certain growth tendencies. They are shown in table 27 and figure 15 (page 118). Among the four year old children few (2.9 per cent) show any con­ ception of proportion. Many, in fact, give no evidence of any con­ sciousness of space relationships at all. Frequently their drawings suggest a topsy-turvy world—a medley of objects whose base line varies with every object. This phase is illustrated by drawing number 923 of the composition scale, and supplementary drawing number 815. In such a drawing proportion of parts is not to be expected. However, the deficiency lingers long after the chaos of these early attempts has been reduced to order. Sense of proportion develops very gradually from the 2.9 per cent of the four year children to 26.7 per cent among the seven year children, with a significant drop to 20.2 per cent among the eight year children represented—2.9, 9.3, 18.8, 26.7, 20.2 per cent respectively for the several years. Some inquiry into the psychological causes of this late emergence of proportion in graphic representation seems justifiable. Certainly one cannot deny that children are conscious of the differences in mag­ nitudes of objects themselves. Even a normal two year old child will choose the larger of two pieces of candy, and distinguish between a "mamma flower" and a "baby flower," in the latter case showing a dual comprehension of relative sizes—first the distinction in the mag­ nitudes of the two flowers compared, and, second, its translation into terms of mother and child. It seems probable that the pre-primary and the less mature primary children are unable to interpret the dif­ ferences they know in terms of two dimensional space and in magni­ tudes quite different from those of the original objects. It is also probable that, in the so-called cataloguing period of graphic art they are not interested in portraying these relationships. Atten­ tion centers on the individual objects, which one by one take form on the paper. Only when the descriptive or narrative interest emerges does attention focus on the problem of adapting the several parts of a picture to each other in the effort to produce a unified whole. As was suggested before, the evidence shows that thrs development in graphic arts is somewhat later than it is in language. The fact that 75 per cent of seven year old children describe a picture in terms of narrative or description, while only 26 per cent, according to our data, represent objects in proportion offers further corroboration of this view. SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS m TECHNIQUE 121

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Sex tendencies are not uniform. The girls lead at four and six years, the boys at five, seven, and eight. In their total score the boys ex­ celled by 0.7 per cent. There is evidently a slight difference in their favor. An examination of the results for the several cities shows marked differences, irrespective of the differences in age distribution. Cities C, G, K, W, and X should be eliminated from the comparison, either by reason of their small representation or because not all ages are adequately represented. With these omitted, the range is from 9 to 30 per cent. Obviously the factor of instruction has affected the results, although to a less degree than in some other phases of drawing technique.

PERSPECTIVE Perspective in art has been defined as a means of showing "upon flat surface the dimensions and intensities of objects at varying dis­ tances by just gradations of form, contour, color, and light. There are two kinds of perspective at least," described as linear and aerial. "The proper use of linear perspective produces a lessening in the size of objects by recession, and an apparent convergence of lines toward a common focus, called technically 'the point of sight'."l Aerial per­ spective "may be considered in effect as the atmospheric dissipation and final obliteration of lines, colors, lights, and shades as the objects which show them recede in the distance."2 All previous studies of children's attitude toward perspective have confined themselves to linear perspective. This policy seems justified on several grounds. Linear perspective is a much more measurable quality than aerial. It is more easily expressed by means of the crude materials usually employed by children—wax crayons, pencils, etc. And, most important consideration of all, it is somewhat less sophisticated. Probably most young children are totally unconscious of such fine grada­ tions of tone and color as constitute aerial perspective and of the at­ mospheric effects which produce them, whereas there is clear evidence of a slowly developing sense of linear perspective. A number of interesting studies of linear perspective in children's drawings have been made. Clark3 (1897) experimented with 408 school children, ranging in age from six to sixteen years, by asking them to

1 Van Dyke, Art for Art's Sake, p. 113. 2 Ibid, p. 124. 3 Children's Drawings. Educational Review, Vol. 13. SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 123 draw from the model an apple pierced through by a hat pin. He found that 98 per cent of the six year children drew the hat pin clear across the apple; 40 per cent of the nine year old children did the same, 40 per cent drew the pin to the circumference of the apple, while 20 per cent represented it as it actually appeared. There is an abrupt drop in the drawings of the more primitive type at ten years. O'Shea4 (1898) set before children ranging in age from five to seven­ teen years the problem of drawing a chair or table from the model. With few exceptions the results from the younger children were in two dimensional space, with no evidence of any consciousness of linear perspective. Kerschensteiner5 (1905) in his exhaustive study of the drawings of Munich school children, came to the conclusion that the drawings of the earlier years (his investigation begins with six years) are almost wholly "schematic," showing only two dimensional space, and representing objects by the most significant features known to be there, without regard to appearances or esthetic values. His definite re- search on perspective therefore is confined to the years from eight to fourteen. He assigned as school-exercises to pupils from eight to fourteen years of age the drawing of a chair from the object, viewed from below, and a landscape. On the basis of these drawings he concludes that perspective appears rarely in the eighth year in boys, developing slowly until at ten years about 50 per cent of boys have a significant sense of perspective, although perfect representation of spatial relations was seen in the work of boys in only from 2 to 4 per cent of the drawings before the age of fourteen. In girls he found that there was rarely any evidence of a consciousness of such values at any age. In order to determine how far the drawings collected for this investi­ gation conformed to the conclusions of these investigators, and if pos­ sible to throw additional light upon this phase of development, the same samples which had been used before were examined for evidences of perspective. As in all previous studies* linear perspective alone was considered. Aerial perspective would have been especially difficult to evaluate in these specimens, since atmospheric effects would have been exceedingly difficult to portray with the crude materials imposed. In fact, no definite instance of this kind of perspective can be recalled. Linear perspective, when found at all, was evidenced by (1) the convergence of parallel lines in the representation of objects receding 4 Some Aspects of Drawing. Educational Review, Vol. 14. 5 Die plastische Kunst des Kindes. 124 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS in the distance, as in the drawing of a road, a railroad track, or the horizontal lines defining the house; (2) foreshortening, as in the lessen­ ing of the distance between the horizontal lines representing the top of a box; and (3) a decrease in the relative magnitudes of objects as they recede into the distance. Instances of all three were found, especially in the work of the older and maturer children. The data are shown in table 28, and in figure IS (page 118). From these it will be seen that no four year children employed perspective in any of its phases. The curve rises from zero at four years to 0.3 per cent at five, 0.7 at six, 1.4 at seven, dropping to 1.1 at eight years. Again the immaturity of the eight year group is demon­ strated. The most frequent occurrence is found in the drawing of houses, in which the conventional type, with gable roof and two sides showing, finally predominates with the maturer children. Even the New York City children, in spite of their familiarity with the flat-roofed city block, adopt this type most frequently, modifying it sometimes by added height and many rows of windows to adapt it to their experience. The evolution of the true perspective drawing of this type of house, however, gives very definite testimony to its purely imitative character. Figure 16 suggests schematically some of the typical variants in the abortive attempts to reproduce this form. The crudest of these were usually produced by the five year old children, while those numbered from 7 to 10 occurred frequently in the work of the six, seven and eight year children. Only the last two, numbers 11 and 12, were accepted as perspective drawing. Other instances of perspective were very occasionally found in the drawing of landscapes, especially in the diminishing size of objects as they recede into the distance, and in the converging lines of roads and fences. But their number is exceedingly small when compared to the total number of drawings examined. On the whole, the study agrees in its results with those of previous investigators, in indicating the late development of representation of tri-dimensional space. While the sex differences are numerically slight they are significant. In every year, after the fifth, the boys are superior to the girls, the amount of the difference being 0.2 per cent at five years, 0.1 at six, and seven, and 0.6 per cent at eight years. While these figures do not confirm Kerschensteiner's conclusion that there is a total lack of any sense of perspective in girls, they are indicative of a constant sex dif- SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 125

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Through early and constant experience, appearances, ignored as appearances, gradually become definite signs of meanings—of distance and solidity—so that many adults of today who are perfectly compe­ tent to react correctly to the meanings are totally oblivious of the signs —of perspective in any of its phases. In the early drawings of the race it is of course the meanings that are portrayed, and not the signs. It is not to be expected that the little child, naively conscious of a real world of things, and attempting to express his somewhat vague and inaccurate images of that world, will adopt so sophisticated a phase of technique as perspective.

EDUCATIONAL CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING TECHNIQUE The results of the series of studies on technique point clearly to some practical conclusions. Concerning the use of outline and mass the evidence is wholly in favor of outline as the natural method for the kindergarten, and probably for the primary grades. Only in ex­ ceptional cases, which are manifestly the result of direct instruction, do the youngest children abandon their preference for outline, and in such instances the drawings are usually lacking in the vigor, individ­ uality, and naive realism which characterize child art at its best. There is nothing objectionable, from the standpoint of later artistic development, in the employment of line. No habit of manual skill, or of thinking, or of esthetic appreciation that must later be unlearnied is imposed, for the technique of painting itself frequently includes the sketching in of the main motif in line. Van Dyke says,

Perhaps we would do well to consider that color has its beauty, that line has its beauty, and that there is no ground for comparison between them as to which is the more beautiful. Each has an individual beauty to be judged by its own merits, and both together make up a language of art without which the highest thought or feeling of the artist would remain unexpressed. Drawing is the representation of lines, or their modifications, upon flat surface in such a way that the curves, the depressions, the elevations, the structures, in short the linear character of an object, are shown to us. It includes in its scope light-and- shade, perspective, and values, as some of the aids whereby it attains its end. For drawing in art does not mean a flat silhouette thrown upon a canvas; nor does line mean the hard edging about an enclosed surface.6 Obviously such an interpretation of line is beyond the scope of the kindergarten-primary period, for "light and shade, perspective, and 6 Van Dyke, Art for Art's Sake, p. 178 f. SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 129 values" involve vision and technical skills far beyond the capacities of these children. The flat silhouette is the normal mode of expression! for this period, the rudimentary art form out of which the higher forms- may be evolved. Moreover, many of the less exalted phases of art— the cartoon, the poster, much of illustrative art, and mechanical draw­ ing in all of its aspects—employ the line. Gradually, as their powers increase, children should be guided to­ ward the employment of mass as well as outline, so that ultimately they may be enabled to use both in their appropriate places. Especially in the years succeeding the primary grades, they should have frequent opportunity to use those art media which definitely encourage expres­ sion in mass—charcoal, pastels, and fluid color. During this early period these media are of doubtful value for the purpose. Kinder­ garten and primary children tend to use them either for outline drawing or for playful experimentation in the flow and mixing of color.

Young children can use water color to excellent advantage for the occasional experience of color effects, but they are too young for the intelligent handling of a medium so capricious The results obtained by primary children in water color, which are admired by adults, are almost always chance effects caused by the fluid character of the medium and were unforeseen by the child. Experimentation with accidental color effects has a definite value, but this value is perhaps greater when the experimenter is more mature and less likely to gain the idea that careless ventures which may turn out well are more worth while and likely to receive greater recognition than purposeful effort.7

In the drawing of the human form, as was previously suggested, all the evidence points toward a demand for greater encouragement in its representation and judicious guidance in the technique of its execu­ tion as the need arises. During the kindergarten and first grades it is probable that no further stimulus need be offered than the encourage­ ment of the natural interest in human portraiture, by attention to sincere effort and praise of its results. While the actual selection of subjects for drawing shows a steady decrease in the choice of human beings from year to year and from grade to grade, this is quite probably due to other causes than decreas­ ing interest in the subject. Among these is the greater propensity of primary teachers, possibly actuated by authorities higher up, to im­ pose the subject matter and often even the method of representation.

7 Sargent, Fine and Industrial Arts in Elementary Schools, p. 60. 130 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

When such imposition occurs, it frequently avoids the dangers and diffi­ culties of the human form in favor of subjects technically easier of exe­ cution—especially landscapes, simpler animals, flowers, and other natural objects. A second potent factor is probably the growing consciousness in the children themselves of the technical difficulties involved and the crudi­ ties of their own attempts to overcome them. While it may not be possible for every child to achieve a high degree of merit in this phase of art, recent educational experience has shown that a remarkable degree of power in human portraiture can be attained by just normal children through encouragement and right guidance of their own crea­ tive efforts. As evidence may be cited the excellent results of the classes conducted under the direction of Prof. Franz Cizek for children from six to fourteen years of age in Vienna. The child of seven, usually in the second grade, who is becoming increasingly conscious of failures and defects in his own workmanship, needs to be made familiar with such rudiments of technique as will stem the rising tide of his own discouragement. At this time and not earlier the "stick man"—a popular device in many schools—may be justifiable as a means to secure action and life. Here also the sugges­ tion of profile drawing may be given, for its novelty and consequent stimulus to new effort; and the deliberate and conscious reference to the model may be profitably introduced. The studied omission of the facial features on the other hand seems to beg the question at issue; to admit the difficulties without offering ways and means to overcome them. Proportion of the elements of a picture is evidently closely allied with the tendency to represent a unified whole, although the two are not always synchronous in their development. Numbers of clearly conceived compositions appear in which proportion of parts is gro­ tesquely lacking. During the kindergarten period, when interest centers chiefly in picturing individual objects, with little interest in their relationships, proportion is not to be emphasized. In the seventh year, the normal age for first grade, at least 19 per cent of the children have arrived at a fair sense of proportion. It is quite probable that this figure is too low, since a considerable number of the children presented drawings of single objects, in which proportion could not be judged. At this age some definite guidance toward proper proportion is probably justi- SUBSIDIARY PROBLEMS IN TECHNIQUE 131

fied. That calling attention to the relative sizes of real objects is not sufficient is proven by the fact that six year old children are conscious of the differences in real objects. The emphasis must be placed upon the relative sizes of pictured objects, as corresponding to reality. Reference may be made to the size of objects in good illustrations. Tactful allusion may be made to the discrepancies noted in children's drawings. Occasional definite exercises in drawing objects in propor­ tion to one another—a flower beside a house, a boy entering a door, a bird in a tree—may be helpful. Such instruction must be sympa­ thetic, incidental, constructive. It must help children to correct individual defects of which they themselves are becoming vaguely con­ scious, while avoiding the arousal of that self-distrust which is the death-knell of spontaneous self-expression. The sense of balance or symmetrical arrangement, like the drawing of conventional design, has small place in the art of the kindergarten- primary period. It is evident that the normal trend of interest during these years is toward the representation of ideas, that in most cases attention is wholly concentrated upon the problem of adequate ex­ pression, and that few children are consciously concerned with the esthetic values of balanced arrangement. That this is not due to an absence of esthetic appreciation psychol­ ogists and teachers will agree. The Stanford Revision of the Binet- Simon Tests places the test for rudimentary esthetic appreciation at five years. This is definite evidence that three-fourths of the five year children on whose responses the test is based reacted favorably. The delight of younger children in flowers and other beautiful natural objects is matter of common observation. That satisfactions in colorful and in orderly design appear as early as the kindergarten period is frequently attested. In all probability, in this case, as in many others, observation and appreciation antedate the desire to create. The tendency to produce either design or balanced arrangement seems to be of later develop­ ment. Its premature emphasis is probably not fruitful. There is serious danger of creating a wrong mental set which may prejudice this type of expression when the right moment comes. "The later years of a child's life have their own rights, and a superficial, merely emotional anticipation is likely to do the child serious injury."8

s Dewey, The School and the Child, p. 56. 132 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

Concerning perspective, there is universal agreement that it is wholly foreign to the needs and interests of the kindergarten-primary group. The evidence of this investigation is almost entirely in harmony with this view. In general, the examination of technical abilities indicates that they are the product of the natural maturing of capacities, aided and sup­ plemented by direct instruction. Technique can be taught. The wide differences in the ratings of the various cities in their use of every phase considered—mass, profile, balance, perspective, and proportion —are definite evidence of this truth. The general agreement in the several phases gives testimony to the systematic training given in some cities along all these lines, and to its total absence in others. On the other hand, agreement in the general trend of development (the fact that these differences are rarely very great) is clear proof that the factor of natural maturing of capacities and interests is also potent. Some development of technical ability doubtless takes place in spite of the lack of technical instruction, but instruction cannot anticipate or force the development of natural capacity. The order and timing of instruction in drawing, as in every other aspect of education, in order to be effective, must coincide with the course of normal development of powers. This is the only means by which educational waste may be avoided, and results made commensurate with effort. Finally the evidence emphasizes, in technique as in content and general excellence, a wide range of individual differences. Among four year old children there is some employment of mass, profile, balance, and proportion—of all the phases of technique studied except perspective. Among seven and eight year children on the other hand there are num­ bers of individuals who show no consciousness of technique in any of these aspects. While these differences may be due in part to environ­ mental causes—either in home or school—they are also without doubt the result of differences in capacity and interest. Such variations again point to the need of individual instruction and guidance, that these children, whether markedly above or below the general average, may be stimulated to progress from their present level of achievement toward what they ought to achieve—that they may not be retarded by the school's effort to maintain the dead level of class instruction and attainment, or discouraged and confused by demands beyond their capacity to fulfill. CHAPTER VII

GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The investigation has now covered the ground which it surveyed in its initial program. A brief summary of the results may be of value in bringing into relation the several studies, with their inferences and deductions. Some conclusions of general psychological interest may be drawn with considerable confidence. Concerning the content, the subjects drawn, it is evident that children from four to eight years of age draw the human figure more frequently than any other one form, and the adult more frequently than the child; that dwelling houses are second in order of preference; trees, furniture, and vehicles following in this order. Other classes of subjects occur in small percentages. Interest in design and geometrical form is not characteristic of these years. In the evolution of drawing technique four fairly well defined stages have been recognized: 1. During the scribble stage children make purposeless and meaning­ less marks, for the mere satisfaction in manipulating the pencil, and seeing something happen as a result. 2. Soon definite meanings are assigned to these scribblings. They become houses, or persons, or animals, according to the child's desire, and assume a place in his imaginative world. Cases are known in which children were able to identify these drawings and name them correctly several months after they had been made, although to the adult observer they bore no resemblance to the objects represented. This stage is illustrated in the drawings of the scales by the samples of zero value in human beings and houses. It may be called the sym­ bolic stage, and usually reaches its culmination at four years. 3. When the drawings begin to take on some definite characteristics of the objects for which they stand, the schematic stage is reached. While they may attain considerable accuracy and fullness of detail, schematic drawings are characterized by absence of true perspective, of no tan (light and shade), of depth and solidity, and texture. They have been described as picture writing, in which the purpose is the expression 133 134 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

of ideas, regardless of esthetic values. They represent what is known to be rather than what the eye actually sees. 4. Finally evolves the stage of true representative art, which seeks to interpret the appearances of things, the feeling of life, of truth and beauty, through the use of linear perspective, the subtler values of light and shade, atmosphere, and composition. The transition is usually marked by an awakened sense of self-criticism which should lead to definite interest in technique whose mastery becomes the means of set­ ting free the power of adequate self-expression. No sharp line may be drawn between any two successive stages. Many drawings will be found which it would be difficult to classify as conforming to any one type—border-line cases, which will be partly symbolic and partly schematic, or partly schematic and partly repre­ sentative. It is evident that the kindergarten-primary period on the whole coincides with the period of schematic drawing. The scribble stage is in the last stages of transition at four years, and is rarely found in the later years. The stage of symbolism merges rapidly intp the schematic. The schematic characteristics—the flat silhouette, unrelieved by shad­ ing, or the bare outline, suggesting only two dimensions—predominate throughout the period. True representative art appears rarely during these years, although there are evidences of the earlier stages of transi­ tion in some of the drawings. While outline may, under guidance, give way to mass, it does not lose its two-dimensional, silhouette character. While some crude ef­ forts at perspective appear, they usually give proof of their imitative, and uncritical origin by their conventional and faulty character. Within the limits of the schematic type however, there are numerous changes from year to year. In subject matter, it is probable that the youngest children, because they are least concerned about making their drawings conform to reality, are most courageous. Three of the drawings of God are by four year old children, and the fourth is by a five year child. Their courage seems to be limited only by their mental horizon. In the direction of interest, maturity changes are seen chiefly in the gradual decrease in the percentage of human beings and the increase in drawings of forms from nature; in the decline of interest in toys at six years; and the gradual transition from the representation of isolated or unrelated objects to "composition," or the representation of a unified whole—from the cataloguing to the narrative or descriptive stage. GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 135

In technical ability there is definite progress from year to year. This is shown first in the results of measurements by the scales. Although there is a large amount of overlapping in the scores for the successive years, there is a steady rise in the median and the general contour of the curve from year to year and from grade to grade. The studies in technique attest the same fact. The drawings show fairly steady increase in the employment of mass, in recognition of proportion in the relative magnitudes of objects in a single picture, and in the use of balance and perspective. The older children have also begun to em­ ploy the profile view in their drawings of the human form. The child is becoming more and more conscious of the real character of the objects he attempts to draw. As his experience widens and deepens, as his observation quickens to things as they are—in their multitudinous variety and complexity—he responds with ever growing accuracy and detail in his graphic representations. While the period of self-distrust and self-criticism reaches its cul­ mination in the years immediately succeeding the kindergarten-primary period, it has its beginnings here in many instances. This may be seen in the attempts at perspective, however inadequate these may be. It is perhaps indicated by the decreasing tendency to undertake the representation of the human form; perhaps also in the transition to the profile type; and in all the tentative experiments with new ways of attacking old problems. In this study, age differences usually reach their culmination in the eighth year. In the ninth, there is definite retrogression in balance, proportion, and perspective. In general merit, as measured by the scales, there is a drop at eight years, six months in both human beings and houses. It seems quite probable that these deviations from the general trend occur because the children represented form a selected group of mentally retarded development. Sex differences are not great in amount, but constant in some respects. In their selection of content, boys exceed the girls considerably in representing mechanical objects—tools, vehicles, and machinery—and slightly in representing adults, animals, and flags; while girls exceed boys considerably in representing furniture and articles of domestic use, and slightly in representing children, plants, and nature forms in general, and in design. By inference it might be said that while the interests of boys tend toward the practical, the mechanical, and the larger social aspects of life, the interests of girls tend toward the esthetic, 136 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS the domestic, and the personal. However these inferences must be qualified by the fact that the differences are slight as compared with the resemblances; and by the probability that environmental forces have been potent factors in producing or intensifying such differences as do occur. In technical skill, as measured by the scales, there is no appreciable difference in the scores for the two sexes. Boys excelled slightly in the median score for compositions, girls for human beings and houses. These differences, while slight, are fairly constant for the three grades and for the five years, except in compositions, in which the superiority of the boys does not appear until the six-year-six-months group. In the definite studies of technique there are differences which, though small in degree, are constant enough to be attributable to sex charac­ teristics. Boys at every age draw a greater proportion of objects in •outline than the girls. In proportion, boys are superior except at four and six years, when the girls slightly excel. In balance the girls lead without exception; in perspective the boys. In the use of profile the the boys are markedly in advance. In general it seems that boys are slightly superior in the mathematical aspects of drawing, while girls are about equally superior in the esthetic aspects. Again it must be emphasized that the sex differences are never so great as are the dif­ ferences among the individuals of either sex. Variations in the scores for the cities were of interest, not merely in determining the relative merits of the several cities, but in evaluating the place of instruction in the development of drawing ability. The cities varied considerably in the content of the drawings not only in the kind of subjects represented, the direction of interest, which was to \>e expected, but also in the range of ideas expressed, the imaginative content, the freedom and scope of representation. While the kinder­ garten children in one city drew hundreds of different ideas, the second grade children of another city were content to outline a square and call it a box. Variations equally great appeared in the merit of the drawings as rated by the scales. They found a close parallel in the differences in the several aspects of technique, the use of mass, profile, proportion, and perspective. Since these variations are all closely correlated, the city showing the maturer technique and the higher rating by the scales being usually superior in the character and variety of ideas expressed, certain educational inferences suggested themselves with compelling force. GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 137

Deficiency may be due chiefly to two opposing causes—the total neglect of drawing along with other forms of self-expression and of content, owing to over-emphasis on the formal aspects of school work; or neglect of the teaching of drawing, due to over-emphasis on children's freedom and individual initiative. Extremes meet in their results. No defense of drawing is necessary. Its value—as a means of self- expression, of motivated observation, of defining and clarifying mental images, and of arousing appreciations of nature and art—is universally acknowledged. Its place in the kindergarten-primary curriculum is particularly vital, because of the dawning interest in drawing itself and the special need of cultivating just those values for which it stands. Drawing has been compared to language, a language peculiarly adapted to the expression of visual images. Carrying the analogy further, we may say that no language develops in a vacuum. Its first requisite is social exposure to the language of others; the second is a fund of ideas to express; the third is again a social situation stimulating to expression. Certainly these same conditions are fundamental to drawing. Watching others draw, and seeing the products of others' drawing is probably just as essential to drawing as hearing speech is to oral language. On the other hand, slavish imitation of a model is stulti­ fying and harmful, especially in the initial stages of education. The little child soon loses his splendid courage, and comes to depend upon the initiative of others. Moreover, if the model to be imitated is sufficiently crude and "schematic" for successful reproduction, it fre­ quently fails to associate itself with his previous experiences, and is copied as dead form, devoid of meaning or of content. If it is too good, it leads to discouragement and lack of effort. Especially baneful is the tracing of outlines in its effects upon spon­ taneous drawing. In no case does this practise seem justifiable except where conventional forms are used in applied art; as in preparing a doilie or a Christmas bell for cutting, or repeating a unit in design. Imitation may be helpful if the model is presented as a suggestion, to be accepted or rejected, to be modified and adapted to the views of the young artist. It is more stimulating if several models are pre­ sented instead of one, so that there is need and opportunity for com­ parison and selection. Usually it is most helpful when the models selected are the products of the children themselves, since they repre­ sent attainable standards, and comprehensible interpretations of their 138 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS own experiences. But these must obviously be supplemented by work of a higher standard—either by the teacher or by children's artists whose work is simple and sincere. The life model—the object itself— has definite value at every age, both as stimulus and point of final reference. Something to express—a wide range of interesting experiences—is equally important. First hand contact with real things is the prime requisite—a truism which is older than Comenius, but which needs to be reemphasized in each generation of educators; a truth which today, in the very stress which is laid upon children's interest and initiative, may be forgotten or overlooked. Literature, oral language, toys and pictures are valuable as supplements, but can never with safety be substi­ tuted for the things themselves—things in the widest sense, including the whole available range of nature and human relationships which may be made meaningful to the child. Situations stimulating to expression in drawing—motivation through occasional suggestion to draw, and even what to draw, with worth while purposes held up to view; satisfactions for work well done, and judicious criticism at the right moment—are also surely in harmony with the new pedagogy. If drawing is a form of language, technique may be called its grammar. Grammatical rules and definitions have been banished from the primary curriculum. Even correct usage has been subordinated to freedom and spontaneity of expression. So in drawing, the first essential is that children form the habit of thinking and expressing their thoughts through the medium of the graphic arts; the will to express, and the sense of power. Only when confidence and courage are well established can attention be diverted to the forms of expression; and then only momentarily, for the purpose of making expression more adequate, and more satisfying. Guidance becomes dangerous if it is imposed at the cost of diminished spontaneity and initiative. If offered at the right moment it becomes a stimulus to renewed effort and achievement. So to pilot the educa­ tional craft as to avoid the Scylla of a spontaneity barren of results in growing power of expression, and the Charybdis of the suppression of self-confidence and initiative through arbitrary and premature im­ position of adult standards—this is a test of artistry in teaching. Drawing can be taught, but the limits of achievement are fixed for each individual by his own capacities. This truth was demonstrated GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 139

in every phase of the present investigation. No class}, no city, no grade, no age showed a uniform level of ability. In each case, the rating by the scales indicated a distribution approximating the "normal curve," with many individuals grouped about the median or average, and a few varying more or less widely above and below the median. No matter how homogeneous the group, such deviations are bound to occur in any trait that may be measured. In drawing ability these differences are probably due to several factors. The first of these is "general intelligence." The study of correlations showed that there is some connection between achievement in drawing and mental maturity. Especially, the children of the feeble-minded group were incapable of expression in drawing, and very few children of low intelligence excelled in drawing. A much greater number of the superior-intelligence group were poor in graphic art. It seems clear that drawing and mental ability are distinct from one another, and yet that there are elements of mental ability which are indispensable to drawing. A fair range and grasp of images and ideas, sufficient mental alert­ ness to insure visual exploration and perception, open-mindedness or susceptibility to instruction, power of attention sufficiently developed to permit concentration on the purpose in hand, and of sufficient dura­ tion to carry out the initial purpose, some permanence of memories— all these seem essential to even mediocre expression in art. Equally essential are other traits not necessarily associated with general intelligence in a high degree. Among these may be mentioned the predominance of visual images, interest in graphic representation, and manual skill. When these two groups of traits are united in one individual, real excellence in drawing results. Individuals of high intelligence, lacking interest in graphic representation and manual skill, may be quite deficient in drawing. On the other hand, individuals lacking the essential mental traits will be unable to draw, although they may become fairly proficient in some purely mechanical skills. Between the extremes all degrees of ability may occur. Courtis has defined education as "taking the child from where he is to where he ought to be." The definition emphasizes the individual child as the focus of educational effort—the point from which all educa­ tion must start, the goal toward which all effort must be directed. Such a definition may fittingly be applied to drawing, in the light of present knowledge. Drawing is taking a child from where he is in 140 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS attainment to where he ought to be. The supervisor or the teacher may set up ultimate goals, but the capacities of individual children condition their attainment. Only by adapting instruction to their needs can real success be achieved. Concerning the scales it must be said that they are not offered as the last word on the subject. Other scales representative of children's drawing in other subjects—for example, animals and vehicles—and other aspects—for example, esthetic and color values, should be con­ structed. Concerning the use of the scales, it must be emphasized that they should never become models, as the handwriting scales have legitimately been used, for instruction. Nothing could be farther from their inten­ tion. It is hoped that they will be of service both to individual teachers and to administrators in the kindergarten-primary field, in the measure­ ment of results, but methods must always be determined not by results but by sincere application of sound principles. Further use of the scales may be made in the measurement of dif­ ferences between kindergarten and non-kindergarten children, and perhaps, in finding a decisive answer to the question frequently pro­ pounded but never satisfactorily answered: Do children of the kinder­ garten-primary period draw from the model, or exclusively from their own mental images? Other uses will doubtless appear in the future. Finally it must be stressed that, despite the frequent allusion to scales as "measuring rods/' analogous to the foot rule or the thermome­ ter, experience with other product scales has proven that there is a far larger element of subjectivity in their use. Hence definite train­ ing and practise are necessary before any individual can employ them with a high degree of accuracy; and, at best, there will always be varia­ tions in individual ratings. It can only be said that the amount of variation in teachers' judgments should be considerably less with the scales than without them, and that their employment offers opportuni­ ties for comparative studies otherwise impossible. GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 141

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AYER, F. C: Psychology of Drawing. Warwick & York, 1916. BALDWIN, J. M.: Mental Development in the Child and the Race. Macmillan & Co., 1906. BARNES, EARL: Studies in Education, Vols. I and II. BROWN, E. E.: Notes on Children's Drawing. University of California Publications, 1897. BURKE, F. L.: The Genetic Versus the Logical Order in Drawing. Pedagogical Seminary, vol. 9, pp. 296-323. BURNHAM, W. H.: The Hygiene of Drawing. Pedagogical Seminary, vol. 4, pp. 289- 304. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: The Child, A Study in the Evolution of Man. Scribners, 1914. CIZEK, FRANZ: Weinacht Richter and Zollner, Wien, 1921. CLARK, J. S.: Children's Drawings. Educational Review, vol. 13, pp. 76-82. DEWEY, JOHN: Imagination and Expression, The Psychology of Drawing. The Kindergarten Library Co. DEWEY, JOHN: The School and the Child. Blackie & Son, 1906. Dow, A. W.: Composition. Doubleday, Page & Co., 1913. FREEMAN, F. N.: HOW Children Learn. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1917. FREEMAN, F. N.: Psychology of the Common Branches. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1916. GESELL, A. L. AND B. C: The Normal Child and Primary Education. Ginn & Co., 1912. GROSSE, ERNST: The Beginnings of Art. D. Appleton & Co., 1898. HALL, G. S.: Educational Problems, vol. 2. D. Appleton & Co. HALL, G. S.: Some Aspects of Child Life and Education. Ginn & Co., 1907. KATZEROFF: Qu'est ce que les enfants desinent? Archives de psychologie, January, 1910. KERSCHENSTEINER, G.: Die Entwickelung der zeichnerischen Begabung. Munich, 1905. LAY, W. A.: Die plastische Kunst des Kindes. Exper. Pad., 1908, pp. 31-54. LUKENS, H. T.: A Study of Children's Drawings in the Early Years. Pedagogical Seminary, vol. 4, pp. 79-110. MAJOR, DAVID R.: First Steps in Mental Growth. Macmillan Co., 1906. O'SHEA, M. V.: Some Aspects of Drawing. Educational Review, vol. 14, pp. 263-284. RICCI, C: The Art of Little Children. Pedagogical Seminary, vol. 3, pp. 303-307. SARGENT, WALTER: Fine and Industrial Arts in Elementary Schools. Ginn & Co., 1912. SULLY: Studies in Childhood. D. Appleton & Co., 1896. TANNER, A. E.: The Child. Rand, McNally Co., 1915. THORNDIKE, E. L.: Principles of Teaching. A. G. Seiler, 1916. TRACY, F. AND STIMPFL, J.: The Psychology of Childhood. D. C. Heath & Co., 1909. VAN DYKE, JOHN C: Art for Art's Sake. Scribners, 1908. WADDLE, C. W.: Introduction to Child Psychology. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1918. WOOD, M. G.: Some Uses of Primitive Art in the Teaching of Young Children. Teachers College Record, vol. 24, no. 1. 142 CHILDREN'S DRAWINGS

ON TESTS AND SCALES

HILLEGAS, M. B.: A Scale for the Measurement of Quality in English Composition by Young People. Teachers College Publication, 1913. KLINE, L. W. AND CAREY, G. L.: A Measuring Scale for Free-hand Drawing. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Education, no. 5, 1922. MCCALL, WM. A.: How to Measure in Education. Macmillan Co., 1922. MURDOCK, K. A.: The Measurement of Certain Elements of Hand Sewing. Columbia University Contributions to Education, 1919. RUGG, HAROLD O.: Statistical Methods Applied to Education. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1917. TERMAN, LEWIS: The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1916. THORNDIKE, EDWARD LEE: Educational Psychology, vol. 3. Teachers College, 1913. THORNDIKE, EDWARD LEE: Hand Writing. Teachers College Publication, 1917. THORNDIKE, EDWARD LEE: Measurement of Achievement in Drawing. Teachers College Record, November, 1913. THORNDIKE, EDWARD LEE: Teachers' Estimates of the Quality of Handwriting. Teachers College Record, November, 1914. APPENDIX TABLE 3 Complete list of objects drawn

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL

to en 1 O 1 1 1 1 o PQ o PQ PQ 1 1 Boy s 1 Human beings:

Special characters: PQ Abraham Lincoln.. 1 o 2 Angel 1 1 1 3 Baker 1 1 1 Balloon man 1 i 1 1 1 1 Black Sambo 2 2 Bogey man 2 1 2 Boy Scout 1 1 Brownie (goblin)... 3 4 3 5 6 2 l 1 1 15 11 Carpenter 1 1 1 2 1 Charlie Chaplin 1 5 3 ! 9 2 | 1 2 16 7 Chinaman 1 1 1 2 1 Clock faced boy 1 1 Clown 7 3 7 4 3 1 1 1 18 9 Conductor 1 1 Cowboy 4 8 1 6 1 3 1 21 3 Dancing girls 1 1 Devil 1 1 1 1 Doctor 1 1 Dog catcher 2 2 Dwarf 1 1 2 Eskimo 2 1 4 2 2 8 3 Fairy 1 3 1 1 4 Farmer 3 1 2 5 1 Fatty Arbuckle — 2 2 Fireman 1 2 3 Funnyman 1 1 1 1 George Washington 5 3 3 8 3 German 1 1 Giant 1 1 Gingerbread Boy... 2 1 1 1 3 2 God 2 1 1 2 2 Grandmother 1 1 Hans 1 1 Happy Hooligan... 2 2 Humpty Dumpty.. 2 2 10 6 7 2 1 20 10 Hunter 1 1 2 Ice Man 1 1 Indian 3 2 23 12 31 25 78 36 21 IS 156 90 Jack Frost 1 1 Japanese 1 1 21 Kaiser 5 1 8 13 1 King 2 1 2 3 2 Man in Moon 1 1 1 2 143 144 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL OTA L

in 1 1 t-< 1 1 •3 1 JA o PQ 1 O PQ o PQ '6 3 Human beings—Continued: Special characters—Continued: PQ O PQ O PQ Mother Goose characters 3 15 15 7 3 46 87 1 Mut t and Jeff 1 1 19 4 41 17 1 4 North Wind 1 1 1 9 7 10 11 5 1 21 45 1 4 1 1 2 3 24 1 Punch and Judy 1 8 Puritan 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 Red Riding Hood 1 1 2 1 3 4 1 2 3 3 4 3 3 2 8 4 15 9 24 1 1 1 3 3 3 11 7 36 22 32 21 30 14 4 4 113 68 181 4 1 3 3 1 8 4 12 3 1 1 1 1 5 6 4 3 8 4 13 6 8 3 1 3 34 19 53 4 1 12 8 26 7 32 6 12 4 86 26 112 Sun Bonnet Babies 1 1 1 Tom Thumb 1 1 1 3 3 3 Witch 1 3 2 3 4 7 6 3 17 12 29

Total special characters 36 23 156 94 210 122 219 103 64 44 685 386 1071 Babies 20 57 45 108 32 63 18 45 1 5 116 278 394 85 200 417 751 761 1127 727 935 122 134 2112 3147 5259 Adults generic 267 335 1206 772 957 672 729 525 171 116 3330 2420 5750 Total People 408 615 1824 1725 1960 1984 1693 1608 358 299 6243 6231 12474

Domestic animals: Calf 1 l' 1 Camel 3 9 3 7 4 10 5 2 1 31 13 44 Cat 11 23 31 51 80 127 80 154 16 20 218 375 593 Cow 6 5 16 8 15 11 12 7 1 1 50 32 82 Dog 12 20 36 31 73 59 81 61 25 14 227 185 412 Donkey 2 1 3 6 3 2 14 3 17 Goat 1 2 1 6 1 16 5 1 26 7 33 Guinea pig 1 1 2 2 Horse 24 24 56 50 102 47 151 52 29 16 362 189 551 Ox 1 1 1 Pig 9 11 19 9 22 11 29 27 3 1 82 59 141 Pony 1 1 2 3 1 4 Reindeer 3 9 2 15 4 18 7 1 3 46 16 62 Sheep or lamb.. 1 2 4 8 5 4 2 14 12 26

Total 72 86 181 156 329 273 408 323 83 58 1073 896 APPENDIX 145

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL

1 1 cn 1 1 CO 1 cn 1

Boy s '6 1 O 1 1 pq Wild animals: pq Alligator 2 3 Ant eater pq 1 pq 1 Bat 1 2 Bear 2 5 17 16 15 22 32 19 3 6 69 68 Bison 7 5 7 5 Crab 2 2 2 21 1 Elephant 5 1 101 2 13 5 19 8 5 3 52 19 Fish 12 4 21 21 19 13 17 11 6 3 75 52 Fox 1 2 5 1 11 6 4 2 23 9 Frog 5 3 5 2 1 10 6 Giraffe 1 1 1 2 2 5 2 Gorilla 1 1 Hippopotamus 6 6 Jackal 1 1 Lion 1 1 6 5 2 2 1 15 3 Lobster 1 1 Monkey 5 16 26 26 26 10 11 5 1 69 57 Mouse 2 9 6 4 4 2 5 1 1 18 16 Rabbit 10 13 24 28 44 29 76 40 19 17 173 127 Rat 3 3 4 3 2 4 4 5 3 2 16 17 Rhinoceros 1 1 Seal 1 1 Snail 3 3 3 1 6 4 Snake 5 1 13 4 8 4 1 27 9 Squirrel 3 1 10 6 6 5 11 9 1 8 31 29 Tiger 1 2 1 2 2 Toad 1 1 1 1 Turtle 1 2 4 2 1 2 8 4 Wildcat... 1 1 Wolf 1 1 1 1 5 2 5 6 Zebra 1 1

Total wild animals 60 53 161 118 155 100 202 125 53 44 631 440 Total domestic animals. 72 86 181 156 329 273 408 323 83 58 1073 896 Total animals 132 139 342 274 484 373 610 448 136 102 1704 1336

Domestic birds: 14 9 28 21 41 32 42 35 15 13 140 110 250 Duck 7 10 17 10 12 8 9 14 5 1 50 43 93 il l 1 2 3 2 1 1 7 3 10 1 1 3 4 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 10 9 16 3 1 28 13 41 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 2 8 8 15 7 22 17 4 3 50 37 87

Total 24 22 67 50 88 52 78 67 25 17 282 208 490 146 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Continued

5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS

Wild birds: Black bird Bluebird Buzzard Chickadee Crow Eagle Hawk Kingfisher Ostrich Owl Robin Sandpiper Seagull , Sparrow Stork 1 Thrush Woodpecker 1

Total specified... 201 1S| Total unspecified 198 227 Total wild birds.. 218 245

Insects: Ant 1 1 1 1 Bee 6 1 2 1 3 3 2 2 1 13 8 44 Bug" 1 2 3 4 1 4 7 Butterfly 2 3 18 13 7 17 4 20 6 31 59 Cocoon 3 3 1 1 4 4 Firefly 1 1 2 Fly... 1 2 1 2 2 4 Grasshopper 1 1 2 2 2 Ladybug 1 1 Mosquito 1 l! Pinch bug 1 1 Roach 1 1 1 1 2 Spider 8 8 18 15 8 12 1 3 1 36 38 Thousand leg 1 1 1 1 Worm or caterpillar. 2 4 3 1 1 2 1 1 7 8

Total 20 19 48 37 23 42 12 29 2 9 105 136

Trees: Apple 1 3 1 Cherry Christmas 5 2 9 5 Date palm 1 Maple...... 1 Trees—generic 756 1048 1225 1068 1392 |3154|

Total 761 1051 1239 1077 13981 3171 APPENDIX 147

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL Girl s Girl s Girl s Girl s Boy s Boy s Boy s Boy s Girl s Boy s Boy s Girl s

Flowers: Specified: Apple blossom 1 1 Aster 1 1 Buds 1 1 Bulbs 1 1 Buttercup 2 2 2 2 4 California 1 1 Cat-tail 1 1 Clover 3 3 Cosmos 1 1 Daffodil 1 1 Daisy 2 1 3 8 7 24 3 28 2 15 63 78 Dandelion 1 1 2 5 3 4 6 10 16 Fern 3 3 3 Geranium 2 1 3 3 Holly 1 1 2 2 Hollyhock 1 1 1 Hyacinth 1 1 1 Iris 1 1 1 Lily 1 1 1 Marigold 1 1 1 Narcissus 1 1 1 Pansy 1 1 1 1 2 3 Peony 1 1 1 1 2 Pussywillow 1 2 2 5 18 4 5 3 6 14 32 46 Rose 1 3 9 18 5 18 8 12 1 5 24 56 80 Rosebush 2 1 1 2 2 4 Rubber plant 1 1 1 Sunflower 2 2 11 4 7 2 8 3 8 31 39 Tulip 1 2 5 6 12 2 24 1 1 11 43 54 Violet 1 1 2 4 4 Waterlily 1 2 1 1 1 4 5

Total 5 9 23 56 36 90 21 92 6 25 91 272 363 Flowers—generic 28 89 200 446 253 614 202 463 52 150 735 1762 2497 Total flowers.... 33 98 223 5021 289 704 223 | 555[ 58 175 826J2034 2860

Fruits: Apples 21 35 72 111 100 146 54 119 26 25 273 436 709 Bananas 1 3 6 4 9 10 4 6 2 20 25 45 Berries , 1 1 1 1 2 Blackberries 1 1 2 2 Cherries 1 5 5 6 2 4 8 15 23 Grapes , 1 4 3 8 5 5 6 10 4 1 19 28 47 Lemon 1 1 1 1 2 Orange 2 4 8 10 7 1 6 1 1 16 24 40 Peach 1 2 5 4 3 9 12 Pear 4 2 15 12 9 13 2 4 2 1 32 32 64 Pineapple 1 1 1 1 3 1 4 148 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL Girl s Boy s Boy s J Boy s J Boy s 1 Girl s | Girl s 1 Boy s J Boy s I Girl s | Girl s | Girl s Fruits—Continued: Plum 1 4 1 3 2 7 9 Raspberries 1 1 1 Strawberries 1 1 1 Watermelon 2 1 2 1 1 1 5 3 8 Fruits—unclassified. 1 2 11 13 1 2 1 1 15 17 32

Total 30 48 109 162 152 210 72 152 35 31 398 603 1001

Vegetables,ibles, etc etc.: Jeans... 2 2 1 2 3 5 Carrot.., 1 1 1 1 2 Chestnut 1 1 1 lorn.... 1 1 2 2 ^ucumbe 1 1 1 ^ettuce. 1 1 1 vtushroo: 1 1 1 1 2 sluts 2 3 2 2 2 4 2 1 1 12 7 19 )nion... 1 1 1 ?eanuts. 1 1 3 2 3 5 led pepi 1 1 1 ?eas.... 1 2 1 2 3 Potatoes 1 5 9 3 1 11 8 19 Pumpkin 23 21 73 94 52 72 43 58 1 2 192 247 439 Radisheladishes 1 1 1 TomatTomatoo . 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 Turnip.. 1 1 1 WalnuWalnutt . 1 1 1 1 2 3 /egetabL 4 5 8 3 14 3 6 1 2 16 33 49

TotalTotal . 33 C M C M I 97 115 59 92 51 66 5 8 245 314 559

Sky, clouds, etc.: Aurora borealis 1 1 1 Clouds 2 3 14 16 6 5 18 15 6 8 46 47 93 The dipper (constellation). 1 1 1 Ice. 1 2 1 3 1 4 Icicles 1 1 1 Night 1 1 1 2 1 3 Rain 7 7 19 12 32 36 37 36 11 11 106 102 208 Rainbow 2 1 1 2 2 4 Sky 10 18 91 119 118 124 127 147 64 84 410 492 902 Snow 8 5 16 18 44 49 50 33 12 8 130 113 243 Storm... 1 1 1 2 1 3 Water 15 10 69 37 116 62 111 38 32 15 343 162 505

Total 43 44 210 205 321 277 345 270 127 126 1046 922 1968 Sun, moori, stars 52 55 202 248 361 377 285 375 113 124 1013 1179 2192 APPENDIX 149

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL

Geographical: Barnyard 1 Cave 4 Cemetery 1 Cliff 1 Ditch 1 Field 1 Fountain 3 Hill 45 244 Iceburg 5 Lake 5 Mountain 57 Ocean 25 Orchard 2 Park 4 Path... 70 Pond 6 Reservoir 1 River or brook 23 Road 35 Street crossing 2 Volcano 2 Water-fall 1 Wind 1 Woods 6 Yard 6

Total 11 11 55 45 80 55 108 69 40 33 294 213 507

Miscellaneous nature forms: Acorn 1 2 5 1 7 Bean-stalk 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 Branch or twig 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 Bush 3 2 1 6 1 11 12 Coal 3 1 2 1 3 4 7 Cornstalks 2 1 1 2 3 3 6 Egg... 5 5 20 21 23 18 10 15 1 1 59 60 119 Feathers 2 1 1 2 3 Fire 3 2 7 5 14 4 11 17 5 7 40 35 75 Frost 1 1 1 Garden 1 4 8 6 3 3 7 18 25 Grass 15 17 124 156 185 221 170 186 74 73 568 653 1221 Haystack 1 2 2 5 8 11 3 1 3 2 17 21 38 Hedge 1 1 1 Hornet's nest 1 1 1 1 2 Leaves 7 4 8 8 9 4 4 3 26 21 47 Mud 1 2 1 1 3 2 5 Nest 9 7 19 15 31 19 8 15 3 3 70 59 129 Pine cone 1 1 1 Plant 2 1 3 1 1 4 4 8 TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL OTA L

en en tn en en •s u & 1 O 1 1 1 & 1 pq 1 pq s pq o pq pq pq O Miscellaneous nature forms—Cont.: o 1 1 2 1 7 3 4 O 3 17 10 27 1| 1 2 2 2 4 1 Sand 1 1 2 3 2 2 6 5 11 4 Seeds 2 1 2 1 4 5 Snail 1 1 1 1 1 6 9 7 10 17 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 4 Vine 2 1 3 3 1 2 1 1 2 3 5 Wheat 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 4 2 9 5 14

Total 48 43 200 251 290 303 223 264 97 91 858 952 1810

199 265 1038 1211 1761 1816 1597 1836 423 40o|5018 5528110546

Parts of houses: Bathroom 2 Cellar 3 Chimney , 61 Door 768 Fireplace , 195 Floor , 5 Hall 1 Pantry 1 Porch 9 Roof 3 Steps 124 751 Window 2391 1465

Total 140 277 346 580 695 447 578 45 61 14441820 3264

Public buildings: Blacksmith shop. 2 8 Capitol 1 Church 19 21 29 29 42 22 80 181 Factory 1 1 1 2 Fort 1 21 3 Garage 10 14 30 10 40 Gasoline station.. 1 1 Hospital 1 4 Hotel 2 Jail 1 8 Lighthouse 3 11 Mill 3 Pyramid 1 Red Cross house. 1 1 Round house 1 1 1 School house 1 1 2 6 12 23 Station 21 1 41 4 Store, toy shop... 51 21 7 1 16 22 Wharf 1 21 3 3

Total 16 43 31 55 38 72 35 16 202 117 319 150 APPENDIX 151

TABLE 3—-Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL Girl s Boy s Boy s Boy s Boy s 1 Boy s | Girl s 1 Boy s | Girl s | Girl s f Girl s | Girl s Animal houses: Barn 6 3 41 25 57 49 42 20 8 5 154 102 256 Bee hive 2 3 4 3 2 5 9 14 Bird house 8 5 46 29 49 28 19 19 6 11 128 92 220 Cage 2 1 4 4 2 2 2 1 10 8 18 Chicken coop 1 1 7 4 7 3 4 1 19 9 28 Dog kennel , 1 3 4 1 5 1 6 5 1 1 17 11 28 Monkey house 1 1 1 1 2 Pigeon house , 2 3 5 2 7 5 12 Pig pen 1 2 2 1 3 Squirrel house , 1 1 1

Total 23 13 105 70 125 88 73 49 17 19 343 239

Miscellaneous buildings: Ark 1 1 Booth 1 1 Bridge 38j 61 Cabin 15 24 Castle 5 7, 10 Chinese pagoda 1 1 Coal shed 1 1 Eskimo house 1 6 10J 11 Fence 70 51 64 84 205 411 Gate 1 4 6 Grape arbor 1 2 Green house 1 2 3 Hayloft 1 Oil well 2 Peanut stand 1 Play house 3 1 8 Privy 1 1 Pump or well 3 10 49 Shed 2 Side walk 61 51 59 78 371 Smoke stack 7 Tent 70 168 128, 57 42 685 Tower 1 4 Tunnel 1 4 Wall 5 3 22 Water tank 1 Wigwam 4 21 Wind mill 6 16 79 Wood shed ll i 3

Total 41 38 168 160 307 202 350 345j 97 85 963 830 1793

Furniture afid house furnishings. Furniture Unspecified 1 1 1 Bath-tub 3 2 5 2 4 4 12 16 152 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Continued

6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS

Furniture and house furnishings- Continued: Bed 50 317 469 Bench 10, 12 Bird cage 14 26 Blackboard 18 27 Book case 2 5 Buffet 2 2 Chair 1434 2158 Chiffonier , 7| 10 Clock 22 159 299 Coat rack 4 7 Couch or lounge 5 7 Counter , 2 3 Cradle or crib 23 36 Cupboard or shelves 19| 36 Desk 7j 30 Drawer 2j 2 Dresser or bureau 50 68 Flower stand 1 1 Ice box , 4 6 Kitchen cabinet , 2 2 Medicine chest , 1 1 Mirror 14 20 Picture and frame...... 17 168 272 Plate rail , 1 Safe 1 Sand table 1 Sink 1 1 Stool », 3| 6 Table.... 17 49 208 430| 51 1400 2019 Tea wagon 4 4 Wardrobe , 1 2 2 Wash-stand 1 1 Window box 1 1 2

Total 99 172 438 868 653 1270 542 1075 133 304 1865 3689 5554

Light and heating: Andirons 1 1 1 1 2 Candle 1 10 16 5 16 10 7 2 27 40 67 Candle stick 3 9 1 3 2 15 3 18 Chandelier 1 3 1 3 4 Electric light 1 8 10 11 20 11 18 2 10 32 59 91 Furnace 2 1 3 3 Gas heater 1 1 1 Gas jet 2 2 2 2 4 Lamp 3 4 2 12 18 7 18 1 24 41 65 Light globe 1 1 1 Light switch 1 1 1 APPENDIX 153

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL DOTA L

to 1 •3 1 •3 1 O o 1 s b o 1 pq pq 1 8 pq pq pq pq O O 1 O Light and heating—Continued: l 1 l Stove 8 2 14 ' 17 1 18 n 29 4 1 6 i 55 99 154 1 1 1 45

8 7| 41 46 58| 46, 79 9 16 162J 251 413 103J House furnishings: Textiles: 4 1 51 5 2 Center-piece 2 2 1 1 1 11 17 14 24 16 33 3 6 45 81 126 1 1 1 1 1 1 Pillow 1 4 1 1 li 2 1 9 10 1 1 Quilt 1 1 1 1 19 24 13 12 3 6 1 1 37 44 81 Tablecloth 10 2 1 13 13 Towel 1 1 Wash-cloth 1 1

Total 2 4 31 64 28| 42 J 19 41] 4 9 84 160 244

Musical instruments: 1 1 1 Bugle 1 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 4 3 4 7 1 9 2 4 1 10 21 31 Victrola 2 2 4 3 2 2 10 5 15 1 1 1 1 2

Total 5 8 8 8 14 6 6 1 1 28 29 57

Total 99 172 438 868 653 1270 542 1075 133 304 1865 3689 5554 Light and. heating 8 7 41 46 58 103 46 79 9 16 162 251 413 Textiles 2 4 31 64 22 42 19 41 4 9 84 160 244 Musical instruments 5 8 8 2 14 6 6 1 1 28 29 57

Total 114 183 518 986 747 1429 613 1201 147 330 2139 4129 6268

Vehicles: Aeroplane 21 10 126 27 137 24 127 31 60 12 471 104 575 Ambulance 1 3 4 1 1 9 1 10 Automobile 32 11 143 40 287 78 221 71 41 10 724 210 934

Baby or doll buggy. 1 3 27 8 33 4 33 8 13 104] 117 Balloon 1 1 1 154 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS

Vehicles—Continued: Bicycle 72 120 Boat 50 1267 1762 Canoe 6| 11 Carriage 21 Cart 101 17 Circus wagon 2 2 Coach 1 1 Coal Car 2 2 Coaster 11 18 Derby racer l! 1 Dirigible 3 3 Electric engine — 1 1 Elevator 2 2 Emergency wagon 4| 4 Fire engine 21 24 Hand truck 1 1 Hearse 1 1 Motorcycle , 2 2 Parachute , 1 2 Patrol wagon 2! 2 Push cart 1 3 Pushmobile , 4 5 Roller coaster 1 1 Scooter car 11 14 Sled 29 49 45 108| 193 Sleigh 11 17 Steam engine 6 7 Street car 10 36 37 119| 155 Street scraper 2 2 Submarine 1 1 Toboggan 3 3 Train 21 20 402 63 465 Tricycle 3 4 Truck 22 32 Wagon 28 16 500| 849 Warship 2 2 War tank 6 7 Wheelbarrow 9 13 Velocipede 2 . 2

. Total 237 85 908 317 1270 5161129 540 297 110 3841 1568 5409

Tools: Domestic: Bread-board 4 Broom 36 Brush 3 Button-hook 1 Cake-turner 1 APPENDIX 155

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL

CO 1 •8 1 Boy s Boy s Boy s PQ b o J Boy s | Girl s | Girl s 1 Tools—Continuued: Domestic—Continued Carpet-beater 1 1 O Carpet-sweeper.... 1 1 2 1 3 Clothes prop 1 2 Clothes pin l 1 2 3 Comb and brush... 5 1 8 3 4 4 127 21 Cooking utensils... 1 2 3 3 Door knob and key 1 1 21 1 2 3 5 Duster 1 1 1 Dust pan 2 2 2 Electric fan 1 1 1 Flat iron 4 2 1 2 2 2 5 8 13 Flour sifter 1 1 1 Fork 1 5 3 4 3 5 11 16 Funnel..., 1 1 2 2 Garden hose 1 1 1 Garden tools 1 2 4 6 9 32 10 8 2 2 26 50 76 Ironing board * 1 1 2 4 2 10 10 Knife 1 4 2 2 3 4 7 9 16 Mouse trap 1 1 1 Poker. 1 1 1 Pop corn popper... 1 1 1 Potato masher 1 1 1 1 2 Quart measure 1 1 1 Rolling pin 1 3 3 1 1 2 5 6 11 Safety pin 1 1 1 Scissors 1 1 1 2 1 3 Sewing machine..., 1 1 1 Shovel 3 2 12 6 4 10 7 26 18 44 Spoon 1 3 7 7 7 1 6 11 21 32 Sprinkling can 1 3 3 1 4 Tooth-brush 1 2 2 1 3 3 6 Wash-board 1 2 1 2 1 1 6 7 Washing machine.. 1 2 3 3 Whisk broom 1 2 2 1 3 Window pole 1 1 1 Wringer 1 1 1 9 Total 1 10 54 53 44 87i 31 45 4 8 142 203 345 Industrial: Anchor 4 2 Anvil Axe 3 3 Brace and bit Cash register Churn 2 Coal machine 1 Crane 156 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL

in en

oy s oy s oy s •3 oy s 5 oy s 11 1 3 ! pq O pq O pq '5 pq O pq O pq o Tools—Continued: Industrial—Continued: Electric engine 1 1 1 Forceps l 1 1 Gimlet 1 1 2 2 Grass mower 1 6 1 2 4 6 10 Hammer l 10 3 4 1 16 3 19 Hatchet l 9 2 11 4 7 1 28 7 35 Hoe 1 1 1 Ice tongs 1 1 1 Ladder , 35 21 67 50 40 35 31 14 14 2 187 120 307 Meat grinder 2 1 1 1 2 3 5 Moving picture machine. 1 1 1 2 3 Nails 4 1 4 5 Pick , ! 1 2 3 3 Pile driver 1 1 1 Pincers , 4 4 4 Pitchfork 1 1 1 2 Plane 5 1 1 6 7 Plow 2 2 2 4 Printing outfit 1 1 1 Pulley and weight 1 1 1 Rake 3 5 12 12 11 13 5 1 31 31 62 "Sand grinder" 1 1 1 2 Saw .-..., 3 8 6 2 3 1 1 1 15 10 25 Scales 2 1 1 3 1 4 Screw driver 1 1 1 Scythe , 1 1 2 2 Steamroller , 1 1 1 Steam shovel 1 1 1 Street repairing machine 1 1 1 Tacks 1 1 1 Telephone , 1 1 2 2 2 4 Threshing machine. 1 1 1 Tractor , 1 1 2 2 Typewriter ... 1 1 1 Wireless , 1 3 3 1 4 Wrench 1 1 1

Total 48 26 137 86 87 61 66 25 17 2 355 200 555

Fighting and hunting: Bomb , 1 1 1 1 3 1 4 Bow and arrows...... 1 6 1 8 1 1 17 4 21 Bullets and shell , 1 2 1 4 1 5 Cannon 5 1 4 3 3 15 1 16 Cannon balls 1 1 1 Fish hooks , 1 1 1 Fish line , 1 3 3 Gun or pistol , 9 3 17 6 15 6 12 56 15 71 APPENDIX 157

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL Boy s Boy s 1 Girl s 1 Girl s j Boy s | Girl s | Girl s 1 Boy s 1 Boy s | Girl s | Girl s 1 Boy s Tools—Continued: Fighting and hunting—Cont. Machine gun 1 1 1 Spear 1 1 1 Sword 1 3 4 1 8 1 9 Target 2 1 3 3 Torpedo 1 1 1

Total.... 9 2 20 6 37 7 30 8 17 1 113 24 137

Miscellaneous tools. Auto crank 1 Camera 3 Crayons...» 2 Drawing board 2 Eraser I 1 Fire hose 1 Hook 2 Paddle 2 Paints.....,:.... 3 Pen... 7 Pencil 3 Pen knife 10 Ruler i 2 Steering wheel 2 Whip 1

Total 42

Total, tools, , 72 39 161 130 81 1079

Receptacles: Ash-can or barrel 1 2 1 2 2 1 4 5 9 Bag ; 3 5 3 7 1 4 2 7 18 25 Barrel 1 4 1 1 1 4 4 8 Basket 4 8 20 25 26 35 18 54 9 15 77 137 214 Book bag 1 1 1 Bottle 1 3 1 1 3 4 5 9 Box ; 15 12 60 57 60 66 30 55 4 7 169 197 366 Can 1 3 2 2 1 3 6 9 Coal hod 3 1 3 1 4 Cornucopia 1 1 1 Garbage can 1 1 1 Golf bag....: 2 2 2 Jewel case.. 1 1 1 Jug 1 1 1 1 2 Mail box 1 2 4 4 3 6 8 14 Match holder 2 1 3 3 Pail—bucket 3 4 5 7 14 10 4 12 2 4 28 37 65 Pocket book 2 7 1 5 1 13 2 4 27 31 158 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOIAL

tn

W Boy s Girl s Boy s I Girl s 1 Girl s 1 Girl s 1 Boy s | Girl s | Girl s i | Boy s 1 Boy s Receptacles—Continued: Suit-case 3 4 3 4 2 1 13 4 17 Tool bag 1 1 1 Tool box 1 2 1 2 5 1 6 Trunk, 4 1 4 1 6 1 2 4 15 19 Tub 2 1 5 4 1 1 6 8 14

Total 30 32 111 125 122 137 64 151 18 32 345 477 822

Toys: Ball 34 60 142 200 127 126 70 82 16 19 389 487 876 Ball bat 2 2 2 Ball gloves 1 1 1 1 2 Balloon 11 12 28 33 25 30 20 14 7 4 91 93 184 Bank 1 1 1 i! 2 Beads 1 1 7 1 6 1 2 2 3 18 21 Bean bag 1 1 1 Blocks 2 2 5 2 4 2 1 8 10 18 Boxing gloves 2 2 2 Bubble pipe 1 1 1 1 2 Bubbles 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 Checker board 2 2 1 3 3 2 5 8 13 Cootie game 1 1 1 Croquet arch 1 1 1 Doll 6 54 49 270 57 226 26 127 2 20 140 697 837 Doll bed 1 1 1 Doll chair 1 1 1 Doll cradle 2 1 3 3 Doll house 1 2 5 1 3 2 3 5 12 17 Dominos 1 2 3 6 6 Drum 2 1 11 2 32 19 40 17 1 7 86 46 132 Foot-ball 1 1 1 Game 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 6 Golf club 1 1 1 Hammock 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 5 Hobby horse 1 1 1 Hoop 2 1 2 1 3 Hopscotch 1 8 1 1 2 9 11 Horn 2 1 3 1 14 8 22 12 3 44 22 66 Jacks 1 1 1 Jack-in-box 1 1 6 1 4 4 4 3 1 2 16 11 27 Jack-o'-lantern 8 3 25 25 22 20 6 9 2 61 59 120 Jumping Jack 2 6 2 1 3 1 7 8 15 Jumping rope 2 1 7 3 7 10 Kiddie car 1 6 3 2 6 3 5 1 13 14 27 Kite 1 6 4 40 12 26 19 2 4 75 39 114 Mallet 1 1 1 1 2 3 Marbles , 2 4 2 4 3 10 5 15 Monkey on string. 1 1 1 Punching bag 3 1 2 1 6 1 7 APPENDIX 159

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL

Toys—Continued: Push duck 1 1 Puzzle 3 4 Rattle 3 4 Reins 1 Rocking horse 6 11 Roly-poly 1 2 Skates 8 16 Skis or snow shoes 25 33 Snow balls 7 5 12 Teddy bear 8 10 18 Tennis racquet 2 1 3 Tin soldier 2 2 Top 11 15 Toys in trunk 1 1 Toys unspecified.. 7 12 Train 1 1 Trapeze 2 2

Bowling alley 1 1 Diving board 2 2 May pole 1 1 Merry-go-round... 5 10 Pool table 2 2 Race track 1 1 Se'a-saw 8 13 Sliding board 1 13 23 Swimming pool... 1 1 1 Swing 8 12 9| 29 49 74 123 Tennis court 1 1 1

Total 81 343! 608) 406 520 276 366 60 74 11661 1716 2882

Clothing: Apron 1 21 4 Belt 1 1 2 Bib 1 1 1 Boots 2 1 3 7 Bracelet 1 3 7 8 Cup 3 3 7 Clothes—general.. 81 14 Clothes on line — 2 6 9 22 14 83 120 Coat 1 1 2 61 8 Crown 1 Dress 9 21 22 Fan 1 1 1 1 61 13 Feathers 2 2 3 Fur 1 1 Glasses 4 3 4 10 20 Gloves 3 2 3 7 Handkerchief 5 2 5 11 160 APPENDIX

TABLE 3— Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL OTA L Boy s GRAND T Boy s Boy s | Girl s | Girl s iBoy s | Girl s | Girl s 1 Boy s | Girl s |Boy s | Girl s Clothing—Continued: 7 5 18 25 12 27 4 19 3 1 44 77 121 2 2 2 2 1 3 4 1 1 10 11 Muff 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 1 8 9 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 5 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 3 1 3 6 10 16 2 5 2 2 4 2 1 5 13 18 1 1 1 7 8 12 18 7 5 4 4 1 30 36 66 2 2 2 4 1 23 25 25 34 14 44 4 5 70 109 179 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 5 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 Watch 2 2 7 7 11 1 1 20 11 31

Total 36 39 97 134 87 125 41 122 16 28 277 448 725

Dishes: Basin 1 1 1 Bowl , 4 7 19 36 34 49 15 30 4 7 76 129 205 Bread tin... 1 1 1 Coffee pot.., 2 3 3 4 1 12 7 3 2 11 15 33 48 Cup 1 2 8 23 13 27 11 35 3 3 36 90 126 Dipper 1 1 1 Dishes 1 2 12 8 3 18 5 30 4 5 25 63 88 Dish-pan 1 2 1 2 3 Flower pot.. 2 4 5 23 30 65 25 82 5 35 67 209 276 Fruit bowl.. 1 1 1 Griddle 1 1 1 Jar 1 1 2 2 2 4 Kettle 4 3 3 5 3 4 12 10 22 Mug 1 1 1 Pan 2 4 7 3 4 5 13 12 25 Pitcher 1 2 1 4 2 5 1 5 5 16 21 Plate 1 1 5 12 6 7 7 12 27 39 Pot 1 2 9 8 2 5 2 11 18 29 Saucer 3 3 11 4 23 4 4 11 41 52 Skillet 1 3 1 2 3 5 Sugar bowl., 1 1 1 3 1 5 6 Teapot 1 1 1 1 3 2 5 7 Tray 1 1 1 Tumbler.... 2 3 3 1 1 2 4 8 12 Vase 2 5 7 3 7 1 3 10 18 28

Total 20 24 66 130 118 219 81 237 24 84 309 694 APPENDIX 161

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL OTA L

en en r2J >-• T3 1 IS 1 1 1 *2J pq O pq O o o pq pq 1 pq '6 Foods: Bread 1 3 5 3 2 2 3 10 9 19 Cake 3 1 4 1 3 3 3 pq 5 13 18 Candy 1 2 7 10 6 9 1 4 16 25 41 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 7 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Flour 1 1 1 Food cereal 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 1 2 2 1 1 4 5 3 1 5 1 6 Jelly 1 2 1 1 1 1 Meat 2 1 2 2 Milk 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 1 3 2 5 Pickle 1 1 1 1 2 Pie 2 1 3 2 1 3 3 1 7 10 17 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 Rolls 1 1 Sat&age 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 Tea 1 1 1

Total 7 12 21 30 21 13 21 5 2 60 86 146 14 Miscellaneous: Anatomy: Blood 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Ears 1 1 1 Eye 1 2 2 2 4 5 1 1 1 7 2 9 Fingers 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 Hair 1 2 1 1 4 5 1 12 3 4 6 3 1 1 4 21 14 35 Head 1 1 Heart 12 13 11 17 9 2 1 32 33 65 1 1 2 2 2 Teeth 1 3 3 4

Total 9 5 31 23 20 25 12 3 2 5 74 61 135

Industrial: 2 1 3 1 6 7 1 3 3 2 6 2 5 17 14 25 39 1 1 2 2 162 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS

Miscellaneous—Continued: Industrial—Continued: Fire plug , 2 Harness , 10 Horse-shoe , 12 Hydrant , 1 Lamp-post , 28 Light 3 Lightning rod 1 Mail 6 Money 7 Moving picture 3 R. R. tracks 37 Saddle and bridle 1 Safety first sign 1 Search-light 1 Signal 1 Sign-board 5 Street Lamp 2 Telegraph pole 1 Telephone pole 62 Telephone wires 8 Tire 6 Weather vane , 1 Wool (yarn) 1

Total 8 49 36 35 13 26 13 20 145 103 248

Geometrical forms: Circle 5 2 2 2 4 7 8 15 Cube 1 1 1 Lines 4 4 4 6 1 4 1 10 14 24 Oblong 1 1 1 1 2 Square 2 5 2 4 2 4 6 13 19 Triangle 1 1 1

Total 11 12 8 13 5 12 1 25 37 62

Miscellaneous: Bell 1 2 9 13 14 10 5 7 1 29 33 62 Book 3 2 5 12 13 18 8 10 2 1 31 43 74 Bundle 1 1 1 Button 1 2 2 3 2 5 Calendar 1 1 5 4 4 2 2 10 9 19 Cane 1 2 1 6 1 1 9 3 12 Chain 3 7 3 2 6 9 15 Christmas decorations 1 1 1 4 2 5 7 Cigar 2 1 3 3 Cigarette 1 1 1 Coffin 2 2 2 APPENDIX 163

TABLE 3—Continued

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS

•§ I I Miscellaneous—Continued: a Miscellaneous—Continued: Cross HI 30 30 60 Diamond 1 1 2 Dots 1 1 Easter egg 4 10 14 Envelope 3 61 9 Firecrackers 1 1 Fireworks 1 1 Flagpole 21 3 Flashlight 21 4 Foot-prints 1 2 Gift... 1 1 Glass (piece of) 1 Globe 1 1 Hand cuffs II 1 "Hickey that flies'1 1 1 Holes 1 1 Ink stand 21 2 Japanese lantern 1 1 Kindergarten circle 1 1 Lantern 21 4 Lantern chimney 1 Letter 1 1 Liberty bell 1 1 Liberty bond 1 1 Map 21 2 Mask 4 6 Match 1 1 Newspaper 1 Pack 1 Parasol 1 Pipe 22 27 Red Cross 14 23 Rope 5 13 Scale (musical) 2 Scout medal 1 1 Soap 21 6 Something funny 1 1 Sparkler 3 3 Spy or opera glass 21 2 Stamp 1 Statue of Liberty...... 1 2 Steam 1 2 Stick 4 5 Strap 1 Tooth paste 1 2 Trough 1 2 Umbrella 68 37 59 81 166 247 Valentine 42 90 22 16 13 48 164 APPENDIX

TABLE 3—Concluded

4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS 7 YEARS 8 YEARS TOTAL Girl s Boy s Boy s Boy s o | Girl s J Boy s 1 Girl s 1 Boy s 1 Girl s J Boy s 1 Girl s Miscellaneous—Continued: Miscellaneous—Continued:

Wall paper. 1 t o 1 CM 1 3 Wireframe 1 1 1 Wish bone 2 2 2 Wreath 2 1 1 3 1 4 Writing paper 1 1 2 1 3 2 5

Total 19 21 84 95 124 160 104 120 23 23 354 419 773

Flag or banner 17 7 161 115 303 238 264 218 94 53 839 631 1470 Design 14 42 45 92 38 44 29 35 6 8 132 221 353 Letters and numbers.... 42 35 171 239 248 276 240 233 101 102 802 885 1687 BIOGRAPHY Stella Agnes McCarty was born in Urbana, Illinois, in 1872. She was educated in the public schools of Omaha, Nebraska, and in Rutger's Female College, New York City, entering Goucher College in 1888. Graduating in 1892, she taught one year in the Girls Latin School, then associated with the College as a preparatory department. She entered Teacher's Training School in Indianapolis, to prepare for professional work in the kindergarten-primary field. In 1896 she received an appointment to teach kindergarten and conduct a training class in Evansville, Ind. After six years in Evansville she returned to Indianapolis as supervisor of the free kindergartens and instructor in the Training School. From 1905 to 1914 she was Supervisor of Kinder­ gartens in the public schools of Trenton, New Jersey. In 1910-11 she took a year's leave of absence which she spent in residence at Teachers College, Columbia University, claiming her A.M. Degree in 1916. She was appointed Instructor in Education in Goucher College in 1915, Assistant Professor in 1917, and Associate Professor in 1921. She began her studies at Johns Hopkins University in 1914, spent the year 1920-21 in residence, and completed her class work in 1922, devoting the final year wholly to her dissertation.

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FIGURE 6

After rating a group of drawings, please record results on this sheet, giving in each column the numbers of drawings for the age and sex of each value, and mail to STELLA A. MCCARTY Goucher College, Baltimore, Md. City.. School Subject. Grade. Teacher.

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