AN APOSTOLIC APPROACH FOR THE EVANGELIZATION
OF POSTMODERN PEOPLE
______
A Dissertation
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Theology
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
Fort Worth, Texas
______
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
______
Department of Evangelism
______
by
Eric J. Thomas
May 2002
©Copyright by Eric J. Thomas 2002 All Rights Reserved INTRODUCTION
Jesus Christ established the mission of the church through His command in Acts 1:8. This command to “testify to what they had seen, heard, and known of Him . . . is the principal task of every Christian.”1 To face the enormity
of the task and the obstacles within the culture, Jesus
promised power through the Holy Spirit sufficient for the
fulfillment of the mission.2 As it was for the early
church, so it is for the contemporary church.
The Rise of Postmodernism
Postmodernism represents one of the greatest
obstacles to the mission of the contemporary church. Huston
Smith describes postmodernism as a view of the world in
which reality cannot be accessed.3 The influence of the
postmodern perspective is prevalent in the culture today.
1Curtis Vaughan, Acts: A Study Guide Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974), 15.
2See, Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970; reprint, Guildford, Surrey: Inter Publishing Service, 1995), 32-42.
3Huston Smith, Beyond the Post-Modern Mind, rev. ed. (Wheaton: Quest Books, 1989), 7.
1 2
One can find postmodern thought coursing through the media, academia, and ecclesia.
Postmodernism is a shift from the Enlightenment
ideal of modernism.4 Modernism describes the pursuit to
establish “all-inclusive” explanations for life.5 The
autonomous individual is the highest reality and value.6
Knowledge is attainable and certain through the objective and precise tool of the scientific method.7 Modernism
promotes the progress of humanity and society through
technological advancements.8 In short, Habermas suggests
that modernism preeminently promotes “subjective freedom.”9
4C. Norman Kraus, An Intrusive Gospel?: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1998), 17-19.
5Jean-François Lyotard, The Inhuman: Reflections on Time, trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Rachel Bowlby (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), 65-69.
6Thomas C. Oden, After Modernity . . . What? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 45-48.
7Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. John Cumming (New York: Continuum, 1999), 6-9. In fact, according to Horkheimer and Adorno, “that which does not reduce to numbers . . . becomes illusion.”
8Craig Van Gelder, “Scholia: Postmodernism as an Emerging Worldview,” Calvin Theological Journal 26 (1991): 413.
9Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, trans. Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), 83-84. He proposes that modernism promoted reason as “unifying power of religion.” 3
He writes: “This was realized in society as the space secured by civil law for the rational pursuit of one’s own interests; . . . in the private sphere, as ethical autonomy and self-realization; finally, in the public sphere related to this private realm, as the formative process that takes place by means of the appropriation of a culture that has become reflective.”10
Beginning with Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900),11
the incipient form of postmodernism found fertile soil in
which to flourish by attacking the Enlightenment.12 To
understand postmodernism, therefore, it is important to
understand the Nietzschean project that has led to its
growth. Nietzsche’s critique of modernism promotes a denial
of the “myopic view” of truth, morality, and language.13
10Ibid.
11Ibid., 83-105; Mark Taylor, Altarity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 238-41. See also, Cornel West, “Nietzsche’s Prefiguration of Postmodern American Philosophy,” in Why Nietzsche Now?, ed. D. T. O’Hara (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985), 241-69.
12Brian D. Ingraffia, Postmodern Theory and Biblical Theology: Vanquishing God’s Shadow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
13Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Random House, 1966; reprint, 1989), 101. He writes that the essential fabrication permeating culture is that there should be “obedience . . . in a single direction” that leads to “unfreedom of the spirit.” 4
Nietzsche dismissed the notion of a single meaning for the
world. The world has “countless meanings.”14 In his
project, Nietzsche sought to dismantle the “pervasive lie”
that Plato, Christianity, and the Enlightenment had
perpetrated for centuries.
First, Nietzsche attacked the “mendacious
fabrication” of truth and morality. He declared that truth
is “a sum of human relations, which have been enhanced,
transposed, and embellished poetically and rhetorically, and
which after long use seem firm, canonical, and
obligatory.”15 Wilcox suggests that for Nietzsche “values
are not objective” but are relative. Moral values are
“created rather than discovered.”16
As a counterattack against the prevailing views of
truth and morality, Nietzsche called for the rise of the
übermensch. The übermensch is a “free spirit” who has
broken free of the constraints of the external moral law.
14Friedrich Nietzsche, Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage, 1968), 481.
15Friedrich Nietzsche, “On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense,” in The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Penguin Books, 1954), 46- 47.
16John T. Wilcox, Truth and Value in Nietzsche: A Study of His Metaethics and Epistemology (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1974), 11. For Nietzsche, moral value depends solely upon the individual’s taste. 5
This person is not chained to the standards of the world.
Rather, he “bears his own standards of morality and reason and attempts to vanquish the hitherto reigning traditions and values.”17 Nietzsche argued that Kant’s belief in an a priori universal moral law must be corrected or
“revalued.”18 Indeed, this “revaluation” was paramount to
his philosophy.19 In his thought traditional morality was a
“dying tree” that cannot be saved.20 Indeed, for Nietzsche,
the concept of “right and wrong” was nonsensical.21
17Leslie Paul Thiele, Friedrich Nietzsche and the Politics of the Soul: A Study of Heroic Individualism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 12.
18Walter Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, 4th ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 103-107. See, Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 21; idem., Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for Everyone and No One, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Penguin Books, 1961), 136. Nietzsche condemned Plato for inverting reality through the creation of an imaginary, true realm. Christianity continued this falsity of the imaginary realm (Beyond Good and Evil, 14-23). The metaphysicians of modernity embraced the similar notion of a metaphysical realm beyond this world (Zarathustra, 136). The notion of an imaginary realm was the origination of the false ideal of universal morality. This is the “mendacious fabrication” that Nietzsche sought to reverse.
19Friedrich Nietzsche, “The Twilight of Idols or, How One Philosophizes with a Hammer,” in The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufman (New York: Penguin Books, 1954), 484-85.
20Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 109.
21Friedrich Nietzsche, “The Genealogy of Morals: An Attack,” in The Birth of Tragedy and The Genealogy of Morals, trans. F. Golffing (New York: Doubleday, 1956), 208. 6
Nietzsche believed in a multiplicity of moralities. None of these moralities can be “absolutized” as solely justifiable.22 Values are based upon preference rather than
reason or rationality.23
Nietzsche also attacked “mendacious fabrications”
in the concepts of language. Nietzsche proposed that
reality was a function of grammar -- a linguistic construct
of the social context.24 Language itself is the creator of
truth.25 Language is a system of interpretation which opens
a beautiful vista of “eternal unfolding” for meaning.26 It is the tool which creates the interpretation of reality.
22Wilcox, 27-28. See, Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 135-36.
23Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 213, in which the prophet says, “All my progress has been attempting and a questioning –– and truly one has to learn how to answer such questioning! That however –– is to my taste: not good taste, not bad taste, but my taste, which I no longer conceal and of which I am no longer ashamed.”
24Arthur C. Danto, Connections to the World: The Basic Concepts of Philosophy (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 52.
25Nietzsche, “On Truth and Falsity in an Extra-Moral Sense,” in Early Greek Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. M. A. Mügge, vol. 2, The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, ed. Oscar Levy (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), 181-82.
26Irena Makarushka, “Nietzsche’s Critique of Modernity: The Emergence of Hermeneutical Consciousness,” Semeia 51 (1990): 196. Makarushka suggests that Nietzsche presents “an eternal unfolding in history of the inexhaustible surplus of meaning.” 7
“Correctness” of interpretation is not the most important goal of language,27 because language creates its own truth.28
Through the interpretive “will to power,” a new language is introduced, and a new reality which corresponds to the language comes into being.29 Truth is fiction
“imaginatively produced” by the “arbitrariness of the elements of language.”30 Nietzsche’s project rejects the
idea that language is a fixed representation of a fixed
reality.
Nietzsche’s “yes-saying” and “no-saying” produced a
clear path for the exaltation of the postmodern mind.
Rather than absolute truth, the postmodern mind reflects the
arbitrariness of truth according to social context. Rather
than universal morality, the postmodern mind embraces
perspectival morality. Rather than language as
representative of reality, the postmodern mind finds
language as the creator of reality.
27Thiele, 103.
28Nietzsche, Will to Power, 267. He writes that individuals “set up a word at the point at which our ignorance begins” and the word is “the horizon of our knowledge, but not ‘truths.’”
29Allan Megill, Prophets of Extremity: Nietzsche, Heidegger, Foucault, Derrida (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 96-97.
30Charles E. Winquist, Desiring Theology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 31. 8
Need for Present Study31
Many books, essays, and articles seek to help the
church to engage the adherents of postmodernism with the
gospel of Christ. These works may be categorized into four
basic groups: descriptive, responsive, corrective, and
postmodern. The descriptive group details the current
situation of the postmodern condition, offering an
appropriate Christian response in the concluding chapter or
a few paragraphs at the close of each chapter.32 The responsive category focuses upon a Christian response to the postmodern condition, detailing the postmodern tenets in the introduction.33 The corrective category seeks to examine
and negate the destructive tendencies of postmodernism.34
The postmodern category embraces much of the tenets of
postmodern thought as an appropriate Christian response.35
31Definitions are given throughout the dissertation.
32See, Stanley Grenz, “The Gospel and the Postmodern Context,” in A Primer on Postmodernism, 161-74; Gene Edward Veith, Jr., “Conclusion: ‘When Foundations Are Destroyed,’” in Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 1994), 225-34.
33See, Jimmy Long, Generating Hope: A Strategy for Reaching the Postmodern Generation (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997).
34See, Carson, The Gagging of God, chap. 2, passim.
35See, Tom Beaudoin, Virtual Faith: The Irreverent Spiritual Quest of Generation X (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998). 9
This proposed dissertation falls into the
responsive category. More specifically, this dissertation
proposes a very specific evangelistic response to the
challenges of the postmodern condition from an exegetical
analysis of the first-century church as reported in the New
Testament.
While some works attempt to demonstrate a biblical
response to the postmodern world, they fail to address
specifically the issue of evangelism in the ministry of the
church to the postmodern person.36 Other works provide a
sound evangelistic approach to the postmodern condition, but
they fail to offer an in-depth exegetical analysis of
Scripture.37 These dissertations offer responses to the postmodern condition, but they lack either the depth of consideration in terms of evangelism or the depth of exegetical analyses.38
Gosnell’s dissertation deals with postmodernism and
evangelism. His approach, however, is mostly analytical.
36Charles J. Conniry Jr., “Apostolic Christianity in a Postmodern World: A Theological Analysis,” (Ph.D. diss., Fuller Theological Seminary, 1997).
37Arne H. Fjeldstad, “Communicating Christ on the Information Superhighway,” (D.Min. diss., Fuller Theological Seminary, 1997).
38The suggestion here is that the works have something other than evangelism as their theses, or that they offer philosophical approaches to postmodernism. 10
He analyzes the rise of postmodernism, postmodernism in contemporary culture, and strategies for evangelistic ministry to postmodern people.39 He focuses upon the
contemporary strategies of evangelism in relation to the
postmodern condition. Following David Bosch,40 Gosnell
provides insight for the church in evangelism. While
providing sound, biblical direction, Gosnell does not focus
his attention primarily upon an exegetical analysis of the
evangelistic approach of the apostolic church in the first
century.
The dissertation seeks to offer an in-depth
consideration of evangelism and exegetical analyses. Where
Gosnell offers insight into the postmodern condition and
proposes evangelistic response, this dissertation presents
more exegetical analyses as the paradigm for such responses.
Gosnell’s approach focuses the first half of the
dissertation on the historical development and contemporary
condition of postmodernism. This dissertation, however,
focuses upon an exegetical analysis of the evangelistic
approach of the first-century church in the New Testament.
39Ricky D. Gosnell, “Abstract,” in “The Postmodern Pardigm: Challenges to the Evangelistic Ministry of the Church,” (Ph.D. diss., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1993).
40David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993). 11
The strength of this dissertation is its analyses of the evangelistic ministry of the apostolic church as foundational for the evangelization of postmodern people.
An Apostolic Approach
The premise of this dissertation is that the New
Testament approaches to evangelism are sufficient and effective for evangelism in a postmodern context. Similar to the conditions in the contemporary society, the apostolic church evangelized cultures fundamentally opposed to the proposition of the gospel. In the midst of competing worldviews and rampant pluralism, the apostolic church
“saturated” the contours of the ancient world with the gospel.41
The term apostolic will reflect the period beginning with Pentecost and ending at the close of the first century.42 An apostolic approach may be defined as the adoption of the examples, directions, and procedures of the apostolic church for the contemporary church setting.
41Malcolm McDow and Alvin L. Reid, Firefall: How God Has Shaped History Through Revivals (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1997), 96.
42Everett Harrison, The Apostolic Church (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1985), ix-xii. Harrison divides the New Testament into “Gospel History” (the four Gospels) and “Apostolic History” (the remainder of the New Testament). This dissertation follows a similar division, but focuses upon Acts and the Pauline epistles. 12
The record of the apostolic church found in the New
Testament provides the basis for the work of the contemporary church. Robert Guelich correctly states that the apostolic church serves as the “norm for all Church history.”43
This writer has chosen this topic due to the need
for a coherent and biblical approach for the evangelization
of postmodern people. Within the plethora of material
dealing with evangelism in general, a specific approach for
the evangelization of postmodern people rarely is found.
Furthermore, within the several books and articles dealing
with the evangelization of the postmodern person in
particular, a coherent, biblical paradigm often is missing.
As a response to this condition, this writer seeks to offer
an approach for the evangelization of postmodern people
following a coherent, biblical model. This model is found
in the evangelistic strategy of the apostolic church
detailed in the Book of Acts and the Pauline epistles.
Postmodernism makes basic presuppositions that
present difficulties for the evangelistic ministry of the
church. In order for the contemporary church to evangelize
the postmodern person, she must answer these difficulties.
43Robert A. Guelich, “Translator’s Preface,” in Apostolic and Post-Apostolic Times by Leonhard Goppelt (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1970), x. 13
Erickson suggests that postmodernism presupposes that knowledge is not objective, that authoritative systems of explanation are invalid, and that knowledge is a creation of community.44 The apostolic church faced similar challenges for evangelism in “a cauldron of conflicting religious claims within which the Christian faith would have remained tiny but for one fact: the first Christians knew that their faith was absolutely true.”45 Through the pattern of the
apostolic church, the contemporary church finds an approach
to address the four basic challenges of postmodernism: 1)
anti-foundationalism, 2) communal truth, 3) deconstruction,
and 4) pluralism.46 These four challenges will be examined
in the following chapter.
44Millard J. Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith: Evangelical Responses to the Challenge of Postmodernism (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 18-19.
45David Wells, No Place for Truth: Or Whatever Happened to Evangelical Theology? (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1993), 104.
46These terms will be defined in the following chapter. The definitions will be presented primarily from the viewpoint of postmodern adherents. Although there remains a varying degree of specificity among the theorists of postmodernism concerning the definitions of these terms, the general descriptions present sufficient groundwork for analysis. TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ...... iv
INTRODUCTION ...... 1
The Rise of Postmodernism ...... 1
Need for Present Study ...... 8
An Apostolic Approach...... 11
Chapter
1. THE POSTMODERN PERSON AND EVANGELISM ...... 14
Prevailing Postmodern Themes...... 14
Dismissal of Foundations ...... 15
Communal Truth ...... 17
Deconstruction of Meaning...... 21
Pluralism...... 24
Preeminent Challenges for Evangelism...... 26
The Gospel as Metanarrative...... 27
The Challenge of Epistemology...... 28
The Challenge of Hermeneutics...... 30
Possible Opportunities for Evangelism ...... 35
Search for a Better Story...... 36
Search for Connection...... 38
Search for a Better Life ...... 40
Apostolic Approach to the Postmodern Challenge ...... 42
2. PENTECOST, THE HOLY SPIRIT, AND EVANGELISM ...... 48
vi Pentecost and the Spirit of Truth, Acts 2:1-13...... 52
Fulfillment of the Visionary Gift, Joel 2:28-32...... 52
Selected Paraclete Passages in John’s Gospel...... 58
Holy Spirit: The Bridge for the Objective Truth of the Gospel...... 68
Epistemology: A Postmodern Dilemma ...... 69
Beyond Babel: Epistemology and ejtevrai~ glwvssai~ ...... 75
Evangelistic Approach at Pentecost, Acts 2:14-41 ...... 78
Propositions from Old Testament Scripture ...... 81
The Cross and the Resurrection: An Objective, Historical Reality...... 83
Objective or Communal? The Postmodern Question of Truth ...... 89
The Spirit of Truth, Conversion, and Community ...... 90
3. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY IN AN APOSTOLIC APPROACH ...... 98
Images of an Apostolic Community...... 98
Christ’s Body...... 100
God’s People ...... 106
The Spirit’s Temple...... 111
Transformation of Worldviews, Acts 2:42-43 ...... 115
The Significance of the Apostles’ Doctrine...... 118
vii Excursus: Hermeneutics and the Postmodern Challenge...... 124
The Significance of Koinwniva ...... 139
Apostolic Ethics and Evangelism ...... 146
Ethics of Community: Acts 2:44-47 and the Importance of ajllhvlwn in Pauline Paraenesis ...... 147
The Postmodern Need for Intimacy ...... 156
The Commendable Community and Evangelism, Acts 2:47, 5:13 ...... 160
Obstacles to Community: Deception and Division ...... 166
4. POSTMODERN PLURALITIES, PLURALISM, AND AN APOSTOLIC APPROACH ...... 177
Evangelization in the Midst of Pluralities...... 177
Pluralities in Postmodern and Apostolic Times ...... 180
Judaic, Hellenistic, or Christian? A Question of Pluralities ...... 186
An Apostolic Approach to Postmodern Pluralities ...... 197
Evangelization in the Midst of Pluralism...... 210
The Imperial Ethic of Pluralism...... 210
The Areopagitica, Acts 17:16-34...... 212
5. PERSONAL EVANGELISM AND POSTMODERN PEOPLE . . . 217
Apostolic Witness in Postmodern Times ..... 217
Power for Personal Evangelism ...... 225
Obstacles for Personal Evangelism ...... 228
viii Finding Common Ground, 1 Cor 9:19-23...... 234
Application of an Apostolic Approach...... 237
Conclusion...... 242
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 243
ix Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia
CHAPTER ONE
THE POSTMODERN PERSON AND EVANGELISM
Prevailing Postmodern Themes
Jean-François Lyotard, professor of philosophy at
the University of Paris in Vincennes and a leading voice in
postmodern thought, defines postmodernism “as incredulity
toward metanarratives.”1 A metanarrative is one “grand
theory” which explains the meaning of life. For Lyotard, to
be postmodern is to reject all things modern; that is, all
pursuits to establish one, over-arching, prevalent theme for
life.2
This rejection of metanarratives provides a
fountainhead for the prevailing postmodern themes: anti-
foundationalism, communal truth, deconstruction, and
pluralism. Each of these themes presents a particular
challenge for evangelizing the postmodern person.
1Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, vol. 10, Theory and History of Literature, trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minnaopolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), xxiv.
2Jean-François Lyotard, The Inhuman: Reflections on Time, trans. Geoff Bennington and Rachel Bowlby (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), 65-69.
14 Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 15
Dismissal of the Foundations
The postmodern project dismisses the foundations of
knowledge.3 Postmodernism rejects “realism” which states
that “there exists a mind-independent world” which “can be
accessed.”4 Postmodernism also rejects foundationalism,
which states that knowledge is justified through “certain
indubitable” beliefs.5 Postmodernism states “that there are
no objective, transhistorical truths, or bottom lines which
might serve to stabilize the interpretation of the
particular historical purposes of groups and individuals.”6
Even the pursuit of such foundations is not beneficial.
3Philip D. Kenneson, “There’s No Such Thing as Objective Truth and It’s a Good Thing Too,” in Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World, ed. Timothy R. Phillips and Dennis L. Okholm (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 157.
4Dirk-Martin Grube, “Realism, Foundationalism, and Constructivism: A Philosopher’s Bermuda Triangle,” Neue Zeitschrift für Systematische Theologie und Religions- philosophie 40 (1998): 108. Richard Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth: Philosophical Papers, Volume 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 2. Rorty suggests the need for the abandonment of any claims to “representation.”
5Alister E. McGrath, “The Christian Church’s Response to Pluralism,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 35 (December 1992): 498; Millard J. Erickson, The Evangelical Left: Encountering Postconservative Evangelical Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1997), 54.
6Steven Connor, Postmodernist Culture: An Introduction to Theories of the Contemporary, 2d ed. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1997), 66. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 16
“The question is not whether human knowledge in fact has
‘foundations,’ but whether it makes sense to suggest that it
does –– whether the idea of epistemic or moral authority
having a ‘ground’ in nature is a coherent one.”7
Since metanarratives are no longer viable,
evangelism faces the problem of anti-foundationalism.
Stanley Fish proposes this description of anti-
foundationalism:
In a heterogeneous world, a world in which persons are situated –– occupying particular places with particular purposes pursued in relation to particular goals, visions, and hopes as they follow from holding (or being held by) particular beliefs –– no one will be in a situation that is universal or general (that is, no situation at all), and therefore no one’s perspective (a word that gives the game away) can lay claim to privilege.8
In this way postmodernism abandons the correspondence theory
of truth which suggests that “a true statement is one which
corresponds to reality.”9 Indeed, Rorty contends that this
kind of pursuit of truth should be dismissed altogether.10
7Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), 178.
8Stanley Fish, There Is No Such Thing as Free Speech and It’s a Good Thing, Too (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 218.
9Grube, 118.
10R. Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, Truth, 128-29. As will be shown, Rorty contends that the pursuit of truth is an illusion and should not be the endeavor. He opts for conversation with others as the model for meaning. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 17
Alvin Plantinga proposes that Rorty’s postmodernism suggests
that “there really isn’t any such thing as truth.”11
Communal Truth
David Tracy clearly sets forth the postmodern ideal
when he suggests that “human knowledge is finite, communal,
and perspectival.”12 The postmodern comes to truth through
the definition of personal experience in the community
context. Each community creates its own narrative that
defines its beliefs, history, and precepts. Truth is found
within the social construct of each community narrative, and
“all these narratives are of equal value” according to the
postmodern ideal. “No one narrative can claim
universality.”13
According to Rorty, the community informs and
controls the definition of truth.14 Truth and self are
ultimately the constructions of the social context.
11Stephen Louthan, “On Religion –– A Discussion with Richard Rorty, Alvin Plantinga and Nicholas Wolterstorff,” Christian Scholar’s Review 26 (1996): 183.
12David Tracy, Plurality and Ambiguity: Hermeneutics, Religion, Hope (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987), 27.
13Robert E. Webber, Ancient-Future Faith: Rethinking Evangelicalism for a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1999.
14R. Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, Truth, 38. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 18
Community is the starting point for truth and self, and a
community built for conversation maintains the social
context as the only source for guidance.15
Jimmy Long states that truth comes through the lens
of the community.16 That which is true is that which
everyone in the social context of community believes to be
true. The universality of truth is found only within the
context of community. If one ventures to another social
context, then the universality of truth changes.17
In postmodernism multiple truths exist, and the
individual is left with only preferences. Absolute truth is
the by-product of a communal, totalitarian, oppressive force
seeking control and power.18 Michel Foucault, a leading
postmodern philosopher who was trained at the Sorbonne and
lectured at College de France, states that “objective
knowledge” is the product of a social construct establishing
its own truth. This construction is made to affirm the
community’s way of life and to oppress others who differ.
15Ibid., 165.
16Jimmy Long, Generating Hope: A Strategy for Reaching the Postmodern Generation (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997), 70. Communal truth is a predominant theme in postmodernism. The notion of truth as the product of community will be a theme throughout this examination.
17Ibid., 69-70.
18R. Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, Truth, 38. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 19
In the final analysis, Foucault concludes that the act of
knowing is an “act of violence.”19
The death of the grand narratives gives rise to the
petit narratives.20 These are the narratives within the
context of the community which give the definition to truth
and self. As Millard Erickson reports this development,
“Truth is defined by and for the community, and all
knowledge occurs within some community.”21 Truth is
established through “the ground rules that facilitate the
well-being of the community in which one participates.”22
Postmodernism declares that the individual is
“centerless and ever-changing.”23 As the social context
changes, beliefs and values of the individual also change.
19Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), 25-31.
20Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, 60. “The little narrative [petit récit] remains the quintessential form of imaginative invention.”
21Millard J. Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith: Evangelical Responses to the Challenge of Postmodernism (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 19.
22Stanley J. Grenz, “Star Trek and the Next Generation: Postmodernism and the Future of Evangelical Theology,” in The Challenge of Postmodernism: An Evangelical Engagement, ed. David S. Dockery (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995), 95.
23Todd Hahn and David Verhaagen, Reckless Hope: Understanding and Reaching Baby Busters (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1996), 37-41. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 20
Self-identity comes through the individual’s contact within
the social construct of community.24 In postmodernism, the
community defines truth and dispenses personhood. The
individual who does not match the norms of the community
becomes “rehumanized” to match the prevailing norms of the
community.25
Community, therefore, is vital for the postmodern
perspective. It is the “only source of guidance” in
determining the beliefs and values for life.26 As Henry
Knight, assistant professor of evangelism at Saint Paul
School of Theology in Kansas City, Missouri, states,
“Instead of the individual being prior to the community, the
community is prior to the individual; participation in the
community with its network of practices and relationships is
what constitutes the personhood of the individual.”27
24Tracy, Plurality and Ambiguity, 19-20, 110-14; Stanley Grenz, A Primer on Postmodernism (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 156-58; Long, Generating Hope, 70. Long states, “The autonomous self of the Enlightenment has been replaced by tribalism or community.”
25Lyotard, Postmodern Condition, 63.
26R. Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, Truth, 165.
27Henry Knight III, A Future for Truth: Evangelical Theology in a Postmodern World (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1997), 53. Knight’s evaluation indicates as well the common view of postmodernism that the autonomous individual of the Enlightenment should be rejected. The community provides the appropriate context and clues to self-identity. Without the community, one cannot come to this self-identity. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 21
Postmodernism reacts against community to some
degree, in that it views the community as oppressive to the
minority group of dissidents within the social construct.
On the other hand, postmodernism embraces community as the
fundamental agent for the belonging of the individual. The
individual is dependent upon the community as the place
where self and truth begin, but no single community
possesses a system of belief which is perfectly consistent
or coherent.28 Although community may be oppressive,
paradoxically it is only context for solace in a fragmented
world.
Deconstruction of Meaning
Deconstruction is the postmodern project which
identifies “ideological inconsistencies or ambiguities in a
text that prevent interpreters from claiming that it has a
fixed meaning.”29 Deconstruction seeks to dismantle the
metanarrative of modernity, including the gospel.30
28Albrecht Wellmer, The Persistence of Modernity: Essays on Aesthetics, Ethics, and Postmodernism, trans. David Midgley (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1991), 43-48.
29William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard Jr., Introduction to Biblical Interpretation (Dallas: Word, 1993), 440-41.
30Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, corrected ed., trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 10-18. The gospel from an evangelical perspective provides the fixed meaning for life. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 22
Charlene Spretnak suggests that deconstruction is
the appropriate and necessary action for the responsible
individual. The responsible individual must “deconstruct”
objectified meaning in order to overcome the totalitarianism
of the cultural constructs.31 Without such dismantling, the
oppressive force of the metanarrative continues to
marginalize and subject humanity to violence through its
singular control of reality.32
Literary criticism has provided the framework for
postmodernism to flourish.33 From the postmodern outlook,
language is a cultural construction, and meaning is a social
construct. Signifiers may point to a particular object (the
signified), but that object is also a signifier of something
else.34 The result of these layers of signifiers is a mass
of meaning that must be taken apart, layer by layer.
31Charlene Spretnak, States of Grace: The Recovery of Meaning in a Postmodern Age (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991), 4.
32Jacques Derrida, Speech and Phenomena, trans. David Allison (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1972), 23-28.
33Gene Edward Veith, Jr., Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 1994), 51.
34Ferdinand de Saussure, “Course in General Linguistics,” in Deconstruction in Context: Literature and Philosophy, ed. Mark C. Taylor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 148-54. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 23
Postmodernism, therefore, is a “precommitment” to
the “arbitrariness of the linguistic sign” so that the
“signifier” becomes the focus of “orientation and value.”
Language is arbitrary and capricious, incapable of
disclosing meaning.35 The answer to this network of
artificial signs is deconstruction.
Baudrillard describes this project of postmodernism
as a “metamorphosis of the macro-structures into innumerable
particles which bear within them all the stigmata of the
networks and circuits –– each one forming its own micro-
network and micro-circuit.”36 Deconstruction dismisses the
intent of the author as irrelevant to interpretation. All
interpretations, therefore, “are equally valid or equally
meaningless (depending upon your point of view).”37
Deconstruction does not provide comfortable
solutions, but rather it embraces fragmentation.
Postmodernism seeks deconstruction without reconstruction.38
35Alister McGrath, “The Challenge of Pluralism for the Contemporary Christian Church,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 35 (September 1992): 364.
36Jean Baudrillard, The Illusion of the End, trans. Chris Turner (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), 107.
37McGrath, “Challenge of Pluralism,” 364.
38Thomas McCarthy, “On Margins of Politics,” Journal of Philosophy 86 (1989): 645-48. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 24
Edgar McKnight suggests that the deconstructionist observes
the “scene of textuality” from a distance and “refines all
writing into ‘free floating’ texts.”39 In essence, the
world itself becomes a decentered montage of free-flowing
thought without any “sacred canopy.”40
Pluralism
The result of deconstruction is pluralism in
postmodern thought. “[Philosophical pluralism is the
belief] that any notion that a particular ideological or
religious claim is intrinsically superior to another is
necessarily wrong. The only absolute creed is the creed of
pluralism. No religion has the right to pronounce itself
right or true, and the others false, or even (in the
majority view) relatively inferior.”41 In the words of
Richard Rorty, pluralism consists of “lots of cultural
options but no privileged central discipline or practice,”
leaving the individuals “unable to worship anything.”
39Edgar V. McKnight, “A Defense of a Postmodern Use of the Bible,” in A Confessing Theology for Postmodern Times, ed. Michael S. Horton (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2000), 86.
40Peter Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967), 22.
41D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 19. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 25
Society should not embrace one, singular object of worship
due to the plurality of options and disciplines. Rorty’s
pragmatic postmodernism encourages the individual to
“rejoice in a lot of different things.”42 Lesslie Newbigin
indicates that this brand of pluralism celebrates plurality
“as things to be approved and cherished.”43
For the postmodern this celebration and exaltation
of plurality leads to the acceptability of all truth-claims
as equally valid. Fredric Jameson notes that the historical
uniqueness of postmodernism is the “sheer heteronomy and
emergence of random and unrelated subsystems of all kinds”
which are unified in a theory of differentiation.44 Within
this unified theory, “no functional conception of a ruling
group, let alone, class, can be conceived.”45
Postmodernism replaces “master narratives” with
“heteronomous, random petit narratives.” None of these
local stories gain privilege over other local stories.
42Richard Rorty, Essays on Heidegger and Others: Philosophical Papers, Volume 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 132. Hereafter cited as Essays.
43Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1989), 1.
44Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991; reprint, 1999), 342-43.
45Ibid., 349. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 26
Rorty proposes that “there are many ways to talk about what
is going on, and that none of them gets closer to the way
things are in themselves than any other.”46
Preeminent Challenges for Evangelism
The prevailing themes of postmodernism present
specific challenges for the evangelization of postmodern
people.47 Yet, as McGrath notes, the future of Christianity
depends upon evangelism.48 C. E. Autrey defines evangelism
as “urging the lost to accept Christ as Saviour [sic].”49
Evangelism is the communication of the gospel to the
unconverted so that they might repent of their sin, trust
Jesus as their Savior, and surrender to Him as Lord in
service through the local community of faith. The
evangelization of postmodern people encounters three
preeminent challenges: the gospel as metanarrative,
epistemology, and hermeneutics.
46Richard Rorty, Truth and Progress: Philosophical Papers, Volume 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 1.
47Clark Pinnock, Tracking the Maze: Finding Our Way Through Modern Theology from an Evangelical Perspective (San Francisco: Harper, 1990), 2. He indicates that theological pluralism seeks to rewrite the “grammar” of the gospel.
48Alister McGrath, Evangelicalism and the Future of Christianity (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 160-63.
49C. E. Autrey, You Can Win Souls (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1961), 2. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 27
The Gospel as Metanarrative
Evangelism bases its truth-claims on the
metanarrative of Scripture.50 Robert Webber describes the
Christian metanarrative as “a rehearsal of the saving deeds
of God in history” which culminate in Jesus Christ.51 The
Christian metanarrative “is the story of the meaning of
history.”52 Such a totalizing statement about the gospel,
however, is unacceptable in the postmodern milieu.
The Pentecost sermon is metanarrative (Acts 2).
Here are the humanity of Jesus, God’s approval, Jesus’ power, man’s wickedness, God’s redemptive purpose, Jesus’ death and resurrection, and God’s judgment upon sin and death. Add to these God’s promise of Jesus’ ultimate victory at [H]is second advent (Acts 2:34-35), the lordship of Christ, and [H]is saviourhood (Acts 2:36). . . . This body of truth became the gospel of the early Christians and God honored it.53
God’s saving activity fulfilled in Jesus is the
metanarrative that tells the “true story of the world.”54
The gospel is the Christian metanarrative.
50J. Richard Middleton and Brian J. Walsh, Truth Is Stranger Than It Used to Be: Biblical Faith in a Postmodern Age (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1995), 83.
51Robert Webber, Ancient-Future Faith, 93.
52Ibid.
53Herschel Hobbs, New Testament Evangelism (Nashville: Broadman, 1960), 82.
54Middleton and Walsh, Truth Is Stranger Than It Used to Be, 83. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 28
The challenge for evangelism centers on presenting
the gospel as metanarrative without altering the expression
and content of the Christian faith to make the gospel
palatable to the postmodern deconstructionist.55 Evangelism
is the proclamation that Jesus Christ is the ontological and
epistemological basis for salvation and life. In postmodern
thought, the very essence of the gospel demands
deconstruction.56
The Challenge of Epistemology
With the dismantling of all metanarratives,
including the gospel, postmodernism presents the challenge
of epistemology in the evangelistic effort. Evangelization
of postmodern people depends upon the communication of the
gospel which propositionally corresponds to reality. As
Stanley Grenz suggests, the postmodern rejection of the
“reigning epistemological principle -- the correspondence
theory of truth . . . undermines Christian claims that our
doctrinal formulations state objective truth.”57
55Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 151-52, 154.
56William J. Larkin, Culture and Biblical Hermeneutics: Interpreting and Applying the Authoritative Word in a Relativistic Age (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1988), 233-37.
57Stanley Grenz, Primer on Postmodernism, 163. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 29
Epistemology is the study of the “process of
knowing.”58 Rorty states that epistemology is a discipline
seeking to discover “the nature, origin, and limits of human
knowledge.”59 The rejection of foundations and project of
deconstruction in postmodernism, however, create a problem
in epistemology. When no ultimate origin for the foundation
of meaning exists, the question arises, “How can I know?”60
For Rorty, the answer to this question is to “get
beyond” epistemology.61 Rorty suggests that the
epistemological quest results in the ineffable, by which the
“recontextualization of signs” unceasingly alters meaning.62
A systematic theory of meaning in postmodernism, therefore,
does not exist. The “supposed” foundations of knowledge are
merely the “product of the choice of perceptual metaphors”
rather than a presentation of corresponding reality.63
58Francis Schaeffer, “He Is There and He Is not Silent –– Part III: Man’s Epistemological Problem,” Bibliotheca Sacra 128 (October 1971): 300-315, especially, 300.
59Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 140.
60Merold Westphal, “Levinas and the Immediacy of Face,” Faith and Philosophy 10 (October 1993): 491-92.
61Rorty, Truth and Progress, 95.
62See, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico- Philosophicus, trans. D. F. Pears and B. F. McGuiness (London: Routlege, 1961), §6.52-§6.522.
63Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 159. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 30
Rorty approvingly cites Heidegger’s idea that objectivity in
epistemology emerges from the description of things “before
us” which is personal perception rather than the
representation of reality.64 Rorty, therefore, proposes to
replace epistemology with the justification of meaning
through the social context.65
The abandonment of epistemology presents a problem
for the evangelization of postmodern people. Evangelism
consists of a “biblical doctrine of epistemology.”66 The
Holy Spirit leads the individual to the acquisition of truth
and meaning (John 16:8-13). With the removal of
epistemology, the work of the Holy Spirit and the gospel
becomes simply another metaphor of perception rather than a
true description of reality in postmodernism.
The Challenge of Hermeneutics
Although originally a theological discipline,
hermeneutics has broadened to include a variety of study.
64Martin Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. Ralph Manheim (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959), 185.
65Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 209- 212. Rorty takes this challenge up in chapter 5, entitled, “From Epistemology to Hermeneutics.”
66Millard J. Erickson, Evangelical Interpretation: Perspectives on Hermeneutical Issues (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1993), 51-52. The gospel witness seeks to open the avenue for the acquisition of truth by the postmodern. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 31
Hermeneutics is a set of principles which is utilized “to
understand what something means, to comprehend what a
message -- written, oral, or visual -- is endeavoring to
communicate.”67 Currently, hermeneutics exists as a
philosophical as well as theological discipline.68
Deconstruction presents a philosophical and
theological movement in hermeneutics. Mark Taylor’s “death
of God”69 and Roland Barthes’ “countertheological refusal of
God”70 represent theological and philosophical proposals.
While Carl Rashke suggests that “deconstruction is the death
of God put in writing,”71 Stephen Moore contends that
Derrida and his brand of deconstruction exists in a “muted
dialogue with theology,” and he suggests that deconstruction
is not “utterly inimical to theological concerns.”72
67Klein, et al., Biblical Interpretation, 4.
68Bernard Ramm, “Biblical Interpretation,” in Hermeneutics by Bernard Ramm et al. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1971), 8-11.
69Mark C. Taylor, Deconstructing Theology (Chico, CA: Scholar’s Press, 1982), 90.
70Roland Barthes, The Rustle of Language, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986), 54.
71Carl A. Raschke, “The Deconstruction of God,” in Deconstruction and Theology, eds. Thomas A. Altizer, et al. (New York: Crossroad, 1982), 3.
72Stephen Moore, Poststructuralism and the New Testament: Derrida and Foucault at the Foot of the Cross (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994), 7-8. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 32
Whether viewed from a negative or neutral view, postmodern
hermeneutics speaks to the theological endeavor of
evangelism.
Through deconstruction postmodernism dismisses the
author in the hermeneutical process. Derrida suggests that
the intent of the author does not lead to the ultimate
meaning, because “the possibility of its being repeated
another time –– breaches, divides, expropriates the ‘ideal’
plenitude or self-presence of intention.” This
“iterability” produces alternate meanings even while the
author speaks or writes with a particular meaning in mind.
The author’s intention is “contaminated” by the possibility
that what he says is “(already, always, also) other than”
the author’s intent.73
The dismissal of the foundations and the
disappearance of the author in postmodernism moves
“interpretation” from a truth claim emerging from a text to
a reference “to what the reader makes of the text.”74
Therefore, Rorty confidently suggests that hermeneutics is
the appropriate remedy for the absence of epistemology.
73Jacques Derrida, Limited Inc (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1988), 61-62.
74Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, The Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 38. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 33
Rorty posits that hermeneutics is “hope that the cultural
space left by the demise of epistemology will not be
filled.”75
Postmodern hermeneutics does not begin with meaning
prior to interpretation. Even authorial intent does not
provide a prior meaning. Rather, postmodernism suggests
that “what one finds in a text depends on what aims,
categories, and perspectives one brings to it.”76 According
to Derrida, the “signified always already is in the position
of the signifier.”77 No “transcendental signified” exists.78
Meaning, therefore, becomes the creation of the reader.79
75Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 315.
76Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text, 49.
77Derrida, Of Grammatology, 73.
78Ibid., 6-7.
79Moore, Poststructuralism, 50, 56. Moore’s analysis is instructive. Moore seeks to “capsize the hierarchical opposition that established the parameters of the dialogue between Jesus and the Samaritan woman.” He wants to demonstrate that the woman of Sychar is the “more enlightened partner in the dialogue.” He traces the imagery of water in John’s Gospel, ultimately demonstrating that “Jesus’ physical thirst [19:28], therefore, is the necessary precondition for the proleptic yielding up of that which is intended to satiate the spiritual thirst of the believer, namely, the Holy Spirit.” Moore contends that “the hierarchical opposition established at the well is inverted at the cross, the ostensibly superior, pleromatic term (living water, Spirit) being shown to depend for its effective existence on the inferior, insufficient term (literal well water), contrary to everything that the Gospel has led us to expect.” Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 34
Todd Hahn and David Verhaagen have studied the
influence of postmodernism in the Christian culture. They
have found that the influence of postmodern hermeneutics has
hampered the evangelistic effort of the church.
The impact of relativism has wormed its way into the church. Take a look at our Bible studies. Many interpretations of the same passage are allowed and accepted as equally valid. Everyone’s opinion is considered equally viable. Respecting the ideas of others has been given precedence over a search for the actual intention of the author. In fact the unrealized assumption is that one’s sincere ideas are synonymous with truth.80
Postmodern hermeneutics leads to a indefinite number of
equally valid interpretations of a particular text. As
Robert Yarborough correctly concludes, “A contemporary
commitment to hermeneutical pluralism, if not anarchy, is
demanded by postmodern experience, with a primary casualty
being God’s Scriptural witness to [H]is unified, redemptive
and knowable presence in the world.”81
Rorty trades epistemology for “conversation.”82
Conversation unfolds sentences, bringing about a relative,
conceptual truth in the context of a particular community.83
80Hahn and Verhaagen, Reckless Hope, 39.
81Robert W. Yarbrough, “Variation on a Theme: History’s Nth Great Hermeneutical Crisis,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 39 (Sept 1996): 447.
82Rorty, Philosophy and Mirror of Nature, 392-94.
83Ibid., 226-29. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 35
The outcome of this conversation is the positive goal of
“unforced agreement with tolerant disagreement.”84
Such conversation, although commendable in its
desire for “unforced agreement” and “tolerant disagreement,”
begins with the premise of a truth that is relative to the
community in which one exists, and this premise is untenable
in evangelism. Evangelism proclaims that the gospel is
absolute truth for all of humanity.85
Possible Opportunities for Evangelism
The postmodern condition also presents possible
opportunities for the evangelistic task. Albert Mohler Jr.
indicates that “postmodernism may well represent a new
evangelistic moment.”86 The following postmodern confession
elucidates the situation for evangelism: “I have no beliefs.
I belong to no community, tradition, or anything like that.
I’m lost in this vast, vast world. I belong nowhere.”87
84Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, Truth, 17.
85P. T. O’Brien, Gospel and Mission in the Writings of Paul: An Exegetical and Theological Analysis (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995), 70-75.
86Albert Mohler Jr., “Evangelical Tradition,” in The Challenge of Postmodernism: An Evangelical Engagement, ed. David S. Dockery (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995), 84.
87Walter Truett Anderson, Reality Isn’t What It Used to Be: Theatrical Politics, Ready-to-Wear Religion, Global Myths, Primitive Chic, and Other Wonders of the Postmodern World (San Francisco: Harper, 1990), 51. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 36
This interview demonstrates that the yearning of the
individual caught in the morass of a deconstructed life may
provide opportunities for evangelism.
Search for a Better Story
Postmodern people are in search of better stories
for personal existence.88 They desire connections with
stories that will bring fulfillment to their lives. Derrida
concedes this postmodern yearning when he pronounces the
possibility of “nostalgia” over what is lost in his project
of différance. Derrida calls for “laughter and dance”
instead of nostalgia, because the “quest for the proper word
and the unique name” continues.89 It is this quest that
provides opportunity for the gospel in the evangelization of
postmodern people.
The only legitimate story in postmodern thought is
the localized narrative.90 The local story, according to
Alasdair MacIntyre, provides one interpretation of life.91
88Ibid., 181-83.
89Jacques Derrida, “Différance,” in Deconstruction in Context: Literature and Philosophy, ed. Mark C. Taylor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 419-20.
90Linda Hutcheon, The Politics of Postmodernism (London: Routledge, 1989), 24.
91Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 2nd ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984), 211-216. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 37
Postmodern people see their local stories as only one of
innumerable, equally true stories.
The buffet of localized narratives rests upon the
table of the postmodern metanarrative.92 The postmodern
individual faces the choices of a smorgasbord of narratives
to provide significance and meaning to life. This
represents the Derridean “laughter and dance.” The quest
for the ultimate signifier and the most beneficial story
remains ever before the postmodern individual. Postmodern
people are searching for the story that will satisfy the
appetite of their souls.
Although postmodernism rejects the gospel as
metanarrative, it must respect it as a local narrative. It
has no place of privilege at the postmodern table, but it
continues to be served. What then is the advantage? Grenz
offers this description of opportunity: “At the heart of
being a Christian is a personal encounter with God in
Christ. . . . It is in this context of making sense out of
life by means of recounting the story of a transformative
religious experience that doctrinal propositions find their
importance.”93 Postmodern people search for such a story.
92This has been shown by Stephen Best and Douglas Kellner, Postmodern Theory: Critical Interrogations (New York: Guilford, 1991), 171-79.
93Grenz, A Primer on Postmodernism, 170. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 38
The postmodern quest for a better story offers an
opportunity to share the gospel. Through the telling of the
gospel, the power of God takes hold of people, leading them
toward salvation (Rom 1:16). The evangelistic witness
presents postmodern people with a choice of a better story
for their lives. When they encounter the gospel of Jesus
Christ, they determine whether the story of Christ provides
a better story for their personal experience. As Leighton
Ford indicates, they choose “either to reject the Story of
God or to merge [their] story with His Story.”94
Search for Connection
The outcome of postmodernism is a “decentered
self.” The postmodern individual is “free-falling” amidst
the chaotic waters of plurality.95 The concept of truth
that is non-representational and communal has created a
society of individuals who are disconnected and fragmented.
The postmodern person searches for connections which will
offer stability in life.96 Berger’s description of the
postmodern people in the flux of disorientation represents
the search for a community that provides meaning in life.
94Leighton Ford, The Power of Story (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1994), 10.
95Baudrillard, Illusion of the End, 106-107.
96Long, Generating Hope, 136-38. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 39
In the postmodern world, “reality and identity are
malignantly transformed into meaningless figures of horror.
To be in a society is to be ‘sane’ precisely in the sense of
being shielded from the ultimate ‘insanity’ of anomic
terror. Anomy is unbearable to the point where the
individual may seek death in preference to it.”97
Grenz insightfully indicates that postmodern people
are suspicious of verbal presentations of the gospel, but
they are attracted to a community of believers in which the
gospel is incarnated among the relationships. This
community is characterized by “wholesome, authentic, and
healing relationships.”98 R. Daniel Shaw also connects the
postmodern desire for community with the evangelistic
mission of the church. The community of believers may offer
a place of connection between the postmodern reality of this
world and God’s reality found in the gospel of Jesus Christ.
The community of faith connects with postmodern people at
the point of need.99 The postmodern search for connection
provides a possible opportunity for the evangelization of
postmodern people.
97Berger, The Sacred Canopy, 22. “Anomy” is the loss of any secure sense of meaningful order to the world.
98Grenz, Primer on Postmodernism, 169.
99R. Daniel Shaw, “In Search of Post-modern Salvation,” Evangelical Review of Theology 22 (1998): 57-59. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 40
Search for a Better Life
The postmodern project is a search for a better
life. Zygmunt Bauman suggests that postmodern people seek
life freed from the oppressive forces of modernity.100 The
entire project of postmodernism seeks to divest individuals
from the nightmare of the world in which they live and which
the Enlightenment principles created. This nightmare
includes the horrors of victimization, totalization,
oppression, and injustice.101 These descriptions indicate
that postmodern people want a better life.
The postmodern generation notes the inadequacies of
the world.102 Tom Beaudoin suggests that the postmodern
generation is “suffering” under the threat of nuclear
holocaust, AIDS, and the national debt. Their “suffering”
leads them to a “spiritual crisis of meaning.”103
100Zygmunt Bauman, “What Prospects of Morality in Times of Uncertainty?” Theory, Culture, and Society 15 (February 1998): 11-18.
101Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980), 55-58.
102Richard Lints, The Fabric of Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 216.
103Tom Beaudoin, Virtual Faith: The Irreverent Spiritual Quest of Generation X (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998), 96-97. Beaudoin takes suffering as a possible avenue for connection with the gospel message, but also warns against trivialization of suffering. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 41
Ultimately, they seek liberty from the multitude of
diversities which overwhelm them.104
The postmodern inability to access the absolute is
the “pleasure of pain,” according to Lyotard.105 The painful
pleasure of fragmented life, however, is not enough to
satisfy the quest of the postmodern person. This fragmented
life that they experience in their “hermeneutics of
suspicion” creates a need to discover “becomings of self” in
the midst of deconstruction. Winquist suggests that this
reconstruction is found ultimately through a “meaningful
community” of love.106
The possible opportunity for evangelism is found in
this quest for a better life in a community of love.
Suffering is the common language of all generations.107
According to Fiorenza, “Suffering brings us to the bedrock
of human existence.”108 The reality of suffering presents
common ground for the witness and the postmodern person.
104Ibid., 120.
105Lyotard, The Inhuman, 126-27.
106Charles Winquist, Desiring Theology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 142-43, 149-50.
107Beaudoin, 120.
108F. S. Fiorenza, “The Crisis of Hermeneutics and Christian Theology,” in Theology at the End of Modernity, ed. S. G. Davaney (Philadelphia: Trinity Press, 1991), 135. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 42
This misery is precisely how “God is preparing people in the
world to respond to the gospel.”109 The reality of suffering
makes the gospel accessible to a postmodern person.
An Apostolic Approach to the Postmodern Challenge
Jürgen Moltmann wrote: “The apostolic church is the
missionary church.”110 As noted in the introduction, an
“apostolic approach” refers to the examples, directions, and
procedures of the New Testament (NT) church recorded
especially in Acts and the Pauline epistles. An apostolic
approach utilizes the work and ministry of the apostolic
church as the paradigm for the evangelization of postmodern
people today.
The evangelical community offers various biblical
paradigms related to the postmodern challenge.111 Millard
Erickson evaluates the primary approaches to postmodernism
within evangelical circles. He identifies four approaches.
The first approach endeavors to “alter the
expression and even the content of the Christian faith.”112
109Long, Generating Hope, 75.
110Jürgen Moltmann, The Church in the Power of the Spirit (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1977), 360.
111Paul Lakeland, Postmodernity: Christian Identity in a Fragmented Age (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997), 42-43.
112Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 152. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 43
The church must in some way adjust the gospel to the
postmodern objections to truth as objective, referential,
and corresponding to reality. The gospel as metanarrative
must also be adjusted in expression according to this
approach. Jimmy Long describes this approach as the
“assimilating church,” which adopts “some of culture’s
characteristics” in order to become relevant to that
culture.113 Leonard Sweet espouses this approach to some
extent when he suggests that the church embrace postmodern
hermeneutics.114 Erickson charges Middleton and Walsh with
this approach “by the way in which they recast the method of
utilizing Scripture.”115
The second approach seeks to alter the “method and
means” of gospel witness. Erickson suggests that movement
to a narrative presentation of the gospel serves as one
example of this approach.116 Todd Hahn and David Verhaagen
indicate that this type of alteration is good and necessary.
113Long, Generating Hope, 19-22. Long modifies the five models of H. Richard Niebuhr’s Christ and Culture (New York: Harper and Row, 1956).
114Leonard Sweet, Post-Modern Pilgrims: First Century Passion for the 21st Century World (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2000), 143-47.
115Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 123-25, 152. See also, Middleton and Walsh, Truth Is Stranger Than It Used to Be, 172-85.
116Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 152. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 44
The narrative method speaks “to the specific and unique
needs of this generation.”117 The proponents of an
alteration of method or means seek to communicate and relate
intimately to postmodern people.118
The third approach consists of no adjustment,
either in expression or method.119 Long identifies this
approach with the “unchanging church” which ignores culture.
These proponents seek to maintain their traditions by
“rising above culture.” For Long, this approach is
indicative of churches which elevate traditionalism above
biblicism.120 The “kerygmatic” proponents of this approach,
however, contend that adjustment in expression or method is
not necessary. They suggest that the power of the gospel,
illumined by the Holy Spirit, is capable of reaching
postmodern people.121
117Hahn and Verhaagen, Reckless Hope, 58-59.
118Sweet, Post-Modern Pilgrims, 141-42.
119Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 152-53.
120Long, Generating Hope, 26-27. Long highlights correctly the need to remain radically biblical but not necessarily traditional. This means that the paradigm of Scripture informs the evangelistic witness, but the tradition of the church is not necessarily synonymous with the Scriptural paradigm.
121David Wells, No Place for Truth: Or Whatever Happened to Evangelical Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 102-104. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 45
The fourth approach involves dismantling the
premises of postmodernism.122 Proponents of this approach
contend that postmodern people can be reached through a
demonstration of the “impossibility of living” in the
postmodern way.123 Veith represents this approach when he
evaluates postmodernism as “passive, cynical, and
insecure.”124 The church which engages the deficiencies of
postmodernism demonstrates to postmodern people the “end-
result” of a postmodern life. It stresses the
contradictions of postmodernism so that the postmodern will
see eventually the impossibility of living a meaningful
postmodern life.125
An apostolic approach offers several advantages to
the current proposals. The first advantage of an apostolic
approach is fidelity to Scripture as the principal guide in
faith and practice. An apostolic approach offers a paradigm
for evangelism in light of an exegetical analysis of the NT
church. Evangelization flows out of the commendation of
Scripture rather than out of an accommodation to culture.
122Long, Generating Hope, 27-31; Hahn and Verhaagen, Reckless Hope, 51-53.
123Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 153-54.
124Veith, Postmodern Times, 83.
125David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 113-14, 117. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 46
In other words, the methodology begins with Scripture rather
than with postmodernism.126 Scripture is the guiding
principle of faith and practice.
The second advantage of an apostolic approach is
effectiveness.127 An apostolic approach seeks to implement
the principles of the apostolic church, which effectively
evangelized a relativistic, pluralistic culture. The
apostolic church “sought ‘redemptive analogies’ in its
presentation of the gospel. . . . Yet at the same time the
Church refused to compromise the content of her message.”128
In the same manner, the contemporary church must apply the
principles of the apostolic church to communicate the gospel
without compromising the content of the message.
The third advantage is the community-emphasis in an
apostolic approach. From its inception, the apostolic
church maintained and emphasized community (Acts 2:41-47).
The postmodern culture desires community, and the church can
provide the specific answer to this yearning for connection.
126Alister McGrath, “The Christian Church’s Response to Pluralism,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 35 (December 1992): 500.
127Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970; reprint, Guildford, Surrey: Eagle, 1995), x-xi.
128Grant Osborne, “Preaching the Gospels: Methodology and Contextualization,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27 (March 1984): 33. Eric J. Thomas, Ph. D. Senior Pastor
First Baptist Church Norfolk, Virginia 47
As Grenz points out, the church is the “pioneer community”
of individuals who “live out in the present the glorious
community for which God created us.”129 An apostolic
approach presents the evangelistic ministry of the NT church
as the starting-point for the evangelization of postmodern
people.
The following chapter deals with the role of the
Holy Spirit in the evangelistic approach of the apostolic
church. The coming of the Spirit at Pentecost (Acts 2)
finds deeper significance through an examination of the
promise of Joel’s prophecy (Joel 2:28-32) and the promise of
Christ concerning the Spirit of truth in John’s Gospel.
This writer will seek to show the implications of Pentecost
and the Spirit’s work in the evangelization of the ancient
world and in the evangelization of the postmodern world.
129Stanley Grenz, Created for Community: Connecting Christian Belief with Christian Living (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1996; reprint, 1998), 207. CHAPTER TWO
PENTECOST, THE HOLY SPIRIT, AND EVANGELISM
Christ provides the specific instructions concerning the role of the church in the world. Jesus declared, ajlla; lhvmyesqe dunvamin ejpelqovnto~ tou` aJgivou pneuvmato~ ejf j uJma`~ kai; e[sesqev mou mavrture~ e[n te jIerousalh;m kai; pavsh/ th`/ jIoudaiva; kai; Samareiva/ kai; e{w~ ejskavtou th`~ gh`~.1
The biblical record of the apostolic church reveals
the worldview by which it evangelized the ancient world.
This worldview stands in contrast to the postmodern mind-set
in several ways. First, with its premise of anti-
foundationalism, postmodernism rejects any “interpretation
of the particular historical purposes of groups and
individuals” through “objective, transhistorical truths.”2
The apostolic church in Acts believed that God purposed
1“But you shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you and you will be My witnesses in Jerusalem and all Judea and Samaria and to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8). The Greek text comes from, The Greek New Testament, eds. K. Aland, M. Black, et al., 3rd ed. (Stuttgart: United Bible Societies, 1983). All translations are the author’s unless otherwise noted.
2See previous chapter, footnote 6.
48 49
everything in history to culminate in the Christ-event.
This divine purpose continues through the work of the Spirit
in the church. According to J. C. O’Neill, “the success of
Christianity, despite all the set-backs it encountered, was
used to support its claim to be the only true religion.”3
Schlatter further suggests that the apostolic church
possessed the conviction that Christ directed the community
“from within and from without,” so that He is the supreme
interpretation of history and the future.4 In other words,
an apostolic approach promotes the conviction that the
Christian way is true because it corresponds to the external
reality of God’s redemptive activity in history.
Second, postmodernism’s exaltation of “communal
truth” dismisses any proposal of absolute, universal truth.
Accordingly, any claim to truth is the creation of the
social group and context. The apostolic church, however,
construed truth as the external product of God’s mind
communicated to humanity by God’s Spirit. Insightfully,
John Frame proposes that “communal truth” demands omniscient
justification in the social context, so that all potential
3J. C. O’Neill, The Theology of Acts in Its Historical Setting, 2d ed. (London: SPCK, 1970), 177-78.
4Adolf Schlatter, The Theology of the Apostles: The Development of New Testament Theology, trans. A. J. Köstenberger (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 28-31, 361. 50
objections to any particular truth-claim may be refuted.
If, however, God were a member of this social group, then
His omniscience would provide the necessary justification
for “objective knowledge.”5 With the coming of the Spirit at Pentecost, the Spirit of truth provides the necessary justification of “objective knowledge” and universal truth in an apostolic approach (John 16:13).
Third, postmodernism’s “precommitment” to deconstruction dismisses the possibility of certainty in meaning. The apostolic church, however, found meaning in the Spirit’s illumination of Christ’s doctrine through the apostles and Scripture.6 The apostolic church believed that
the Spirit indwells and instructs believers within the
community, so that they discover the intention of the God of
revelation.
Finally, with its preeminence of pluralism,
postmodernism disdains any proposal of an ultimate “master
narrative.” The apostolic church, however, believed that
the gospel is the “master narrative” which presents the only
true pathway to life. Peter’s statement to the Sanhedrin in
5John Frame, “Christianity and Contemporary Epistemology,” Westminster Journal of Theology 52 (Spring 1990): 136.
6Everett F. Harrison, The Apostolic Church (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), 113. 51
Acts 4:12 depicts this conviction in the apostolic church.
In answer to the Sanhedrin, Peter declares: kai; oujk e[stin ejn
a[llw/ oujdeni; hJ swthriva, oujde; ga;r o[noma; ejstin e{teron uJpo; to;n oujrano;n to;
dedomevnon ejn ajnqrwvpoi~ ejn w|/ dei` swqh`nai hJma`~.7 As C. E. Autrey
indicates, this statement declares that Christianity cannot
“peacefully coexist” with a plurality of religious options,
for “Christ and not man was the Messiah.”8
This conviction stands in contrast to the
postmodern proposal. Unlike Gordon Kaufmann, an apostolic
approach does not suggest that the Christian faith is only
one among many worldviews imaginatively constructed in the
“search for orientation in life.”9 Neither does the
community construe the communication of the gospel as the
articulation of “one particular perspective on life among
others.”10 An apostolic approach presents the gospel as the
only “universal salvific truth.”11
7“And there is no salvation in another, for there is no other name under heaven which has been given in humanity by which we must be saved.”
8C. E. Autrey, Evangelism in the Acts (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1964), 78.
9Gordon Kaufmann, “Religious Diversity, Historical Consciousness, and Christian Theology,” Journal of Religion 68 (October 1988): 9.
10Ibid.
11Schubert M. Ogden, “Problems in the Case for a Pluralistic Theology of Religions,” Journal of Religion 68 52
As the apostolic church set out to evangelize the world, these biblical convictions became prominent. The following discussion will seek to indicate how God alleviates the barrier of competing worldviews and opens the door for evangelization of postmodern people.
Pentecost and the Spirit of Truth, Acts 2:1-13
Pentecost is the starting-point for a discussion of
an apostolic approach to evangelize postmodern people.
Pentecost is an historical and theological hinge for the
role of the Spirit and evangelism.12 The fulfillment of
Joel’s prophecy (Joel 2:28-32) and Christ’s promise of the
Paraclete (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26-27; 16:7-15) demonstrate
the historical significance and theological implications of
the Spirit in the evangelization of postmodern people.13
Fulfillment of the Visionary Gift, Joel 2:28-32
The coming of the Spirit at Pentecost presents the
(October 1988): 498.
12James D. G. Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit: A Study of the Religious and Charismatic Experience of Jesus and the First Christians as Reflected in the New Testament (London: SCM Press, 1975; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 135.
13Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit, 135. 53
historical hinge for the inauguration of a new age.14
Peter’s sermon at Pentecost acknowledges the coming of the
Spirit as the inauguration of Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:16-21;
Joel 2:28-32) in which the Spirit provides the duvnami~ promised by Christ for evangelization.15
The prophecy of Joel demonstrates the power of the
“visionary gift” through the outpouring of the Holy Spirit.
This “visionary gift” is the abiding presence of God with
His people through His Spirit. Calvin surmises that the
prophecy of Joel 2:28-3216 promises “something greater than
what the fathers under the Law experienced,” for God “did
not pour out His Spirit so abundantly and so largely under
the Law, as after the manifestation of Christ.”17
Through Joel, God said, rc;B;AlK;Al[' yjiWrAta, JwPov]a, keAyrej}a' hy:h;w.18
This prophecy depicts a future when God will establish His
14Merrill Unger, “The Significance of Pentecost,” Bibliotheca Sacra 122 (April 1965): 175.
15See the discussion on the relationship between duvnami~ and ejxousiva below on pages 84-87.
16Joel 3:1-5 in the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, eds. A. Alt, O. Eissfeldt, et al. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1966-1977). Hereafter cited, BHS.
17John Calvin, A Commentary on the Prophet Joel, trans. J. Owen (London: Banner of Truth, 1958), 81.
18“And it shall come to pass after so I will pour out My Spirit upon all flesh” (Joel 2:28, 3:1 BHS). 54 presence through the outpouring of His Spirit.19 Peter affirms the prophecy’s fulfillment at Pentecost (Acts 2:16).
When God pours out His Spirit (jWr), He pours Himself upon whom He chooses to accomplish the work He desires,20 so that
the intention of God is “the personal experience of every
member of the religious community.”21
Joel indicates the essence of the “visionary gift”
through three terms: abn (to prophesy), .lj (to dream), and har (to see). Keil suggests that abn is the general designation of the prophetic gift, and that visions and dreams are two forms of prophetic revelation.22 When God
pours out His Spirit, He will reveal Himself and His word to
His people, and they will proclaim it to the world.
At Pentecost, all of Christ’s followers receive the
19Duane A. Garrett, Hosea, Joel, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1997), 368-69.
20H. W. Wolff, Joel and Amos: A Commentary on the Books of the Prophets Joel and Amos, trans. W. Janzen, S. D. McBride Jr., and C. A. Muenchow, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977), 66.
21Leslie C. Allen, The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), 99.
22C. F. Keil, Minor Prophets: Two Volumes in One, trans. James Martin, vol. 10, Commentary on the Old Testament in Ten Volumes, by C. F. Keil and Franz Delitzsch (reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973), 1:211. 55
“visionary gift” and become a “nation of prophets.”23 It is an historical turning-point in God’s redemptive purposes.24
The Spirit fills (ejplhvsqhsan) the followers of Christ to
“make them missionaries and proclaimers of the good news.”25
The Old Testament (OT) prophets present one paradigm for the “visionary gift.” One aspect of this paradigm is that God clothes the prophet with His Spirit.
Schniedewind suggests that God clothes the prophet with His
Spirit, so that the person receives and delivers His word with the people to whom he is sent.26 Having received this
“visionary gift” of God through revelation, the prophet
discloses to humanity “what otherwise would remain
concealed.”27 Von Rad suggests that the prophet “completely
submerges his own ego” and speaks “as if he were his master
23H. W. Wolff, Joel and Amos, 66.
24Boyd Hunt, Redeemed! Eschatological Redemption in the Kingdom of God (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1993), 14, 30.
25David. S. Dockery, “The Theology of Acts,” Criswell Theological Review 5 (1990): 47.
26William M. Schniedewind, The Word of God in Transition: From Prophet to Exegete in the Second Temple Period, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement 197 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 55-57.
27Abraham Heschel, The Prophets, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1962; reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000), 2:216. 56
himself speaking.”28 Thus, the outpouring of the Spirit
empowers the prophet to engage culture as a living, speaking
embodiment of God’s word.
Fretheim suggests that Christ is the “culmination”
of the “visionary gift.”29 Jesus fully reveals divine
truth, proclaims the way of forgiveness, and calls for
decision as prophet.30 His ministry as prophet extends to
His followers. Thus, Pentecost marks the continuation of the “visionary gift” by which God’s people fulfill the function of prophet with Christ.
Pentecost signifies a new relationship between God and humanity.31 Although Joel most likely envisions rc;B;AlK;
solely as Israel,32 Pentecost (Acts 2) and the outpouring of
28Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, vol. 2, The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Tradition, trans. D. M. G. Stalker (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 37.
29Terence Fretheim, The Suffering of God: An Old Testament Perspective (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 166.
30Thomas C. Oden, The Word of Life: Systematic Theology, Volume Two (Peabody, MA: Prince Press, 1998), 286.
31David Allan Hubbard, Joel and Amos (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1989), 69.
32For rc;B;AlK; as a reference only to Israel, see T. J. Finley, Joel, Amos, Obadiah (Chicago: Moody, 1990), 71-72. For arguments that rc;B;AlK; includes Gentiles, see, Walter Kaiser Jr., “The Promise of God and the Outpouring of the Holy Spirit: Joel 2:28-32 and Acts 2:16-21,” in The Living and Active Word of God: Essays in Honor of Samuel Schultz, eds. Morris Inch and Ronald Youngblood (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 119. 57 the Spirit upon the Gentiles (Acts 10:43-45) recasts rc;B;AlK;
to include pavnta to;n pisteuvonta eij~ aujtovn (Acts 10:43).33
Everyone who believes in Jesus will receive forgiveness of
sin and “will stand in a relationship of immediacy to God”
through the outpouring of the Holy Spirit.34
Pentecost’s events in Acts 2 provide a framework
for the fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy. Indeed, “the whole
historical context in which it [Pentecost] takes place shows
that it was the outgrowth and development of God’s past
dealings with Israel.”35
Pentecost was the culminating act in an agelong process of redemptive activity, the final step in the descent of the divine into human. Jesus as an external Presence now became enthroned Sovereign in the hearts of His people. A new era of the Kingdom had begun in Spirit- endued witnesses. The Gospel had become life and power within them. At last they were ready to go forth as laborers in the harvest of the Lord.36
The followers of Christ continue His ministry in the
33I. H. Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles, Tyndale New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980; reprint, 1999), 193. Marshall proposes that this phrase, “everyone who believes in Him,” probably intends a wider meaning than Israel.
34Wolff, Joel and Amos, 67.
35W. T. Connor, The Work of the Holy Spirit: A Treatment of the Biblical Doctrine of the Divine Spirit (Nashville: Broadman, 1940), 60.
36Robert Coleman, The Master Plan of Discipleship (Grand Rapids: Fleming H. Revell, 1987), 124. 58
world.37 They reveal God’s truth, proclaim His redemptive
work, and call the world to accept His salvation.
Likewise, Pentecost elucidates contemporary
application for apostolic evangelism with postmodern people.
An apostolic approach depends upon the duvnami~ promised by
Christ (Acts 1:8), inaugurated at Pentecost (Acts 2), and
continued today through the presence of the Spirit.
Christ’s followers continue in the postmodern milieu as a
“nation of prophets” possessed by God’s Spirit to accomplish
His redemptive mission in the postmodern world.
Selected Paraclete Passages in John’s Gospel
An examination of the Paraclete passages in John’s
Gospel provides a theological foundation for engaging
individuals in the postmodern milieu.38 These passages
demonstrate that Christ’s redemptive mission “is continued
through the Paraclete and the disciples.”39
Much of the literature on these passages focuses
37C. E. Autrey, The Theology of Evangelism (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1966), 36-37.
38John 14:15-17, 25-26; 15:26-27; 16:7-11, 12-15.
39Calvin Mercer, “Jesus the Apostle: ‘Sending’ and the Theology of John,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 35 (December 1992): 462. 59 upon the various interpretations of the term, paravklhto~.40
Jesus identifies the Paraclete as to; pneu`ma th`~ ajlhqeiva~ (John
14:17; 15:26; 16:13). The phrase indicates “the Spirit who communicates truth.”41
The concept of truth, hJ ajlhvqeia, needs further
examination. John’s use of ajlhvqeia is closely akin to the
Hebrew term tm,a. In a general sense, tm,a denotes that which
is solid, valid, or trustworthy.42 When used in connection
with God’s revelation, however, tm,a denotes that which
corresponds to fact or that which is not false.43 When the
OT prophets spoke, they communicated God’s truth to others.
In this communication, they spoke the word of God as tm,a
(Jer 23:29). Quell, therefore, suggests that one who
40“Eschatological comforter,” [J. G. Davies, “The Primary Meaning of paravklhto",” Journal of Theological Studies 4 (1953): 35–38]; the spirit of messianic proclamation [C. K. Barrett, The Gospel According to St. John, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1978), 461–63]; “sponsor” or “supporter” [K. Grayston, “The Meaning of PARAKLETOS,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 13 (1981): 67–82]. Brown suggests that transliteration is best since the term is so packed with significance [Raymond E. Brown, “The Paraclete in the Fourth Gospel,” New Testament Studies 13 (1967): 118–19].
41C. K. Barrett, Gospel According to St. John, 463.
42G. Quell, s.v. “ajlhvqeia,” in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 10 vols., ed. G. Kittel, trans. and ed. G. W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967; reprint, 1978), 1:232-33. Hereafter cited, TDNT.
43Ibid., 1:234-35. 60 communicates tm,a shares “the incontestable fact of truth, and exercises truth, just as truth is the foundation in
God’s own acts and words.”44 Dodd concurs that ajlhvqeia often
denotes the “eternal reality as revealed to men.”45
Therefore, truth is the divine reality disclosed by God to
humanity.46 The Spirit is the “mediator of divine
revelation.”47 This stands in direct contrast to the
postmodern premise that truth is inaccessible. The Holy
Spirit reveals truth, which corresponds to fact and eternal
reality.
Barrett indicates that John employs ajlhvqeia as “the
Christian revelation brought by and revealed in Jesus.”48
Indeed, in the context of chapter 14, ajlhvqeia in verse 17
calls to mind the self-appellation of Jesus in verse 6: ejgwv
eijmi hJ oJdo;~ kai; hJ ajlhvqeia kai; hJ zwhv (John 14:6).49 The Spirit of
truth unveils, not merely a concept of truth, but the person
44Quell, s. v. “ajlhvqeia,” TDNT, 1:235.
45C. H. Dodd, The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (Cambridge: University Press, 1953), 177. Dodd makes this contention in light of John’s specific use of the term in his Gospel.
46Dennis R. Lindsay, “What Is Truth? jAlhvqeia in the Gospel of John,” Restoration Quarterly 35 (1993): 129-45.
47Ibid., 142.
48C. K. Barrett, Gospel According to St. John, 167.
49“The way and the truth and the life.” 61 who is truth.50 As Kelly Monroe suggests, truth in
reference to divine revelation is “neither an abstract
concept nor a social construct,” but truth is Christ.51
This follows the proposal of Emil Brunner, who writes:
“Truth has come into being through Jesus Christ. This is the very core of the biblical message. Truth is something that happens, that God does. Jesus Christ not only reveals,
[but also] He at once fulfills and realizes the will of
God.”52 The Spirit makes divine reality accessible -- ultimately in the person of Jesus Christ.53
Furthermore, the Spirit of truth unveils the
significance of Christ’s teachings to His followers. In
verse 26 Jesus promises, oJ de; paravklhto~, to; pneu`ma to; a{gion, o}
pevmyei oJ path;r ejn tw`/ ojnovmativ mou, ejkei`no~ uJma`~ didavxei pavnta kai; uJpomnhvsei
uJma`~ pavnta a} ei\pon uJmi`n.54 The consideration of didavxei pavnta
50D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 500.
51Kelly Monroe, “Finding God at Harvard: Reaching the Post-Christian University,” in Telling the Truth: Evangelizing Postmoderns, ed. D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 298.
52Emil Brunner, Truth as Encounter (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1964), 154.
53B. H. Jackayya, “ALHQEIA in the Johannine Corpus,” Concordia Theological Monthly 41 (March 1970): 171- 75.
54“But the Paraclete, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in My name, that one will teach you all 62 presents a difficulty in interpretation. Some commentators, such as Dunn, conclude that the didavxei pavnta of 14:26 includes “new revelation,” albeit controlled by the original revelation of Christ.55 The Holy Spirit directs the minds of the followers of Christ to the doctrine taught by Jesus.
D. A. Carson, however, indicates that the Spirit of truth speaks directly to the disciples. Accordingly, the
Paraclete’s work is to help the disciples grasp the significance of Christ’s teaching following the resurrection.56 Carson, however, does allow for the
implication of illumination by the Spirit at work in
believers today.57
Stuhlmacher indicates, on the other hand, that “das
Johannesevangelium erklärt ausdrücklich, das Jesuszeugnis
der nachösterlichen Gemeinde sei vom Geist-Parakleten
bevollmächtigt und getragen (Joh 16,7ff.). Bei der
biblischen martyria handlet es sich also durchgängig um ein
Wortzeugnis in der Kraft des den Menschen zur Erkenntnis und
things and call to your mind all things which I have said to you” (John 14:26).
55Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit, 351-52.
56D. A. Carson, Gospel According to John, 505.
57Ibid., 541-42. 63
zur Verkündigung Gottes befähigenden hl. Geistes.”58
Stuhlmacher maintains the uniqueness of the inspiration of
Scripture through the Holy Spirit. The Spirit, also,
illumines the deposit of divine revelation to believers.
Through this ministry, the Spirit equips believers to
proclaim the gospel to others. Through the Spirit the
believers of Christ “bis heute die Stimme Gottes und seines
Christus vernimmt” through Scripture.59 Erickson also
indicates that the ministry of the Spirit of truth helps
“believers today to understand Scripture.”60 The role of
the Paraclete as the Spirit of truth is to teach and to
remind disciples of the revelation of God through the life
and ministry of Jesus Christ so that they might share the
gospel of Christ with the conviction that it is absolute
truth.
The Paraclete aids followers of Christ for the
58Peter Stuhlmacher, Vom Verstehen des Neuen Testaments: Eine Hermeneutik (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1986), 53. “The Gospel of John emphatically declares that the testimony of Jesus of the post-Easter community was empowered and born by the Spirit-Paraclete (John 16:7ff.). With the biblical martyria it is generally a question of a word-testimony which equips humanity for the knowledge and proclamation of God in the power of the Holy Spirit.”
59Ibid., 222. Through the Spirit believers of Christ “today hear the voice of God and His Christ.”
60Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 890. 64
evangelization of the postmodern world. The Spirit
illumines the followers of Christ today so that they might
bear witness to the gospel in their world with conviction.61
Rather than promoting personal opinion, the Spirit invests believers with the conviction that the gospel is truth.
The theme of the Spirit of truth in John 15:26-27 elucidates the Paraclete’s role in the conviction of truth.
The Spirit of truth works in the world as witness to Jesus
(marturhvsei peri; ejmou`). In this passage Jesus declares, {Otan e[lqh/ oJ paravklhto~ o}n ejgw; pevmyw uJmi`n para; tou` patrov~, to; pneu`ma th`~ ajlhqeiva~ o} para; tou` patro;~ ejkporeuvetai, ejkei`no~ marturhvsei peri; ejmou: kai; uJmei`~ de; marturei`te, o{ti ajp j ajrxh`~ met j ejmou` ejste.62
The verb marturevw describes both the sense of
“witness to ascertainable facts” and “the making known and
confessing convictions.”63 The role of the Spirit is to
make known the facts concerning Jesus Christ. Allison A.
Trites indicates that the witness-motif presents an
historical apologetic concerning the miracles and
61Todd Hahn and David Verhaagen, Reckless Hope: Understanding and Reaching Baby Busters (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996), 39.
62“Whenever the Paraclete whom I send to you from the Father may come, the Spirit of truth who comes from the Father, that one will testify concerning Me; and you testify, because you are with Me from the beginning” (John 15:26-27).
63H. Strathmann, s.v. “mavrtu~ ktl,” TDNT, 4:497-99. 65 resurrection of Jesus for a lost world.64 Indeed, the
apostolic approach for the evangelization of the ancient
world centers upon the concept of witness.65 Jesus sends
the Spirit of truth to empower His followers as witnesses
through His own activity of witness. The Spirit empowers
witnesses sufficiently in the postmodern world.
Jesus states that the witness of the Spirit
conjoins with the witness of His followers in John 15:27.
Bultmann suggests that “the Spirit is the power of the
proclamation in the community.”66 John uses different tenses of marturevw in verses 26 and 27. When he describes the testimony of the Spirit of truth, John uses the future tense, marturhvsei. This represents the future work of the
Spirit of truth, which is to bear witness concerning Jesus.
In verse 27, John uses the imperative, marturei`te, which denotes a command and mandate.67 The followers of Christ
have the mandate to join with the mission of the Spirit of
64Allison A. Trites, The New Testament Concept of Witness (Cambridge: University Press, 1979), 78-90, 138.
65This subject will be examined in chapter five.
66Rudolph Bultmann, The Gospel of John, trans. George R. Beasley-Murray (Oxford: Blackwell, 1971), 553-54.
67Fritz Rienecker, Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament, ed. and trans. Cleon Rogers Jr. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976; reprint, 1980), 253. This could be the second person indicative, but the context appears to suggest the imperative. 66
truth and bear witness concerning Jesus Christ.68 The
Spirit clothes the followers of Christ and their testimony
for effective evangelization. Hoyt further suggests that
the Spirit provides the duvnami~ for “credible witness.”69
John further describes the Spirit’s work in 16:13.
He highlights the work of the Spirit in the illumination of
Christ’s followers. The role of the Spirit, according to
John Frame, is to meet the need in believers “for inward
change, a need to reconcile ourselves to what God has
already revealed.”70
The Spirit bears witness of Christ to the world,
which is hostile toward Jesus and the gospel. The Holy
Spirit is on mission “to bear witness to Christ and to make
Christ real to men.”71 This is the work of the Spirit in
16:7-11. The key term in these verses is ejlevgcw. Büchsel
suggests that ejlevgcw usually means “to show someone his sin
68Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 684.
69Herman A. Hoyt, “The Frantic Future and the Christian Directive: Acts 1:8,” Grace Journal 10 (Winter 1969): 38. The concept of a “credible witness” is specifically pertinent to the postmodern person who is immersed in skepticism about absolute “truth-claims.”
70John Frame, “The Spirit and the Scriptures,” in Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon, eds. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986), 231.
71W. T. Connor, Work of the Holy Spirit, 89-90. 67 and to summon him to repentance.”72 Bultmann posits a legal
setting in which the Spirit stands as the prosecuting
attorney.73 De la Potterie indicates that ejlevgcw in this
passage is “démontrer l’erreur ou les torts de quelqu’un.”74
Kovsmo~ is the object of the Spirit’s work of ejlevgcw.
In distinctively Johannine language, the kovsmo~ consists of
those who are apart from Christ and opposed to Him. The
kovsmo~ is the aim of the redemptive mission of God through
the Spirit.75 John indicates that the Paraclete works in
the world to lead lost humanity to repentance.
The o}ti clauses provide further indication of the
Spirit’s work (John 16:9-11). Bauer indicates that “die
drei o{ti-Sätze 9-11 gehen an, inwiefern der Geist bezüglich
der genannten Dinge die Welt zu ihrer Beschämung
überführt.”76 In this sense, ejlevgcw takes the o{ti clauses as
72F. Büchsel, s.v. “ejlevgcw,” TDNT, 2:474.
73Bultmann, The Gospel of John, 564–65; George R. Beasley-Murray, John, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 1987), 280-81.
74I. De la Potterie, La Vérité dans Saint Jean, 2 vols. (Rome: PBI, 1977), 2:404: “to demonstrate the error or the wrongs of somebody.”
75H. Sasse, s.v. “kovsmo~,” TDNT, 3:894.
76Walter Bauer, Das Johannesevangelium (Tübingen: Mohr, 1933), 149: “the three o{ti-sentences concern, in what way the Spirit condemns regarding the named entity the world to its humiliation.” 68
explicative, by which the Spirit demonstrates how the world
is wrong about sin, righteousness, and judgment.
Carson seeks to maintain the parallelism of the
three o{ti clauses and concludes that the Spirit speaks to
the world’s sin, pseudo-righteousness, and wrong estimation
of Jesus and their spiritual reality.77 Through witness,
the Spirit reveals the truth of sin, demonstrates the
pathway to righteousness, and warns of impending judgment.
The proclamation of the followers of Jesus is the instrument
which the Spirit of truth uses to accomplish His work in the
world.78 Through the witness of Christ’s followers, the
Paraclete penetrates the evangelistic obstacles to bring
individuals to the awareness of their need for repentance
and salvation through Christ.79
The promise of the “visionary gift” and the promise
of the Paraclete become a reality at Pentecost. God pours
out His Spirit upon believers in fulfillment of the OT
prophecy and Christ’s promise. Believers, then and now,
live in personal intimacy with the Father and continue the
77Carson, “The Function of the Paraclete in John 16:7–11,” 548.
78Beasley-Murray, John, 281.
79Thomas C. Oden, Life in the Spirit, 91. 69 ministry of His Son.80
The Holy Spirit: The Bridge for the Objective Truth of the Gospel
The evangelization of postmodern people occurs in a
chaotic kovsmo~ in which postmodernism is hostile to the
gospel as objective truth. Bearing witness to Jesus in the
postmodern world presents the challenge of epistemology.
The ministry of the Spirit, however, provides a bridge
between the gospel metanarrative and postmodern incredulity.
David Wells correctly argues that the evangelistic witness
is effective “because of the mighty power of the Holy
Spirit, who alone is able to turn rebellious sinners into
obedient followers of Christ.”81
Epistemology: A Postmodern Dilemma
The postmodern premise suggests that one may not
know truth because language is not a clear nor reliable
representation of truth.82 By implication, postmodernism
80Walt Russell, “The Holy Spirit’s Ministry in the Fourth Gospel,” Grace Theological Journal 8 (Fall 1987): 237.
81David Wells, God the Evangelist: How the Spirit Works to Bring Men and Women to Faith (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987; reprint, Carlisle, Cumbria: Paternoster Press, 1997), 46.
82Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, corrected ed., trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 295-302. 70
proposes that the gospel is an illusionary foundation, since
no foundations for knowledge or certainty exist. This
presents a dilemma in the evangelistic work of the church.
Julian Hartt rightly assesses this postmodern dilemma: “If
the ontological truth-claims of the New Testament are false,
then the Christian religious life, understood and pursued as
the knowledge and service of God in Jesus Christ, is founded
on an illusion.”83
With epistemology jettisoned in postmodernism, the
evangelistic ministry of the church submerges into a
quagmire of postmodern skepticism and doubt in relation to
the gospel. The postliberal and revisionist approaches to
postmodernism increase this skepticism.
For example, the postliberal approach begins with
the “self” and moves to Scripture. David Kelsey’s
discussion of Scripture presents a postliberal approach.84
Kelsey sees the authority of a text in its pragmatic and
productive uses within the context of a particular
83Julian N. Hartt, “Theological Investments in Story: Some Comments on Recent Developments and Some Proposals,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 52 (1984): 121.
84Kelsey’s approach extends Frei’s proposal. See Hans Frei, The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974). 71 community.85 For Kelsey, texts are authoritative on the basis of “how they are used in the Christian community.”86
Along these lines, however, Kelsey’s postliberal approach
devolves into an extreme pragmatic theory of truth, whereby
something is true because it works. Evangelization of
postmodern people, then, depends primarily upon the
demonstration of the gospel’s pragmatic effects as a sign of
its veracity rather than upon the work of the Spirit of
truth.
David Tracy proposes a revisionist model which
begins with self and moves to questions about God and
Scripture. The revisionist approach couples “Christian
texts” with “common human experience and language” as the
two principle sources of theology.87 Tracy offers a
theology which provides a “proper understanding of our
common experience and its fundamental continuity with the
God proclaimed in the Christian scriptures.”88 For Tracy
the gospel may be true if it is “existentially meaningful,”
85David H. Kelsey, The Uses of Scripture in Recent Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975), 150.
86Ibid., 89.
87David Tracy, Blessed Rage for Order: The New Pluralism in Theology (New York: Seabury Press, 1975; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 43-45.
88Ibid., 175. 72
internally coherent, and verifiable through experiential
analysis.89 Truth is determined by the self-enlightenment
which a text provides. In this light, evangelization of
postmodern people depends upon the gospel’s ability to lead
the individual to self-understanding.
An apostolic approach, however, presents a
different solution to the dilemma of epistemology. The
“conception of the Spirit” in the evangelistic ministry of
an apostolic approach answers the postmodern skepticism.90
The Spirit illumines the hearts and minds of
believers through the Scripture to the truth of God found in
Jesus Christ,91 so that each believer receives the “Spirit
of Christian proclamation.” This outpouring inheres
authority (ejxousiva) and power (duvnami~) for the evangelization of postmodern people. Although postmodernism rejects this type of authority, Jesus declares in Matt 28:18, jEdovqh moi pa`sa ejxousiva ejn oujranw`/ kai; ejpi; th`~ gh`~,92 so that ejxousiva represents the power of ultimate arbitration ejn oujranw`/ kai; ejpi; th`~ gh`~.93
89Ibid., 71.
90W. F. Lofthouse, “The Holy Spirit in Acts and the Fourth Gospel,” Expository Times 52 (1940-41): 336.
91Millard Erickson, Christian Theology, 890.
92“All authority has been given to Me in heaven and upon the earth.”
93W. Foerster, s.v. “ejxousiva,” TDNT, 2:566. 73
Pannenberg notes that “as the Spirit bears witness in
believers to Jesus as the truth of God, they themselves are
ecstatically raptured and are outside themselves in Jesus,
while conversely Jesus is in them to bind them in fellowship
with one another, and along with Jesus the Father also takes
up [H]is dwelling in believers.”94 Just as Jesus possesses
ejxousiva, He invests His ejxousiva through the Spirit to His followers. This continual presence of Christ in believers produces the authority for evangelism in a postmodern world.
It is this ejxousiva of Christ which produces the right and responsibility of His followers to poreuqevnte~ ou\n maqhteuvsate pavnta ta; e[qnh (Matt 28:19a).95
Bearing witness in the epistemological dilemma of postmodernism highlights the significance of duvnami~.
Indeed, the basic meaning of duvnami~ centers on one’s ability to perform a task.96 In the context of evangelism, duvnami~
is the enabling power of God in the witness of Christ’s
followers. According to Christ’s promise (Acts 1:8), this
power comes upon Christ’s followers through the Holy Spirit.
94Wolfhart Pannenberg, Systematic Theology: Volume 3, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 16.
95“Therefore as you go make disciples of all nations.”
96W. Grundmann, s.v. “duvnami~,” TDNT, 2:284-85. 74
The Spirit “dispenses and mediates” the power which enabled
Christ to fulfill His mission and which equips His followers to “stand in the place of Jesus and continue His work.”97
The Spirit of truth joins Christ’s followers in the
witnessing encounter to bear witness together that Jesus
Christ is the way, truth, and life.
The Spirit further infuses the witnessing encounter
with duvnami~ to lead postmodern people to truth. The
conversion of Saul provides exemplifies the evangelization
in the midst of epistemological uncertainty (Acts 9).
Although Saul rejected the “truth-claims” of the gospel
(Acts 6-7), the power of the Spirit of truth deconstructs
his epistemological skepticism (Rom 1:16-17).98 In the same
manner, the Spirit of truth deconstructs the epistemological
dilemma of postmodern people.
Borrowing cautiously from Tracy’s revisionist
approach, the Spirit of truth establishes the gospel of
Christ as “meaningful” to the postmodern person through the
conviction (ejlevgcw) of sin, righteousness, and judgment.
97Ibid., 311.
98This language represents Paul’s experience on the Damascus road (Acts 9). The layers of rabbinic interpretation were deconstructed or unraveled in a decisive encounter with Jesus Christ, the truth. Upon this encounter, Paul’s epistemological skepticism of Jesus Christ as Messiah and Lord was diffused. The power of the gospel led him to repentance and salvation. 75
The Spirit of truth establishes the “meaning” of the gospel through the empowered, internally coherent proclamation of
Christ’s witnesses. The Spirit of truth establishes the
“truth” of the gospel experientially and existentially in postmodern people. The Spirit of truth answers the postmodern dilemma of epistemology through His witness to truth and the conviction of truth for the postmodern kovsmo~ of the truth. In this light, the evangelization of postmodern people depends primarily upon the proclamation of the gospel in the power of the Holy Spirit to lead postmodern people to truth who is Jesus Christ.
Beyond Babel: Epistemology and eJtevrai~ glwvssai~
The evangelization of postmodern people presents the problem of language in a world of pluralities. The global scope of evangelization for the apostolic and contemporary church creates the difficulties of language and culture. David Harvey describes postmodernism as a rejection of any “meta-language” which can overcome the plurality of “power-discourses” or “language-games.”99 The events of Pentecost point to the “meta-language” of God through the Spirit which overcomes the problem of languages.
Dunn suggests that “the glossolalia of Pentecost
99David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 44–45. 76
fulfils [sic] Joel’s expectation of the outpouring of the
Spirit in prophecy.”100 In verse 4 Luke states that the disciples h[rxanto lalei`n eJtevrai~ glwvssai~, and in verse 6 Luke states that h[kouon ei|~ e{kasto~ th`/ ijdiva/ dialevktw`/ lalouvntwn auJtw`n.101
The difference between glwvssai~ and dialevktw`/ is the difference between that which is spoken and that which is heard.102
This writer contends that the Spirit of God communicates through the words of Christ’s followers so that the hearer understands the message which is communicated.
Derrida presents the story of Babel as a foundation for deconstruction.103 He states that God “deconstructs” the
universal language so that translation is impossible.104 The result is the “multiplicity of idioms” found in a confusion of tongues.105 Derrida posits that God deconstructs meaning.
Despite Derrida’s pursuit of confusion and trace through
100Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit, 174.
101“They began to speak with other tongues” (Acts 2:4), and “Each one was hearing them speaking in his own language” (Acts 2:6).
102See, Malcolm McDow and Alvin L. Reid, Firefall: How God Has Shaped History Through Revivals (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1997), 86.
103Jacques Derrida, “Des Tours de Babel,” Semeia 54 (1991): 3-34, especially 7-8, 31-32.
104Ibid., 7.
105Ibid., 8. 77 deconstruction,106 Umberto Eco suggests that the confusion of
languages at Babel provides the hope that confusion might
end.107
Luke’s list of nations (Acts 2:9-11) covers the
entirety of the known world in the apostolic period.108
Amidst these pluralities, the “truth-claims” of the gospel
story encountered the obstacles of language and meaning.
Yet, eJtevrai~ glwvssai~ at Pentecost shows that “the Spirit of
God speaks all languages.”109 The reality of eJtevrai~ glwvssai~
establishes confidence in communicating the gospel cross-
culturally, for God speaks through His followers to hearers
of all races, languages, and cultures (Acts 2:6-8).110 Thus,
the Spirit reverses the consequences of Babel in Genesis
11:4-9.111 Pentecost marks the call of grace to “all
humanity by making all human languages congruent with God’s
106Ibid., 6-7.
107Umberto Eco, Serendipities, trans. W. Weaver (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1998), 28-29.
108William Neil, The Acts of the Apostles, New Century Bible Commentary (London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1973; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 74.
109Thomas C. Oden, Life in the Spirit, 64.
110Dockery, “The Theology of Acts,” 46.
111C. Bartholomew, “Babel and Derrida: Postmodernism, Language, and Biblical Interpretation,” Tyndale Bulletin 49 (November 1998): 317. 78 address.”112 Neil indicates that the occasion of eJtevrai~ glwvssai~ reverses the curse of Babel so that “now men from all nations could be brought into one fellowship by the power of the Spirit.”113
The Spirit of truth serves as the epistemological bridge for evangelism with postmodern people. Regardless the cultural, ethnic, or socially informed situation of postmodern people, the Spirit of truth fills the witness of
Christ’s followers so that the hearers experience conviction and comprehension.
Evangelistic Approach at Pentecost, Acts 2:14-41
Peter’s sermon at Pentecost represents an apostolic approach for evangelism.114 An examination of Peter’s sermon provides a framework for the proclamation of the gospel in a postmodern world. Ridderbos insightfully suggests that this sermon is illustrative of “apostolic preaching.”115
112Thomas C. Oden, Life in the Spirit, 64.
113William Neil, The Acts of the Apostles, 72.
114For a discussion of the veracity of the speeches in Acts and the arguments against it, see, Hans Conzelmann, A Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, trans. James Limburg, A. T. Kraabel, and Donald Juel (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), xliv. This writer contends that Luke’s record of the speeches in Acts reflect the content of the sermons delivered, yet the sermons are not verbatim reports.
115H. N. Ridderbos, The Speeches of Peter in the Acts of the Apostles (London: Tyndale, 1962), 11. 79
Accordingly, Peter’s sermon is paradigmatic of other
speeches in Acts as well as for evangelism in postmodern
times.116
C. H. Dodd indicates that the apostolic khvrugma is the public proclamation of the gospel to unbelievers.117
Dodd proposes that the apostolic khvrugma includes six basic elements present in Luke’s presentation of the speeches.118
Of these six elements, Peter’s sermon at Pentecost includes five.119 Within this examination, one notes the OT
foundations of the messianic age, the life, death, and
exaltation of Jesus, and a call to repentance.120
An apostolic approach for the evangelization of
116On the paradigmatic nature of the speech, see Marion L. Soards, The Speeches in Acts: Their Content, Context, and Concerns (Louisville: Westminster, 1994), 9-11.
117C. H. Dodd, The Apostolic Preaching and Its Development (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1936), 7-8. Dodd distinguishes khvrugma from didavskein. The latter is moral instruction for believers.
118Ibid., 17-24.
119These five elements are: 1) the dawn of the messianic age (Acts 2:16-21); 2) the life, death, and resurrection of Christ (Acts 2:22-32); 3) Jesus is the exalted Lord sitting at the right hand of God as the head of the “new Israel” (Acts 2:33-36); 4) the Spirit is the sign of Christ’s exaltation (Acts 2:33); 5) a call for repentance, the offer of forgiveness, and the gift of the Spirit (Acts 2:38-39). The sixth element speaks to the consummation of the messianic age (Acts 3:21).
120John B. Polhill, Acts, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman, 1992), 107. 80
postmodern people requires the proclamation of the gospel.
Peter’s sermon provides a pattern for this public
proclamation. The apostolic khvrugma is not optional in evangelism, for it is the essence of gospel proclamation.121
Most commentators agree that Peter utilizes either
a midrash or pesher model. Generally, the midrash is
“interpretive renderings of the Hebrew text.”122 The pesher
adds an “eschatological exegesis” by which the OT prophecies
find fulfillment in the current time of the commentary.123
Bowker and Longenecker point to Peter’s sermon as a midrash
of Joel’s prophecy.124 Ellis suggests that the
eschatological focus drawn from Joel 2 reveals Peter’s use
of pesher.125 Following Ellis’ suggestion, an apostolic
method begins with the contemporary event, brings together
an OT text and “christological kerygma,” and applies the
interpretation to the evangelization of the hearers.126
121C. H. Dodd, Apostolic Preaching, 8.
122E. Earle Ellis, Prophecy and Hermeneutic in Early Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978), 151-52.
123Ibid., 160-61.
124J. W. Bowker, “Speeches in Acts: A Study of Proem and Yellammendu Form,” New Testament Studies 14 (1967-1968): 96-109; Richard Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 100-103.
125E. Ellis, Prophecy and Hermeneutic, 201-204.
126Ibid., 203-204. 81
Peter’s explication of the phenomena of Pentecost to the crowd presents the message of salvation.127 Four elements within Peter’s sermon provide insight for an apostolic approach: the allure of the Spirit’s activity, the
OT foundation, the “christological kerygma,” and the witness of Christ’s followers. The following section will focus upon these elements as instructive for the evangelization of postmodern people. The propositions from OT Scripture presents a central feature in the definition of the Spirit’s activity, the interpretation of the “christological kerygma,” and in the validation of the followers of Jesus.
Propositions from Old Testament Scripture
Peter’s evangelistic approach interprets the experience of his hearers with the OT Scripture.128 Joel
2:28-32 provide the interpretive framework for the miraculous events of Pentecost and serve as a spring-board for the systematic presentation of the gospel.129
127M. Soards, The Speeches in Acts, 32.
128C. H. Dodd, According to the Scriptures: The Substructure of New Testament Theology (London: Nisbet, 1952), 127. Dodd writes that OT scripture “is the substructure of all Christian theology and contains already its chief regulative ideas.” This pertains to a Jewish audience. For the evangelization of Gentiles, see chapter five, “Apostolic Witness in Postmodern Time, Acts 1:8.”
129F. F. Bruce, “The Significance of the Speeches for Interpreting Acts,” Southwestern Journal of Theology 33 82
Psalm 16:8-11 provides the foundation for the
resurrection. A key element in Peter’s interpretation is
the identification of dysij; or “favored one” (Ps 16:10).
Kaiser suggests that David is the representative and
recipient of “God’s ancient but ever-renewed promise.”130
The term dysij; points to the object of God’s favor and covenant commitment. God’s promise of a future for His dysij; is the “path of life.”131
Fitzmeyer indicates that David’s prophetic ability
led him to see the future of God’s dysij;.132 Peter utilizes
David’s prophecy that God’s “ultimate hasid would triumph
over death. For David, this was all one word: God’s ancient
but ever-new promise.”133 Through the OT foundation, Peter
declares that Christ’s resurrection fulfills the promise of
the eternal kingdom to David. An analysis of this
(Fall 1990): 21.
130John B. Polhill, Acts, 114.
131M. Dahood, Psalm I: 1-50, The Anchor Bible (Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1966), 1:91, suggests that this phrase indicates eternal life.
132Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “David, Being Therefore a Prophet (Acts 2:30),” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 34 (1972): 332-339; see also, Walter C. Kaiser Jr., “The Promise to David in Psalm 16 and Its Application in Acts 2:25–33 and 13:32–37,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 23 (1980): 228.
133W. Kaiser Jr., “Promise to David,” 229. 83
“christological kerygma” will follow in the next section.
Psalm 110:1 provides the foundation for the
exaltation of Jesus. Peter declares that the unusual
phenomenon at Pentecost is the outpouring of the Spirit from
the exalted Jesus Christ. Psalm 110:1 serves as Peter’s OT
support for the exaltation of Jesus as well as the blessings
of the exalted Christ upon His followers.134 The oracle from
Yahweh to ynIdoa, however, is certain in its portrayal of ynIdoa as
distinct from both David and Yahweh.135
In this way, OT Scripture serves as the foundation
of knowledge to interpret the experience of the hearers. To
this foundation, Peter joins the “christological kerygma” and the personal testimony of the disciples. OT Scripture provides the foundation of knowledge for the “truth-claims” of the cross and the resurrection.
The Cross and the Resurrection: An Objective, Historical Reality
Alvin Reid suggests, “The objective message of the cross and Jesus’ resurrection permeated the witness of the
134See, W. R. G. Loader, “Christ at the Right Hand: Psalm CX.i in the N.T.,” New Testament Studies 24 (1977–78): 199–217.
135See Mark 12:35-37 in which Jesus attributes the psalm to David. 84
early church.”136 Peter’s sermon affirms that statement.
The “christological kerygma” in Peter’s sermon focuses upon
the death (Acts 2:22-23), resurrection (Acts 2:24-28; Ps
16:8-11), and exaltation of Jesus Christ (Acts 2:29-36; Ps
110:1). Dunn, following Conzelmann and Cadbury, however,
contends that the kerygma of Acts does not contain a
“theology of the death of Jesus.” He argues that the
sermons in Acts do not interpret the historical fact of
Jesus’ death but focus on His resurrection and exaltation.137
I. H. Marshall also acknowledges that Luke provides “scanty” material on the death of Jesus and its significance.138
Marshall, however, finds vicarious atonement in Philip’s
evangelistic encounter with the Ethiopian (Acts 8:26-39) and
in the formula, “hanging on a tree” (Acts 5:30; 10:39;
13:29).139 Conner argues that Peter applies the Servant
motif to Jesus (Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30), “who redeems [H]is
136Alvin Reid, Introduction to Evangelism (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1998), 48.
137Dunn, Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity, 2d ed. (London: SCM Press, 1990), 16-21; Henry J. Cadbury, The Making of Luke-Acts (New York: MacMillan, 1927), 280; Hans Conzelmann, The Theology of St. Luke, trans. Geoffrey Buswell (New York: Harper and Row, 1960), 200-201.
138I. H. Marshall, Luke: Historian and Theologian (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970), 171.
139Ibid., 169-73. For contrary view, see Dunn, Unity and Diversity, 17-18. 85
people by suffering and death.”140
Peter’s sermon at Pentecost presents the cross as
the essential ingredient in the purpose of God for the
salvation of humanity (Acts 2:23). The perfective
participle, wJrismevnh/, modifies boulh`/.141 Schmidt indicates
that oJrivzw promotes the idea of God’s determination and appointment.142 Peter’s use of oJrivzw suggests that God set a
pathway for the completion of His purpose (boulhv).143
Peter indicates that God purposed for Jesus to be crucified. Even though God’s predetermined counsel includes the death of Jesus, Peter unapologetically proclaims the human responsibility. Holtzmann states that “so reichten sich hier menschliche Freiheit und göttliche Notwendigkeit die Hand: Dies die einfachste und wohl auch älteste Form, sich mit dem paradoxen Schicksal des Messias auszusöhnen.”144
140Leon Morris, The Cross in the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), 111.
141It is possible that the participle modifies both boulh`/ and prognwvsei, since both are in the dative.
142K. L. Schmidt, s.v. “oJrivzw,” TDNT, 452-56.
143Fritz Rienecker, Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament, trans. Cleon Rogers Jr. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976; reprint, 1980), 266.
144H. J. Holtzmann, Die Apostelgeschichte, 3d ed., Hand-Commentar zum Neuen Testament 1/2 (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1901), 34. “So here human freedom and divine necessity presented to themselves the source: this the simplest and probably also oldest form, to reconcile 86
The issue for Holtzmann is the paradox between divine
purpose and human responsibility. Polhill suggests that
“Peter carefully balanced the elements of God’s divine
purposes and the human responsibility for the crucifixion of
Jesus.”145 Peter also declares that the Jewish crowd of
hearers and the Gentiles share the guilt of killing Jesus.146
The cross, however, “was not a disaster but an act
of God’s grace for man’s salvation.”147 Peter proclaims the
triumph of God over death through Christ (Acts 2:24).148
Morris insightfully states that the message of the cross in the Pentecost sermon “is not put forward from any idea that it was good teaching, or good strategy, or that it could meet a damaging criticism. It is put forward because it is held to be true.”149 For Peter and the apostolic church, the
cross is an objective, historical reality which God purposed
for the salvation of humanity (Acts 2:39).150
themselves to the paradoxical destiny of the Messiah.”
145John B. Polhill, Acts, 112.
146Ibid. “Lawless hands” is idiomatic for Gentiles.
147Neil, Acts of the Apostles, 76.
148I. H. Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles, 74-76.
149Leon Morris, Cross in the New Testament, 124-25.
150Alister McGrath, The Mystery of the Cross (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988), 29. 87
Peter also presents the resurrection of Jesus as an objective, historical reality. The apostolic church connects the significance of the cross with the resurrection.151 This significance is that the cross is “the
means to the end, and that end is victory.”152 God provides
victory over death through Christ’s resurrection. The
gospel promises victory through the inauguration of the new
age at Christ’s exaltation and His bestowal of the Spirit to
His followers (Acts 2:33).153
An apostolic approach follows Peter’s example. The
OT Scripture provides the hearers foundations for belief.
The eyewitness testimonies of the disciples about the
resurrection also provide a foundation for belief. Finally,
Peter presents the proof of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:33).
This represents the “crowning proof that Christ had been
raised from the dead and enthroned in heaven as exalted
Messiah.”154
David Wells connects this proclamation also to the
witness of the Spirit of truth. The witness of the Spirit
151W. T. Conner, The Cross in the New Testament (Nashville: Broadman, 1954), 48.
152Leon Morris, Cross in the New Testament, 130.
153A. Oepke, s.v. “ajnivsthmi,” TDNT, 1:370-72.
154Curtis Vaughan, Acts: A Study Guide Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974), 27. 88 joins Peter’s evangelistic proclamation to draw the hearers toward salvation.
The sermon Peter preached at Pentecost was one in which Jesus was the focus and the Holy Spirit’s ministry of conviction was apparent. He convicted listeners of sin (‘you . . . put [H]im to death’; Acts 2:23), righteousness (‘But God raised [H]im from the dead’; [H]e is ‘exalted to the right hand of God’; 2:24, 33), and judgment (‘The Lord said to my Lord, ‘Sit at [M]y right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet’; 2:34-35). Those who heard were ‘cut to the heart’ (2:37); on that day, three thousand believed.155
Thus, Peter joins the testimony of the Spirit to evangelize the Jerusalem crowd at Pentecost.
Following these proofs, Peter concludes his evangelistic sermon with a call for the audience to repent.
He declares that the foundations for faith have been laid at the feet of his hearers so that they should know (ginwskevtw) that God has made Jesus both Lord and Christ (Acts 2:36).
The truth of God’s salvation is the impetus for the creation of the community of faith (Acts 2:41-47).
An apostolic approach for the evangelization of postmodern people proclaims the cross and the resurrection as the “truth-claims” of the gospel to postmodern people.
The contemporary church follows the example of the apostolic church, proclaiming the death and resurrection as objective,
155David Wells, God the Evangelist, 45. Peter’s statement in Acts 2:36 is a climactic statement, by which Peter and the apostolic church give to Jesus the highest title, signifying Yahweh Himself. 89 historical facts which are essential in evangelism.
Robert Webber suggests that evangelism in a postmodern world “must recover the emphasis that Christ’s death is a victory over the powers of evil.”156 This is the message which Peter proclaims in his sermon at Pentecost, and it is the content of the proclamation of the gospel in the postmodern world. The proclamation of Christus Victor
“makes connection with churched and unchurched people.”157
In the evangelization of postmodern people, the gospel of the cross and the empty tomb declares that God has gained a victory that is unattainable without Him.
The contemporary church must proclaim the
“christological kerygma.” Scripture, personal witness, and the Spirit of truth provide the foundations for belief.
Proclaiming the cross and resurrection as objective, historical realities, the Spirit of truth verifies the truth of the gospel and convicts postmodern people.
Objective or Communal? The Postmodern Question of Truth
The “truth-claims” of the cross and the resurrection are essential for the evangelization of
156Robert Webber, Ancient-Future Faith: Rethinking Evangelicalism for a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1999), 150.
157Ibid. 90
postmodern people; yet for the postmodern mind, the question
of truth and the acquisition of truth must be considered.
According Richard Rorty and other postmodern theorists,
truth is a function of community.158 The community creates
truth that is most beneficial for the continuance of that
community.159 This truth remains in tact until an individual
or a group of individuals within the community develop
enough skill in the “language games” to change or alter the
truth. Truth then changes according to the context of the
community and the language games within the community.
The outpouring of the Spirit of truth at Pentecost
teaches, however, that community is a function of truth.
The Christian community in apostolic times and in the
postmodern world is built upon the truth of the gospel and
the power of the Spirit of truth applying the truth to the
hearts of the hearers. The Holy Spirit creates community
through the truth of the gospel.160 The Holy Spirit, who
158Richard Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth: Philosophical Papers, Volume 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 23-25, 165.
159On the production of meaning and truth by the community, see Stanley Fish, Is There a Text in This Class? (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 14.
160Hans Hübner, “The Holy Spirit in Holy Scripture,” Ecumenical Review 41 (July 1989): 328–29; Stanley Grenz, Theology for the Community of God (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994), 482-85. 91
comes to indwell individuals upon their conversion,
validates the common bond of salvation for every member of
the Christian community.161 The Holy Spirit creates an
epistemological bridge to conversion and an experiential
unity within the community.
The Spirit of Truth, Conversion, and Community
Arthur Darby Nock provides a helpful definition of
conversion as a “reorientation of the soul” which involves a
“turning which implies a consciousness that a great change
is involved, that the old was wrong and the new is right.”162
In Peter’s Pentecost sermon, the people respond to the gospel with a cry of dismay over their condition (Acts
2:37).163
Peter calls for repentance and baptism (Acts 2:38).
In the context of this call for decision, repentance
connects the hearer to conversion. Stagg confirms this
connection when he declares that metanoevw represents the NT
161William Neil, Acts of the Apostles, 79; Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit, 260-62; G. W. H. Lampe, The Seal of the Spirit (London: Longmans, 1951), 3-7.
162Arthur Darby Nock, Conversion: The Old and New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo (London: Oxford University Press, 1933), 7.
163Rienecker, Linguistic Key, 267. Luke’s description, katenuvghsan th;n kardivan, indicates a “painful emotion which penetrates the heart as if stinging.” 92
idea of conversion. He writes, “The call to ‘repentance,’
then, was a call . . . to conversion.”164 Repentance and
conversion mean to change one’s mind and turn toward
something or someone else. Indeed, Behm indicates that
conversion is “the basic requirement” in the apostolic
kerygma, and metanoevw is “the heart of the apostolic
mission.”165 Peter clearly presents the connection between metanoevw and ejpistrevfw in Acts 3:19.166 Repentance is to
change one’s mind concerning the old way of life, and
conversion is to change one’s direction toward God.167
The work of repentance and conversion comes to the
postmodern person through the work of the Spirit of truth in
the evangelistic engagement. The Spirit of truth leads the
postmodern person to the acquisition of the truth of the
gospel. Wells suggests that evangelism involves
“explanation and persuasion relative to Christ” and the
truth of the cross. “Biblical conversion is conversion that
is brought about by truth.”168
164Frank Stagg, New Testament Theology (Nashville: Broadman, 1962), 118-19.
165J. Behm, s. v. “metanoevw ktl,” TDNT, 4:1003-1004.
166The text reads, metanohvsate ou\n kai; ejpistrevyate eij~ to; ejxaleifqh`nai uJmw`n ta;~ aJmartiva~.
167G. Bertram, s. v. “ejpistrevfw ktl,” TDNT, 7:727-28.
168David Wells, God the Evangelist, 95. 93
Baptism connects the hearer to community. Barclay writes that baptism joins the “confession of faith” with
“entry into the fellowship of the church.”169 Beasley-Murray shows that the confession of faith identifies the believer to the Lord for the purpose or with the result of salvation.170 The corollary identification in baptism is incorporation as a member of the community of believers.
The believer in baptism numbers “himself with the people who invoke the Name of Jesus” and is incorporated “into the community of those who inherit the Kingdom.”171
The concept of incorporation indicates the nature of involvement and participation in Christ’s body. Paul writes, kai; ga;r ejn eJni; pneuvmati hJmei`~ pavnte~ eij~ e{n sw`ma ejbaptivsqhmen.172
Here, Paul emphasizes the relationship between “Spirit-
169William Barclay, The Promise of the Spirit (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1960), 58.
170George R. Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962), 102-103. The phrase, eij~ a[fesin tw`n aJmartiw`n uJmw`n (Acts 2:38), should be connected to metanoevw in conjunction with baptivzw. As Bruce (Book of Acts, 70) writes: “It would indeed be a mistake to link the words ‘for the forgiveness of sins’ with the command ‘be baptized’ to the exclusion of the prior command to repent. It is against the whole genius of biblical religion to suppose that the outward rite could have any value except insofar as it was accompanied by the work of grace within.”
171Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the New Testament, 103.
172“For in one Spirit we all were baptized into one body” (1 Cor 12:13a). 94
baptism” and incorporation into the “body of Christ.”
Beasley-Murray takes the phrase, ejn eJni; pneuvmati, to depict
agency, so that the Spirit is the “agent of baptism to
membership in the Body.”173 Beasley-Murray contends that
this verse points directly to “Christian baptism in
water.”174 This conclusion presents dangerous implications.
The apparent danger of this view, in this writer’s opinion,
is the unlikely identification that water-baptism is Spirit-
baptism. Beasley-Murray sees this danger and writes that
“there is nothing automatic about this association of
baptism and the Spirit” but “the relation of the believer
with the Spirit is to be construed in strict analogy with
his relation to the Risen Christ.”175 Beasley-Murray,
therefore, contends that the reference in this verse is to
173G. R. Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the New Testament, 169-71. The preposition ejn may signify the dative, locative, or instrumental case. If one sees the locative case in this verse, then pneuvmati is the realm in which believers are baptized. If one sees the instrumental of agency, then pneuvmati is the “agent of baptism to membership in the Body” (167).
174Ibid., 169. His arguments include: 1) the work of Christ by His Spirit in baptism for consecration of the believer in 1 Cor 6:11; 2) evidence from Acts in which the primitive church saw the fulfillment of messianic baptism in the outpouring of the Spirit and in the “administration of baptism to those responsive to the gospel” and 3) the connection between Gal 3:27 and this verse which link “baptism to Christ with baptism to the Church.”
175Ibid., 170. 95
water-baptism, but it does not refer to water-baptism as a
salvific act of the Spirit through water-baptism.
Fee provides a lengthy discussion on this verse.
He suggests that Paul is not referring to water-baptism in
any way in this text.176 His argument, which looks upon ejn
eJni; pneuvmati as locative, places the emphasis upon conversion
when the believer is “immersed in the Spirit.”177
Although Fee’s emphasis on conversion is admirable,
one must ask if his diligent denial is justified. Paul
understands the symbolism of water-baptism (Rom 6:3-11).178
As Fee concedes, however, “the point of reference for the metaphor would be their own baptism (immersion) in water.”179
Fee himself indicates the association between baptism and the reception of the Spirit, which is the “crucial ingredient” of conversion.180 It is therefore reasonable
that Paul refers to conversion, calling to his readers’
minds their water-baptism, when he writes ejn eJni; pneuvmati hJmei`~
176Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 604-606.
177Ibid., 605.
178See Douglas Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 359-79.
179Ibid., 604 n. 24.
180Ibid., 604. 96 pavnte~ eij~ e{n sw`ma ejbaptivsqhmen.
The significance of this discussion is that Spirit- baptism incorporates believers into the “body of Christ.”
Water-baptism is the visible demonstration of this incorporation. Bruce suggests that “faith-union with Christ brought [H]is people into membership of the Spirit-baptized community, procuring for them the benefits of the once-for- all outpouring of the Spirit at the dawn of the new age, while baptism in water was retained as the outward and visible sign of their incorporation into Christ.”181
The call to conversion and community through repentance and baptism provides a transition from Peter’s
Pentecost sermon to apostolic community life (Acts 2:41-47).
Gaventa points out that Acts 2:38 “provides a transition to the ensuing narrative of the expansion of the Jerusalem
[Christian] community.”182 Those who submit to baptism as an expression of repentance receive the seal of the Spirit.
Conversion which is wrought by the Spirit leads to community of the Spirit in the fellowship of the saints. Thus, the apostle Paul elucidates the preeminent community ethic in
181F. F. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians, New Century Bible Commentary (London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1971), 121.
182Beverly Roberts Gaventa, From Darkness to Light: Aspects of Conversion in the New Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 98. 97 his epistle to the Ephesians: e}n sw`ma kai; e}n pneu`ma, kaqw;~ kai; ejklhvqhte ejn mia`/ ejlpivdi th`~ klhvsew~ uJmw`n: ei|~ kuvrio~, miva pivsti~, e}n bavptisma, ei|~ qeo;~ kai; path;r pavntwn kai; dia; pavntwn kai; ejn pa`sin.183
Through this extensive examination of Pentecost, the Holy Spirit, and evangelism, the following foundations hopefully are established. First, Pentecost is the historical and theological hinge for the evangelization of postmodern people. God inaugurates a new age in which the church joins the Spirit to evangelize the postmodern world.
Second, the Spirit is the epistemological bridge for the objective truth of the gospel in a postmodern context. The
Spirit unites ejlevgcw with the evangelism of the church.
Third, Peter’s sermon at Pentecost reveals an example of apostolic khvrugma for postmodern people by which the Spirit speaks through the believer to the hearer. The objective reality of the cross and resurrection is the center of evangelistic preaching to postmodern people. The Spirit establishes the conviction of postmodern people that the
“truth-claims” of the apostolic khvrugma are in fact true.
The Spirit leads postmodern people to conversion through repentance and community through baptism.
183“One body and one Spirit, just as also you have been called in one hope of your calling; one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who [is] above all and through all and in all” (Eph 4:4-6). CHAPTER THREE
THE FUNCTION OF COMMUNITY IN AN APOSTOLIC APPROACH
An apostolic approach for the evangelization of postmodern people has a community focus. Postmodernism has inaugurated the demise of the “autonomous individual” and given way for the exaltation of community. This creates a specific advantage for the contemporary church following an apostolic approach for evangelism in the postmodern milieu.
The influence of community in the postmodern world, however, engenders the notion of truth as a social construct. An apostolic approach depends upon the Spirit as the epistemological bridge toward the access of truth. What, then, is the role of community?
Images of an Apostolic Community
An examination of the biblical images of an
apostolic community serves as a starting point for an
analysis of the role of community in an apostolic approach.1
1Paul Minear, Images of the Church in the New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), 268-69. He proposes ninety-six “analogies” of the church in the NT. This examination is not as exhaustive as Minear’s and
98 99
These images, drawn from Acts and Paul’s epistles, reveal an
apostolic view of the Christian community. Although this is
not an exhaustive examination, the premise of this author is
that the images of an apostolic community present an
evangelistic focus for the apostolic church.
The most common term for the Christian community in
the NT is ejkklhsiva.2 This is the primary term in Acts.3
Lohse understands ejkklhsiva to mean the “immer handelt es sich
in der Versammlung der christlichen Gemeinde um Gottes
heileges Volk,”4 and the following images reinforce this
concept.
Stanley Grenz and John Franke propose that the
Trinity provides a fundamental framework for the Christian
answer to God’s identity in a postmodern context.5
organizes specifically around a trinitarian motif.
2Boyd Hunt, Redeemed! Eschatological Redemption and the Kingdom of God (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1993), 182.
3Acts 5:11; 8:1, 3; 9:31; 11:22, 26; 12:1, 5; 13:1; 14:23, 27; 15:3, 4, 22, 41; 16:5; 18:22; 20:17, 28. jEkklhsiva is assumed as the referent in Acts 2:47.
4Eduard Lohse, Die Entstehung des Neuen Testaments (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1972), 192. The translation is: “yet even more it [ejkklhsiva] presents itself in the gathering of the Christian church as the holy people of God.” Lohse further writes that the local church can represent completely (vollständig) the Church of Jesus Christ.
5Stanley Grenz and John Franke, Beyond Foundationalism: Shaping Theology in a Postmodern Context 100
Therefore, as these authors seek to “shape theology in a
postmodern context,” they suggest that the Christian
community “finds its basis in being and action” within the
framework of the Trinity.6 Paul Minear also indicates that
the biblical images of the church point “to a realm in which
God and Jesus Christ and the Spirit are at work.”7 Clowney
furthermore proposes that these images “continually relate
the church to the triune God.”8 With this concept in mind,
the trinitarian metaphors for the Christian community
provide the basis for “being and action” in apostolic
approach.
Christ’s Body
The “body of Christ” represents one of the major
metaphors for the apostolic community. Paul describes the
unity of the body amidst the diversity of the membership.9
(Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 187.
6Ibid.
7P. Minear, Images of the Church in the New Testament, 223.
8Edmund P. Clowney, “Interpreting the Biblical Models of the Church: A Hermeneutical Deepening of Ecclesiology,” in Biblical Interpretation and the Church: Text and Context, ed. D. A. Carson (Exeter: Paternoster Press, 1984), 76.
9Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology (Wilmington, DE: Glazier, 1983), 167; idem., Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 101
The Spirit “eliminates the old distinctions,” ei[te jIoudai`oi ei[te
{Ellhne~ ei[te ejleuvqeroi, kai; pavnte~ e{n pneu`ma ejpotivsqhmen (1 Cor
12:13).10 The elimination of these symbols of alienation
presents an answer to the postmodern quest.
Baudrillard suggests that the postmodern desire for
“relationality” emerges from the “fractal stage” of
values,11 which is the “haphazard proliferation and
dispersal of value” so that there is “no law of value.”12
Good is no longer the opposite of evil, nothing can now be plotted on a graph or analysed in terms of abscissas and ordinates. Just as each particle follows its own trajectory, each value or fragment of value shines for a moment in the heavens of simulation, then disappears into the void along a crooked path that only rarely happens to intersect with other such paths. This is the pattern of the fractal -- and hence the current pattern of our culture.13
This postmodern pattern produces a desire for “otherness,”
1997), 288. Each member of the community relates to other members as an organic whole called the “body of Christ.”
10Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 606. The translation is “whether Jews or Greeks or slaves or free persons, and we all have been made to drink one Spirit” (1 Cor 12:13).
11Jean Baudrillard, The Transparency of Evil: Essays on Extreme Phenomena, trans. James Benedict (New York: Verso, 1993), 4-6.
12Ibid., 5.
13Ibid., 6. 102 which for Baudrillard is “getting beyond alienation.”14
Here, Baudrillard’s solution is to pursue “radical otherness” in which alienation becomes “definitively other.”
In this way, the individual loses “any trace of my own.”
Baudrillard’s solution heralds back to Nietzsche’s exaltation of the “free spirit.”15
This “relationality” within an apostolic community
theologically reflects the “relationality” within the
Trinity.16 Jenson suggests that trinitarian doctrine begins
with the premise that “God’s relations to us are internal to
[H]im.”17 Therefore, as Grenz and Franke suggest, the
apostolic community provides “the foretaste of the new
humanity” who “represent God in the midst of the fallenness
of the present through relationships that reflect God’s own
loving character.”18 As Baudrillard concludes, the “Object”
is the answer to alienation, even though he equates “radical
14Ibid., 172-73.
15See the previous examination of Nietzsche, “Introduction,” 3-6.
16Georg Strecker, Theology of the New Testament, trans. M. Eugene Boring (New York: Walter de Bruyter, 2000), 184.
17Robert Jenson, The Triune Identity: God According to the Gospel (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982), 120.
18S. Grenz and J. Franke, Beyond Foundationalism, 201. 103
otherness” of the individual, which is beyond “the Other.”19
From an apostolic approach, this “Object” is community with
God through Christ. The image of the “body of Christ,” therefore, presents an apostolic answer to the postmodern quest for an escape from alienation.
The “relationality” of the “body of Christ” proceeds to a specific application of purpose; namely, to be used by God (1 Cor 12:18).20 Dunn suggests that “there is no such thing as passive membership.”21 Active membership
involves the fulfillment of specific functions within
Christ’s body (1 Cor 12:27-28). Each member of the sw`ma
Cristou` has a function to fulfill for the edification of the
whole.22 The contention of this writer is that each
member’s function corresponds to the leadership and
priorities of Christ Jesus who is the head of His body.
The concept of hJ kefalh; tou` swvmato~ th`~ ejkklhsiva~ (Col
19Baudrillard, Transparency of Evil, 173-74.
20Ben Witherington III, Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 259.
21James D. G. Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit: A Study of the Religious and Charismatic Experience of Jesus and the First Christians as Reflected in the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 264.
22F. F. Bruce, 1 and 2 Corinthians, New Century Bible Commentary (London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1971), 122-23. 104
1:18) promotes the conviction that the leadership of the hJ kefalh; tou` swvmato~ is the priority of the apostolic community.
Paul declares that Christ ejstin eijkw;n tou` qeou` tou` ajoravtou, prwtovtoko~ pavsh~ ktivsew~ (Col 1:15).23 Furthermore, kai; aujtov~ ejstin pro; pavntwn kai; ta; pavnta ejn aujtw`/ sunevsthken (Col 1:17).24 In
this way, the apostle describes the centrality and supremacy
of Christ in the cosmic world as the source and origin of
all things.25
Paul’s description of Christ as hJ kefalh; tou` swvmato~
also points to the relationship between the head and the
body. The community of faith “draws its life from [H]im to
whom it is united.”26 The apostolic community exists as
Christ’s body through Christ’s reconciling work. As ejn aujtw`/
ejktivsqh ta; pavnta (Col 1:16), so also di j aujtou` ajpokatallavxai ta; pavnta eij~ aujtovn (Col 1:20).27 Alienation between God and His
23“[Christ] is the image of the invisible God and the first-born of all creation.”
24“And He is before all things and in Him all things are held together.”
25Everett Ferguson, The Church of Christ: A Biblical Ecclesiology for Today (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 96.
26Ernest Best, One Body in Christ: A Study in the Relationship of the Church to Christ in the Epistles of the Apostle Paul (London: SPCK, 1955), 120.
27“By Him all things were created” (1:16), and “through Him to reconcile all things to Himself” (1:20). 105
creation becomes reconciliation through Christ.28
The connection between the reconciling work of
Christ and the evangelistic emphasis of Christ’s body is
further amplified through Paul’s description in verses 21
through 29. Paul Minear writes:
The forgiveness that had become effective within the Christian community was seen as the beginning of a process that would continue until it had achieved its goal not only within the church but also throughout creation. (Vs. 20-23) Those who to this end shared the redemptive sufferings of the Messiah were carrying out a ministry for the body, thus making God’s word more fully known. (Vs. 24-28)29
Paul’s concern is for God’s reconciling work through Christ
to permeate the world through the apostolic mission.30
Thus, Eduard Schweizer states that “the church is understood
as the body of Christ because of its obedience to its Head.
The church manifests itself in the mission to the
nations.”31
28F. F. Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), 74-75.
29P. Minear, Images of the Church, 213.
30F. F. Bruce, “Colossian Problems: Part 4, Christ as Conqueror and Reconciler,” Bibliotheca Sacra 141 (October 1984): 300-301.
31Eduard Schweizer, The Church as the Body of Christ (Richmond: John Knox, 1964), 78. Robert H. Gundry, Sôma in Biblical Theology with Emphasis on Pauline Anthropology, Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 29 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 228. Gundry proposes that this metaphor points to “an ecclesiastical 106
The image of Christ’s body reveals that the apostolic community is the presence of Christ on mission.
In an apostolic approach for the evangelization of postmodern people, the image of Christ’s body presents the priority of evangelism, for Christ’s body naturally follows the leadership of the Head, who is Christ Jesus. Christ’s purpose of reconciliation answers the postmodern quest for escape from alienation. As an extension of Christ’s ministry, the church today recognizes its mission of evangelism in the postmodern setting. The function of an apostolic community is to evangelize the world as an extension of Christ’s ministry.
God’s People
A second image for the apostolic community is the
“people of God.” The apostolic community represents the gathering of the followers of Christ as God’s holy people, set apart by the Spirit to accomplish the purposes of God in
Jesus Christ.32 As such, “Christians were heirs to the
Jewish conception of the people of God as ‘brothers and
Body consisting of believers, in which [H]e [Jesus Christ] dwells on earth through [H]is Spirit.”
32E. Lohse, Die Entstehung des Neuen Testaments, 192. 107
sisters.’”33 This language reveals the “relationality” within the community of faith between God and His people and between individual members of the community.
Once again, as with the “body of Christ,” the
postmodern quest for “relationality” finds fulfillment in
this trinitarian image of the apostolic community.
Derrida’s concept of hospitality helps elucidate this
postmodern quest. Derrida calls for absolute hospitality.34
He proposes hospitality which gives place (donne lieu)
“without demanding that he give his name or enter into some reciprocal pact.”35 Through this process of “absolute
hospitality,” Kearney suggests that the host must “allow
some way for the absolute other to enter our home, family,
nation, state.”36 The role of “absolute hospitality”
33David A. deSilva, Honor, Patronage, Kinship, and Purity: Unlocking New Testament Culture (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000), 200.
34Jacques Derrida, De L’hospitalité (Paris: Calmann- Lévy, 1997), 29; quoted in Richard Kearney, “Others and Aliens: Between Good and Evil,” in Evil After Postmodernism: Histories, Narratives, and Ethics, ed. Jennifer L. Geddes (New York: Routledge, 2001), 105. All references to Derrida’s De L’hospitalité are translated and cited by Kearney.
35Ibid.
36Richard Kearney, “Others and Aliens: Between Good and Evil,” in Evil After Postmodernism: Histories, Narratives, and Ethics, ed. Jennifer L. Geddes (New York: Routledge, 2001), 105. 108
presents an answer to the postmodern quest for identity and
legitimation.37 An apostolic conception of the “people of
God” provides an answer to Derrida’s call for absolute
hospitality.
Paul uses uiJoi; qeou and kat j ejpaggelivan klhronovmoi to
describe the “people of God.”38 Paul declares that those in
Christ, a[ra tou` jAbraa;m spevrma ejstev, kat j ejpaggelivan klhronovmoi (Gal
3:29).39 He suggests elsewhere, eij de; tevkna, kai; klhronovmoi:
klhronovmoi me;n qeou`, sugklhronovmoi de; Cristou` (Rom 8:17).40 The
picture of klhronovmoi is one of inheritance. Those who are ejn
Cristw`/ inherit the promises of God because they are sugklhronovmoi Cristou`.41 As Christ is tw`/ spevrmativ of Abraham
(Gal 3:16), uJmei`~ Cristou` have become grafted into the
promises of God to Abraham through Jesus Christ.42
An apostolic community in a postmodern world is a
37Ibid., 112.
38Douglas Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 504 n. 41.
39“Then you are of the seed of Abraham, heirs according to promise.”
40“If then children [of God], also heirs; heirs indeed of God, and joint-heirs of Christ.”
41D. Moo, Epistle to Romans, 505.
42James D. G. Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, Black’s New Testament Commentary (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993), 208. 109 community of faith. “Relationality” in the apostolic community comes dia; th`~ pivstew~ ejn Cristw`/ jIhsou` (Gal 3:26).
Derrida’s call for “absolute hospitality” is a call for the
alien-other to be provided an avenue into community. This
avenue for community is found dia; th`~ pivstew~ ejn Cristw`/ jIhsou`.
Pivsti~ is not only the avenue into the family of God, but it
is also the avenue to a community that hopes in the work of
Christ in the present mission and future eschaton.43
David Hay suggests that ancient Greek, Jewish, and
Christian writers use pivsti~ to denote the “pledge” or
“evidence” to base a belief.44 Hay, therefore, concludes
that in Gal 3:23 and 25, pivsti~ “means ‘the objective ground
of faith.’ Jesus is the decisive evidence or pledge given
humankind by God which makes faith possible.”45 The
incredulity of postmodern people confronts the pivsti~ tou`
Cristou`. Lohse writes, “Der Glaube erkennt das Evangelium in den Sinn als wahr an, dass es als Heilsbotschaft und
Zuspruch der Bettung fortan das ganze Leben der Glaubenden
43Jürgen Moltmann, The Church in the Power of the Spirit: A Contribution to Messianic Ecclesiology, trans. Margaret Kohl (London: SCM Press, 1977; reprint, Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1993), 76.
44David M. Hay, “Pistis as ‘Ground for Faith’ in Hellenized Judaism and Paul,” Journal of Biblical Literature 108 (1989): 461-76.
45Ibid., 471. 110 bestimmt.”46 The foundation of pivsti~ tou` Cristou` produces a
transformation in the orientation of a postmodern person.
In this way, evangelism in an apostolic approach connects
postmodern people with the revelation of the gospel so that
they make individual decisions based upon “the objective
ground of faith” in Jesus Christ as God’s pledge to them.
The apostolic community as the “people of God”
finds “relationality” in Christ as the klhronovmoi apart from
the rite of circumcision or Judaism (Gal 3:26-29).47 The
promise of the Spirit pa`sin toi`~ eij~ makravn (Acts 2:39; 11:15-
18) bears resemblance to Paul’s argument.48 The “people of
God” comprises all genders, social standing, and ethnicity.
The evangelistic emphasis of this apostolic image of the Christian community of faith centers upon the avenue through which postmodern people may become God’s people.
The “people of God” refers to the apostolic community whose
46E. Lohse, “Emuna und Pistis,” Zeischrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 68 (1977): 153. “Faith considers the gospel as true in the sense that it, as the message of salvation and encouragement, determines hereafter the entire life of faithfulness.”
47T. David Gordon, “The Problem at Galatia,” Interpretation 41 (1987): 40.
48See Beverly Robert Gaventa, “The Eschatology of Luke-Acts Revisited,” Encounter 43 (1982): 27-42. 111
“proclamation would address all nations, all cultures.”49
All people of every cultural, racial, and social background
may enter into the apostolic community through faith in
Christ, answering Derrida’s call for “absolute hospitality”
and the postmodern quest for “relationality.”
The Spirit’s Temple
The image of the temple of the Holy Spirit presents
the third trinitarian metaphor of the apostolic community.50
Stanley Grenz insightfully indicates that the OT conception of the temple is “God’s earthly dwelling place.” After the coming of the Spirit, however, “the focus of the Spirit’s presence is no longer a special building, but a special people” whom He possesses.51
Stephen alludes to this image when he declares, ajll j
oujc u{yisto~ ejn ceiropohvtoi~ katoikei` (Acts 7:48).52 De Silva suggests that the first six chapters of Acts describes “the
49Thomas C. Oden, Life in the Spirit: Systematic Theology, Volume Three (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998), 296.
50Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 1049.
51Stanley Grenz, Created for Community: Connecting Christian Belief with Christian Living, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 209.
52“But the Most High does not live in a building made by human hands.” See similarly, Acts 17:24. 112 presence and activity of God’s Holy Spirit in the midst of the community.”53 The church as the “temple of the Spirit” portrays “the place of presence for the risen Lord.”54
This image presents “relationality” as distinctive
from postmodern pluralsim. Paul uses this image as a
warning “against compromise with heathen society” (2 Cor
6:14-18).55 Paul writes, mh; givnesqe eJterozugou`nte~ ajpivstoi~ (v.
14) . . . hJmei`~ ga;r nao;~ qeou` ejsmen zw`nto~ (v. 16).56 The pistw`/
(v. 15) refers to the community of faith,57 and ajpivstoi~
53D. A. deSilva, Honor, Patronage, Kinship, and Purity, 292-93.
54Carey Newman, “Images of the Church in Paul,” in The People of God: Essays on the Believers’ Church, eds. Paul A. Basden and David S. Dockery (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1991; reprint, 1999), 153.
55P. T. O’Brien, “The Church as a Heavenly and Eschatological Entity,” in The Church in the Bible and the World: An International Study, ed. D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987), 100.
56“Do not become mismated with unbelievers” (v. 14) . . . “for we are the temple of the living God” (v. 16). The hJmei`~ in verse 16 refers to individual believers and to the community. See Joseph A. Fitzmeyer, Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament (London: Chapman, 1971), 214.
57See Ralph P. Martin, 2 Corinthians, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco: Word, 1986), 201. He suggests that pistov~ is a technical “designation of the follower of Jesus.” See also, R. Bultmann, s. v. “pistov~,” in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 10 vols., ed. G. Kittel, trans. and ed. G. W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967; reprint, 1978), 6:215. Hereafter cited, TDNT. 113 refers to pagan worshipers in Corinth.58 Thus, there can be
no sugkatavqesi~ naw`/ qeou` meta; eijdwvlwn (v. 16).59 Paul warns
against “becoming spiritually linked” with pagan worship.60
Thus, an apostolic community relates to the postmodern world in a distinctive fashion. The church, which relates to the postmodern world, must not “become spiritually linked” with the philosophies of postmodernity which defile the distinctiveness of the community. The postmodern quest for pluralism calls for “agreement” between the “temple of the Spirit” and other religious narratives.
Lakeland, who writes for a postmodern theology, declares that such a theology will “reflect the open-ended, pluralistic, pragmatic, and tentative nature of the postmodern world.”61 Lakeland suggests that the church in
the postmodern setting must “embrace the spirit of the
age.”62 To accomplish this task, Lakeland relegates the
58Margaret Thrall, “The Problem of 2 Cor. 6:14-7:1 in Some Recent Discussion,” New Testament Studies 24 (1977- 78): 143.
59“Agreement by the temple of God with idols.”
60Ben Witherington III, Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 405.
61See, Paul Lakeland, Postmodernity: Christian Identity in a Fragmented Age (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1997), 86.
62Ibid. 114
mission of the church to “pluralistic discourse” which seeks
“consensus.”63 The necessity of consensus leads Lakeland to
conclude that “Christ will not be in the foreground of
Christian mission in the postmodern world,” but He “will be
the distinctive element ‘behind’” the mission.64 Is this not the fulfillment of Paul’s warning in 2 Corinthians 6?
According to Fung, the trinitarian images of the apostolic community point to the “relationality” between the church and God in Jesus Christ through the Holy Spirit.65
This writer suggests a modification of Fung’s conclusion.
The self-conception of the apostolic community includes the
relation to the world as well; therefore, the conclusion
would be that the images reflect the “relationality” between
the church and God in Jesus Christ through the Holy Spirit
to the world.
The application of this self-conception to the
contemporary scene compels the Christian community to
conceive this single reality in a postmodern world. The
church lives in connection with God’s redemptive actions in
Christ as the mission of the church among postmodern people.
63Ibid., 102.
64Ibid., 108.
65Ronald Y. K. Fung, “Some Pauline Pictures of the Church,” Evangelical Quarterly 53 (1981): 107. 115
Through this work of God in the apostolic community, the
church seeks to continue Christ’s priority and mission of
“self-giving liberation of men for their true future.”66
Moltmann further declares, “Then, as the community of the cross it consists of the fellowship of the kingdom . . . it spreads the feast without end.”67
An apostolic community in a postmodern world is
“not a casual collection of some individuals with more or
less common religious convictions,”68 but it is the
“mediated presence of God in the world.”69 As Webber puts
it, “The goal of the church is to be a divine standard, a
sign of God’s incarnational presence and activity in
history. In a postmodern world the most effective witness
to a world of disconnected people is the church that forms
community and embodies the reality of the new society.”70
66Moltmann, Church in the Power of the Spirit, 75.
67Ibid.
68Markus Barth, The Broken Wall: A Study of the Epistle to the Ephesians (Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1959), 131.
69Richard Lints, “The Vinyl Narratives: The Metanarrative of Postmodernity and the Recovery of a Churchly Theology,” in A Confessing Theology for Postmodern Times, ed. Michael Horton (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2000), 102.
70Robert Webber, Ancient-Future Faith: Rethinking Evangelicalism for a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1999), 79. 116
Transformation of Worldviews
An apostolic approach focuses on the transformation
of worldviews from postmodern to Christian through the
apostolic community. A worldview, according to Charles
Kraft, presents “ the central systematization of conceptions
of reality . . . from which stems their value system.”71
Wright further suggests that worldviews are “the lens through which the world is seen, the blueprint for how one should live in it, and above all the sense of identity and place which enables human beings to be what they are.”72
Middleton and Walsh propose that worldviews “give faith answers to a set of ultimate and grounding questions.”
Postmodern people seek the nature of reality, the purpose for life, the reason and cause for evil in the world, and the path to wholeness.73
At the conclusion of Peter’s sermon at Pentecost,
he calls to the hearers: swvqhte ajpo; th`~ genea`~ th`~ skolia`~ tauvth~
71Charles Kraft, Christianity and Culture (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1979), 53.
72N. T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God, vol. 1, Christian Origins and the Question of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 124.
73J. Richard Middleton and Brian J. Walsh, Truth Is Stranger Than It Used to Be: Biblical Faith in a Postmodern Age (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 11. 117
(Acts 2:40).74 Through the use of the preposition ajpo;, Peter calls his hearers a conversion of worldviews.75 Peter
promotes salvation from the worldview embraced and embedded
in the culture of their world (th`~ genea`~ th`~ skolia`~ tauvth~).
In this way, conversion creates a “paradigm shift” in which
an individual emerges into a “new mode of life occasioned by
a self-involving participation in the shared life, language,
and paradigm of the believing community.”76
Such a transformation is welcome in the postmodern milieu. Brian Walsh writes that the worldview of modernity is currently at a stage of incredulity.77 Such incredulity
promotes “the gravest sort of anxiety” for the postmodern
person.78 The postmodern person, in general terms, searches
for an option better than the modern worldview or the
74“Be delivered from this crooked race.”
75Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, eds. W. F. Arndt and F. W. Gingrich, 2d ed., eds. F. W. Gingrich and F. W. Danker (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957; reprint, 1979), s. v. “ajpov,” 86. Hereafter cited, BAGD. It denotes a separation from a sphere of origin.
76Brad J. Kallenberg, “Conversion Converted: A Postmodern Formulation of the Doctrine of Conversion,” Evangelical Quarterly (1995): 358.
77Brian Walsh, “Reimaging Biblical Authority,” Christian Scholar’s Review 26 (1996): 207.
78Clifford Geertz, Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 99. 118 anxiety caused by its demise. This writer proposes that the apostolic approach presents a worldview that meets the postmodern challenge of “profound disorientation in which nothing seems to cohere.”79
The summary statement of Acts 2:42 demonstrates the
transformation of worldviews by which an apostolic community
provides the interpretation of life through the lens of the
apostles’ doctrine and through the koinwniva of the community.
Luke records the work of the church when he writes, h\san de;
proskarterou`nte~ th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn kai; th`/ koinwniva/, th`/ klavsei tou`
a[rtou kai; tai`~ proseucai`~.80
The Significance of the Apostles’ Doctrine
The apostles’ doctrine provides the process by which the apostolic church transforms worldviews. This writer contends that th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn is divine revelation which defines the way life should be. It is the definition of the “true life” inscribed by the Spirit of truth.81 Postmodern people reject such a “totalizing”
statement as an oppressive metanarrative, yet the intent of
79B. Walsh, “Reimaging Biblical Authority,” 207.
80“But they were attending constantly to the teaching of the apostles and to fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayers” (Acts 2:42).
81See previous chapter on “The Holy Spirit: The Bridge for the Objective Truth of the Gospel.” 119
the apostolic approach is to deconstruct postmodern
incredulity of the gospel and to re-construct a worldview in
concert with the doctrine of Christ through the Holy Spirit.
An examination of th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn demonstrates
its connection with the doctrine of Christ. William Neil
proposes that th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn refers to the “words and
works of Jesus as later incorporated in the Gospels.”82
Rengstorf concludes that th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn refers to the proclamation of Christ’s didachv by those whom He has sent into the world.83 The premise of this section is that the doctrine of Christ is the apostles’ doctrine. James Sawyer suggests that the apostles’ teaching serves as the mediation between Christ and the church.84 Therefore, “the church is
only faithful to its calling as it perseveres in the
teaching and tradition of the apostles, who constitute the
human link with Jesus.”85
82William Neil, The Acts of the Apostles, New Century Bible Commentary (London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1973; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 80-81.
83K. Rengstorf, s.v. “didachv,” TDNT, 2:164-65.
84M. James Sawyer, “Evangelicals and the Canon of the New Testament,” Grace Theological Journal 11 (Spring 1990): 40.
85Richard N. Longenecker, “Taking Up the Cross Daily: Discipleship in Luke-Acts,” in Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament, ed. Richard N. Longenecker (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 59. 120
The historical distance, however, between the
postmodern world and th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn presents a problem
of truth and authority for postmodern people. Scripture
bridges the historical distance, and the Spirit works
through Scripture to resolve the issues of truth and
authority. Bruce concludes that “New Testament scriptures
form the written deposit of the apostolic teaching.”86
Certainly, the earliest documents of the NT are letters from
apostles which apply Christ’s teaching. The Gospels
comprise the “written transcripts of the Gospel” so that th`/
didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn “might be preserved.”87
Thus, th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn inextricably coincides
with evangelism. Jesus commissions His followers in Matthew
28:19-20: poreuqevnte~ ou\n maqhteuvsate pavnta ta; e[qnh, baptivzonte~ aujtou;~
eij~ to; o[noma tou` patro;~ kai; tou` uiJou` kai; tou` aJgivou pneuvmato~, didavskonte~
aujtou;~ threi`n pavnta o{sa ejneteilavmhn uJmi`n.88 The activity of
didavskonte~ aujtou;~ threi`n pavnta o{sa ejneteilavmhn uJmi`n corresponds to
the transformation of a life, so that what an individual
86F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, rev. ed., New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 73.
87F. F. Bruce, The Books and the Parchments, rev. ed. (Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell, 1984), 97-98.
88“As you go, therefore, make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to fulfill as much as I have commanded to you” (Matt 28:19-20a). 121 does conforms to what Christ commands. As Blomberg writes,
“Teaching obedience to all of Jesus’ commands forms the heart of disciple making. Evangelism must be holistic.”89
In order for postmodern people to follow Christ, they must
be transformed so that their worldview matches Scripture.90
An apostolic approach promotes this transformation.
Paul describes this transformation in Rom 12:2.
Paul joins mh; to the present imperative, suschmativzesqe, to form an imperative of prohibition.91 The locative, tw`/ aijw`ni
touvtw/, reveals the worldview of “this age” or “the thought
patterns extant outside Christianity.”92 Paul, therefore,
encourages the believers to stop conforming themselves to
the worldview of tw`/ aijw`ni touvtw/.93
89Craig L. Blomberg, Matthew, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1992), 433.
90Thomas C. Oden, Life in the Spirit, 300.
91James A. Brooks and Carlton L. Winberry, Syntax of New Testament Greek (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1979), 127; Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, 755. Moo suggests that the voice of the verb could be passive, middle-reflexive, or “most likely . . . a simple (‘intransitive’) active significance -- ‘do not conform.’”
92Adolf Schlatter, Romans: The Righteousness of God, trans. Siegfried Schatzmann (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995), 229. The intent of this phrase, according to Schlatter, is that the world “assumes and specifically demands” that individuals “conduct themselves just as it does.”
93Bo Reicke, “Positive and Negative Aspects of the World in the New Testament,” Westminster Theological Journal 122
The passive imperative, metamorfou`sqe, indicates the
responsibility for action.94 The instrument of transformation is th`/ ajnakainwvsei tou` noo;~,95 by which ajnakainwvsei
indicates “a continuing renewal” (see 2 Cor 4:16; Col 3:10).
This writer, following Moo, suggests that ajnakainwvsei “picks up kainovthti pneuvmato~ (‘newness of Spirit’) from 7:6.” The work of the Spirit provides the avenue w{ste douleuvein hJma`~ ejn kainovthti pneuvmato~ kai; ouj palaiovthti gravmmato~ (Rom 7:6).96 This is
the renewal of the mind by which the Spirit illuminates
Scripture, which is the written deposit of th`/ didach`/ tw`n
ajpostovlwn. That which is renewed is noo;~, a noun which
points specifically to the worldview of an individual.97
In an apostolic approach for the evangelization of
postmodern people, th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn provides the avenue
49 (Fall 1987): 363.
94James L. Boyer, “A Classification of Imperatives: A Statistical Study,” Grace Theological Journal 8 (Spring 1987): 49.
95See Brooks and Winberry, Syntax of New Testament Greek, 44-45.
96“So that we might serve in the newness of the Spirit and not in the oldness of the letter.”
97Peter Stuhlmacher, Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Commentary, trans. Scott J. Hafemann (Louisville: Westminster / John Knox Press, 1994), 189. J. Behm, s.v. “nou`~,” TDNT, 4:958-59. Behm indicates that nou`~ presents the foundation of reason and will that influences how one lives. 123
through which the community of faith leads postmodern people
to a transformation of their worldview.98 Moo cogently
summarizes the transformation of worldview when he writes:
“Christians are to adjust their way of thinking about
everything in accordance with the ‘newness’ of their life in
the Spirit (cf. 7:6).99
Schnelle suggests that ei\nai ejn Cristw`/ designates the
“newness of life” as a “neuen Seins und Lebens.”100 This new
existence and life of believers ejn Cristw`/ appear “als der
Raum, in dem sich seinshafte Veränderungen vollziehen und
gelebt werden. Die Getauften sind in allen Lebensäußerungen
durch Christus bestimmt, und in ihrer Gemeinschaft gewinnt
das neue Sein sichtbar Gestalt.”101 The apostles’ doctrine,
therefore, is the call to conform to the will of God
revealed through Jesus Christ “in allen Lebensäußerungen
durch Christus.”
98Herman A. Hoyt, “A Genuine Christian Non- Conformity: Romans 12:2,” Grace Journal 8 (Winter 1967): 7.
99D. Moo, Epistle to the Romans, 756-757.
100Udo Schnelle, “Transformation und Partizipation in paulinischer Theologie,” New Testament Studies 47 (January 2001): 68.
101Ibid., 69-70. “. . . as the realm in which personally responsible changes will be fulfilled and lived. The baptized are determined through Christ in all life expressions, and in its community the new existence gains visible shape.” 124
An apostolic approach for the evangelization of postmodern people requires the transformation of worldviews.
The connection between the community and the transformation of worldviews is found in devotion to the apostles’ doctrine. Postmodernism, however, exalts the process of hermeneutics. The following excursus examines the relationship between hermeneutics and the postmodern resistance to the transformation of worldview through
Scripture.
Excursus: Hermeneutics and the Postmodern Challenge
Hermeneutics plays an important role in the premise of postmodernism. Postmodern theorists propose that truth is a product of the community. D. A. Carson suggests that postmodernism “depends not a little on what are perceived to be the fundamental limitations on the power of interpretation.”102 Stanley Fish, Richard Rorty, and Jacques
Derrida represent three leading voices in postmodern hermeneutics.
Stanley Fish’s “reader-response” approach to hermeneutics presents a leading voice in postmodern theory
102D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 57. 125 of interpretation.103 According to Fish, the meaning of a
text is the reader’s response to the text.104 The text is an
“entity independent of interpretation” and “is replaced by
the texts that emerge” from interpretation within the social
setting.105 Fish further indicates that all “interpretation
is the source of texts, facts, authors, and intentions.”106
By this endeavor, Fish dismisses foundationalism because it prohibits the reader from “the most remarkable of his abilities, the ability to give the world meaning rather than to extract a meaning that is already there.”107
According to Fish’s hermeneutical program, one
comes to the text to create rather than discover meaning.108
Fish views a text as “an empty, separate domain, awaiting
the collective intention that will fill it.”109 For Fish,
103Stanley Fish, Is There a Text in This Class?: The Authority of Interpretive Communities (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 1-17.
104Ibid., 158.
105Ibid., 13.
106Ibid., 16.
107Ibid., 86.
108Ibid., 326-27. He proposes that in his model “the reader was freed from the tyranny of the text and given the central role in the production of meaning” (Ibid., 7).
109William Ray, Literary Meaning: From Phenomenology to Deconstruction (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1984), 162. 126 the only parameter in interpretation is the “point of view” in the interpretive community.110 As Culler sees Fish’s
proposal, the “notion of ‘what the text says’ itself depends
upon common procedures of reading.”111 Thus, the different
interpretive strategies of exegetical communities make the
text speak differently. The readers in their interpretive
community is determinative in the creation of meaning.112
Richard Rorty proposes another leading approach in postmodern interpretation which focuses on conversation as hermeneutics.113 The assumption of Rorty’s position consists
in his concept of the acquisition of truth. He rejects
Crispin Wright’s “representationalist” portrayal of the
cognitive discourse114 which, according to Rorty, views
110S. Fish, Is There a Text in This Class?, 335-37.
111Jonathan Culler, The Pursuit of Signs: Semiotics, Literature, Deconstruction (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981), 125.
112D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God, 126.
113Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), 390-94.
114Crispin Wright, Truth and Objectivity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 91-93. Wright indicates that the “representation of facts” incorporates the “correct . . . perspective on the truth predicate” (Ibid., 83). Wright’s contention is that truth is the “output” of the cognitive function of an individual correctly handling the “input” of information. Differences of opinion between two or more individuals concerning the same information is the result of a priori “differences of opinion.” 127
“human beings as machines constructed (by God or Evolution) to, among other things, get things right.” Rorty’s approach is “to get rid of that self-image and to replace it with a picture of machines that continually adjust to each other’s behavior, and to their environment, by developing novel kinds of behavior.”115 Rorty’s assumption is that the acquisition of truth is not the goal of discourse.116
Rather, the continual adjustment toward others and the social context is the goal of discourse.117
This “continual adjustment” provides the framework for conversation as “the ultimate context within which knowledge is to be understood.”118 For Rorty, hermeneutics is the conversation between people who come to the end of their “edifying discourse” with understanding, but who do not seek truth as the goal of the dialogue. Because no vocabulary or text “is closer to reality than another” nor
115Richard Rorty, Truth and Progress: Philosophical Papers, Volume 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 32.
116Ibid., 3-4. Rorty writes: “Truth is not a goal of inquiry. If ‘truth’ is the name of such a goal then, indeed, there is no truth. For the absoluteness of truth makes it unserviceable as such a goal.”
117Ibid., 5.
118Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 389. 128
“in touch with a power not herself,”119 hermeneutics involves merely “obedience to our own conventions.”120
Rorty seeks to “abandon the courtroom of truth for the carnival of redescription.”121 “Redescription” is the process by which one makes something “to look good or bad,” depending upon the goal and context of “language game.”122
The ultimate arbiter in hermeneutics is the individual.123
Texts and vocabularies are interpreted through conversation and “re-description.” The end-game of hermeneutics for
Rorty is to “make something that never had been dreamed of before.”124 This hermeneutical process results in a pragmatic, “whatever works best” interpretation.
In this way, according to Rorty, “hermeneutics is
119Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 73.
120Richard Rorty, Consequences of Pragmatism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), xlii.
121Douglas Groothuis, Truth Decay: Defending Christianity Against the Challenges of Postmodernism (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000), 198.
122Richard Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth: Philosophical Papers, Volume 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 102-103.
123Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, 97. Rorty suggests that individuals are not judged by any external reality or final vocabularies, but only by themselves.
124Ibid. 129
always parasitic” upon epistemology informed “by the culture
of the day.”125 Interpretation is an internal, unconscious
need to create “a self” for oneself through a re-description
of the “blind impress” of chance upon one’s life.126 The
goal of hermeneutics is to appropriate various options for
epistemology, re-describe the context in life, and create “a
self” for oneself. Roger Lundin suggests that Rorty’s
hermeneutics presents the reader as the “parasite” who seeks
“to bring the dead text to life by internalizing it.”127
Jacques Derrida’s concept of différance provides
another view of the hermeneutical process in postmodern
thought.128 Derrida’s concept of différance is the fulcrum
of his deconstruction project. Vanhoozer suggests that
“Derrida is an unbeliever in the reliability, decidability,
and neutrality of the sign.”129 Différance is the
125Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 365- 66.
126Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, 43.
127Roger Lundin, Clarence Walhout, and Anthony Thiselton, The Promise of Hermeneutics (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 41.
128Jacques Derrida, “Différance,” in Deconstruction in Context: Literature and Philosophy, ed. Mark C. Taylor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 396-420.
129Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text?: The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 39. 130
“neologism” which Derrida uses to describe the instability,
undecidability, and partiality of language. He suggests
that this hermeneutical process is “strategic” because “no
transcendent truth . . . can govern theologically the
totality of the field.” It is adventurous because it does
not move toward a “a telos or theme of domination.”130
Derrida conceptualizes self-consciousness as a
product of signs and the interminable play of language.131
The consciousness can only express meaning through a
reference to the past (retention) and the future
(protention) -- “memory and expectation.”132 This expression
comes from the movement of trace, which is the “arch-
phenomenon of memory.”133 Retention is the movement of the
trace within the consciousness that “produces the
130Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, rev. ed., trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 399-400.
131Jacques Derrida, Speech and Phenomenon: And Other Essays on Husserl’s Theory of Signs, trans. David B. Allison and Newton Garver (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1973), 16. Derrida seeks to deconstruct Husserl’s exaltation of “voice,” or phone, as the avenue to connect with the ideal object apart from the contaminating forces of external context.
132Ibid., 64.
133J. Derrida, Of Grammatology, 70. The concept of “trace” is the relationship between the signifier of something in the present and “something other than itself” in the past (retention). It is the relationship between the signifier in the present and a future element (protention). 131
subject.”134 Protention is the movement of the trace which introduces the “movement of différance,” so that the sign of
the present introduces reference to another sign not in the
present.135 The signifier possesses meaning only in
relationship with other signifiers.136 Différance “‘is’ in itself nothing outside of different denominations.”137
Derrida’s hermeneutic rejects the possibility of a
transcendental “concept signified in and of itself.”138
Derrida suggests that “the central signified, the original
or transcendental signified, is never absolutely present
outside a system of differences. The absence of the
transcendental signified extends the domain and the play of
signification infinitely.”139 This absence produces
“differences and traces of traces.”140
The result of Derrida’s hermeneutic is a text with
134J. Derrida, Speech and Phenomenon, 82.
135Ibid., 67.
136Ibid., 44.
137Jacques Derrida, Limited Inc (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1988), 149.
138Jacques Derrida, Positions, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 19.
139Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 280.
140J. Derrida, Positions, 26. 132
“infinite implications.”141 Derrida’s use of terms with
“double, contradictory, undecidable value” presents his
hermeneutic of différance.142 As Joy notes, Derrida’s use of
these terms “insures that neither any past nor future
possibilities of meaning can be exhausted” and dismantles
“univocity by exploiting plurivocity” in texts.143 For
Derrida, there can be no final, ultimate meaning of a
particular text.
According to Derrida, the movement of différance
overturns “all theologies.”144 Because no transcendental
signified exists, he rejects “la religion du vivant” as a
tautology which creates “impératif absolu, loi sainte, loi
du salut: sauver le vivant comme l’intact, l’indemne, le
sauf (heilig).”145 Derrida verifies his critique against all
141J. Derrida, Writing and Difference, 25.
142Jacques Derrida, Dissemination, trans. Barbara Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 221; idem. Positions, 43. Such terms include pharmakon (neither remedy nor poison), supplément (neither accident nor essence), and hymen (neither consummation nor virginity).
143Morny Joy, “Derrida and Ricoeur: A Case of Mistaken Identity (and Difference),” Journal of Religion 68 (October 1988): 514.
144Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 67.
145Jacques Derrida, “Foi et savoir -- Les deux sources de la ‘religion’ aux limites de la simple raison,” in La religion, eds. Jacques Derrida and Gianni Vattimo (Paris: Seuil, 1996), 65-66. He rejects the “religion of 133 theologies in his study of Babel.146 Derrida views the use
of the proper name as the promotion of “logocentrism” --
that there is a stable connection between the world and
language.147 The result of Derrida’s interpretation of
Babel, where Babel (confusion) is the proper name for God, is that logocentrism itself is confusion and that
“determinate textual interpretation is impossible.”148
Ingraffia presents Derrida’s hermeneutic in a theological
fashion when he writes: “Instead of the Logos calling
humanity into being, humanity calls God into being.”149
Derrida, therefore, promotes a hermeneutic which dismisses
meaning as indeterminable. Instead, meaning moves through
the arbitration of différance in the reading and writing of
the individual.
Unlike the postmodern hermeneutics of Fish, Rorty,
the living” which creates “absolute command, holy law, law of salvation: to save the living as the whole, the protected against harm, the set apart (holy).”
146See chapter 2, “Beyond Babel: Epistemology and eJtevrai~ glwvssai~,” for more on Derrida’s use of Babel.
147Geoffrey Bennington and Jacques Derrida, Jacques Derrida (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 105.
148Craig Bartholomew, “Babel and Derrida: Postmodernism, Language and Biblical Interpretation,” Tyndale Bulletin 49 (November 1998): 324.
149Brian Ingraffia, Postmodern Theory and Biblical Theology: Vanquishing God’s Shadow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 223. 134 or Derrida, an apostolic approach to hermeneutics seeks to transform the postmodern worldview to match the apostolic worldview. Scripture interprets the postmodern person’s life so that he or she may be free “to be fully human.”150
Derrida, Rorty, and Fish pursue a hermeneutic which
rejects the pretension that exegesis can lead to a “correct
view of things.”151 Yet, encounters with Scripture impinge
certain expectations and demands upon the interpreter.152
Clarence Walhout, following Alvin Plantinga, proposes that
“our hermeneutics needs to be grounded in our warranted beliefs.”153 In an apostolic approach, these “warranted beliefs” emerge from the text of Scripture (the design plan) as it is interpreted in the “cognitive environment” of the
150N. T. Wright, “How Can the Bible Be Authoritative?,” Vox Evangelica 21 (1991): 16; quoted in B. Walsh, “Reimaging Biblical Authority,” 211.
151Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text?, 22.
152Thomas Long, Preaching and the Literary Forms of the Bible (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1989), 29. Thomas Long writes that “encounters with Scripture itself have built up in the community of faith the expectation of Scripture’s special character, rather than the other way around.”
153Lundin, Walhout, Thiselton, Promise of Hermeneutics, 99. Alvin Plantinga, Warrant: The Current Debate (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 213. Plantinga proposes “warranted beliefs” which are based upon “design plan” and “proper function.” He writes: “A thing (organism, organ, system, artifact) is functioning properly when it functions in accord with its design plan, and the design plan of a thing is a specification of the way in which a thing functions when it is functioning properly.” 135
apostolic community.154
Grenz and Franke similarly propose the concept of
“interpretive framework,” which is “that set of categories, beliefs, and values . . . which forms one’s perception of reality and life.”155 The Spirit forms a “communal
interpretive framework” through the biblical text that leads
individuals to view “all reality in light of an unabashedly
Christian and specifically biblical interpretive
framework.”156
Postmodern hermeneutics presents the primacy of the
social context and the interminable play of language as the
arbiter or arbitration of meaning in the hermeneutical
process.157 Rather than dismissing or veiling authorial
intention, this writer suggests that the Spirit illumines
the reader of Scripture so that the meaning of the author’s
intention is accessible.
Following Wolterstorff’s suggestion of “double
154Alvin Plantinga, Warrant and Proper Funtion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 82. Plantinga writes that “the design plan does not cover my cognitive faculties in isolation from yours or yours from mine.”
155Grenz and Franke, Beyond Foundationalism, 81.
156Ibid.; James Barr, The Scope and Authority of the Bible (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1980), 126-27.
157K. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text?, 168. 136 agency discourse,” this writer proposes that the Spirit speaks to the reader through the “appropriated discourse” of the biblical authors.158 Grenz and Franke propose that the
Spirit appropriates Scripture “in its internal meaning
(i.e., to appropriate what the author said).”159 Vanhoozer
proposes the same concept when he suggests that the Spirit
does not “change” meaning but “charges” it with relevance
“by relating the original content to new contexts.”160
Illumination actualizes th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn in the
postmodern setting. In the words of Grenz and Franke, “the
Spirit speaks to succeeding generations of Christians
through the text.”161 Pinnock warns against the postmodern
hermeneutics by which the reader transforms the text and
commends illumination by which the Spirit transforms the
reader through Scripture.162 Grenz and Franke warn that
158Nicholas Wolterstorff, Divine Discourse: Philosophical Reflections on the Claim That God Speaks (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 38-54.
159S. Grenz and J. Franke, Beyond Foundationalism, 73-75. Grenz and Franke, however, critique Wolterstorff’s proposal in terms of authorial intention, which they claim is a “modern tendency to elevate some other reality [the author] above the Bible as text.”
160K. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text?, 409-415, 421.
161Grenz and Franke, Beyond Foundationalism, 66.
162Clark Pinnock, “The Role of the Spirit in Interpretation,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological 137
illumination leads to subjectivism when biblical authority
is reduced “to our subjective reception of the divine
address.”163
The concept illumination is found in 1 Cor 2:14.
In consideration of this passage, Fuller asserts that
unbelievers may understand spiritual things, but cannot
welcome the spiritual without the work of the Spirit.164
Erickson, however, suggests that “without the help of the
Holy Spirit, they [yuciko;~ a[nqrwpo~] are unable to understand them [ta; tou~ pneuvmato~ tou` qeou`].”165 Unlike Fuller, Erickson
indicates that only the believer can understand the
objective meaning of Scripture through the work of the
Spirit in illumination. Erickson indicates that the Spirit
of truth elucidates the truth for the apostles and through
Society 26 (December 1993): 494-95.
163Grenz and Franke, Beyond Foundationalism, 67.
164Daniel P. Fuller, “The Holy Spirit’s Role in Biblical Interpretation,” in Scripture, Tradition, and Interpretation, eds. W. W. Gasque and W. S. LaSor (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978), 191-92. He draws this conclusion from the meaning of three key terms: devcomai, ginwvskw, and ajnakrivnw. The first verb, devcomai, suggests to Fuller that the “natural man does not welcome the things of the Spirit of God.” The second verb, ginwvskw, indicates that the yuciko;~ a[nqrwpo~ does not embrace ta; tou~ pneuvmato~ tou` qeou` “as they really are.” The third verb, ajnakrivnw, reveals that the yuciko;~ a[nqrwpo~ cannot evaluate spiritual things.
165M. Erickson, Christian Theology, 274. 138 the apostles’ doctrine.166 In this way, the Spirit guides the community of faith into all truth through illumination.
As Clowney writes, “The Spirit who communicated through the apostles and prophets the deposit of sound doctrine (1 Tim
6:20, 21; 2 Tim 1:13) also works to illumine our understanding of the truth.”167
Following Vanhoozer, this writer proposes that the text of Scripture has the “mission of meaning.”168
Illumination is the “perlocutionary effect” of th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn by the Spirit.169 The Spirit of truth persuades and convinces the reader of the truth-claims of the Scripture.
As Vanhoozer writes, “The Spirit’s leading readers into all truth is a matter of nurturing a Pentecostal conversation about the correct interpretation of the Word’s past meaning and present significance.”170 Illumination does not present the Spirit as a rival author who leads individuals to deconstruct th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn, as with Derrida, or who leads communities to rewrite th`/ didach`/ ajpostovlwn, as with
166Ibid., 274.
167E. Clowney, “The Biblical Theology of the Church,” in The Church in the Bible and the World: An International Study, ed. D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987), 72.
168Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text?, 410.
169Ibid., 410.
170Ibid., 421. 139
Rorty or Fish. The Spirit works in concert with Scripture
to persuade the reader and produce a transformation.171 As
meaning is “accomplished” in Jesus Christ (John 14:6), the
Spirit illumines the believer “so that [the Word] can
achieve its intended effect: meaning applied.”172
The Spirit’s illumination of Scripture presents the
contemporary avenue for the transformation of worldviews in
the postmodern context. Illumination in an apostolic
hermeneutic is the application of th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn to believers through the Holy Spirit. The contemporary community of faith depends upon the work of the Spirit to lead postmodern people to know and apply what God’s desire.
As with the apostolic community in Acts 2:42, this
“charismatic teaching” of the Spirit explains the “evident
‘enthusiasm’ and the sense of God’s transforming presence in the congregation.”173
The Significance of Koinwniva
171Bernard Ramm, The Witness of the Spirit: An Essay on the Contemporary Relevance of the Internal Witness of the Holy Spirit (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959), 125.
172K. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text?, 429.
173Max Turner, “The ‘Spirit of Prophecy’ as the Power of Israel’s Restoration and Witness,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 346. 140
The paradigm shift from postmodern thought to a
Christian worldview continues through koinwniva (Acts 2:42).
Marshall indicates that koinwniva refers to “the holding of a
common meal or to a common religious experience.”174
Conzelmann indicates that koinwniva is further defined by the sharing of property as well as the common life of the community (see Acts 4:32).175 This writer proposes that
koinwniva promotes a life of reciprocity in an intimate
community of familial ties and friendship in Christ Jesus.176
In other words, koinwniva represents the ethos of the apostolic community. This ethos includes the activities of th`/ klavsei tou` a[rtou kai; tai`" proseucai`".177
The grammatical construction of verse 42 places th`/
didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn, koinwniva/, th`/ klavsei tou` a[rtou, and tai`"
proseucai`" as four distinct activities. The general
consideration of koinwniva as participation in a “common
174I. Howard Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980; reprint, 1999), 83.
175Hans Conzelmann, A Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, trans. James Limburg, A. T. Kraabel, and D. H. Juel, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 23.
176John Elliott, “Temple versus Household in Luke- Acts: A Contrast in Social Institutions,” in The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation, ed. Jerome Neyrey (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991), 236.
177“The breaking of bread” and “prayers.” 141 religious experience” suggests that th`/ klavsei tou` a[rtou and tai`" proseucai`" are elements in koinwniva.178
Table fellowship presents an avenue for the transformation of worldview in the postmodern setting. In an apostolic community, the table fellowship allows believers to remember the foundation of their community as the “body of Christ.”179 The celebration of the common meal actualizes the “fellowship of the individual church members in the unity of the body of Christ” for the church.180
Neyrey indicates that the ceremonial meal serves as a process to “bolster the boundaries defining a group or institution, even as they confirm established roles and statuses within the group.”181 The klavsi~ tou` a[rtou is an idiom for Jewish ceremony opening a meal in which the host offers
178John B. Polhill, Acts, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman, 1992), 119; Rudolf Pesch, Die Apostelgeschichte, Teilband I: Apg. 1-12, Evangelishe Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, 5 (Zürich: Benziger Verlag, 1986), 70-71.
179R. Michiels, “The ‘Model of Church’ in the First Christian Community of Jerusalem: Ideal and Reality,” Louvain Studies 10 (1985): 309-310.
180Walter Schmithals, The Theology of the First Christians, trans. O. C. Dean Jr. (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1997), 188.
181Jerome H. Neyrey, “Ceremonies in Luke-Acts: The Case of Meals and Table Fellowship,” in The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation, ed. Jerome H. Neyrey (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991), 363. 142
a prayer of blessing and then distributes the provisions
from God.182 Bruce indicates that this “regular observance” is the precursor to the Eucharist, in which the klavsi~ tou`
a[rtou is a ceremonial celebration of Christ’s “brokenness in
death” for humanity.183 The klavsi~ tou` a[rtou finds meaning in
the “exposition of Christ’s saving deed.”184 In turn, the
meal strengthens the identity of the community as well as
the participant’s role in the community.185 Through the
common meal, the community celebrates the work of Christ.
This aspect of koinwniva establishes the nature of
Christ’s death as God’s provision of life, promotes the
nature of the future with Christ’s imminent return, provides
the nature of the blessings received as part of the
community, commends the nature of ethics within the
community, and commissions individuals for the continuity
182Brad Blue, “The Influence of Jewish Worship on Luke’s Presentation of the Early Church,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 488-89.
183F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, 73; H. Conzelmann, Commentary on the Acts, 23.
184Hans Conzelmann, The History of Primitive Christianity, trans. John E. Steely (Nashville: Abingdon, 1973), 53.
185J. Neyrey, “Ceremonies in Luke-Acts,” 375. 143
and expansion of the community.186 Michael Green suggests
that “much about the Christian faith is ‘spiritual’ and hard
to get a grip on. But eating is the most basic human
activity.”187 The image of klavsi~ tou` a[rtou helps the
postmodern person visualize the nature of salvation, daily
nurture, and future glory in Christ Jesus.
Furthermore, apostolic fellowship includes proseuchv,
which denotes the regular petitioning to God for aid.188
Falk suggests that Luke records the adoption of Jewish prayer practices including the appointed prayer times.189
The connection, however, between koinwniva and klavsi~ tou` a[rtou suggests that the devotion to prayer moves beyond the practices of Temple worship.190 Indeed, the tight connection
of the fellowship suggests that the apostolic community
shares prayer together around the celebration of the common
186Ibid., 376-77. This conclusion is drawn from Christ’s farewell meal with His followers as the starting- point of the ceremonial meal of Acts 2:42.
187Michael Green, Evangelism Through the Local Church (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1992), 299-300.
188H. Greeven, s. v. “eu[comai,” TDNT, 2:807-808.
189Daniel K. Falk, “Jewish Prayer Literature and the Jerusalem Church in Acts,” in The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 300.
190W. Neil, Acts of the Apostles, 81. 144 meal.191 An apostolic approach sees this aspect of koinwniva as an “integral part of the Christian movement” and is related “to the growth of the church.”192
DeSilva provides an interesting analysis on the place of prayer in the apostolic community. His model is
“God as benefactor.” For the apostolic community, DeSilva suggests that God goes “far beyond the high-water mark of generosity” through the bestowal of reconciliation to His enemies.193 Furthermore, as the “personal patron to
Christians,” God hears and acts upon the specific petitions from “local communities of faith” who enjoy the “privilege of access to God for such timely and specific help.”194
Prayer, therefore, is “the means by which believers can personally seek God’s favor, and request specific benefactions, for themselves or on behalf of one another.”195
The role of th`/ klavsei tou` a[rtou and tai`" proseucai`" in apostolic fellowship presents a valuable picture for the
191J. Polhill, Acts, 120.
192Allison A. Trites, “The Prayer Motif in Luke- Acts,” in Perspectives in Luke-Acts, ed. C. H. Talbert (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1977), 179.
193D. A. deSilva, Honor, Patronage, Kinship, and Purity, 129.
194Ibid., 130-31.
195Ibid., 132. 145
transformation of worldview in postmodern people. Sally
Morgenthaler calls for the increased “vertical and
horizontal interaction” in community.196 This interaction
“provides pathways of contact with a holy and loving God”
and “avenues of nurturing, uplifting relationships with
those who are called in God’s name.”197 Bruce Thede suggests
that the evangelization of postmodern people depends upon
more participation and interaction in the community.198
Morgenthaler indicates that postmodern people are searching
for an “escape from the perpetual dehumanizing anonymity” of
everyday life.199 The common meal and the place of prayer in apostolic fellowship provides such an escape.
For instance, Elmer Towns examines the role of
“small-group prayer” during worship. In this approach, the
worship leader calls for the congregation to gather in small
groups during the worship in order to pray for the needs of
one another. Towns writes that this place of prayer
196Sally Morgenthaler, Worship Evangelism: Inviting Unbelievers into the Presence of God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), 123.
197Ibid., 123.
198Bruce Thede, “How One Church Reached Out to Baby Busters,” Worship Leader (July-August 1994): 14.
199S. Morgenthaler, Worship Evangelism, 120. 146
connects people to the love of God and community for them.200
Meeks states that “in order to persist, a social
organization must have boundaries, must maintain structural
stability as well as flexibility, and must create a unique
culture.”201 Through the apostles’ doctrine and koinwniva, the apostolic church transforms worldviews, establishing the boundaries, structural stability, and unique culture of an apostolic community. It is the connection within the community that provides impetus for transformation.
Furthermore, the distinctive nature of the apostolic community promotes evangelism. Elliott suggests that the community represents “the basic social organization through which the gospel advances from Palestine to Rome.”202
Through the apostles’ doctrine and fellowship, the apostolic community establishes solidarity for the church’s missionary enterprise.203
200Elmer Towns, An Inside Look at Ten of Today’s Most Innovative Churches (Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 1990), 66-67.
201Wayne A. Meeks, The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), 84.
202John H. Elliott, “Temple versus Household in Luke- Acts: A Contrast in Social Institutions,” in The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation, ed. Jerome H. Neyrey (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991), 226.
203John Koenig, New Testament Hospitality: Partnership with Strangers as Promise and Mission (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), 118-23. 147
Apostolic Ethics and Evangelism
The postmodern person desires intimacy and
belonging,204 which can be found in a community following the
pattern of ethics in an apostolic approach.205 The apostolic
ethics of the community provide a warm environment for the
evangelization of postmodern people. This writer seeks to
demonstrate the necessity of a commendable community for the
evangelization of postmodern people.206
The apostles’ doctrine and koinwniva transform worldviews so that the community becomes “the contemporary embodiment of the paradigmatic biblical narrative.”207
Witness occurs through the “way of life” of the community.
Nicholas Lash proposes that martyrdom is the “performance or
enactment of the biblical text: in its ‘active
reinterpretation.’”208 In order to overcome the postmodern
scepticism of truth, an apostolic approach seeks to
204Zygmunt Bauman, “What Prospects of Morality in Times of Uncertainty?” Theory, Culture, and Society 15 (February 1998): 11-12.
205Thom S. Rainer, Bridger Generation (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1997), 63.
206David Wells, God in the Wasteland (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1994), 29-30.
207Ibid., 78-81.
208Nicholas Lash, “What Might Martyrdom Mean?” Ex Auditu 1 (1985): 23. 148
demonstrate the truth of the gospel through the performative
interpretation of Scripture in the way-of-life of the
apostolic community. In other words, the Christian
worldview is “lived-out” through the community of faith, and
this presents the “transformative power of Christian
‘martyrdom.’”209 Meeks suggests that “making morals means
making community.”210 The premise of this section, however,
is that ethics proceed from the demands of the Spirit and
the One to whom He bears witness. The Spirit establishes
community, and the community adheres to His demands.
The Ethics of Community: Acts 2:44-47 and the Importance of ajllhvlwn in Pauline Paraenesis
The description of the apostolic community in Acts
presents the ideal paradigm for the ethic of community.
Capper and Schmithals indicate that Luke records the
summaries to present the Christian community as an ideal
community (Acts 2:44-47; 4:32-35).211 These summary
209Ibid.
210Wayne A. Meeks, The Origins of Christian Morality: The First Two Centuries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 5. The contention of this writer is that the Spirit forms community, and the morals or ethics that proceed from the community proceed from the demands of the Spirit upon the community as revealed through Scripture.
211Brian J. Capper, “The Palestinian Cultural Context of Earliest Christian Community of Goods,” in The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting (Grand 149
narratives present a paradigm for all Christian
communities.212 The koinwniva produces the ejpi; to; aujto; so that
the community shares with one another in tangible
expressions of love; such as the sale and distribution of
personal property to those in need. Unity of the apostolic
community leads them to help a[n ti~ creivan ei\cen (Acts 4:35).213
T. B. Maston indicates that there are three aspects
to the apostolic ethic in Acts: ethic of the Spirit, ethic
of fellowship, and ethic of inclusion.214 The ethic of the
Spirit centers on the decision-making within the community
of faith recorded specifically in Acts 5:1-11 and 15:1-29.
The fellowship ethic focuses upon the “the concept of
sharing.” The ethic of inclusion involves the inclusion of
Gentiles in the community (Acts 11:1-18). This apostolic
ethic presents a paradigm for the contemporary church.
Although the community of goods in Acts 2 and 4 appear as an
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 324; W. Schmithals, Theology of the First Christians, 334-35.
212Alan Brehm, “The Significance of the Summaries for Interpreting Acts,” Southwestern Journal of Theology 33 (Fall 1990): 33.
213Ibid., 35. Luke presents the nature of this unity in the summaries with ejpi; to; aujto/ and a{panta koina; (2:44); kardiva kai; yuch; miva and a{panta koina;(4:32).
214T. B. Maston, Biblical Ethics: A Guide to the Ethical Message of the Scriptures from Genesis to Revelation (Cleveland: Word, 1967; reprint, Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1982), 246-53. 150
occasional concern for the apostolic community, the
collection for the poor by Paul and the paranaetic sections
of Paul’s epistles extend and amplify the ethic for the
Christian community.
Paul describes the apostolic ethic in his
exhortation or paraenetic sections of his letters. His use
of ajllhvlwn (and ajllhvlou~) demonstrates this ethic. Following
the pattern of Christ, an apostolic ethic focuses on love.215
Phil 2:1-4 specifically reveal the principle of love in the apostolic ethic of the community.216 In verse 3,
Paul presents the ethic: mhde;n kat j ejriqeivan mhde; kata; kenodoxivan
ajlla; th`/ tapeinofrosuvnh/ ajllhvlou~ hJgouvmenoi uJperevconta~ eJautw`n.217
Schnabel indicates that this “modest self-assessment” calls
for each member of the community to seek the “advantage of
his fellow believers” above personal benefit.218 This is the
215Gordon Fee, Paul, the Spirit, and the People of God (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996), 115, 106.
216See also the ethic of humility in Rom 12:10. Paul writes, th`/ filadelfiva/ eij~ ajllhvlou~ filovstorgoi, th`/ timh`/ ajllhvlou~ prohgouvmenoi. The translation is: “Loving dearly one another with brotherly love, outstretching one another with honor.” Here, prohgouvmenoi indicates the desire to be the best at giving honor to one another. BAGD, s. v. “prohgevomai,” 706.
217“Nothing according to ambition and not according to vanity, but with humility considering the others better than himself.”
218Eckhard J. Schnabel, “How Paul Developed His Ethics,” in Understanding Paul’s Ethics: Twentieth Century Approaches, ed. Brian Rosner (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 151
principle of love as sacrificial service for one another.
Christ is the pattern for the ethic of love (Phil
2:5-11). Beginning with the conception of Christ’s
preexistence (o{~ ejn morfh`/ qeou` uJpavrcwn),219 the logic of the hymn
moves to the One who eJauto;n ejkevnwsen morfh;n douvlou labwvn and schvmati euJreqei~ wJ~ a[nqrwpo~ (Phil 2:7).220 This logic presents
“prior existence as God.”221 Christ “freiwillig arm wurde
und ein Dasein in Machtlosigkeit und Entehrung wählte.”222
Christ “ein Mensch wurde (V. 7c.d) und im Gehorsam gegen den
Willen Gottes den Weg der Erniedrigung ging: den Weg an das
Kreuz (V. 8).”223 The apostolic ethic of sacrificial service
291-92.
219“Who existing in the form of God.” This translation follows Gordon Fee, Paul’s Letter to the Philippians, 202-204. Fee considers morfh; to be “that which truly characterizes a given reality” (204). The use of uJpavrcwn points to real existence (202). See also, James D. G. Dunn, Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1980), 114-20. He views this passage merely a depiction of Christ’s humanity.
220“He emptied himself receiving the form of a slave” and “being found in outward appearance as a man.”
221G. Fee, Paul’s Letter to the Philippians, 203.
222Otfried Hofius, Der Christushymnus Philipper 2,6- 11: Untersuchungen zu Gestalt und Aussage eines urchristlichen Psalms (Tübingen: Mohr, 1991), 63. The translation is: “voluntarily became poor and chose an existence in powerlessness and dishonor.”
223Ibid. “[He] became a man (v. 7c.d) and in obedience toward the will of God went the way of 152
for others finds ultimate fulfillment in Christ.224
Obedience to Christ’s command to love one another
sacrificially, as well as following His example, gains
attentive ears as the apostolic community considers the
lordship of Christ.225
In Eph 4:32, Paul once again utilizes ajllhvlou~ to
depict the ethic of the apostolic community. As
Schnackenberg concisely indicates, “‘zueinander,’
unterstreicht die Verpflichtung zur Gemeinschaft.”226
Relationally, this commitment to the community involves
humiliation: the way by the cross (v. 8).”
224Ralph Martin, A Hymn of Christ: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997), 289- 91. Martin argues against such an ethical interpretation of this hymn, proposing instead that the purpose of the hymn in the midst of Paul’s ethical instruction is to call the community to live worthy of Christ’s kenosis, death, and exaltation. His conclusion, however, does not militate against the ethic of community toward one another. Indeed, his conclusion only strengthens the portrait of this ethic.
225L. W. Hurtado, “Jesus as Lordly Example in Philippians 2:5-11,” in From Jesus to Paul: Studies in Honour of Francis Wright Beare, ed. P. Richardson and J. C. Hurd Jr. (Waterloo: Wilfried Laurier University Press, 1983), 125.
226Rudolf Schnackenburg, Der Brief an die Epheser, Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament 10 (Neukirchener-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1982), 215. “‘To one another,’ underscores the commitment to the community.” 153 crhstovth~,227 eu[splagcno~,228 and carizovmeno~.229 Each of these virtues proceeds eij~ ajllhvlou~ in an apostolic community.
Thus, “Aus Güte (crhstovth~) wächst barmherzige Gesinnung
(eu[splagcnoi) und daraus der Wille zur Vergebung.”230 The principle of love is goodness, compassion, and forgiveness eij~ ajllhvlou~. The pattern for the apostolic ethic of forgiveness eij~ ajllhvlou~ is: kaqw;~ kai; oJ qeo;~ ejn Cristw`/ ejcarivsato uJmi`n.231 God’s forgiveness in Christ becomes the pattern by which believers forgive one another. Barth rightly suggests that “those who are forgiven” are “witnesses to God’s grace” by the exemplary manner of their communal relationships.232
Col 3:12-13 present additional virtues: tapeinofrosuvnh (humility), prau>vth" (gentleness), and makroqumiva
227BAGD, s. v. “crhstovth~,” 886. The term indicates goodness or generosity toward others.
228H. Köster, s. v. “splavgcnon ktl.,” TDNT, 7:548-49, 555-57. The term points to a deep feeling of compassion.
229Markus Barth, Ephesians: Introduction, Translation, and Commentary on Chapters 4-6, Anchor Bible 34a (New York: Doubleday, 1974), 523-24. The term indicates the activity of forgiveness toward others.
230R. Schnackenburg, Der Brief an die Epheser, 215. “From goodness (crhstovth~) grows a merciful attitude (eu[splagcnoi) and from that the will to forgiveness.”
231“As God in Christ forgave you.” The aorist use of carivzomai refers to God’s forgiveness, and the present tense carizovmenoi refers to the saint’s forgiveness.
232M. Barth, Ephesians 4-6, 525. 154
(patience).233 Paul then writes, ajnecovmenoi ajllhvlwn kai; carizovmenoi eJautoi~ (Col 3:13).234 Such a construction is
“characteristic of extended ethical injunctions in the
NT.”235 The apostolic ethic calls for “mutual tolerance” as
well as mutual forgiveness. Once again, the key to
apostolic ethic is found in Christ: kaqw;~ kai; oJ kuvrio~ ejcarivsato
uJmi`n, ou{tw~ kai; uJmei`~ (Col 3:13).236
As ajgavph is the suvndesmo~ th`~ teleiovthto~ (Col 3:14),237
the apostolic ethic finds tangible expression. Paul’s use
of ajgaphv with ajllhvlwn indicates the reciprocity of love.238
This love produces spiritual strengthening of one another.
This edification involves the pursuit of ta; th`~ oijkodomh`~ th`~
233Fritz Rienecker, Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament, ed. and trans. Cleon Rogers Jr. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976; reprint, 1980), 580-81.
234“Bearing with one another and forgiving one another.” The term, ajnecovmenoi, is an admonition to the community to extend love to one another willingly. H. Schlier, s. v. “ajnevcw ktl.,” TDNT, 1:359.
235F. F. Bruce, Colossians, Philemon, and Ephesians, 155 n. 134. Here the present participles are utilized in the sense of a command.
236“Just as the Lord forgave you, in the same manner also you.”
237“Love, which is the bond of completeness.”
238Paul exhorts the community to ajgapa`n ajllhvlou~ in Rom 13:8 and 1 Thess 3:12, 4:9, 18. 155
eij~ ajllhvlou~ (Rom 14:19).239 It includes the responsibility
ajllhvlou~ nouqetei`n (Rom 15:14).240 Here, nouqetevw denotes the
activity of a community’s influence upon the mind and will
of others in order to set them upon the right path.
Spiritual strengthening in the community also involves
“reciprocal comfort,” as Paul suggests when he writes,
parakalei`te ajllhvlou~ (1 Thess 4:18, 5:11).241
Spiritual edification involves the ethical
imperative, ajllhvlwn ta; bavrh bastavzete (Gal 6:2).242 As a
community ajnecovmenoi ajllhvlwn ejn ajgavph/ (Eph 4:2),243 the nature of
Christ’s love calls for “helping out those fellow members
whose load is too heavy for them to bear alone.”244 Helping
others overcome the temptation to sin is part of the ethic.
Fung indicates that ta; bavrh euphemistically points to a
239“The things for the building up of one another.”
240“To admonish one another.” J. Brehm, s. v. “noevw ktl.,” TDNT, 4:1019-1022.
241Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, Anchor Bible 32b (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 278. Paul’s exhortation, “comfort one another,” focuses upon the eternal association of all who are in Christ, even those who have already died. It further points to the comfort of Christ’s return.
242“Bear the burdens of one another.” Hans D. Betz, Galatians: A Commentary on Paul’s Letter to the Churches in Galatia, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 299.
243“Bearing with one another in love.”
244James D. G. Dunn, Galatians, 321. 156
believer’s lapse into sin.245 In this way, the apostolic
community joins together to offer spiritual strength to one
another.
Other tangible expressions of the principle of love
in apostolic ethics include proslambavnesqe ajllhvlou~, kaqw;~ kai; oJ
Cristo/~ proselavbeto uJma`~ (Rom 15:7).246 The exhortation informs
the relationship between the dunatoi; and the ajduvnatoi in Rome.
Black suggests that the ajduvnatoi are Jewish Christians whose dietary rituals caused them to condemn those who did not follow their ceremonial laws. The dunatoi; are the Gentile
Christians who condemned the ajduvnatoi for their legalism.247
Paul’s exhortation is for mutual acceptance within the
apostolic community. As Christ received them, they should
receive one another in community.248
The apostolic approach for the evangelization of
245Ronald Y. K. Fung, The Epistle to the Galatians, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 284.
246“You receive one another, just as Christ received you.”
247David Alan Black, Paul, Apostle of Weakness: Astheneia and Its Cognates in the Pauline Literature (New York: Peter Lang, 1984), 198-206. Moo does not draw such a tight distinction between Jewish and Gentile Christians as the identification of the “strong” and the “weak,” but he rightly indicates that the “dividing line between these two groups was basically the issue of the continuing applicability of the Jewish law.”
248D. Moo, Epistle to the Romans, 873-75. 157
postmodern people depends upon a community which follows the
principle of Christ’s love for one another as exemplified by
Christ Himself. Thus, the principle of apostolic ethics is
love and the pattern is Christ.
The Postmodern Need for Intimacy
The postmodern need for intimacy presents a
connecting link between the gospel and postmodernism. In
the postmodern world, individuals possess a hunger for
community and connection. An apostolic approach seeks to
bring ideal community to the hearts of postmodern people.
Indeed, as Leonard Sweet suggests, “relationship issues
stand at the heart of postmodern culture.”249 Kenneth Gergen
notes that postmodernism leads individuals into “a state of
continuous reconstruction.”250 In the flux of interminable
meaning, postmodern people seek “a self-identity within a
connectional framework of neighborliness, civic virtue, and
spiritual values.”251
Middleton and Walsh indicate that postmodern people
249Leonard Sweet, Post-Modern Pilgrims: First Century Passion for the 21st Century World (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2000), 113.
250Kenneth Gergen, The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life (New York: Basic Books, 1991), 5-7.
251L. Sweet, Post-Modern Pilgrims, 115. 158
exist in a state of “radical” homelessness.252 The
deconstruction of metanarrative is also the deconstruction
of reality. As such, postmodern people are “submerged in a
world of disorder, senselessness, and madness.”253 They
exist in a state of exile, searching for intimacy in a world
of violence and isolation.
Postmodern people, in turn, yearn for community
that embodies “wholesome, authentic, and healing
relationships.”254 Rorty’s espousal of a communal view of
understanding promotes the community as the creator of
identity, meaning, and value for the individual.255 Rorty
suggests that in a world with contingencies rather than
truth “loyalty to other human beings clinging together
against the dark” is a more appropriate pursuit than the
pursuit of truth or the goal of “getting things right.”256
Being informed by the “epistemic undecidability” of
252Middleton and Walsh, Truth Is Stranger Than It Used to Be, 145-46.
253Peter Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967), 22.
254Stanley Grenz, A Primer on Postmodernism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 169.
255Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth, 38; idem., Essays on Heidegger and Others, 163.
256Rorty, Consequences of Pragmatism, 166. 159
postmodernism, Winquist suggests that “we can no longer
develop an ethic in itself.”257 By this, Winquist embraces a
postmodern skepticism toward any claim to a universal,
absolute ethic. In response to this “epistemic
undecidability,” Winquist proposes “paraethics.” He
describes “paraethics” as a “belief that life is less
beautiful when people are oppressed and disenfranchised.”258
“Paraethics” seeks to “deterritorialize” texts, so that no
text has a privileged place.259 With “perspectives that are
never absolute,” Winquist proposes that the “becoming of
paraethics” is love. This love, however, is “contingent on
place and time” and subject to the “finite experience” of
relative context.260 The context of the individual,
therefore, informs and directs the becoming of “paraethics.”
In the view of this writer, an apostolic approach
presents a more constructive avenue of ethics. Being
informed by the apostolic community of the NT, an apostolic
approach seeks to embody the principle of love in Christ.
Rather than allowing the world of contingencies to dictate
257Charles E. Winquist, Desiring Theology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 143.
258Ibid., 146.
259Ibid., 146-47.
260Ibid., 148-50. 160
and direct the ethics in which one engages,261 apostolic
ethics allows the paradigm of Christ unveiled by the Spirit
of truth to dictate and direct moral principles and
obligations. An apostolic approach, therefore, speaks with
“decidability” to the postmodern need for intimacy.
Helmut Anselm describes the necessity of an ethical
response to the postmodern generation.262 Anselm indicates
that the postmodern generation is an ethical community which
needs a stable, concrete way of life. Postmodern ethics is
“virtuell” -- “Sie selbst aber ist ‘invisibilis,’
unsichtbar, besistzt keine strukturierenden Institutionen
und keine eigenen Organisationsformen.”263 Citing Bauman’s
negative view of the postmodern “way-of-life,” Anselm
suggests: “die Postmoderne macht uns zu ‘Landstreichen’ im
Land der Werte, ethische unbefriedigt, moralisch heimatlos
und immer auf der Suche nach dem Anderen, dem Neuen.”264
This evaluation necessitates that the church is to provide a
261Ibid., 142-43.
262Helmut Anselm, “Virtuelle Ethikgemeinschaften und Werteerziehung heute,” Zeitschrift für Evangelische Ethik 41 (1997): 129-136.
263Ibid., 133. “It itself, however, is ‘invisible,’ unseeable, possesses no structured institution and no specific form of organization.”
264Ibid., 129. “The postmodern creates us as “hoboes” in a land of values, ethically unsatisfied, morally homeless and always on the search for the other, the new.” 161 stable, concrete “way-of-life.” This concrete ethic is built upon the principle of love and the pattern of Christ.
Anselm calls for a movement in the church from “virtuelle
Ethik-Community” dominated by speeches and theories. He suggests that “kann man den Jugendlichen nicht durch Reden vermitteln, sondern nur durch eigenes Tun, nicht durch
Theoretisieren, sondern durch Praktizieren.”265
The practice of an apostolic approach follows the principle of love and the pattern of Jesus Christ modeled by the apostolic church in Acts and in Paul’s use of ajllhvlwn.
The ethic of community focuses upon the ethic of Christ, which is not a theory, but an active engagement of others.
The Commendable Community and Evangelism, Acts 2:47, 5:13
A community following an apostolic approach to ethics provides a commendable community for people in a postmodern setting. Stanley Hauerwas posits that all human relationships are “splintered and tribal existence” in comparison to a church which reflects an apostolic ethic.266
An apostolic community of love in Christ satisfies the
265Ibid., 135. “One cannot however mediate to the youth through speeches, but only through specific action, not through theories, but through practice.”
266Stanley Hauerwas, A Community of Character: Toward a Constructive Christian Social Ethic (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 92. 162 postmodern yearning for intimate connection. This writer proposes that the commendable community of an apostolic approach to ethics energizes the evangelistic ministry in the postmodern world.
The ethic of the apostolic community produces cavrin pro;~ o{lon to;n laovn (Acts 2:47).267 “As a result of this, the young community grew day by day, as more and more Jews accepted Jesus as the Messiah and were thus saved.”268
Indeed, a commendable community which embraces the ethic of the apostolic community enhances the evangelistic effectiveness in a postmodern world.269 An apostolic approach calls for the community of faith to demonstrate the love of Christ toward one another.
Following the divine judgment on Ananias and
Sapphira (Acts 5:1-11), ejmegavlunen auJtou;~ oJ laov~ (Acts 5:13b).270
267The apostolic community had “favor with all the people.” Ernst Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary, trans. R. McL. Wilson, et al. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971), 193; W. Neil, Acts of the Apostles, 82. Neil suggests that the “splendid quality of their common life” produced a favorable view.
268W. Neil, Acts of the Apostles, 82.
269George G. Hunter III, How to Reach Secular People (Nashville: Abingdon, 1992), 137-40.
270“The people praised them.” 163
The setting of this verse appears “anti-evangelistic.”271
The judgment of Ananias and Sapphira creates an atmosphere in which tw`n de; loipw`n oujdei;~ eJtovlma kolla`sqai aujtoi`~ (Acts 5:13a).272
D. R. Schwartz proposes that the tension between the admiration of the people and their fear kept prospective converts from union with the apostolic community through the contribution of personal property.273 Bruce also indicates
that these deaths dissuaded all but the totally committed
from joining the community.274 C. C. Torrey, however,
considers loipw`n to refer to the Jewish religious leaders
and kalla`sqai to the arrest of the Christians.275 This writer
follows Marshall who proposes the intent of the verse is:
“unbelieving Jews kept away from the Christians.”276
271H. Conzelmann, Commentary on the Acts, 39. Conzelmann suggests that it is “mere clumsiness” by the author.
272“But no one of the rest had courage to unite with them.”
273D. R. Schwartz, “Non-Joining Sympathizers (Acts 5,13-14),” Biblica 64 (1983): 550-55.
274F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, 109.
275C. C. Torrey, “The ‘Rest’ in Acts v. 13,” Expository Times 46 (1934-1935): 428-29. He takes kolla`sqai as “to seize.” The religious leaders did not dare arrest the members of the apostolic community because of their favor and high-esteem by oJ laov~.
276I. H. Marshall, Acts of the Apostles, 115. He suggests that loipw`n is a technical idiom for unbelievers and the meaning of kolla`sqai means “to come near.” 164
The fear of “half-hearted” allegiance to the
apostolic community provides a corrective to the social
ministry in which it engaged. The provision for a[n ti~ kreivan
ei\cen most likely attracted a large following in Jerusalem.
The incident with Ananias and Sapphira, however, caused
those who were looking for physical needs to evaluate their
true commitment to Christ. Unless they were willing to
submit to the Spirit’s power, they kept their distance.277
Nevertheless, even those who feared participation
in the apostolic community “could not help praising them as
they were impressed by what they did.”278 In fact, the ethic
of the commendable community, especially when joined with
the powerful demonstrations of God’s presence and power, led
to the growth of the community (Acts 5:14). Vaughan
proposes that the purity of the community and the obvious
presence of the Lord promotes the growth of the church.279
R. Daniel Shaw suggests that the church in the
postmodern world must utilize specific ministry to those who
are in need as she evangelizes of postmodern individuals.280
277Polhill, Acts, 164.
278I. H. Marshall, Acts of the Apostles, 115.
279Curtis Vaughan, Acts: A Study Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974), 38.
280R. Daniel Shaw, “In Search of Post-modern Salvation,” Evangelical Review of Theology 22 (1998): 57. 165
An apostolic approach seeks such an holistic approach. An apostolic community responds to the practical as well as spiritual needs of its members (Acts 4:32, 34-35; 6:1-6).
Evangelism and social action join together as a powerful witness to the postmodern world. Trites writes: “Such an unselfish, caring fellowship was undeniably attractive to the pagan world, and it still is.”281
This is not to say that a commendable community
“makes true” the gospel. Hauerwas appears to present such a conclusion when he suggests that “the truthfulness” of a story “is known by the kind of community [it] should form.”282 Dennis Hollinger rightly proposes that the church, as “a visible, corporate expression” of the gospel, serves as a witness in the postmodern world.283 Unlike Hauerwas, this writer proposes that the truthfulness of the gospel is inherent in its nature as divine revelation and witness.
281Allison A. Trites, “Church Growth in the Book of Acts,” Bibliotheca Sacra 145 (April 1988): 172.
282Hauerwas, A Community of Character, 52-55, 95-97.
283Dennis Hollinger, “The Church as Apologetic: A Sociology of Knowledge Perspective,” in Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World, eds. Timothy R. Phillips and Dennis L. Okholm (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 182-93. He proposes that the “plausibility structure” for the gospel is a “holy, loving, just, forgiving, life-giving community” which reflects the principle of love and the pattern of Christ (Ibid., 190). “Plausibility structure” is a “social structure which manifests the worldview of a people” (Ibid., 186). 166
The Spirit of truth bridges the truth of the gospel to postmodern people. Yet, in evangelism, the community’s actions join with the Spirit’s witness to Christ. Berger proposes that the “reality of the gospel is mediated” through the faith-community modeling the apostolic ethic.284
As such, an apostolic approach presents a model for life within community which postmodern people seek.285
An apostolic approach for the evangelization of postmodern people exalts the principle of love for one another and follows the pattern of Christ in the community.
In this way, the community of faith “incarnates” intimacy, and the postmodern desire for intimacy finds fulfillment in the commendable community, which shows love and practical concern for a[n ti~ creivan ei\cen.
Kevin Graham Ford calls for a commendable community in the evangelization of postmodern people. He suggests that the “intellectual dimension” of the gospel is vital for discipleship (th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn), but not evangelism.286
284Ibid., 187.
285William C. Placher, Unapologetic Theology: A Christian Voice in a Pluralistic Conversation (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1989), 167.
286For a contrary view, see, James W. Sire, “On Being a Fool for Christ and an Idiot for Nobody: Logocentricity and Postmodernity,” in Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World, eds. Timothy R. Phillips and Dennis L. Okholm (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 101-27. 167
Although this writer does not concur completely with Ford’s conclusions about apologetics in the evangelization of postmodern people, his emphasis on community is insightful.
The commendable community in which the church is a “safe and nurturing haven of relational stability” presents the most effective tool for the evangelization of postmodern people.287
Obstacles to Community: Deception and Division
When deceit and division mark the community of
faith, these obstacles encumber the “truthful telling” of
the gospel.288 The apostolic ethic, which exegetes the love
of God through Christ to others, becomes the target of
Satan’s attack against the faith-community.289 The deception
of Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5:1-11)290 and the division
between the Hellenists and the Hebrews (Acts 6:1-6)
demonstrate an approach to overcome these obstacles.291
287Kevin Graham Ford, Jesus for a New Generation: Putting the Gospel in the Language of Xers (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 136-37.
288Hauerwas, A Community of Character, 52.
289C. E. Autrey, Evangelism in the Acts (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1964), 43.
290F. Scheidweiler, “Zu Act. 5:4,” Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 49 (1958): 133-37.
291I. Howard Marshall, “Palestinian and Hellenistic Christianity,” New Testament Studies 19 (1972-1973): 271-87. 168
Accordingly, this writer will seek to demonstrate how the apostolic church responded to these threats.292
The setting of the deception and judgment of
Ananias and Sapphira informs the approach involved in the resolution of the problem in the community. Capper provides an extensive analysis of the community of goods in its
Palestinian context. He concludes that the violation of the couple finds a parallel in the Essene community.293 In drawing this comparison, Capper connects membership in the community with the transfer of personal property.294 Bruce, however, rightly indicates that such a conclusion outweighs the evidence.295 Furthermore, the demand of the surrender of personal property to join the community finds no parallel in the NT. Indeed, Peter’s questions in verse 4 demonstrate the voluntary nature of the community of goods.296
292Trites, “Church Growth in the Book of Acts,” 172.
293Brian Capper, “The Interpretation of Acts 5.4,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 19 (1983): 117- 31. Capper shows that the candidates for membership in the Essene community went through a probation period in which all personal property was given, but ownership was not transferred. To deceive the community demonstrated a lack of trust in the community.
294B. Capper, “Palestinian Cultural Context of Earliest Christian Community of Goods,” 337-38.
295F. F. Bruce, Acts of the Apostles, 105 n. 15.
296B. Capper, “Palestinian Cultural Context of Earliest Christian Community of Goods,” 338-39. 169
Nevertheless, Ananias and Sapphira sought to deceive, which
interrupts the “victorious progress of the people of God.”297
The work of oJ satana`~ against the apostolic community is the manifestation of his opposition to God and the work of
Christ. The methodology of oJ satana`~ is the temptation to sin.298 In an attempt to garner a reputation for generosity,
Ananias and Sapphira seek yeuvsasqai (Acts 5:3). Yet, the
object of this deception is to; pneu`ma and tw`/ qew`/, not merely
ajnqrwvpoi~. The judgment is swift and final (Acts 5:5, 10).
As the community of the Spirit, the church must
maintain purity in order to maintain effective witness. The
Spirit is the agent of confirmation, power, leadership, and
judgment “by which God launches the good news.”299 The
“execution of Ananias is a prolepsis that the proclaimed
word carries the prospect of divine retribution for any who
deny its truth.”300 Thankfully, the finality and extent of
this judgment does not represent the normative standard.
297F. F. Bruce, Acts of the Apostles, 102.
298M. Erickson, Christian Theology, 472.
299Brian Rosner, “The Progress of the Word,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. H. Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 224.
300Robert Wall, “Israel and the Gentile Mission in Acts and Paul: A Canonical Approach,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. H. Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 444. 170
The narrative, however, demonstrates the powerful presence of God in the midst of His people and “zealous to defend” the holiness of the community, which is normative.301 This judgment serves as a blessing for the apostolic community through the Spirit’s monitor of holiness.302 This narrative highlights the judgment upon those who defile the “temple” with impurity (1 Cor 3:16-17).303 Furthermore, the ethic of community means ajpoqevmenoi to; yeu`do~ and lalei`te ajlhvqeian e{kasto~ meta; tou` plhsivon aujtou` because ejsme;n ajllhvlwn mevlh (Eph 4:25).304
An apostolic approach depends upon the Spirit “for its spiritual sustenance and sense of direction,” including judgment upon sin.305 Furthermore, an apostolic approach requires accountability within the community of faith.306
301David P. Seccombe, Possessions and the Poor in Luke-Acts, Studien zum Neuen Testament und seiner Umwelt (Linz: Verlag F. Plochl, 1982), 199-201.
302Max Turner, “The ‘Spirit of Prophecy’ as the Power of Israel’s Restoration and Witness,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. H. Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 341.
303F. F. Bruce, Acts of the Apostles, 104.
304“Putting away deceit” and “speak truth each one with his neighbor” because “we are members of one another.”
305James D. G. Dunn, Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity, 2d ed. (London: SCM Press, 1990), 178.
306M. Erickson, Christian Theology, 1057-58. This includes the necessity of discipline (1 Cor 5:11-13). 171
Diversity is a norm within the apostolic community.
The biblical images of the community reveal this diversity of membership. The diversity, however, is “socialized” by the unity of the Spirit and the ethics of an apostolic community, specifically in connection with ajllhvlwn. John
Milbank writes that “peace no longer depends upon the reduction to the self-identical, but is the sociality of harmonic difference.”307 An apostolic approach, following the example of Acts 6:1-6, provides this “harmonic peace.”
Along with the growth of the apostolic community, ejgevneto goggusmo;~ tw`n JEllhnistw`n pro;~ tou;~ JEbraivou~ (Acts 6:1).308
This conflict demonstrates the social, cultural, and linguistic differences within the growing faith-community.309
307John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990), 5.
308“Grumbling of the Hellenists originated against the Hebrews.” Most commentators identify Hellenists as Jews who spoke Greek while the Hebrews spoke primarily the Semitic language. Notable exceptions are: H. J. Cadbury, “The Hellenists,” in The Beginnings of Christianity. Part 1: The Acts of the Apostles, vol. 4, eds. F. J. Foakes Jackon and Kirsopp Lake (London: MacMillan, 1933), 59-74; Oscar Cullmann, “The Significance of the Qumran Texts for Research into the Beginnings of Christianity,” Journal of Biblical Literature 74 (1955): 213-26. Cadbury suggests that Hellenists are Gentiles, and Cullmann proposes that Hellenists are Qumran sectarians.
309Joseph Fitzmeyer, “Jewish Christianity in Acts in Light of the Qumran Scrolls,” in Studies in Luke-Acts, eds. Leander Keck and J. Louis Martyn (Nashville: Abingdon, 1966), 238. 172
This diversity, although present, should not be
overemphasized since Greek culture had already influenced
much of the Palestinian world.310
Although the subject-matter for the goggusmo;~
focuses on the distribution of food to the needy, this
probably represents one of many factors contributing to the
conflict.311 This writer, however, does not concur with the reconstruction of many commentators on this passage.
Haenchen, for example, seeks to demonstrate the emergence of two distinct congregations within the apostolic community.
He builds his case from the conclusion that only Hellenists experience persecution (Acts 8:1; 9:31; 11:19; 12:1).
Haenchen’s suggestion is that these two groups are so distinct that the Jewish leaders persecuted one and not the other. Luke, therefore, creates the conflict within the apostolic community between the Hellenists and Hebrews to make room for this persecution.312
310I. H. Marshall, “Palestinian and Hellenistic Christianity: Some Critical Comments,” New Testament Studies 19 (1972-1973): 271-87.
311J. Julius Scott Jr., “Parties in the Church of Jerusalem as Seen in the Book of Acts,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 18 (1975): 221.
312Haenchen, Acts of the Apostles, 266. See also, N. Walter, “Apostelgeschichte 6.1 und die Anfäng der Urgemeinde in Jerusalem,” New Testament Studies 29 (1983): 370-93. Walter proposes the two-community structure. 173
Conzelmann, as well, suggests the creation of a
two-level structure within the apostolic community: the
community around oiJ dwvdeka and the Hellenist community around
eJptav.313 Capper also indicates that the apostolic community
solves the conflict between these two distinct groups with a
further division. The apostolic community nominates and
elects eJptav to lead the “separately developing community of
hellenistic believers” rather than to unify the Hellenists
and Hebrews.314
The apostolic ethic of community, however, requires
a more synchronic analysis of this text. Unlike the
reconstructive efforts represented here, this writer seeks
to discern the natural appeal of the text. As Bruce notes,
the eJptav certainly are leaders among the Hellenists in the
apostolic community,315 but their selection by the community does not necessarily point to the further fracture of the community. In fact, Haenchen initially proposes that “this story seems entirely plausible.”316 He then builds a case to
“unravel the tangle” which he perceives beyond the text.
313“The Twelve” and “seven.” Conzelman, Acts of the Apostles, 44.
314B. Capper, “Palestinian Cultural Context of Earliest Christian Community of Goods,” 354-55.
315F. F. Bruce, Acts of the Apostles, 121.
316Haenchen, Acts of the Apostles, 265. 174
The plausibility of this narrative rests upon a view of
Luke’s historical reliability. Hengel summarizes the
viewpoint of this writer when he suggests that the
historical details within Luke’s writing “do not fit in with
the popular picture of Luke as a kind of pious, ahistorical
novelist.”317 Accordingly, as Luke reports it, “there is no
reason to picture a breach or separation in the total
Christian community -- only the sort of ‘distancing’ created
by natural linguistic and cultural differences.”318
The problem for the apostolic community focuses
upon the “distance” between two groups within the community.
The Twelve offer “total participation” within the community;
namely, ejpiskevyasqe . . . a[ndre~ ejx uJmw`n marturoumevnou~ eJptav (Acts
6:3).319 With the approval ejnwvpion panto;~ tou` plhvqou~, the
community elects seven Hellenists to bridge the distance
between those who were voicing their concern and the whole
of the community within the Jerusalem church (Acts 6:5).320
317Martin Hengel, “Early Christianity as a Jewish- Messianic, Universalistic Movement,” in Conflicts and Challenges in Early Christianity, ed. D. A. Hagner (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity International Press, 1999), 29.
318Polhill, Acts, 179.
319“Examine from among you seven men who are favorably confirmed.”
320“Before the whole assembly.” I. H. Marshall, Acts of the Apostles, 127. The Greek names of the seven men leads to the assumption that they were Hellenists. 175
Even if the choice of seven Hellenists is a movement to placate the Hellenists,321 the primary requirement for these
men is marturoumevnou~, plhvrei~ pneuvmato~ kai; sofiva~.322 Bruce
indicates that these are “ideal requirements” for
appointments in church leadership.323 As such, these men
provide the leadership necessary to maintain the unity of
the Spirit within the community of faith through the
leadership of the Spirit who guides them into all wisdom.
Postmodern people seek to distance themselves from
the “distance of others.” They despise the relegation of
“others” to the place of inferiority. Postmodernism rejects
outright this “totalization.” As Lyotard pronounces, “Let
us wage a war on totality.”324 Albert Borgman suggests that
the postmodern person desires to hear and to respond to the
“voice of alterity,” which is the cry of the “other.”325 The apostolic community responds to the voice of alterity.
321W. Neil, Acts of the Apostles, 104.
322The present, passive participle, marturoumevnou~, refers to a favorable report concerning these men. Furthermore they should be “full of the Spirit and wisdom.”
323F. F. Bruce, Acts of the Apostles, 121.
324Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, vol. 10, Theory and History of Literature, trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minnaopolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 82.
325Albert Borgman, Crossing the Postmodern Divide (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 116-18. 176
An apostolic approach deals with divisions in the church
according to the pattern of Acts 6:1-6. The “voice of
alterity” gains a hearing, and the leadership respond with
decisive action to respond to the specific needs.326
The result of this immediate response is that oJ lovgo~
tou` qeou` hJuvxanen kai; eplhquvneto (Acts 6:7).327 “The Christian community had evidently been guided in the disposition of its own affairs so that its witness to ‘those outside’ remained vibrant and attractive.”328 The same is true for
the contemporary church in a postmodern world.
This lengthy analysis of the role of community in
the evangelization of postmodern people focuses on the
biblical conception of the community of faith: unity and
mission; inclusion dia; th`~ pivstew~ ejn Cristw`/ jIhsou`; and
uniqueness and purity. As a “divine standard” of God to the
world, an apostolic community serves as an avenue for the
transformation from a postmodern to a Christian worldview
through th`/ didach`/ tw`n ajpostovlwn and koinwniva. The community also functions as a living witness to the love of God following the pattern of Jesus Christ through the apostolic ethic.
326Thomas D. Lea, The New Testament: Its Background and Message (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1996), 295.
327“The word of God grew and increased.”
328Trites, “Prayer-Motif in Luke-Acts,” 180. 177
This ethic uniquely answers the postmodern desire for intimacy. As such, the apostolic ethic of community provides a powerful tool for the evangelization of postmodern people. Finally, the obstacles to an apostolic community, which includes deception and division, find resolution through the leadership of the Spirit in a postmodern world.
The role of the community in the evangelization of postmodern people does not present the absolutism of the community, which is the postmodern plea. Instead, the role of community exalts the absolutism of Christ. As Moltmann cogently states: “The visible church is, as Christ’s church, the ministry of reconciliation exercised upon the world.
Thus the church is to be seen, not as absolute, but in its relationship to the divine reconciler.”329
329Moltmann, Church in the Power of the Spirit, 153- 54. CHAPTER FOUR
POSTMODERN PLURALITIES, PLURALISM, AND AN APOSTOLIC APPROACH
Evangelization in the Midst of Pluralities
The postmodern ethos seeks pluralism in the face of
pluralities. This dissertation distinguishes between
plurality and pluralism. David Tracy suggests that
“plurality is a fact. Pluralism is one of the many
evaluations of that fact.”1 Plurality is “the sheer diversity of race, value systems, heritage, language, culture, and religion in many Western and some other nations.”2 Pluralism, however, is the response to plurality
which approves, cherishes, and embraces the multiple, and
sometimes contradictory, differences.3 As such, pluralism
1David Tracy, “Christianity in the Wider Context: Demands and Transformations,” in Worldviews and Warrants: Plurality and Authority in Theology, eds. William Schweiker and P. M. Anderson (New York: University Press of America, 1987), 2.
2D. A. Carson, Gagging of God, 13. Carson gives plurality the nomenclature of “empirical pluralism.”
3Alister E. McGrath, “The Challenge of Pluralism for the Contemporary Christian Church,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 35 (September 1992): 363.
177 178
declares that all truth-claims, and religions, are equal.
Therefore, “Jesus Christ must then be regarded as a
religious genius like Buddha or Mohammed -- human beings at
the origin of a world religion, praiseworthy but nothing
more.”4 Pluralism seeks the “deferral of all strong claims
to unity or even truth”5 so that “there is no officially
approved pattern of belief or conduct.”6
This writer proposes that evangelism in the midst
of postmodern pluralities follows the pattern of evangelism
in apostolic times. Paul Lakeland, however, suggests that
the postmodern identification of the “community of
redemption” as a “place of relative, revisable, pragmatic,
provisional ‘ways of seeing what-is’” demands an approach
different from the first-century church.7 Lakeland’s
approach does not seek persuasion toward the gospel, but a
4Lieven Boeve, “Christus Postmodernus: An Attempt at Apophatic Christology,” in The Myriad Christ: Plurality and the Quest for Unity in Contemporary Christology, eds. T. Merrigan and J. Haers (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2000), 577-78.
5D. Tracy, “Christianity in the Wider Context,” 2.
6Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989), 1.
7Paul Lakeland, Postmodernity: Christian Identity in a Fragmented Age (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1997), 102-103. 179 conversation with pluralities which leads to a consensus.8
Lakeland further indicates that the Christian community
“cannot realistically understand itself as the only avenue
of the divine into human history.”9 Lakeland, therefore,
rejects the necessity of Christ for salvation.10 For
Lakeland, Nietzsche’s Zarathustra defines salvation as
“being faithful to the earth.”11 Thus, he concludes that
other religious traditions are equally valuable for the
salvation of the postmodern world.12
Such an approach for evangelization, however,
deconstructs the gospel so that it is no longer biblical,
apostolic, or Christian. Although Lakeland’s approach calls
for postmodern people to “choose one” among the alternative
versions of reality, no one version is better than
another.13 The evangelization of the apostolic church in
8Ibid., 102.
9Ibid., 104-105.
10Ibid., 109-111.
11Ibid., 111.
12Ibid., 112-13. Lakeland writes: “What is distinctive about Christianity remains within Christianity and in no way challenges or represents itself as superior to other religious traditions, namely, the belief that in Christ God has spoken in a way that human beings can receive the word.”
13Ibid., 113. 180 pluralities presents a better approach for the contemporary church.
Pluralities in Apostolic and Postmodern Times
The nature of plurality in pre-modern and postmodern times presents similarities as well as differences, but the fact of plurality in apostolic age is certain. An examination of New Testament (NT) literature provides a mosaic of the religious and cultural pluralities in the pre-modern world of the apostolic church.14 Robert
Grant’s summary of the gods in the book of Acts certainly
points to this fact.15 Anthony Blasi of Tennessee State
University describes the sociology of early Christianity within the framework of the Roman Empire. He suggests that the context of the apostolic church’s evangelization was a
“culturally pluralist environment.”16
Several examples from Acts and the Pauline epistles
14Harry Eberts Jr., “Plurality and Ethnicity in Early Christian Mission,” Sociology of Religion 58 (1997): 317. According to Eberts, the apostolic church faced the cultural, social, and religious differences within the target-groups for evangelism: Galilean, Hebrew, Hellenist, and pagan Greek culture.
15Robert M. Grant, Gods and the One God (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1986), 19-28.
16Anthony Blasi, “Sociology of Early Christianity -- By Way of Introduction,” Sociology of Religion 58 (1997): 299-303. 181
provide ample evidence of the plurality which confronted the
apostolic church in the evangelization of the ancient world.
The apostle Paul writes: ouj gavr ejstin diastolh; jIoudaivou te kai;
{Ellhno~, oJ ga;r aujto;~ kuvrio~ pavntwn, ploutw`n eij~ pavnta~ tou;~ ejpikaloumevnou~
aujtovn (Rom 10:12).17 jIoudaivou and {Ellhno~ represent plurality,
as does dou`lo~, ejleuvqero~, a[rsen, and qh`lu in Gal 3:28. In Col
3:11 Paul adds peritomh; and ajkrobustiva, bavrbaro~ and Skuvqh~ to
the list of pluralities.18 Rajak indicates that these
listings represent ethnic, linguistic, religious, or social
differences.19
More specifically, however, the apostolic church
faces the challenges of religious plurality. Paul’s
evangelism in Athens illustrates this plurality (Acts 17).
Athens possessed “a blend of superstitious idolatry and
enlightened philosophy” in its cultural and religious
17“For there is no difference of both Jew and Greek, for the same Lord [is] rich toward all who are calling upon Him.”
18These terms are translated: dou`lo~ (slave), ejleuvqero~ (free), a[rsen (male), and qh`lu (female) in Galatians 3:28; peritomh; (circumcision), ajkrobustiva (uncircumcision), bavrbaro~ (barbarian), and Skuvqh~ (Scythian) in Colossians 3:11.
19Tessa Rajak, “The Location of Cultures in Second Temple Palestine,” in The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 3. 182 life.20 The city is an example of the religious and philosophical plurality that pervaded the ancient world.
Barrett, drawing from kateivdwlon (Acts 17:16), states that
Athens “was overrun with idols.”21 Furthermore, Bertil
Gärtner’s complex analysis of the Areopagus speech seeks to
demonstrate Paul’s use of Stoic and Jewish concepts as an
apostolic approach to evangelize those gathered at Athens.22
Conzelmann indicates that Paul’s speech brings “the representatives of the universal Greek culture into play” and engages the audience as “typical Athenians.”23 This
apostolic approach will be discussed below.
As Marshall suggests, “[t]he world of the New
Testament was a world in which different cultures or ways of
life were in contact with one another, leading to
20I. H. Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles, Tyndale New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980; reprint, 1999), 281.
21C. K. Barrett, “Paul’s Speech on the Areopagus,” in New Testament Christianity for Africa and the World: Essays in Honour of Harry Sawyer, eds. Mark Glasswell and E. W. Fashole-Luke (London: SPCK, 1974), 71.
22Bertil Gärtner, The Areopagus Speech and Natural Revelation, trans. C. H. King (Uppsala: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1955), 144-69.
23Hans Conzelmann, A Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, trans. James Limburg, A. T. Kraabel, and D. H. Juel, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 138- 39. 183 assimilation between them as well as to sharp collision.”24
In the same manner, the contemporary church faces this collision of pluralities. The pluralities in postmodern times is comparable to the “encounter of the early church with the religious variety of the Greco-Roman world, including Greek philosophy.”25
Alasdair MacIntyre argues that the “contemporary
vision of the world” is a “multiplicity of visions deriving
from that irreducible plurality of values.”26 When
considering the “global village” that has emerged during the
postmodern era, one can recognize the veracity of
MacIntyre’s statement. Charles Jencks proposes that the
“meteroic” rise of the information age has increased the
accessibility to various cultural beliefs.27 Following
Jencks, Grenz declares that the information age has “brought
24I. Howard Marshall, “Culture and the New Testament,” in Gospel and Culture: The Papers of a Consultation on the Gospel and Culture, Convened by the Lausanne Committee’s Theology and Education Group, eds. John Stott and Robert T. Coote (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1979), 27.
25E. Luther Copeland, “Christian Theology and World Religions,” Review and Expositor 94 (1997): 423.
26Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 2d ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984), 109.
27Charles Jencks, What Is Postmodernism?, 3d ed. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 44. 184
the world together in a manner never before possible,” so
that “the global village imbues its citizens with a vivid
awareness of the cultural diversity of our planet.”28
The postmodern religious pursuits reflect the
heterogeneity and plurality of the generation. Richard
Rorty indicates that today’s postmodern ethos is filled with
“lots of picture galleries, book displays, movies, concerts,
ethnographic museums, museums of science and technology”
which represent the plurality of cultural options available
for worship.29 With the demise of the Enlightenment ideal,
“empiricism was rejected as the only way of knowing and
replaced with myriad options. There became multiple paths
to knowledge and understanding, none more important or real
than another. As a result, spiritual ideas were acceptable,
but no system of belief was allowed to be more ‘true’ than
another.”30
As with Athens of the first-century, today’s
28Stanley Grenz, A Primer on Postmodernism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 18.
29Richard Rorty, Essays on Heidegger and Others: Philosophical Papers, Volume 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 132.
30Todd Hahn and David Verhaagen, Reckless Hope: Understanding and Reaching Baby Busters (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996), 38. 185 postmodern scene is filled with idols.31 One difference
between the pre-modern and postmodern, however, is the vast
landscape of the latter in terms of information access and
dissemination. The philosophers of Athens were primarily
the elite thinkers with specialized training and knowledge.
The plurality of Athens, while specialized, represented the
plurality of the Greco-Roman culture.32 The age of the
postmodern is the age of the computer and the “information
super-highway.” The postmodern philosopher consists of
anyone who has the temerity to “run a search” on the “net”
and consider the information gleaned as both legitimate and
valuable.33 The plurality of the postmodern is neither
specialized nor representative. The “truth statements” or
religious beliefs of the person in the “chat room” are as
legitimate and valuable as the “truth statements” or
religious beliefs of leading academic theorists in the field
of philosophy.34 This status of plurality presents
31Rorty, Essays on Heidegger and Others, 132-33.
32See especially, Bertil Gärtner, The Areopagus Speech and Natural Revelation, 46-50.
33George P. Landow, Hypertext: The Convergance of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1992), 74-75.
34Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991; reprint, 1999), 391-99. 186 opportunity and challenge for the evangelization of postmodern people. This subject will be discussed in the later section dealing with Paul’s speech in Athens, for
Paul’s address provides a paradigm for the faithful and effective evangelization of pre-modern or postmodern pluralities.
Michael Green presents the challenge of an apostolic approach in the face of pluralities: “We sometimes think that relativism and pluralism are peculiar to our time. We feel it politically correct to adopt them. Not so the early Christians. They lived in a world more relativist and far more pluralist than our own. And yet they would not make any compromise on this issue. What was needed was not more religion, but a new life -- and Jesus could provide it.”35 The apostolic church provides insight for the
project of evangelization.
Judaic, Hellenistic, or Christian? A Question of Pluralities
As has already been noted in chapter 3, the
apostolic church struggled with pluralities from within as
well as without.36 The issue in this section, however,
35Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970), xvii.
36Martin Hengel, Between Jesus and Paul, trans. John Bowden (London: SCM Press, 1983), 4-11. 187
focuses upon the Christian identity for the apostolic
community when facing the plurality of Judaic and
Hellenistic cultures. The increasing differences between
the Hebrews and Hellenists find resolution in Acts 6, but
the diversity among Judaic and Hellenistic influences
continues for the apostolic community.
For example, Cornelius’ conversion marks a
distinctive collision of pluralities for the apostolic
community in the evangelization of the world. Bolt suggests
that the three-fold repetition of the event marks the
significance of the content.37 Through the drama of a
vision (Acts 10:9-16), Peter recognizes that the culturally
specific dietary laws “no longer applied for Gentile or Jew
in Christ.”38 As Bruce suggests, the gospel’s reach “has
been steadily broadened,” but this story illustrates that
the time had come for the barrier between Jews and Gentiles
“to be crossed authoritatively by an apostle.”39
37Peter G. Bolt, “Mission and Witness,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 203.
38Craig Blomberg, “The Christian and the Law of Moses,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 404.
39F. F. Bruce, The Book of the Acts, rev. ed., The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 201. 188
God’s threefold command to eat the unclean animals of the heavenly vision (10:9-16) leads to stunning conclusions: Peter deduces that no person is unclean (v. 28), that God accepts people of every nation who fear [H]im and do right (vv. 34-35), and that therefore the gospel should be preached to Cornelius (vv. 36-43). God dramatically confirms Peter’s deductions by sending [H]is Spirit on the centurion and his companions before he finishes preaching (v. 44).40
The collision of plurality exists between the
Jewish cultural expressions of the Mosaic law, the
Hellenistic cultural expressions in conflict with the Mosaic
law, and the Christian response of the apostolic community.
This statement does not contradict the case of Cornelius as
eujsebh;~ kai; fobouvmeno~ tou` qeou` (Acts 10:2).41 Although Cornelius
sympathizes with the Jewish cultural expressions and
worship, other Gentile converts do not. Jervell incorrectly
suggests that the qualifications of eujsebh;~ kai; fobouvmeno~ tou`
qeou` represent the paradigm for all Gentile converts.42
Sheeley mistakenly views fobouvmeno~ tou` qeou` as a qualification
40Blomberg, “The Christian and the Law of Moses,” 404.
41“Pious and one who fears God.” This description indicates that Cornelius was an “adherent to the synagogue but not a proselyte to the Jewish faith.” William Neil, The Acts of the Apostles, New Century Bible Commentary (London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1973; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 137.
42Jacob Jervell, “The Church of Jews and Godfearers,” in Luke-Acts and the Jewish People: Eight Critical Perspectives, ed. J. B. Tyson (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1988), 11-20. 189 for the reception of salvation.43 Luke’s use of fobouvmeno~ tou` qeou`, however, emphasizes his Gentile identity, in order to highlight the gospel’s proclamation to the Gentiles.44 This
writer contends that Luke purposes to explicate the
distinction between the Jew and Gentile. The narrative does
not indicate that eujsebh;~ kai; fobouvmeno~ tou` qeou` are qualities
that one must have prior to salvation. The emphasis of
Luke’s narrative in chapter 10 points to the movement of the
gospel outside the realm of Jewish traditions.
The Antiochene mission also represents a
continuation of the broadening scope of the apostolic
approach to the Gentiles. Luke records the beginnings of
this work as a[ndre~ Kuvprioi kai; Kurhnai`oi, oi{tine~ ejlqovnte~ eij~
jAntiovceian ejlavloun kai; pro;~ tou;~ JEllhnista;~ eujaggelizovmenoi to;n kuvrion
jIhsou`n (Acts 11:20).45 The persecution of Stephen46 leads to
the dispersion of the apostolic community beyond Jerusalem,
so that oiJ me;n oujn diasparenvnte~ dih`lqon eujaggelizovmenoi to;n lovgon
43Steven M. Sheeley, Narrative Asides in Luke-Acts, Journal for the Study of the New Testament, Supplement Series 72 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992), 126.
44J. T. Sanders, The Jews in Luke-Acts (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 256.
45“Men of Cyprus and Cyrene, who coming into Antioch shared also with the Hellenists, preaching the good news of the Lord Jesus.”
46See chapter 5, “Obstacles for Personal Evangelism.” 190
(Acts 8:4).47 This narrative (Acts 11), however, introduces
an entirely new situation. Rather than the occasional
evangelization of non-Jews, Luke reports that the a[ndre~
Kuvprioi kai; Kurhnai`oi begin a “momentous step forward.”48
Justin Taylor proposes that “c’est le premier pas qui marque
le debut d’une eglise pagano-chretienne.”49 Indeed Heinz-
Werner Neudorfer suggests that the theology of the
Hellenist-Jewish converts, which focuses on God’s plan of salvation in history, compelled them to evangelize non-
Jews.50
Justin Taylor suggests that this missionary
enterprise is “independante de l’eglise de Jerusalem.”51
47“Therefore those who were scattered went throughout proclaiming the good news of the word.”
48F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, 225.
49Justin Taylor, Commentaire Historique (Act. 9,1- 18,22), vol. 5, Les Actes des Deux Apotres, Etudes Bibliques 23 (Paris: Librairie LeCoffre, 1994), 59. “This is the first step which marks the beginning of the pagan-Christian church.” By “pagano-chretienne,” this writer believes that Taylor is referring to the non-Jewish element rather than the outright influence of paganism into the Christian community.
50Heinz-Werner Neudorfer, “The Speech of Stephen,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 290.
51Taylor, Commentaire Historique (Act. 9,1-18,22), 65. The mission of the men of Cyprus and Cyrene is “independent of the church of Jerusalem.” Furthermore, he suggests that “there is no reason to place them in relation 191
Bauckham rejects this proposal and suggests that Jerusalem
remains the center of the evangelistic enterprise.52
Accordingly, the presence of Barnabas in Antioch as the
formal representative of the Jerusalem church augments
Bauckman’s analysis (Acts 11:22).
Luke describes the proclamation as eujaggelizovmenoi to;n
kuvrion jIhsou`n (Acts 11:20). Bruce notes that the use of kuvrion is significant.53 The evangelists provide a specific answer to the need of the Gentiles. Ramsay MacMullen indicates that the religious pursuits of the Gentiles possessed a lacuna of assurance for renatus in aeternum.54 Bruce notes
that “many were trying to find in various mystery cults a
divine lord who could guarantee salvation and immortality to
his devotees; now the pagans of Antioch were assured that
what they vainly sought in those quarters could be secured
through the Son of God who had lately become man, suffered
with the ‘Seven’ of Jerusalem or their adherents.”
52Richard Bauckham, “James and the Jerusalem Church,” in The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 423-34.
53F. F. Bruce, Book of Acts, 225.
54Ramsay MacMullen, Paganism in the Roman Empire (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 53. The Latin phrase may be interpreted as “rebirth in eternity.” 192 death, and conquered the grave in Palestine.”55
Witherington makes a similar argument for the use
of swthvr in the apostolic evangelization of the Gentiles.56
As the evangelization occurs among the Gentile pluralities, the apostolic community utilizes swthvr, connected with the resurrection and exaltation of Jesus Christ. Just as Christ conquered the grave, so too will His followers experience the blessings of eternal life.57
In consideration of pluralities, therefore, the
Antioch mission institutes a new chapter in the
evangelization of the ancient world. The leadership in
Jerusalem sends Barnabas, plhvrh~ pneuvmato~ aJgivou kai; pivstew~
(Acts 11:24), who verifies the ministry and encourages
further evangelism. This marks the growth of the
evangelistic efforts and the intensification of pluralities
within the apostolic community. Interestingly, the
statement in Acts 11:26, crhmativsai te prwvtw~ ejn jAntioceiva/ tou;~
maqhta;~ Cristianouv~, suggests the view of the apostolic
55F. F. Bruce, Book of Acts, 225.
56Ben Witherington III, “Salvation and Health in Christian Antiquity: The Soteriology of Luke-Acts in Its First Century Setting,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 158-59.
57Ibid., 161. 193 community as Christian rather than Judaic or Hellenistic.58
Furthermore, Paul’s speech to the Jewish community
in Acts 13:46 demonstrates the necessity of evangelization
among Gentiles unaffiliated with the Jewish synagogue.59
The “inauguration of the Gentile mission” is a necessary event in God’s plan.60 Paul views the church as the “Israel of promise” which God offers to the Jews as well as to the
Gentiles.61 The conversion of the Jews and the Gentiles
provides the fulfillment of the promise to become the people
of God in Christ Jesus. In this way the necessity of
proclamation of the gospel to the Jews and to the Gentiles
creates a new identification as o{soi h\san tetagmevnoi eij~ zwh;n
aijwvnion (Acts 13:48).62 This is not an identity of a new
religion but as the “true Israel.”63
58Lawrence W. Wills, “The Depiction of the Jews in Acts,” Journal of Biblical Literature 110 (1991): 645. “And the disciples first in Antioch were named Christians.”
59Blomberg, “The Christian and the Law of Moses,” 405. The use of e[qnh indicates a group that is unrelated to the Judaic culture.
60Hans Conzelmann, Gentiles, Jews, Christians: Polemics and Apologetics in the Greco-Roman Era, trans. M. Eugene Boring (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 255.
61Jervell, “The Church of Jews and Godfearers,” 18- 19.
62“As many as were appointed for eternal life.”
63Conzelmann, Gentiles, Jews, Christians, 251-52. 194
The issue of identity finds final form in Acts at
the Jerusalem Council.64 Sanders proposes that a conflict
arises between Paul and Barnabas and those who were
preaching that circumcision accompanies salvation.65 Here,
the collision of pluralities initiates a resolution.
Hellenistic Christians consider the law as superfluous,
subsumed under “saving act in Christ.”66 Luke reports,
however, that some believers, tw`n ajpo; th`~ aiJrevsew~ tw`n Farisaivwn,
consider that dei` peritevmnein aujtou;~ paraggevllein te threi`n to;n novmon
Mwu>sevw~ (Acts 15:5).67
Peter argues (Acts 15:7-11) that Cornelius’
conversion is indicative that to;n novmon Mwu>sevw~ is not
salvific. He declares that oujqe;n dievkrinen metaxu; hJmw`n te kai; aujtw`n
th`/ pivstei kaqarivsa~ ta;~ kardiva~ aujtw`n (Acts 15:9).68 The proof of
salvation apart from to;n novmon Mwu>sevw~ is that God accepted
64E. Richard, “The Divine Purpose: The Jews and the Gentile Mission (Acts 15),” in Society of Biblical Literature 1980 Seminar Papers (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980), 267-82.
65J. T. Sanders, Jews in Luke-Acts, 126-29.
66Conzelmann, Gentiles, Jews, Christians, 252.
67Believers “from the party of the Pharisees” consider that “it is necessary for them to be circumcised and ordered to keep the law of Moses.”
68“He made no distinction between us and them, cleansing their hearts by faith.” 195 them by dou;~ to; pneu`ma to; a{gion (15:8).69 The avenue into
community is through faith in Christ Jesus.70 As Bruce
indicates, Peter warns that the believers of the Pharisee
party stand in opposition to God’s plan and invite His
judgment.71
Bauckham, however, explains that “this line of
argument cannot, for an assembly of Jewish Christians, be
the finally decisive one: the issue is a matter of halakhah,
which can only be decided from Scripture.”72 The speech of
James provides the biblical argument and the decisive proof
that to;n novmon Mwu>sevw~ is not part of salvation.73 Following
the pesher model for interpretation, James utilizes Amos
9:11-12 with allusions to other OT texts.74
In the first place, the conflated quotation in Acts 15:16-18 establishes that Gentiles who join the eschatological people of God are not obliged to be
69“Giving the Holy Spirit.”
70See chapter 3, “Images of an Apostolic Community: God’s People.”
71F. F. Bruce, Book of Acts, 336; Bauckham, “James and the Jerusalem Church,” 452. Paul and Barnabas support Peter’s argument, but play a minor role in the debate.
72Bauckham, “James and the Jerusalem Church,” 452.
73Jacob Jervell, Acts and the People of God: A New Look at Luke-Acts (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1972), 188-93.
74Bauckham, “James and the Jerusalem Church,” 453- 58. Bauckham provides an excellent analysis of the speech. 196
circumcised and obey the Law of Moses. But secondly, an exegetical argument which creates a link between closely related prophecies and Leviticus 17-18 establishes that the Law of Moses itself contains just four commandments which do explicitly apply to precisely those Gentiles.75
The four prohibitions included in the apostolic decree
indicate the ceremonial requirements from Leviticus 17-18
upon Gentiles who chose to live in the Jewish community.76
As such, the prohibitions present the requirements which had
always been applied to Jew and Gentile alike.77 Thus, the
apostolic community confirms that conformity to to;n novmon
Mwu>sevw~, especially in terms of circumcision, is not a
requirement for salvation. The Jerusalem council’s
conclusion establishes the “universality and progress of the
word . . . on the basis of the unity of the people of
God.”78
One final note needs attention in the consideration
75Ibid., 461.
76Haenchen, Acts of the Apostles, 469. Bruce proposes that the four elements are ethical requirements which would guard the Christian moral standards. This suggestion, however, dismisses the importance of Lev 17 and 18 in the discussion. F. F. Bruce, Book of Acts, 300-301.
77Stephen G. Wilson, Luke and the Law, Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 50 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 76.
78Brian Rosner, “The Progress of the Word,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 227. 197
of identity in plurality; namely, Paul’s confrontation with
Peter (Gal 2:14-21).79 The occasion for this confrontation is oujk ojrqopodou`sin pro;~ th;n ajlhvqeian tou` eujaggelivou (Gal 2:14).80
Peter’s inconsistency focuses upon the “free table- fellowship” between Jewish and Gentile believers.81
Apparently, the messengers from James came to remind Jewish
Christians that they must follow specific requirements
concerning table-fellowship with Gentiles.82 Upon the
arrival of messengers from James, Peter draws back from the
company of Gentiles.83 Neill suggests that Peter’s conduct
“would make a divided Church inevitable or a united Church
79D. A. Carson, “Pauline Inconsistency: Reflections on 1 Corinthians 9.19-23 and Galatians 2.11-14,” Churchman 100 (1986): 6-45.
80“They did not walk straight concerning the truth of the gospel.”
81R. Y. K. Fung, The Epistle to the Galatians, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 107.
82James D. G. Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, Black’s New Testament Commentary (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993), 121-24.
83T. W. Manson, Studies in the Gospels and Epistles (London: Manchester University Press, 1962), 180-81. He suggests that Peter’s table-fellowship with Gentiles was used as an indictment against the Jerusalem church by Jewish leaders, and Peter did not want to jeopardize the missionary work of the Jerusalem church or create a stumbling-block for evangelism among the Jews. 198 impossible.”84 Paul, therefore, apologetically promotes
once again the impossibility of salvation through the to;n
novmon Mwu>sevw~ (Gal 2:16).85
An Apostolic Approach to Postmodern Pluralities
Paul’s epistles demonstrate an apostolic approach
to postmodern pluralities. An examination of his epistles
provides an aid for evangelization in postmodern plurality.
Paul’s letters highlight an apostolic approach which
recognizes the diversity within culture, yet through which
the Spirit transforms the pluralities into a unified
community for the purpose of mission.86
Paul presents this approach in his epistle to the
church of Ephesus: a[ra ou\n oujkevti ejste; xevnoi kai; pavroikoi ajlla; ejste;
sumpoli`tai tw`n aJgivwn kai; oijkei`oi tou` qeou`, ejpoikodomhqevnte~ ejpi; tw`/ qemelivw/
tw`n ajpostovlwn kai; profhtw`n, o[nto~ ajkrogwniaivou aujtou` Cristou` jIhsou`, ejn w|/
pa`sa oijkodomh; sunarmologoumevnh au[xei eij~ nao;n a{gion ejn kurivw/, ejn w|/ kai;
84W. Neill, The Letter of Paul to the Galatians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 41.
85For a complete discussion of this confrontation, see Daniel H. King, “Paul and the Tannaim: A Study in Galatians,” Westminster Theological Journal 45 (1983): 349- 61.
86Allison A. Trites, “Church Growth in the Book of Acts” Bibliotheca Sacra 145 (April-June 1988): 171-72. 199 uJmei`~ sunoikodomei`sqe eij~ katoikhthvrion tou` qeou` ejn pneuvmati.87 Upon the
bestowal of new life upon a believer and the baptism of the
Spirit upon the believer, the believer becomes the temple of
the Spirit of God (1 Cor 3:16; 2 Cor 6:16). This individual
reality is also the communal experience in Ephesians.88
Paul describes the apostolic community as the corporate dwelling place of God in the Holy Spirit.
The corporate nature of the apostolic community emerges from the pluralities of Gentiles and Jews. Paul portrays the nature of the heterogeneity within the apostolic community in verse 19 through the phrase, xevnoi kai; pavroikoi. Stählin suggests that these two descriptive terms are synonymous in this verse. He further suggests that, in the time of Paul’s writing, Judaism considered the xevnoi with distant courtesy at best and hostility at worst. In light
87“Consequently therefore, you are no longer strangers and foreigners but you are fellow-citizens of the saints and [you are] members of the household of God, having been built upon the foundation of the apostles and the prophets, Christ Jesus Himself being the cornerstone, in whom all the building which is fitted together grows into a holy temple in the Lord, in whom you also are being built together into a dwelling of God in the Spirit” (Eph 2:19- 22).
88Interestingly, George S. Duncan, The Epistle of Paul to the Galatians (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1934), 178, paraphrases Paul’s admonition, eij zw`men pneuvmati, pneuvmati kai; stoicw`men (Gal 5:25), to bring out the corporate identity of Spirit-life implied by stoicw`men. See also, R. Y. K. Fung, Galatians, 275-76. 200
of the diaspora community in Ephesus, the Gentiles
understood the term to mean “God-fearers.”89 As such, when
Paul uses the term here, he is speaking of the existing
differentiation between the Jew and the Gentile in synagogue
worship. To say that Gentile Christians are no longer xevnoi
is to say that they “are not just guests of God, but members
of His household.”90
Paul also describes the believers as oujk pavroikoi,
which is “one who lives in a place that is not his home.”91
This idea of an alien or foreigner in Judaism is different from the “God-fearer” of synagogue worship. The pavroiko~ is a “resident alien” who lives in Israel without becoming a
Jew.92 Foulkes suggests that these two terms point to
“people who might live alongside them [the people of God] in
the same country, but owning no land and with only the most
superficial rights of citizenship.”93 Gentile believers are
89G. Stählin, “xevno~,” TDNT, 5:2-14.
90Ibid., 5:29.
91Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Christian Literature, trans. W. F. Arndt and F. W. Gingrich, 2d ed., eds. F. W. Gingrich and F. W. Danker (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 629. Hereafter cited, BAGD.
92Meyer, s.v. “pavroiko~,” TDNT, 5:850-51.
93Francis Foulkes, The Letter of Paul to the Ephesians: An Introduction and Commentary, rev. ed., Tyndale New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989), 93. 201
not “like the God-fearing Gentiles who attended synagogue”
nor “like resident aliens in a Greek city,” but they are
“full members.”94
The contention in this passage is that the Spirit
merges the cultural distinctive of Jews and Gentiles into
the “temple of the Spirit,” so that all members are
sumpoli`tai tw`n aJgivwn. Much debate surrounds aJgivwn. Bruce
indicates that aJgivwn is “the people of God of all ages.”95
Procksch draws upon the analogy of Rom 11:17, which describes the Gentile believers being grafted into the “holy stump of the OT people of God” as new branches. He then identifies this “holy stump” as politeiva tou` jIsrahvl (Eph 2:12),
“except that we are now dealing with an jIsrahvl kata; pneu`ma.”
Procksch, therefore, concludes that the aJgivwn are Jewish
Christians.96
Andrew Lincoln, however, proposes that Procksch’s
94F. F. Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), 302.
95F. F. Bruce, Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians, 302. Markus Barth, Ephesians: Introduction, Translation, and Commentary on Chapters 1-3, Anchor Bible Commentary, 34 (Garden City: Doubleday and Company, 1974), 320 n. 273, states that aJgivwn refers to the Gentile believers being grafted into “the men of Israel.”
96Otto Procksch, s.v. “a{gio~,” TDNT, 1:106. Gordon D. Fee, God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994), 686. He appears to follow Procksch’s idea. 202
comparison of verse 12 with verse 19 fails to comprehend the
“new status” which “transcends the old categories.” Looking
to verses 15 and 16 as the prominent guide for understanding
verse 19, Lincoln indicates that, just as Christ creates one
new man from the two, aJgivwn refers to a community which is
neither Jew nor Gentile, but a new race of all believers.97
Paul extends the metaphor so that the community is also a family,98 in which all members are oijkei`oi tou` qeou`.
Specifically, according to Lincoln, the Gentiles, who were
once far off (Eph 2:13), now are in the “bosom” of God’s
family.99 In this way, “each member of the household is
functioning optimally in behalf of the whole, not self-
assertively in behalf of individual interest.”100
Beginning with verse 20, the apostle Paul
introduces the imagery of the building and temple for the
apostolic community. He describes the foundation of the
97Andrew Lincoln, “The Church and Israel in Ephesians 2,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 49 (October 1987): 605-24. See also the discussion of tertium genus in Peter Richardson, Israel in the Apostolic Church (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 203-204.
98F. Foulkes, Ephesians, 93, writes: “Citizenship of the people of God was one expressive way of telling the truth concerning the position in God’s kingdom that Jews and Gentiles now equally share.”
99Andrew T. Lincoln, Ephesians, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 1990), 151-52.
100Thomas C. Oden, Life in the Spirit, 295. 203
oijkei`oi tou` qeou`. Paul explicitly refers to those who proclaim
the revelation of God through Christ.101 Both the prophets
and the apostles lay the foundation upon which the “walls of
the Church bear witness to the community.”102 The apostles
and prophets “constitute the foundation ministries in the
church” and perhaps “the first stones to be laid in the new
building.”103
Markus Barth suggests that ejpi; tw`/ qemelivw/ may refer to
gifted individuals “witnessing explicitly to Jesus
Christ.”104 Schmithals indicates that the phrase represents
the “deposit of doctrine.”105 The foundation of the “temple
of the Spirit,” however, does not represent the individuals
themselves. In 1 Cor 3:11, Paul declares that the only
foundation upon which the “temple of the Spirit” may
sufficiently be built is Jesus Christ. It seems, therefore,
101K. Rengstorff, s.v. “ajpovstolo~,” TDNT, 1:441, indicates that tw`n ajpostovlwn kai; profhtw`n refer to the NT and OT witnesses for God. D. Hill, New Testament Prophecy (London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1979), 139, suggests that the use of the single definite article presents apostles and prophets as the same group of people.
102Markus Barth, A Broken Wall: A Study of the Epistle to the Ephesians (Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1965), 132-33.
103F. F. Bruce, Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians, 304.
104Markus Barth, Ephesians 1-3, 315-16.
105W. Schmithals, The Office of the Apostle in the Early Church (Nashville: Abingdon, 1969), 43 n. 91. 204 that the qemevlio~ tw`n ajpostovlwn kai; profhtw`n refers specifically
to the proclamation of those who received God’s gospel
through Christ to those who, in turn, received Christ Jesus.
Indeed, this interpretation meets Paul’s statement, Pavnte~
ga;r uiJoi; qeou` ejste dia; th`~ pivstew~ ejn Cristw`/ jIhsou ` (Gal 3:26).106
Here, Paul declares that o[nto~ ajkrogwniaivou aujtou` Cristou` jIhsou`. Debate swirls around the location and meaning of ajkrogwniaivou, whether it is part of the foundation or at the top of the building. G. W. H. Lampe indicates that ajkrogwniaivou is the “top-most angle or point of a pyramid.”107
Hanson concludes that Jesus “is the top stone of the
pinnacle of the building.”108 R. J. McKelvey, on the other
hand, rejects this proposal and contends that ajkrogwniaivou
refers to the foundation stone of the building.109 Jeremias,
however, moves beyond the location of the stone to denote
the significance of the image when he writes that verse 20
describes the church as the spiritual temple, the apostles
106“For all are sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus.”
107G. W. H. Lampe, A Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961), 66.
108S. Hanson, The Unity of the Church in the New Testament: Colossians and Ephesians (Uppsala: Almquist and Wiksells, 1946), 131.
109R. J. McKelvey, “Christ the Cornerstone,” New Testament Studies 8 (1962): 352-59. 205
and prophets as the foundation, and Jesus Christ as the
“final stone” who completes the temple.110 Foulkes also
suggests that this phrase “denotes primarily the honour
[sic] of [H]is position in the building, but then also the
way in which each stone is fitted into [H]im, and finds its
true place and usefulness only in relation to [H]im.”111
Thus, Bruce indicates that “keystone” is the “better rendering of ajkrogwniai`o~.”112
Paul expands ajkrogwniai`o~ (2:21-22) when he describes
the relationship between Christ, believers, and the church.
Through the use of ejn w|/, Paul reveals once again the
centrality of Jesus Christ in the redemptive plan of God.
Through Jesus Christ, the wall of separation between God and
humanity falls down (Eph 2:1-13). Furthermore, in Christ
the wall of separation which divides individuals from one
another falls down (Eph 2:14-18), so that di j aujtou` e[comen th;n
prosagwgh;n oiJ ajmfovteroi ejn eJni; pneuvmati pro;~ to;n patevra.113 This is
Christ’s project of reconciliation.
In verse 16 Paul writes, kai; ajpokatallavxh/ tou;~
110J. Jeremias, s. v. “ajkrogwniai`o~,” TDNT, 1:791-93.
111F. Foulkes, Ephesians, 95.
112F. F. Bruce, Epistles to Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians, 306 n. 154.
113“Through Him both have access by one Spirit to the Father” (Eph 2:18). 206
ajmfotevrou~ ejn eJni; swvmati tw`/ qew`/ dia; tou` staurou`, ajpokteivna~ th;n e[cqran ejn
aujtw`/.114 The terminology of reconciliation is the language
of human relationships.115 The result of His death on the
cross is the death of the th;n e[cqran caused by sin. In the
same manner, the enmity between Jew and Gentile has also
been killed through the cross of Christ. Because Jesus has
offered peace both to Jew and Gentile, they share the same
access to the Father through Jesus Christ.
Having abolished the wall of separation between Jew
and Gentile, Jesus Christ joins the whole building together.
The use of pa`sa oijkodomh; without the article calls for the interpretation, “every building.”116 T. K. Abbott concludes
that this construction argues for the description of every
114“And that He might reconcile both completely to God in one body through the cross, killing the enmity by it” (Eph 2:16).
115John B. Polhill, Paul and His Letters (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1999), 366.
116The better manuscript evidence, such as the uncials Sinaiticus (a*), Vaticanus (B), Bezae (D), Boernerianus (G), Athos (Y), miniscules, Byzantine Lectionary, and church fathers (Clement, Origen, Basil, Pseudo-Justin, Chrysostom, and Theodoret) calls for the current reading. Other manuscripts, such as the uncials Sinaiticus (aa), Alexandrius (A), Ephraemi (C), miniscules, and church fathers (Origen, Chrysostom, Euthalius, and Theophylact) provide the article, so that the text reads, pa`sa hJ oijkodomhv. Understanding that the shorter and more difficult reading is many times more favorable, the former reading carries the most weight as original. 207
local church.117 Moule suggests that the phrase points to a
Hebraism depicting the entire, rather than localized,
community of believers.118 Fee opts for the idea that the
anarthrous construction describes “all that has gone into
the building” while Christ joins the building together.119
The participle, sunarmologoumevnh, depicts the union
of membership into a unified whole. Christ, as the
ajkrogwniai`o~, is the bond to join each individual together.120
As Christ joins the community together, He also provides for its growth, which is the continual growth of the individuals into a unified whole (Eph 4:16).
Schnackenburg concludes that the Spirit is the key to this text.121 Through a succession of images, the apostle
moves his readers through a series of metaphors until they
come to the final image of the community of believers, which
is the “temple of the Spirit.” These images move from
117T. K. Abbott, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians and to the Colossians, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1897), 74.
118C. F. D. Moule, Idiom Book of New Testament Greek, 94-95
119Gordon Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 686 n. 92.
120C. Maurer, s.v. “sunarmologevw,” TDNT, 7:855-56.
121Rudolf Schnackenburg, Der Brief an die Epheser, Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament 10 (Neukirchener-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1982), 125. 208 remote relationships to intimate relationships. Those who were far off are now brought near. Those who were strangers and foreigners are now fellow citizens and fellow members of
God’s household. God’s household is a community of believers, who, through the metaphor of a building, exist as the “present place of God’s habitation.”122
Although Lincoln posits that this passage refers to the universal church,123 Fee suggests that the imagery describes more than “a nebulous entity.”124 The apostolic community involves personal commitments in relationship.
Unity is not a nebulous concoction of contemporary ecumenicism for the universal church. Rather, unity comes through the intimate bond which the Spirit establishes between individuals within the community. As the same
Spirit dwells within each individual, Paul calls those individuals to express the unity of the Spirit in a personal and intimate manner. This intimate expression comes through a “gathered community ‘filled with the Spirit’ and thus
‘teaching and admonishing one another’ in the various kinds
122Gordon Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 689.
123A. T. Lincoln, Ephesians, 158.
124Gordon Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 689 n. 105. Fee contends that Paul’s ecclesiology “finds expression at the local level, even in this circular letter.” 209
of songs, including those of the Spirit.”125
Hanson correctly adduces that the building
terminology in Paul’s epistles “is not an individualistic
concept, but one of fellowship.”126 Barth oversteps the
evidence, however, when he proposes that this image
“excludes the notion that God’s presence might be primarily
located in the souls of individual believers.”127 The
related passage in 1 Cor 6:19 certainly speaks to the
individual believers as the nao;~ tou` ejn uJmi`n aJgiou` pneuvmato~.128
Rom 8:9-12 also reveals that the Spirit resides in individual believers, for Paul writes, eij dev ti~ pneu`ma Cristou` oujk e[cei, ou|to~ oujk e[stin aujtou`.129 Barth’s language suggests a
theological contention that one may not possess the Spirit
125Gordon Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 689.
126Hanson, Unity of the Church, 130.
127Markus Barth, Ephesians 1-3, 321. Barth further writes: “No one, not even the church and her most pious members, can possess God for [H]imself alone.”
128Gordon Fee, First Epistle to the Corinthians, 263. Fee interprets this phrase to mean that the body of the individual is the “present habitation of God’s Spirit.”
129“But if anyone does not have the Spirit of Christ, this one is not of Him” (Rom 8:9b). Peter Stuhlmacher, Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Commentary, trans. Scott J. Hafemann (Louisville: Westminster / John Knox Press, 1994), 118. He suggests that Paul’s description is similar to the Essene text (1QS 11:9-18), in which the God of righteousness “on the basis of free grace, forgives the sinner his transgressions, fills him with the Holy Spirit, and enables him to praise as well as to walk in perfection.” 210 apart from the church. Paul, however, indicates that one may not possess the Spirit apart from Christ, who is the ajkrogwniai`o~. As the ajkrogwniai`o~, Jesus Christ fits together the individual members of the building of God so that the community grows eij~ nao;n a{gion ejn kurivw/.130 The function of this
“holy temple” is “to be a dwelling for God.”131 Stott suggests that eij~ katoikhthvrion tou` qeou` ejn pneuvmati is an image of
God’s “new society, His redeemed people scattered throughout the inhabited world. They are His home on earth.”132
In this way, the apostolic church envisions the unity amidst diversity. The apostolic community, facing the multiplicity of plurality, finds unity through the power of the Spirit, uniting their hearts and lives with the common mission of evangelism.
Evangelization in the Midst of Pluralism133
Pluralism also presents a problem for the
130Barth, Ephesians 1-3, 323, suggests that although individual growth is concomitant to the growth of the community, Paul decisively has in mind here the growth of the entire community.
131Walter Liefeld, Ephesians, IVP New Testament Commentary (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997), 76-77.
132John R. W. Stott, The Message of Ephesians: God’s New Society (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1979), 110.
133See discussion in chapter 1, “Prevailing Postmodern Themes: Pluralism” 211 evangelization of the postmodern person.134 Alister McGrath
suggests that pluralism is a common issue for the
contemporary and the New Testament church. The New
Testament church was not content with “conversation” or
“dialogue” with the pluralities, but they preached the
gospel. McGrath concludes that the future of Christianity
depends upon evangelism.135
The Imperial Ethic of Pluralism
Cherished pluralism is the only acceptable absolute
in postmodernism and is the ethic which dominates.136
Insightfully, Alasdair MacIntyre indicates that the
postmodern culture has embraced “psychological
effectiveness” as the replacement to truth.137 He further
writes that the pursuit of meaning “cannot be simply or
unconditionally identified with any particular moral
attitude or point of view . . . just because of the fact
134Alister McGrath, “The Challenge of Pluralism for the Contemporary Christian Church” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 35 (September 1992): 361-73.
135Alister McGrath, Evangelicalism and the Future of Christianity (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 159-62.
136D. A. Carson, Gagging of God, 19.
137Alasdaire MacIntyre, After Virtue, 2d ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984), 30-31. 212 that its judgments are in the end criterionless.”138 The result of “criterionless” judgment is the exaltation of plurality.139 The postmodern setting, therefore, gives rise to the “profound human meaning and importance” of the plurality of religious traditions.140 As such, Allan Bloom suggests that “relativism is necessary to openness; and this is the virtue, the only virtue. . . . Openness -- and the relativism that makes it the only plausible stance in the face of various claims to truth . . . is the great insight of our times.”141
Craig proposes that the “postmodernist is not merely saying that we cannot know with certainty which religious worldview is true and we therefore must be open- minded; rather he maintains that none of the religious worldviews is objectively true, and therefore none can be excluded in deference to the allegedly one true religion.”142
138Ibid., 31.
139William Lane Craig, “Politically Incorrect Salvation,” in Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World, eds. Timothy R. Phillips and Dennis L. Okholm, 75-97 (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 76-77.
140Gordon Kaufman, “Evidentialism: A Theologian’s Response,” Faith and Philosophy 6 (1989): 40.
141Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 26.
142W. L. Craig, “Politically Incorrect Salvation,” 77. 213
In light of this preeminent ethic of pluralism in religious
thought, how can the contemporary church evangelize
effectively and faithfully the postmodern person?
The Areopagitica, Acts 17:16-34
In light of this imperial ethic of pluralism,
Paul’s Areopagitica (Acts 17:16-34) serves as an example for
an apostolic approach for evangelism. There is a
relationship between deisidaimonestevrou~ (Acts 17:22)143 and the
pluralism prevalent in postmodern thinking. Paul’s witness
in the midst of the pluralism among the philosophers in
Athens sets an example for the evangelism in the postmodern
world.144
Külling suggests that “dieses Ereignis ist
sozusagen die Vorwegnahme der weltgeschichtlich bedeutsamen
Tatsache, dass durch diese Botschaft menschliche Weisheit in
ihren höchsten Errungenschaften herausgefordert sein
wird.”145 Through the evangelistic message of Paul, the
143F. F. Bruce, The Book of the Acts, 333-36.
144Paul’s address, o{ ou\n ajgnoou`nte~ eujsebei`te, tou`to ejgw; kataggevllw uJmi`n (17:23), gives insight for the contemporary church in proclaiming the gospel to postmodern people with a penchant for pluralism. See Cornelius Van Til, The God of Hope (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1978), 7.
145Heinz Külling, “Zur Bedeutung des AGNOSTOS THEOS. Eine Exegese zu Apostelgeschichte 17, 22.23,” Theologische Zeitschrift 36 (1980): 67. The translation is: “This event is, so to speak, the anticipation of the momentous reality 214 gospel engaged the pluralism of the ancient world.
Following the example of Paul, the Areopagitica speech presents a paradigm for the evangelization of postmodern people. First, Paul begins with a statement of recognition. The deisidaimonestevrou~, according to Conzelmann, means “devout” rather than “superstitious.”146 Rather than attacking the various idols in place before him, Paul begins with an acknowledgment of religious pursuit among his hearers. Although this is not necessarily complimentary, it clearly is not condemnatory.147
The nature of postmodern pluralism certainly presupposes the same deisidaimonestevrou~ of postmodern people.
Paul’s example for the contemporary church is to recognize and acknowledge the spiritual hunger and search of the postmodern people.
Second, Paul finds a place for common ground in his evangelistic presentation. The altar ajgnwvstw/ qew`/ offers Paul a starting-point for the gospel.148 Although they did not of world history, that through this message human wisdom in its highest attainment will be defied.”
146Hans Conzelmann, “The Address of Paul on the Areopagus,” in Studies in Luke-Acts, eds. L. E. Keck and J. L. Martyn (London: SPCK, 1966), 220.
147Conzelmann, “Paul’s Address,” 220.
148Ibid. Conzelmann suggests that Luke takes the common inscription on Athenian altars, “to unknown gods,” 215 know the identity of this deity, tou`to ejgw; kataggevllw uJmi`n
(17:23).149 The postmodern setting also presents an opportunity for the church to find common ground for evangelization. The popular postmodern culture is filled with spiritual images and symbols which offer a starting- point for the gospel. Hahn and Verhaagen describe this situation through the music and television of postmodern culture. The music of contemporary secular artists provides common ground for the gospel with postmodern people.150
Third, the apostle describes the identity of the ajgnwvsto~ qeov~ in verses 24 through 29. He seeks to bring his audience “to a proper understanding of the living God.”151
As Quesnel suggests, Paul “qui s’adresse á des grecs païens, ne cite évidemment pas l’Ecriture juive; il lui préfère les poètes grecs, reconnus comme capables d’ouvrir aux mortels les portes du contact avec le sacré (v. 28).”152 and then “changes it into the singular and then uses this as a point of departure for Christian ideas.”
149“This one I proclaim to you.”
150Hahn and Verhaagen, Reckless Hope, 120-21.
151Joseph A. Fitzmeyer, The Acts of the Apostles, Anchor Bible (New York: Doubleday, 1998), 603.
152Michel Quesnel, “Paul prédicateur dans les Actes des Apôtres,” New Testament Studies 47 (October 2001): 475. “Paul, who addressed himself to Greek pagans, does not cite evidently Jewish Scripture; he prefers to it the Greek poets, recognized as capable of opening to mortals the gates 216
In an apostolic approach to postmodern people, the contemporary church must lead the postmodern listeners to a proper understanding of the living God. This demands the use of specific phrases and terms which will not fit neatly with the pluralism of postmodernism. Yet, this approach begins with a common ground and moves toward the specific statements of God’s reality and ultimate sovereignty.
Finally, the apostle presents the necessary response to God through Jesus Christ (17:30-31). The resurrection of Jesus Christ is the proof and verification of the power and victory of God.153 The judgment of the world is also included in this approach. The clarity of the gospel demands a faithful presentation of the judgment that awaits all humanity. The pluralism of postmodern people will cringe at this presentation of an absolute truth-claim.
The results, however, depend upon the Spirit of truth leading the hearer toward the conviction that yields repentance (John 16:8-11).
Following the pattern of the apostolic community, the contemporary church may deal effectively with the pluralities and the pluralism of the postmodern world. The final analysis of an apostolic approach for the of contact with the sacred (v. 28).”
153J. A. Fitzmeyer, Acts of the Apostles, 612. 217 evangelization of postmodern people seeks to remain faithful to the absolute truth of the gospel, and yet also seeks to find avenues through which the Spirit of truth may move more readily to the hearts of the postmodern people. CHAPTER FIVE
PERSONAL EVANGELISM AND POSTMODERN PEOPLE
An Apostolic Witness in Postmodern Times, Acts 1:8
As a conclusion, this writer seeks to bring
specific application for personal evangelism in a postmodern
world following an apostolic approach. The first issue to
consider is the form and function of mavrtu~ with postmodern people (Acts 1:8). According to Strathman, mavrtu~ is one who proclaims the facts and the truths of the gospel.1
Trites indicates that mavrtu~ in Acts “presents the claims of
Christ against a background of hostility, contention, and
persecution,”2 which finds similarity to postmodernism.
An apostolic approach, therefore, calls for
personal testimony concerning the facts of Christ and the
truth of the gospel. As already noted, the Spirit of truth
conjoins the witness of the follower of Christ to present
epistemological foundations of faith to postmodern people.
1H. Strathmann, s. v. “mavrtu~ ktl.,” TDNT, 4:492-514.
2Allison A. Trites, The New Testament Concept of Witness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 132.
217 218
The mandate of Christ is e[sesqe mou mavrture~ (Acts 1:8).3 The
believer in a postmodern milieu has the duty to share the
gospel with individuals through personal witness. The
manner of this evangelistic witness, however, finds various
formulations. This writer proposes that the power of
personal witness moves along the lines of narrative.
The speeches in Acts present one aspect of this
witness.4 These speeches serve as guidelines for a contemporary approach in personal evangelism. As noted in chapter one, the postmodern people search for a better story to provide meaning for their existence. These speeches in
Acts present a variety of style and form.5 This writer
proposes that this variety reflects the different audiences
to whom the apostolic church evangelized with the gospel.6
For instance, when dealing with Jewish sympathizers, the
apostolic witnesses interpret Scripture as the basis for
Israel’s historical place in God’s plan of redemption.7
3“You will be My witnesses.” The future tense carries the force of a command in this context.
4Jacob Jervell, The Theology of the Acts of the Apostles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 9.
5Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970), 137-38.
6Jervell, Theology of the Acts of the Apostles, 9.
7See chapter 2, “Evangelistic Approach at Pentecost, Acts 2:14-41. 219
Jesus is the culmination and fulfillment of God’s saving purpose.8 In Acts 5:29-32, “the apostles affirm more briefly that God has exalted the rejected and crucified
Jesus, and through [H]im is now offering Israel an opportunity to repent and receive [H]is forgiveness.”9
Peter’s evangelistic speech to Cornelius represents
the variety of approach to eujsebh;~ kai; fobouvmeno~ tou` qeou`.
Bruce suggests that the apostolic witness proclaims the
fulfillment of prophecy, the facts of Christ’s crucifixion
and resurrection, the eyewitness reports, and the “assurance
of forgiveness to all who believe in Jesus.”10 Paul’s
sermon at Antioch Pisidia represents another witness to
eujsebh;~ kai; fobouvmeno~ tou` qeou`. Paul presents a survey of God’s
mighty acts of redemption in Israel’s history (Acts 13:17-
25).11 Jesus, according to Paul’s witness, is the summit of
God’s saving deeds (Acts 13:26-37). Salvation, therefore,
comes through Jesus Christ (Acts 13:38-39).12
8F. F. Bruce, “The Significance of the Speeches for Interpreting Acts,” Southwestern Journal of Theology 33 (Fall 1990): 21.
9Ibid.
10Ibid., 22.
11Jervell, Theology of the Acts of the Apostles, 67- 68.
12Ibid., 88-89. 220
Paul’s speeches to a Gentile audience, however, do
not include an extensive look at Old Testament Scripture.13
In Lystra, as well as in the court of the Areopagus, Paul forms his witness around the qeo;n zw`nta. Rather than a description of God’s activity in the history of Israel, Paul presents the world of nature to point to the “existence, power, and goodness of the Creator.” According to Marshall, this presentation leads Paul to the gospel witness, although
Luke does not record this testimony.14
Michael Green proposes that the varieties in the evangelism of the apostolic church reflect the needs of the audience. Following an apostolic approach, evangelism is the proclamation of the gospel “in terms that makes sense” to the audience.15 As Bruce cogently writes, Luke’s record
of speeches to Jews demonstrates “how to present the gospel
to Jews and God-fearing Gentiles; and when he reproduces the
preaching at Lystra and Athens, this, he implies, is how it
should be presented to pagans.”16
13Ibid., 67.
14I. H. Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles, Tyndale New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980; reprint, 1999), 238-39.
15M. Green, Evangelism in the Early Church, 137-38.
16F. F. Bruce, “The Significance of the Speeches,” 24. 221
Schweizer offers the following elements essential
in the apostolic approach to witness: 1) an appeal to
Scripture, 2) the “christological kerygma,” 3) proclamation of salvation, and 4) the call to repentance.17 In an
application of the apostolic approach for the evangelization
of postmodern people, this writer proposes similar elements.
Alvin Reid offers a similar proposal in his evangelistic
approach. Reid draws a comparison between the Jews and
nominal Christians who have “some knowledge and background
in the faith.”18 Reference to Scripture makes sense to
postmodern people who have connections to the church.
Gentiles, however, represent the “radically unchurched” in
Reid’s model. Reid suggests that “we need ‘sensory
apologetics’ to reach a postmodern culture.”19 In this
approach, the witness tells the “story of how God relates to
man.”20 Similarly, Schweizer contends that the apostolic witness to Gentiles promotes the “theological” kerygma.21
17Eduard Schweizer, “Concerning the Speeches in Acts,” in Studies in Luke-Acts, eds. L. E. Keck and J. L. Martyn (Nashville: Abingdon, 1966), 208-16.
18Alvin Reid, Introduction to Evangelism (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1998), 226-27.
19Ibid., 235.
20Ibid., 236.
21E. Schweizer, “Concerning the Speeches in Acts,” 214. This is in contrast to a “christological” kerygma. 222
The personal witness shares the story of Christ’s work in the individual’s life. Indeed, Dieter Zander suggests that this is the most authoritative connection to the postmodern generation. Evangelism that is effective to postmodern people communicates the personal story of salvation and forgiveness.22
The metanarrative of the gospel finds connection
with the postmodern person through the personal testimony of
the believer.23 The postmodern culture communicates
knowledge through the fluidity of the spoken word. The
reception of this knowledge depends upon the oral devices,
such as rhythmic balance, formulaic patterns, proverbs,
mnemonic aids, and other tools to provide associative
remembrance in the minds of the hearers. The narrator moves
to the point of action in the story rather than following a
linear plot. In the telling of the story, the hearers
become active participants in the creation of the narrative.
The culture communicates truth by story.24
22Dieter Zander, “The Gospel for Generation X,” Leadership 16 (Spring 1995): 36-42.
23James W. Sire, “On Being a Fool for Christ and an Idiot for Nobody,” in Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World, ed. Timothy Phillips and Dennis Okholm (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 120-24.
24Walter Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (London: Routledge, 1982), 142- 43, 171-72. 223
In his description of conversion, E. Y. Mullins
describes personal evangelism: “Christ is presented to the
soul. A new sense of sin is awakened through the power of
the Holy Spirit within. At length the will is surrendered
to God in Christ.”25 The communication of the gospel of
Christ to the soul of the postmodern person comes most
readily through the personal story of the witness.
As Jensen states, “Stories work by indirection.
Working indirectly they have a chance to break through the
cultural filters that work in the heads of those who
listen.”26 Through the use of story, the witness creates an
“affective experience for the audience of a sermon.”27
Listeners are provided room to overhear this kind of “message,” to bridge the distance and choose to participate because they identify with the experience created and the impetus to act evoked by the speaker’s own encounter with “meaning.” The goal of this kind of preaching is to create an experience of the word of God in listeners within a range of possible responses rather than trying to control the specific response.28
25E. Y. Mullins, Christian Religion in Its Doctrinal Expression (Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1917; reprint, 1964), 62.
26Richard A. Jensen, Thinking in Story: Preaching in a Post-literate Age (Lima, OH: CSS Publishing Company, 1993), 62.
27Robert Stephen Reid, “Postmodernism and the Function of the New Homiletic in Post-Christendom Congregations” Homiletic 20 (1995): 7.
28Ibid. 224
Erickson suggests that “we may need to modify the way in which we do the leading or present the message. This may mean that a more narrative presentation, not in the hermeneutical or heuristic but in the communicational sense of narrative, will have to be the beginning of the conversation.”29 This provides the foundation for witness.
The role of the Spirit, the ethic of a commendable
community, and the personal witness join to provide an
effective evangelistic presentation to postmodern people.
J. I. Packer summarizes the role of personal
evangelism.
Evangelism is just preaching the gospel, the evangel. It is a work of communication in which Christians make themselves mouthpieces for God’s message of mercy to sinners. Anyone who faithfully delivers that message, under whatever circumstances . . . is evangelizing. Since the divine message finds its climax in a plea from the Creator to a rebel world to turn and put faith in Christ, the delivering of it involves the summoning of one’s hearers to conversion. If you are not, in this sense, seeking to bring about conversions, you are not evangelizing; this we have seen already. But the way to tell whether in fact you are evangelizing . . . is to ask whether you are faithfully making known the gospel message.30
Personal evangelism in an apostolic approach presents the
story of the gospel through the lens of personal experience.
29Millard J. Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith: Evangelical Responses to the Challenge of Postmodernism (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 155.
30James I. Packer, Evangelism and the Sovereignty of God (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1961), 41. 225
The Power for Personal Evangelism, Rom 15:17-21
The various obstacles for personal evangelism in a
postmodern world necessitate the empowerment of the witness.
Without the power of the Spirit in an apostolic approach,
personal evangelism may be just another story among stories.
The apostle Paul provides insight into the power in an
apostolic approach to personal evangelism (Rom 15:17-21).31
In this passage, the apostle demonstrates the role of the
Spirit which empowers him peplhrwkevnai to; eujaggevlion tou` Cristou`
(Rom 15:19).32 This empowerment comes through shmeivwn kai;
teravtwn. Mark Saucy suggests that “the church is empowered
to preach by the Spirit (Acts 1:8), and it works miracles
through the Spirit.”33 Unger indicates that such miraculous signs of God’s presence in the apostolic community have ceased.34 Yet, the presence of the miraculous demonstration
of God’s presence in the apostolic community regularly
accompanies the evangelistic ministry of the church in Acts.
31Douglas Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 891-98.
32“To have made full the gospel of Christ.”
33Mark Saucy, “Miracles and Jesus’ Proclamation of the Kingdom of God,” Bibliotheca Sacra 153 (July 1996): 286.
34Merrill Unger, The Baptism and Gifts of the Holy Spirit (Chicago: Moody Press, 1974), 138-40. 226
This writer proposes that the manifestation of the Spirit’s
work in the church continues to play an important role.
This is not to embrace wholeheartedly the “power evangelism”
of John Wimber,35 but it is to acknowledge in a postmodern setting the necessity of the Spirit’s therapeutic work of power through an apostolic approach for evangelism.
In connection with the source of power, the place of prayer highlights a significant avenue for empowerment in personal evangelism (Col 4:2-6).36 Prayer plays a major
role in Paul’s evangelistic ministry. In the contemporary
church, prayer should accompany the evangelistic enterprise
with postmodern people, “so that the mystery of the
indwelling Christ may be proclaimed (4:2-4).”37
In Eph 6:18, Paul calls the apostolic community to
pray ejn pneuvmati. Through prayer, individual witnesses
experience the overflow of God’s power for evangelism.38
35See John Wimber, Power Evangelism (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1985).
36Allison A. Trites, “The Prayer Motif in Luke-Acts,” in Perspectives in Luke-Acts, ed. C. H. Talbert (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1977), 168–86.
37H. Wayne House, “The Christian Life According to Colossians,” Bibliotheca Sacra 151 (October 1994): 454.
38Kendall Easley, “The Pauline Usage of Pneumati as a Reference to the Spirit of God,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27 (September 1984): 307- 308. 227
Furthermore, Paul’s exhortation for the life controlled by
the Spirit presents a prerequisite for empowerment in
personal evangelism (Eph 5:18).39 Mussies concludes that the present tense of the imperative, plhrou`sqe, calls for a consistent, continual manner of life.40 Dana and Mantey
suggest that ejn pneuvmati is instrumental, so that the meaning
is “by means of the Spirit.”41
Fee notes that this reference points to the
community experience, as well as the individualistic
experience.42 As such, the phrase points to the apostolic
ethic within the community. Köstenberger notes that the
Spirit permeates the life of the witness, manifested in
wisdom (Eph 5:17-18), “grateful worship” (5:19-20), and
relationships following the principle of love (5:21-6:9).43
39F. F. Bruce, “The Holy Spirit in the Acts of the Apostles” Interpretation 27 (1973): 166-83; C. Anderson, “Rethinking ‘Be Filled with the Spirit.’ Ephesians 5:18 and the Purpose of Ephesians” Evangelical Journal 7 (1989): 57–67.
40G. Mussies, The Morphology of Koine Greek (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971), 272-73.
41H. E. Dana and J. R. Mantey. A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York: MacMillan, 1950), 105.
42Gordon Fee, God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994), 721-24.
43Andreas Köstenberger, “What Does It Mean to be Filled with the Spirit? A Biblical Investigation,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 40 (June 1997): 233. 228
Obstacles for Personal Evangelism
The postmodern world presents obstacles of paganism
and persecution for personal evangelism. A “stubbornly
entrenched paganism” is one obstacle to apostolic witness.44
Simon in Samaria (Acts 8:9), Elymas in Paphos (Acts 13:6-8), and the Hellenistic paganism (Acts 14:8-18; 16:16-19; 17:5-
9, 16-34) depict the paganism that pervaded the cultural landscape of the first-century. This paganism presented an obstacle to the evangelistic efforts of the apostolic church.45 The contemporary church faces this same obstacle.
Postmodern people have a “healthy spiritual appetite” that
drives them “to seek our mystical experiences, developing
their own unique religious faith.”46 The dismissal of
foundations, the relativism of truth, and the pluralism that
define postmodernism create fertile ground for the
development of unique religious, syncretistic beliefs.
44Autrey, Evangelism in the Acts, 71.
45See Ramsay MacMullen, Paganism in the Roman Empire (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 62-73. Paul Veyne, “The Roman Empire,” in A History of Private Life: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium, ed. Paul Veyne, trans. A. Goldhammer (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 207-33. “The paganism of the Greeks and Romans . . . was, if I may put it this way, more an à la carte religion than a religion with a fixed menu” (208).
46Todd Hahn and David Verhaagen, GenXers After God: Helping a Generation Pursue Jesus (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 14. 229
Based upon various mystical experiences and philosophies
from a multitude of religious circles, postmodern people
embrace a contemporary form of paganism.47
Luke reports that many Samaritans ejpivsteusan tw`/ Filivppw/
eujaggelizomevnw/ peri; th`~ basileiva~ tou` qeou` kai; tou` ojnovmato~ jIhsou` Cristou`
(Acts 8:12).48 The healing and exorcisms (Acts 8:7) serve
as “visible ‘signs’ confirming the message that he
proclaimed.”49 Luke presents Simon of Samaria as a pagan
counterpart to Philip and the apostolic ministry (Acts 8:9-
11).50 Simon receives baptism along with other converts,
but then he considers the acquisition of miraculous power “a
matter of greed rather than grace (8:14-23),” offering money
to Peter for the power of the Spirit.51
47These religious circles may even be contradictory.
48“[They] believed Philip as he preached the good news concerning the kingdom of God and of the name of Jesus Christ.” In Acts 13:6-8, Elymas the sorcerer was struck blind by God which led to the conversion of Sergius Paulus.
49F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, rev. ed., New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 165.
50See Edwin Yamauchi, Pre-Christian Gnosticism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973), 57-63. Although it is beyond the reach of this dissertation, later tradition assigns to Simon Magus the origination of the Gnostic heresy denounced by Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, and Hippolytus.
51Robert Wall, “Israel and the Gentile Mission in Acts and Paul: A Canonical Approach,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. H. Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 444. 230
This encounter of Phillip and Peter with Simon reveals the nature of personal evangelization before the obstacle of paganism in a postmodern milieu. First, the personal witness must proclaim the gospel. Unlike Simone
Weil, the apostolic approach seeks to evangelize individuals who adhere to any spiritual pursuit other than Christ Jesus.
Weil considers that such evangelization discounts the spiritual pursuits of individuals and the possibility that the cross affects the same benefit of salvation to these pursuits which are “not too unsuitable for pronouncing the name of the Lord.”52 For an apostolic approach, however, the proclamation of the gospel confronts the postmodern
“carnivalesque world of multiple constructions of reality” and demonstrates the “ongoing drama of God’s redemption of the world” through Jesus Christ.53 The presentation of the gospel in the power of the Spirit produces the foundations for faith in Jesus in the face of postmodern paganism.54
52Simone Weil, Waiting for God, trans. Emma Craufurd (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1951), 185. Weil offers this conclusion based upon spiritual pursuits of individuals since she includes those who have embraced a native religion as well as those who have not embraced any formal religion.
53J. Richard Middleton and Brian J. Walsh, Truth Is Stranger Than It Used to Be: Biblical Faith in a Postmodern Age (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995), 191.
54M. Green, Evangelism in the Early Church, 132. “The dunamis shown by the Christians appealed to a magician like Simon Magus or Elymas.” 231
Secondly, an apostolic approach corrects any
syncretistic tendency in the evangelization of postmodern
people. Peter corrects Simon’s misconception of the Holy
Spirit (Acts 8:20-24). In Lystra Paul and Barnabas
eujaggelizovmenoi h\san (Acts 14:7). After healing a lame man,
the people seek to worship the missionaries as oiJ qeoi;
oJmoiwqevnte~ ajnqrwvpoi~ (Acts 14:11). As Neil suggests, “This
fascinating glimpse of the superstitious pagan background of
the Empire suggests the magnitude of the problem facing
early Christian missionaries.”55 The apostolic approach
confers no affiliation with the paganism of the people, but
calls for them ajpo; touvtwn tw`n mataivwn ejpistrevfein ejpi; qeo;n zw`nta
(Acts 14:15).56 An apostolic approach diligently presents
the good news of Jesus Christ as the unique and supreme
avenue for salvation. In an apostolic approach, personal
evangelism refuses to accommodate the gospel to the
spiritual “postmodern theater pieces,” which mesh to form a
complex of spiritual claims embraced by individuals.
Rather, the apostolic approach presents the gospel as the
only true story of God’s salvation to humanity.
55William Neil, The Acts of the Apostles, New Century Bible Commentary (London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1973; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 163.
56“To turn from these vain things toward the living God.” 232
Persecution also presents an obstacle to personal evangelism in an apostolic approach. An examination of the persecutions in Acts reveals that the gospel encounters specific opposition from the Jewish community. The apostolic approach in the face of persecution may be summarized by Peter’s words in Acts 5:30: peiqarcei`n dei` qew`/ ma`llon h[ ajnqrwvpoi~.57 In the face of persecution, the apostolic
church continues to evangelize. Yet, the “Christian witness
does not prevail . . . because of human tenacity but by
divine empowerment.”58
Jewish persecution in Jerusalem occurs in response
to the growth of the Christian witness in Jerusalem. The
animosity of the Jewish leaders focuses upon the apostolic
witness that they were responsible for Christ’s passion.59
Opposition to Stephen, which leads to his death, begins with
a debate with the sunagwgh`~ th`~ legomevnh~ Libertivnwn (Acts 6:9).
57“We have the divine necessity to obey God rather than men.” See, C. H. Cosgrove, “The Divine DEI in Luke- Acts: Investigations into the Lukan Understanding of God’s Providence,” Novum Testamentum 26 (1984): 186-90.
58Brian Rapske, “Opposition to the Plan of God and Persecution,” in Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. H. Marshall and David Peterson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 236.
59Ernst Bammel, “Jewish Activity Against Christians in Palestine According to Acts,” in The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 358-59. 233
Stephen’s defense speech considers the history of
God’s people apart from any temple.60 The evangelistic
importance of Stephen’s speech culminates in his martyrdom
(Acts 7:54-60). Upon Stephen’s death, the persecution
scatters the apostolic community (Acts 8:1-3). Encouraged
by the boldness and faith of Stephen in martyrdom, the
apostolic community dih`lqon eujaggelizovmenoi to;n lovgon (Acts 8:4).61
Later, when Paul and Barnabas proclaim the gospel
in Iconium, the Jews stir up opposition (Acts 14:1-7). As
Rapske notes: “Relying upon the Lord, they speak fearlessly
(Acts 14:3) concerning God’s grace and their message is
confirmed by miraculous signs and wonders.”62 This boldness
exemplifies an apostolic approach throughout Luke’s account.
This boldness depends upon the empowerment of the Spirit to
“fulfil [sic] the divine plan” and to “to carry on through
the negative effects of opposition and persecution.”63
60F. F. Bruce, Men and Movements in the Primitive Church: Studies in Early Non-Pauline Christianity (London: Paternoster Press, 1979), 54-55.
61“[They] went everywhere preaching the good news of the word.” M. Green, Evangelism in the Early Church, 131- 32. Green suggests that “Stephen did more for his Master in his death than he did in his life” because of the appeal his courage and faith presented to the ancient world.
62B. Rapske, “Opposition to the Plan of God and Persecution,” 249.
63Ibid., 250. 234
In a postmodern world, persecution finds its main
expression in the intellectual realm. The pluralism of
postmodernism disdains the absolutism of the gospel.
Persecution comes in the arena of public discourse.64 The
“claim to absoluteness and exclusivity of Christianity” presents one reason for animosity toward an apostolic witness to Jesus Christ.65 This “totalizing metanarrative”
remains untenable in a postmodern setting for personal
evangelism. An apostolic approach, however, depends upon
the “unstoppable character of Christian witness” through the
direct influence and empowerment of the Spirit of truth.66
Finding Common Ground, 1 Cor 9:19-23
Personal evangelism to postmodern people demands a
biblical principle of accommodation (1 Cor 9:19-23).67
64D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 28-36.
65Peter Lampe and Ulrich Luz, “Post-Pauline Christianity and Pagan Society,” in Christian Beginnings: Word and Community from Jesus to Post-Apostolic Times, ed. Jürgen Becker, 242-80 (Louisville: Westminster / John Knox, 1993), 261.
66B. Rapske, “Opposition to the Plan of God and Persecution,” 256. Furthermore, “Through such tokens as earthquakes, miraculous releases from prison and visions, the Lord gives both [H]is people, and [H]is plan which they pursue, an unqualified, ‘Yes’.”
67Norman Geisler, “Some Philosophical Perspectives on Missionary Dialogue,” in Theology and Mission, ed. David J. Hesselgrave (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1978), 228-45. 235
Leith Anderson suggests that “Paul should be seen as a
skilled ethnologist who understood cultures while
communicating truth.”68 Paul’s example of combining ethnology and exegesis serves as an apostolic approach in evangelizing postmodern people. Dunn suggests that “Paul allowed circumstances and situations to determine the statement of his kerygma to a considerable degree.”69
This accommodation, however, has limits. As Ben
Witherington states, “[Paul’s] accommodating behavior has
clear limits. He does not say that he became an idolator
[sic] to idolators [sic] or an adulterer to adulterers. But
in matters that he did not see as ethically or theologically
essential or implied by the gospel, Paul believed in
flexibility.”70 This concept of accommodation promotes the
discovery of “common ground” between the postmodern culture
and the gospel. Finding common ground, within limits,
provides a bridge for personal evangelism. Such
accommodation promotes a flexibility, but not compromise.
68Leith Anderson, “Practice of Ministry in 21st- Century Churches” Bibliotheca Sacra 151 (October 1994): 388.
69James D. G. Dunn, Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity, 2d ed. (London: SCM Press, 1990), 25.
70Ben Witherington, III, Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1995), 213. 236
John Frame contends that there are “some areas in which
Christians may and should be like those to whom they preach,
so their witness may be more effective.”71 Simply stated, a
personal witness who is “open to beginning where people are,
will thus discover that the unchaining of his or her own
imagination is indispensable to reaching secular people.”72
As noted earlier, such common ground may be found in the postmodern search for a better story, for connection, and for a better life.73 One aspect of a better story is
the postmodern desire to discover a story that overcomes the
powers of evil in the world. Webber suggests that
evangelism in a postmodern world proclaims that “Christ’s
death is a victory over the powers of evil.”74 The common
ground of connection promotes the commendable community of
the church following the ethics of the apostolic community.
The church is the place of connection in a postmodern world.
71John Frame, “In Defense of Something Close to Biblicism: Reflections on Sola Scriptura and History in Theological Method,” Westminster Theological Journal 59 (Fall 1997): 286.
72George Hunter III, How to Reach Secular People (Nashville: Abingdon, 1992), 95.
73See chapter one, “Possible Opportunities for Evangelism.”
74Robert Webber, Ancient-Future Faith: Rethinking Evangelicalism for a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1999), 150. 237
Craig Van Gelder suggests that effective evangelization of
postmodern people demands “building communities of faith and
addressing fragmentation and brokenness.”75 Finally, evangelism to postmodern people finds common ground with them as they seek a better life. As Harry Lee Poe writes,
“We have nothing to offer the postmodern world in terms of organizations, programs, institutions, and structures. What we have to offer is a concrete basis for peace in a fragmented world. We have a Savior to offer . . . a Savior who will put their house in order.”76
Application of an Apostolic Approach
An apostolic approach proceeds from the power of
witness through the outpouring of the Spirit of truth. The
Spirit of truth provides the epistemological bridge for the
postmodern skepticism. The Spirit establishes community,
which, in turn, creates a place of nurture, growth, and
warmth in the evangelistic endeavor. The Spirit of truth
further produces connection and continuity with Christ
through the inspiration and illumination of Scripture.77
75George Hunsberger and Craig Van Gelder, Church: Between Gospel and Culture, The Emerging Mission in North America (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 32.
76Harry Lee Poe, Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Nashville: Abingdon, 2001), 74.
77Jervell, Theology of the Acts of the Apostles, 46. 238
The ethic of community extends intimacy to postmodern people
and provides a living testament to the veracity of the
gospel proclaimed. The apostolic approach provides specific
approaches to pluralities and pluralism in the postmodern
world, especially in Paul’s speech at the Areopagus.
Finally, the personal evangelism in a postmodern milieu
requires the witness of personal story, the spirit-filled
life which overcomes the obstacles of persecution and
paganism, and the pursuit of common ground with postmodern
people. The contemporary church seeks to build bridges to a
postmodern world through the evangelistic proclamation of
the gospel.
The search for salvation and forgiveness continues
in a postmodern world. Shaw summarizes the situation when
he writes: “The shift to a new culture type [postmodern]
does not change the human condition, merely the way it is
manifest in daily living. It is in relationship . . . with
Christ that we realize salvation.”78
The presentation of this approach possesses both
weaknesses and strengths in the mind of this writer. One
possible weakness of this presentation is the danger of the
oversimplification of the postmodern thought and situation.
78R. Daniel Shaw, “In Search of Post-Modern Salvation,” Evangelical Review of Theology 22 (1998): 59. 239
The reality of postmodernism is complex, with a multitude of various versions and concerns. This writer has chosen to paint broad strokes in his description of postmodernism. In such a description, the danger by which specific patterns of postmodernism are chosen to fit the argument of the thesis.
Although this writer has attempted to minimize this danger, it presents one weakness of the approach.
Secondly, the presentation of this approach may
present the weakness of insufficient engagement with the
complexities of postmodernism. As Erickson suggests,
ministry to postmodern people requires that the contemporary
church adopt some of the characteristics of postmodernism.79
This writer, however, has sought to present the “self- authenticating character of the biblical message . . . combined with a strong belief in the convicting, illuminating power of the Holy Spirit.”80 As such, there
may exist at points a failure to address specific postmodern
issues in an effort to maintain an overall connection with
the approach for evangelization depicted in Acts and the
Pauline epistles.
Thirdly, this analysis does not consider completely
the current status of technology in the postmodern world.
79M. Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 100.
80Ibid., 153. 240
As Leonard Sweet points out, the contemporary church must
minister to the “virtual world” of postmodern people,
utilizing the technological opportunities in a postmodern
world.81 The relationship between technology and an
apostolic approach may be fertile field for further study.
Certainly, other weaknesses of this approach occur. These
three, however, present the major limitations that this
dissertation presents in the mind of this writer.
The strengths of this presentation of an apostolic
approach center upon the strict correlation between
contemporary ministry and the biblical pattern. George
Peters indicates that the record of the apostolic community
is the primary source for world evangelism and church
growth. This record includes: 1) the Spirit as the divine
Agent; 2) the apostles as the divine representatives; 3)
witness as the major means; 4) Jesus Christ as the content;
and 5) the world as the object.82 The approach of this dissertation follows a similar analysis and promotes a strong connection with the biblical paradigm for evangelism.
As such, the Bible represents the authority for praxis.
81Leonard Sweet, Post-Modern Pilgrims: First Century Passion for the 21st Century World (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2000), 53-83.
82George W. Peters, A Theology of Church Growth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1981), 17-18. 241
Furthermore, as Douglas Blount states, “If contemporary
Christians are to find a paradigm suitable to the
commitments of that ancient faith which they have come to
embrace . . . it will be by resituating [sic] themselves
within the spiritual tradition initiated by their ancient
Christian forebears.”83
Secondly, this presentation finds strength in the community ethic. This provides a connection between postmodernism and the gospel. The community is the visible, vital expression of the gospel at work in the world. In this way, the message of the gospel remains unchanged, but the community itself provides a flexible, relevant appeal to postmodern people.84 Dieter Zander notes that the
authenticity of the gospel manifested in the lives of
Christ’s followers attracts postmodern people to the
gospel.85 It is the contention of this writer that there is
no greater community in the world to which postmodern people
may connect than the apostolic community in the twenty-first
century.
83Douglas K. Blount, “Apologetics and the Ordinances of the Church,” Southwestern Journal of Theology 43 (Spring 2001): 72.
84M. Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 152.
85Dieter Zander, “The Gospel for Generation X,” Leadership: A Practical Journal for Church Leaders 16 (Spring 1995): 39-40. 242
Conclusion
In the final analysis, this presentation of an apostolic approach for the evangelization of postmodern people concludes as does the record of Acts in chapter 28.
An apostolic approach results in “a people divided over the
Christian message, some believing, others unbelieving.”86
The mission, however, remains the same: “[They] went everywhere preaching the good news of the word” (Acts 8:4).
86Jervell, Theology of the Acts of the Apostles, 42. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Gill, David W. J., and Conrad Gempf, eds. The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting. Vol. 2, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994.
Harrison, Everett F. The Apostolic Church. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985.
______. Interpreting Acts: The Expanding Church. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986.
Hengel, Martin. Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity. Translated by John Bowden. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 252
Jervell, Jacob. Acts and the People of God: A New Look at Luke-Acts. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1972.
______. The Theology of the Acts of the Apostles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Keck, Leander E., and J. Louis Martin, eds. Studies in Luke- Acts: Essays Presented in Honor of Paul Schubert. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1966.
Longenecker, Richard. Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.
Marshall, I. Howard. Luke: Historian and Theologian. Exeter: Paternoster Press, 1984.
Marshall, I. Howard and David Peterson, eds. Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
Neyrey, Jerome H., ed. The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1991.
O’Neill, J. C. The Theology of Acts in Its Historical Setting. 2d ed. London: SPCK, 1970.
Rapske, Brian, and Bruce Winter, eds. The Book of Acts and Paul in Roman Custody. Vol. 3, The Book of Acts in Its First-Century Setting. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994.
Ridderbos, Herman N. The Speeches of Peter in the Acts of the Apostles. London: Tyndale, 1962.
Sanders, J. T. The Jews in Luke-Acts. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987.
Seccombe, David P. Possessions and the Poor in Luke-Acts. Studien zum Neuen Testament und seiner Umwelt. Linz: Verlag F. Plochl, 1982.
Sheeley, Steven M. Narrative Asides in Luke-Acts. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series 72. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 253
Soards, Marion L. The Speeches in Acts: Their Content, Context, and Concerns. Louisville: Westminster / John Knox Press, 1994.
Stagg, Frank. The Book of Acts: The Early Struggle for an Unhindered Gospel. Nashville: Broadman, 1955.
Wilson, Stephen G. Luke and the Law. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 50. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969.
Witherington, Ben, III, ed. History, Literature, and Society in the Book of Acts. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Essays / Articles
Bammel, Ernst. “Jewish Activity Against Christians in Palestine According to Acts.” In The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, 357-64. Vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.
Bauckham, Richard. “James and the Jerusalem Church.” In The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, 415-80. Vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.
Bowker, J. W. “Speeches in Acts: A Study in Proem and Yelammedenu Form.” New Testament Studies 14 (October 1967): 96-111.
Brehm, Alan. “The Significance of the Summaries for Interpreting Acts.” Southwestern Journal of Theology 33 (Fall 1990): 29-40.
Bruce, F. F. “The Holy Spirit in the Acts of the Apostles.” Interpretation 27 (1973): 166-183.
______. “The Significance of the Speeches for Interpreting Acts.” Southwestern Journal of Theology 33 (Fall 1990): 20-28. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 254
Cadbury, H. J. “The Hellenists.” In The Beginnings of Christianity. Part 1: The Acts of the Apostles. Vol. 4, eds. F. J. Foakes Jackon and Kirsopp Lake, 59-74. London: MacMillan, 1933.
Capper, Brian. “The Interpretation of Acts 5.4.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 19 (1983): 117-31.
______. “The Palestinian Cultural Context of Earliest Christian Community of Goods.” In The Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. H. Marshall and David Peterson, 323-64. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
Cheung, Alex T. M. “A Narrative Analysis of Acts 14:27- 15:35: Literary Shaping in Luke’s Account of the Jerusalem Council.” Westminster Theological Journal 55 (Spring 1993): 137-154.
Conzelmann, Hans. “The Address of Paul on the Areopagus.” In Studies in Luke-Acts, eds. Leander Keck and J. Louis Martyn, 217-30. Nashville: Abingdon, 1966.
Copeland, E. Luther. “Church Growth in Acts.” Missiology 4 (January l976): 13–26.
Cory, N. Clayton. “Hellenistic Philosophies and the Preaching of the Resurrection (Acts 17:18, 32).” Novum Testamentum 39 (1997): 21-39.
Cosgrove, C. H. “The Divine DEI in Luke-Acts: Investigations into the Lukan Understanding of God’s Providence.” Novum Testamentum 26 (1984): 168-90.
Culpepper, R. Alan. “Paul’s Mission to the Gentile World: Acts 13-19.” Review and Expositor 71 (1974): 487- 510.
Dibelius, Martin. “The Conversion of Cornelius.” In Studies in the Acts of the Apostles, ed. H. Greeven, 109- 122. London: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1956.
______. “The Speeches in Acts and Ancient Historiography.” In Studies in the Acts of the Apostles, ed. H. Greeven, 138-85. London: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1956. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 255
Dockery, David S. “The Theology of Acts.” Criswell Theological Review 5 (1990): 43-55.
Drumwright, Huber L., Jr., “The Holy Spirit in the Book of Acts.” Southwestern Journal of Theology 17 (Fall 1974): 3–17.
Elliott, John. “Temple versus Household in Luke-Acts: A Contrast in Social Institutions.” In The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation, ed. Jerome Neyrey, 211-40. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991.
Falk, Daniel K. “Jewish Prayer Literature and the Jerusalem Church in Acts.” In The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, 267-301. Vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.
Fitzmeyer, Joseph A. “David, Being Therefore a Prophet (Acts 2:30).” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 34 (1972): 332- 39.
______. “Jewish Christianity in Acts in Light of the Qumran Scrolls.” In Studies in Luke-Acts, eds. Leander Keck and J. Louis Martyn, 233-57. Nashville: Abingdon, 1966.
Gaventa, Beverly R. “The Eschatology of Luke-Acts Revisited.” Encounter 43 (1982): 27-42.
Haenchen, Ernst. “The Book of Acts as Source Material for the History of Early Christianity.” In Studies in Luke-Acts, eds. Leander E. Keck and J. Louis Martin, 258-78. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1966.
Hengel, Martin. “Early Christianity as a Jewish-Messianic, Universalistic Movement.” In Conflicts and Challenges in Early Christianity, ed. D. A. Hagner, 1-41. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity International Press, 1999.
Hoyt, Herman A. “The Frantic Future and the Christian Directive: Acts 1:8.” Grace Journal 10 (Winter 1969): 36-41.
Jackson, F. J. Foakes. “Stephen’s Speech in Acts.” Journal of Biblical Literature 49 (1930): 283-286. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 256
Kaiser, Walter C. Jr. “The Promise of God and the Outpouring of the Holy Spirit: Joel 2:28-32 and Acts 2:16-21.” In The Living and Active Word of God: Essays in Honor of Samuel Schultz, eds. Morris Inch and Ronald Youngblood, 109-122. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1983.
Kaufmann, Gordon. “Evidentialism: A Theologian’s Response.” Faith and Philosophy 6 (1989): 35-46.
______. “Religious Diversity, Historical Consciousness, and Christian Theology.” Journal of Religion 68 (October 1988): 1-13.
Külling, Heinz. “Zur Bedeutung des AGNOSTOS THEOS. Eine Exegese zu Apostelgeschichte 17, 22.23,” Theologische Zeitschrift 36 (1980): 65-83.
Lofthouse, W. F. “The Holy Spirit in Acts and the Fourth Gospel.” Expository Times 52 (1940-1941): 334-36.
Moule, C. F. D. “Once More, Who Were the Hellenists?,” Expository Times 70 (1958-1959): 100-102.
Neudorfer, Heinz-Werner. “The Speech of Stephen.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson, 275-94. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
Ogden, Schubert M. “Problems in the Case for a Pluralistic Theology of Religions.” Journal of Religion 68 (October 1988): 493-507.
Quesnel, Michel. “Paul prédicateur dans les Actes des Apôtres.” New Testament Studies 47 (October 2001): 469-81.
Richard, E. “The Divine Purpose: The Jews and the Gentile Mission (Acts 15).” In Society of Biblical Literature 1980 Seminar Papers, 267-82. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980.
Rosner, Brian. “The Progress of the Word.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson, 215-33. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 257
Sanders, J. T. “Who Is a Jew and Who Is a Gentile in the Book of Acts?” New Testament Studies 37 (1991): 434-455.
Schwartz, D. R. “Non-Joining Sympathizers (Acts 5,13-14),” Biblica 64 (1983): 550-55.
Schwartz, Joshua. “Peter and Ben Stada in Lydda.” In The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, 391-414. Vol. 4, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.
Scheidweiler, F. “Zu Apg. 5.4.” Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 49 (1958): 133-37.
Schweizer, Eduard. “Concerning the Speeches in Acts.” In Studies in Luke-Acts, eds. L. E. Keck and J. L. Martyn, 208-16. Nashville: Abingdon, 1966.
Scott, J. Julius Jr. “The Cornelius Incident in Light of Its Jewish Setting.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 34 (December 1991): 475-484.
______. “Parties in the Church of Jerusalem as Seen in the Book of Acts.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 18 (1975): 217-227.
______. “Stephen’s Defense and the World Mission of the People of God.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 21 (June 1978): 131-41.
Seccombe, David P. “The New People of God.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. H. Marshall and David Peterson, 349-72. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
Tannehill, Robert C. “The Functions of Peter’s Mission Speeches in the Narrative of Acts.” New Testament Studies 37 (1991): 400-414.
Tolbert, Malcolm. “Contemporary Issues in the Book of Acts.” Review and Expositor 71 (1974): 521-531.
Torrey, C. C. “The ‘Rest’ in Acts v. 13.” Expository Times 46 (1934-1935): 428-29. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 258
Treier, Daniel J. “The Fulfillment of Joel 2:28-32: A Multiple-Lens Approach.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 40 (March 1997): 13-26.
Trites, Allison A. “Church Growth in the Book of Acts.” Bibliotheca Sacra 145 (April-June 1988): 162-173.
______. “The Importance of Legal Scenes and Language in the Book of Acts.” Novum Testamentum 16 (1974): 278-84.
______. “The Prayer Motif in Luke-Acts.” In Perspectives in Luke-Acts, ed. C. H. Talbert, 168-186. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1977.
Turner, M. M. B. “The Significance of Receiving the Spirit in Luke-Acts: A Survey of Modern Scholarship.” Trinity Journal 2 (1981): 131-158.
______. “The ‘Spirit of Prophecy’ as the Power of Israel’s Restoration and Witness.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson, 327-48. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
Tyson, Joseph B. “The Gentile Mission and the Authority of Scripture in Acts.” New Testament Studies 33 (1987): 619-631.
Unger, Merrill. “The Significance of Pentecost.” Bibliotheca Sacra 122 (April 1965): 169-77.
Wall, Robert W. “Israel and the Gentile Mission in Acts and Paul: A Canonical Approach.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson, 437-57. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
______. “Peter, ‘Son’ of Jonah: The Conversion of Cornelius in the Context of Canon.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 29 (1987): 78-91.
Walter, N. “Apostelgeschichte 6.1 und die Anfäng der Urgemeinde in Jerusalem.” New Testament Studies 29 (1983): 370-93.
Wills, Lawrence. “The Depiction of the Jews in Acts.” Journal of Biblical Literature 110 (1991): 631-54. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 259
Witherington Ben III. “Salvation and Health in Christian Antiquity: The Soteriology of Luke-Acts in Its First Century Setting.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson, 145-66. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
Zweck, Dean. “The Exordium of the Areopagus Speech, Acts 17.22, 23.” New Testament Studies 35 (1989): 94- 103.
Evangelism
Books
Abraham, William J. The Logic of Evangelism. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1989.
Armstrong, Richard S. The Pastor as Evangelist. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1984.
Autrey, C. E. Evangelism in the Acts. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1964.
______. The Theology of Evangelism. Nashville: Broadman, 1966.
______. You Can Win Souls. Nashville: Broadman, 1961.
Barna, George. Evangelism That Works: How to Reach Changing Generations with the Unchanging Gospel. Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 1995.
Beaudoin, Tom. Virtual Faith: The Irreverent Spiritual Quest of Generation X. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998.
Bosch, David J. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1993.
Brown, Stanley C. Evangelism in the Early Church. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1963.
Carrier, Hervé. Evangelizing the Culture of Modernity. Faith and Culture Series. Maryknoll: Orbis, 1993. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 260
Celek, Tim and Dieter Zander. Inside the Soul of a New Generation: Insights and Strategies for Reaching Busters. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.
Chafin, Kenneth. The Reluctant Witness. Nashville: Broadman, 1974.
Coleman, Robert, ed. Evangelism on the Cutting Edge. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell, 1986.
______. The Master Plan of Evangelism. Grand Rapids: Fleming H. Revell, 1963.
Dayton, Donald W. and Robert K. Johnston. The Variety of American Evangelism. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1991.
Dayton, Edward R. and David A. Fraser. Planning Strategies for World Evangelization. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1990.
Ford, Kevin Graham. Jesus for a New Generation: Putting the Gospel in the Language of Xers. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995.
Ford, Leighton. The Power of Story. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1994.
Green, Michael. Evangelism in the Early Church. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970.
______. Evangelism Through the Local Church: A Comprehensive Guide to All Aspects of Evangelism. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1990. Reprint, Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1992.
Hahn, Todd and David Verhaagen. GenXers After God: Helping a Generation Pursue Jesus. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998.
______. Reckless Hope: Understanding and Reaching Baby Busters. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1996.
Heck, Joel, ed. The Art of Sharing Your Faith. Grand Rapids: Fleming H. Revell, 1991. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 261
Hemphill, Ken. The Antioch Effect: 8 Characteristics of Highly Effective Churches. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994.
Hiebert, Paul. The Missiological Implications of Epistemological Shifts: Affirming Truth in a Modern / Postmodern World. Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1998.
Hunsberger George, and Craig Van Gelder. Church: Between Gospel and Culture, The Emerging Mission in North America. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.
Hunter, George III. How to Reach Secular People. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1992.
Knitter, Paul F. One Earth, Many Religions: Multifaith Dialogue and Global Responsibility. Maryknoll: Orbis, 1995.
Kolb, Robert. Speaking the Gospel Today: A Theology for Evangelism. St. Louis: Concordia, 1984.
Kraft, Marguerite G. Understanding Spiritual Power: A Forgotten Dimension of Cross-Cultural Mission and Ministry. Maryknoll: Orbis, 1995.
Kraus, C. Norman. An Intrusive Gospel? Christian Mission in the Postmodern World. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1999.
Larsen, David L. The Evangelism Mandate: Recovering the Centrality of Gospel Preaching. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1992.
Long, Jimmy. Generating Hope: A Strategy for Reaching the Postmodern Generation. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997.
Marty, Martin E. and Frederick E. Greenspahn, eds. Pushing the Faith: Proselytism and Civility in a Pluralistic World. New York: Crossroad, 1988.
McDow, Malcolm, and Alvin Reid. Firefall: How God Has Shaped History Through Revivals. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1997. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 262
Miles, Delos. Evangelism and Social Involvement. Nashville: Broadman, 1986.
Morgenthaler, Sally. Worship Evangelism: Inviting Unbelievers into the Presence of God. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995.
Newbigin, Lesslie. Foolishness to the Greeks: The Gospel and Western Culture. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1986.
______. The Gospel in a Pluralist Society. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1990.
Nida, Eugene A. The Communication of the Christian Faith. Rev. ed. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1990.
Packer, J. I. Evangelism and the Sovereignty of God. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1961.
Peters, George W. A Theology of Church Growth. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1981.
Piper, John. Let the Nations Be Glad: The Supremacy of God in Missions. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993.
Poe, Harry Lee. Christian Witness in a Postmodern World. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001.
Poterski, Donald. Reinventing Evangelism. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1989.
Rainer, Thom S. The Bridger Generation. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1996.
Reid, Alvin. Introduction to Evangelism. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1998.
Roxburgh, Alan J. Reaching a New Generation: Strategies for Tomorrow’s Church. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993.
Senn, Frank. The Witness of the Worshiping Community: Liturgy and the Practice of Evangelism. New York: Paulist Press, 1993. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 263
Sjogren, Steve. Conspiracy of Kindness: A Refreshing New Approach to Sharing the Love of Jesus with Others. Ann Arbor: Servant Publications, 1993.
Stewart, James. A Faith to Proclaim. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1953.
Sweet, Leonard. FaithQuakes. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Thompson, W. Oscar. Concentric Circles of Concern. Nashville: Broadman, 1981.
Towns, Elmer. An Inside Look at Ten of Today’s Most Innovative Churches. Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 1990.
Walker, Alan. A Ringing Call to Mission. Nashville: Abingdon, 1966.
______. The Whole Gospel for the Whole World. Nashville: Abingdon, 1957.
Wells, David F. God the Evangelist: How the Holy Spirit Works to Bring Men and Women to Faith. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1987.
Wimber, John. Power Evangelism. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1985.
Essays / Articles
Anderson, Leith. “Theological Issues of 21st-Century Ministry.” Bibliotheca Sacra 151 (April 1994): 131- 139.
Geisler, Norman. “Some Philosophical Perspectives on Missionary Dialogue.” In Theology and Mission, ed. David J. Hesselgrave, 228-45. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1978.
Gosnell, Rick. “Proclamation and the Postmodernist.” In The Challenge of Postmodernism: An Evangelical Engagement, ed. David S. Dockery, 374-391. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 264
Hengel, Martin. “Die Ursprüng der christlichen Mission.” New Testament Studies 18 (1971): 15-38.
Hesselgrave, David J. “Fitting Third-World Believers with Christian World View Glasses.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 30 (June 1987): 215-222.
Hybels, Bill. “Speaking to the Secular Mind.” Leadership (Summer 1988): 28-34.
Johnson, Philip. “Postmodernity, New Age, and the Christian Mission: Mars Hill Revisited.” Lutheran Theological Journal 31 (December 1997): 115-124.
Loscalzo, Craig A. “Apologizing for God: Apologetic Preaching to a Postmodern World.” Review and Expositor 93 (Summer 1996): 405-418.
Monroe, Kelly. “Finding God at Harvard: Reaching the Post- Christian University.” In Telling the Truth: Evangelizing Postmoderns, ed. D. A. Carson, 295- 306. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000.
Pyne, Robert A. “The Role of the Holy Spirit in Conversion.” Bibliotheca Sacra 150 (April 1993): 203-218.
Radmacher, Earl D. “Contemporary Evangelism Potpourri-Part II.” Bibliotheca Sacra 123 (April 1966): 158-167.
Roebben, Bert. “Do We Still Have Faith in Young People? A West-European Answer to the Evangelization of Young People in a Postmodern World.” Religious Education 90 (Summer-Fall 1995): 327-345.
Thede, Bruce. “How One Church Reached Out to Baby Busters.” Worship Leader (July-August 1994): 14-37.
Troeger, Thomas H. “A Poetics of the Pulpit for Post-Modern Times.” In Intersections: Post-Critical Studies in Preaching, ed. Richard L. Eslinger, 42-64. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1994.
Van Engen, Charles. “Mission Theology in the Light of Postmodern Critique.” International Review of Mission 86 (October 1997): 437-461. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 265
White, James Emory. “Evangelism in a Postmodern World.” In The Challenge of Postmodernism: An Evangelical Engagement, ed. David S. Dockery, 359-373. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995.
Winter, Ralph. “The Highest Priority: Cross-cultural Evangelism.” In Let the Earth Hear His Voice, ed. J. D. Douglas, 213-225. Minneapolis: World Wide Publications, 1975.
Zacharias, Ravi. “Reaching the Happy Thinking Pagan.” Leadership 16 (Spring 1995): 18-27.
Zander, Dieter. “The Gospel for Generation X.” Leadership 16 (Spring 1995): 36-42.
Dissertations
Conniry, Charles J. Jr. “Apostolic Christianity in a Postmodern World: A Theological Analysis.” Ph. D. diss. Fuller Theological Seminary, 1997.
Fjeldstad, Arne H. “Communicating Christ on the Information Superhighway.” D. Minn. diss. Fuller Theological Seminary, 1997.
Gosnell, Ricky D. “The Postmodern Paradigm: Challenges to the Evangelistic Ministry of the Church.” Ph. D. diss. Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1993.
Biblical Studies
Books
Bailey, Raymond. Paul the Preacher. Nashville: Broadman, 1991.
Banks, Robert. Paul’s Idea of Community: The Early House Churches in Their Historical Setting. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.
Barclay, William. The Promise of the Spirit. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960.
Barr, James. The Scope and Authority of the Bible. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1980. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 266
Barth, Markus. The Broken Wall: A Study of the Epistle to the Ephesians. Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1959.
Basden, Paul A., and David S. Dockery, eds. The People of God: Essays on the Believers’ Church. Nasvhille: Broadman and Holman, 1998.
Beasley-Murray, George R. Baptism in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962.
Beker, J. Christian. Heirs of Paul: Their Legacy in the New Testament and the Church Today. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1991. Reprint, Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
______. Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980.
Berger, Klaus. Theologiegeschichte des Urchristentums: Theologie des Neuen Testaments. Tübingen: Francke Verlag, 1994.
Berkouwer, G. C. The Church. Translated by James E. Davison. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976.
Best, Ernst. One Body in Christ: A Study in the Relationship of the Church to Christ in the Epistles of the Apostle Paul. London: SPCK, 1955.
Black, David Alan. Paul, Apostle of Weakness: Astheneia and Its Cognates in the Pauline Literature. New York: Peter Lang, 1984.
Bloesch, Donald. Essentials of Evangelical Theology, Volume One: God, Authority, and Salvation. New York: HarperCollins, 1978. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Prince Press, 1998.
______. Essentials of Evangelical Theology, Volume Two: Life, Ministry, and Hope. New York: HarperCollins, 1978. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Prince Press, 1998.
______. Holy Scripture: Revelation, Inspiration, and Interpretation. Vol. 2, Christian Foundations. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1994. ______. A Theology of Word and Spirit: Authority and Method in Theology. Vol. 1, Christian Foundations. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1992. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 267
Boers, Hendrikus. The Justification of the Gentiles: Paul’s Letters to the Galatians and Romans. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.
Bornkamm, Günther. The New Testament: A Guide to Its Writings. Translated by R. H. Fuller. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973.
Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. The Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday, 1997.
Bruce, F. F. The Books and the Parchments. rev. ed. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell, 1984.
______. Paul, Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977.
Brunner, Emil. Truth as Encounter. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1964.
Bultmann, Rudolf. Theology of the New Testament. Vol. 1. Translated by Kendrick Grobel. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951.
______. Theology of the New Testament. Vol. 2. Translated by Kendrick Grobel. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1955.
Cancik, Hubert, Hermann Lichtenberger, and Peter Schafer, eds. Geschichte, Tradition, Reflexion: Festschrift für Martin Hengel zum 70 Gerbertstag. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1996.
Carson, D. A. The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.
______, ed. Biblical Interpretation and the Church: Text and Context. Exeter: Paternoster Press, 1984.
______, ed. The Church in the Bible and the World: An International Study. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.
Conner, W. T. Christian Doctrine. Nashville: Broadman, 1937.
______. The Cross in the New Testament. Nashville: Broadman, 1954. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 268
______. The Work of the Holy Spirit: A Treatment of the Biblical Doctrine of the Divine Spirit. Nashville: Broadman, 1940.
Conzelmann, Hans. Gentiles, Jews, Christians: Polemics and Apologetics in the Greco-Roman Era. Translated by M. Eugene Boring. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.
______. The History of Primitive Christianity. Translated by John E. Steely. Nashville: Abingdon, 1973.
______. An Outline of the Theology of the New Testament. Translated by John Bowden. London: SCM Press, 1969.
______. The Theology of Saint Luke. Translated by Geoffrey Buswell. London: Faber and Faber, 1960.
Corley, Bruce, Steve Lemke and Grant Lovejoy. Biblical Hermeneutics: A Comprehensive Introduction to Interpreting Scripture. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1996.
Cullmann, Oscar. The Earliest Christian Confessions. Translated by J. K. S. Reid. London: Lutterworth Press, 1949.
Dahl, Nils Alstrup. Studies in Paul: Theology for the Early Christian Mission. Minneapolis: Augsburg Press, 1977.
______. Das Volk Gottes: Eine Untersuchung zum Kirchenbewisstsein des Urchristentums. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1963.
Davies, W. D. Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980.
DeSilva, David A. Honor, Patronage, Kinship, and Purity: Unlocking New Testament Culture. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000.
Detweiler, Robert, ed. Reader Response Approaches to Biblical and Secular Texts. Semeia, 31. Decatur, GA: Scholar’s Press, 1985. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 269
Dockery, David S. Christian Scripture: An Evangelical Perspective on Inspiration, Authority, and Interpretation. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1995.
Dodd, C. H. According to the Scriptures: The Substructure of New Testament Theology. London: Nisbet, 1952.
______. The Apostolic Preaching and Its Development. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1936.
Dunn, James D. G. Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1980.
______. Jesus and the Spirit: A Study of the Religious and Charismatic Experience of Jesus and the First Christians as Reflected in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.
______. The Living Word. London: SCM Press, 1987.
______. Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity. 2d ed. London: SCM Press, 1990.
Ehrman, Bart D. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Ellis, E. Earle. Paul and His Recent Interpreters. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1961.
______. Pauline Theology: Ministry and Society. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989. Reprint, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1997.
______. Prophecy and Hermeneutic in Early Christianity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.
Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. 2d ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998.
______. Evangelical Interpretation: Perspectives on Hermeneutical Issues. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1993. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 270
______. The Evangelical Left: Encountering Postconservative Evangelical Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1997.
______. Evangelical Mind and Heart: Perspectives on Theological and Practical Issues. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1993.
Fee, Gordon. God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994.
______. Paul, the Spirit, and the People of God. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996.
Ferguson, Everett. The Church of Christ: A Biblical Ecclesiology for Today. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.
Fitzmeyer, Joseph A. Essays on the Semitic Background of the New Testament. London: Chapman, 1971.
Frei, Hans. The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
Fretheim, Terence. The Suffering of God: An Old Testament Perspective. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984.
Funk, Robert W. Language, Hermeneutic, and Word of God. New York: Harper and Row, 1966.
Gaventa, Beverly R. From Darkness to Light: Aspects of Conversion in the New Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.
Geertz, Clifford. Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973.
Giles, Kevin. What on Earth Is the Church? An Exploration of New Testament Theology. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995.
Goppelt, Leonhard. Apostolic and Post-Apostolic Times. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1970.
Grant, Robert M. Gods and the One God. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1986. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 271
Green, Joel and Mark Baker. Recovering the Scandal of the Cross: Atonement in New Testament and Contemporary Contexts. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000.
Grenz, Stanley. Created for Community: Connecting Christian Belief with Christian Living. 2d ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998.
______. Theology for the Community of God. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994.
Grenz, Stanley, and John Franke. Beyond Foundationalism: Shaping Theology in a Postmodern Context. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001.
Gundry, Robert H. Sôma in Biblical Theology with Emphasis on Pauline Anthropology. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 29. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
Hanson, S. The Unity of the Church in the New Testament. Uppsala: Almquist and Wiksells, 1946.
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Hawthorne, Gerald F., Ralph P. Martin and Daniel G. Reid, eds. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993.
Hengel, Martin. Between Jesus and Paul. Translated by John Bowden. London: SCM Press, 1983.
Heschel, Abraham. The Prophets. 2 vols. New York: Harper and Row, 1962. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000.
Hill, D. New Testament Prophecy. London: Marshall, Morgan, and Scott, 1979.
Hirsch, E. D. Validity in Interpretation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1967. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 272
Hofius, Otfried. Der Christushymnus Philipper 2,6-11: Untersuchungen zu Gestalt und Aussage eines urchristlichen Psalms. Tübingen: Mohr, 1991.
Horton, Michael, ed. A Confessing Theology for Postmodern Times. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2000.
Howard, George. Paul: Crisis in Galatia. Society for New Testament Monograph Series 35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
Hunt, Boyd. Redeemed! Eschatological Redemption and the Kingdom of God. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1993.
Jensen, Richard A. Thinking in Story: Preaching in a Post- literate Age. Lima, OH: CSS Publishing Company, 1993.
Jenson, Robert. The Triune Identity: God According to the Gospel. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982.
Kaiser, Walter C. Toward Rediscovering the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987.
Käsemann, Ernst. Perspectives on Paul. Translated by Margaret Kohl. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971.
Kee, Howard Clark. Who Are the People of God?: Early Christian Models of Community. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.
Kelsey, David H. The Uses of Scripture in Recent Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975.
Klein, William, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard Jr. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. Dallas: Word, 1993.
Koenig, John. New Testament Hospitality: Partnership with Strangers as Promise and Mission. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985.
Kugel, James and Rowan Greer, eds. Early Biblical Interpretation. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1986. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 273
Lampe, G. W. H. The Seal of the Spirit. London: Longmans, 1951.
Larkin, William J. Culture and Biblical Hermeneutics. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1988.
Lea, Thomas D. The New Testament: Its Background and Message. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1996.
Lints, Richard. The Fabric of Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.
Litfin, Duane. St. Paul’s Theology of Proclamation: 1 Corinthians 1-4 and Graeco-Roman Rhetoric. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Lohse, Eduard. Die Entstehung des Neuen Testaments. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1972.
Long, Thomas. Preaching and the Literary Forms of the Bible. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1989.
Longenecker, Richard N. Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975.
______. New Testament Social Ethics for Today. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984.
______, ed. Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.
Lundin, Roger, Clarence Walhout, and Anthony Thiselton. The Promise of Hermeneutics. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.
MacGorman, J. W. The Gifts of the Spirit: An Exposition of 1 Corinthians 12-14. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1974.
Manson, T. W. Studies in the Gospels and Epistles. London: Manchester University Press, 1962.
Marshall, I. H. Biblical Inspiration. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982.
______. Luke: Historian and Theologian. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1970. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 274
Martin, Ralph. The Family and the Fellowship: New Testament Images of the Church. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.
______. A Hymn of Christ: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997.
Maston, T. B. Biblical Ethics: A Guide to the Ethical Message of the Scriptures from Genesis to Revelation. Cleveland: Word, 1967. Reprint, Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1982.
McClendon, James Wm. Jr., and James M. Smith. Convictions: Defusing Religious Relativsm. rev. ed. Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1994.
McGrath, Alister. Evangelicalism and the Future of Christianity. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995.
______. The Mystery of the Cross. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988.
McKelvey, Richard. The New Temple: The Church in the New Testament. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969.
Meeks, Wayne. The First Urban Christians. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983.
Metzger, Bruce M., ed. Historical and Literary Studies: Pagan, Jewish, and Christian. Leiden: Brill, 1980.
Migliore, Daniel L. Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991.
Minear, Paul. Images of the Church in the New Testament. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960.
Milbank, John. Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990.
Moltmann, Jürgen. The Church in the Power of the Spirit: A Contribution to Messianic Ecclesiology. Translated by Margaret Kohl. London: SCM Press, 1977. Reprint, Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1993. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 275
Moore, Stephen. Poststructuralism and the New Testament: Derrida and Foucault at the Foot of the Cross. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994.
Morris, Leon. The Cross in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965.
Mullins, E. Y. The Christian Religion in Its Doctrinal Expression. Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1917. Reprint, 1964.
Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. Paul: A Critical Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
______. St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology. Wilmington, DE: Glazier, 1983.
Newbigin, Lesslie. The Gospel in a Pluralist Society. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.
Niebuhr, H. Richard. Christ and Culture. New York: Harper, 1951.
Nock, Arthur Darby. Conversion: The Old and New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo. London: Oxford University Press, 1933.
O’Brien, P. T. Gospel and Mission in the Writings of Paul: An Exegetical and Theological Analysis. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995.
Oden, Thomas C. Life in the Spirit: Systematic Theology, Volume Three. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.
______. The Word of Life: Systematic Theology, Volume Two. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.
Osborne, Grant. The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1991.
Pannenberg, Wolfhart. Systematic Theology: Volume 3. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 276
Peterson, Brian K. Eloquence and the Proclamation of the Gospel in Corinth. Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series, 163. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1998.
Pinnock, Clark. Tracking the Maze: Finding Our Way Through Modern Theology from an Evangelical Perspective. San Francisco: Harper, 1990.
Piper, John. The Justification of God: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Romans 9:1–23. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992.
Plantinga, Alvin. Warrant and Proper Function. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
______. Warrant: The Current Debate. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Pogoloff, Stephen M. Logos and Sophia: The Rhetorical Situation of 1 Corinthians. Society for Biblical Literature Dissertation Series, 134. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.
Polhill, John B. Paul and His Letters. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1999.
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______. The Witness of the Spirit: An Essay on the Contemporary Relevance of the Internal Witness of the Holy Spirit. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959.
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______. Paul: An Outline of His Theology. Translated by John R. de Witt. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1975. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 277
______. Studies in Scripture and Its Authority. St. Catherines, Ontario: Paideia, 1978.
Riesner, Rainer. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology. Translated by Doug Stott. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1998.
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______. Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983.
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______. The Theology of the Apostles: The Development of New Testament Theology. Translated by A. J. Köstenberger. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998.
Schmithals, Walter. The Office of the Apostle in the Early Church. Translated by John Steely. Nashville: Abingdon, 1969.
______. Paul and the Gnostics. Translated by John E. Steely. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1972.
______. The Theology of the First Christians. Translated by O. C. Dean, Jr. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997.
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Schniedewind, William M. The Word of God in Transition: From Prophet to Exegete in the Second Temple Period. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement 197. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995.
Schweizer, Eduard. The Church as the Body of Christ. Richmond: John Knox, 1964.
Sheeley, Steven M. Narrative Asides in Luke-Acts. Journal for the Study of the New Testament, Supplement Series 72. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992.
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Simmons, William A. A Theology of Inclusion in Jesus and Paul: The God of Outcasts and Sinners. Lewiston, NY: Mellen Biblical Press, 1996.
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Theissen, Gerd. Psychological Aspects of Pauline Theology. Translated by John P. Galvin. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 279
______. Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity. Translated by John Bowden. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978.
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______. Plurality and Ambiguity: Hermeneutics, Religion, Hope. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987.
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Essays / Articles
Alexander, Loveday. “Paul and the Hellenistic Schools: The Evidence of Galen.” In Paul in his Hellenistic Context, ed. Troels Engberg-Pederson, 60-83. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1995.
Allan, J. A. “The ‘In Christ’ Formula in Ephesians.” New Testament Studies 5 (1958-1959): 54-62.
Anderson, C. “Rethinking ‘Be Filled with the Spirit.’ Ephesians 5:18 and the Purpose of Ephesians.” Evangelical Journal 7 (1989): 57-67.
Anselm, Helmut. “Virtuelle Ethikgemeinschaften und Werterziehung heute.” Zeitschrift für Evangelische Ethik 41 (1997): 129-36.
Barclay, John M. G. “Mirror-Reading a Polemical Letter: Galatians as a Test Case.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 31 (1988): 73–93.
Barnett, Paul W. “Wives and Women’s Ministry (1 Timothy 2:11–15).” Evangelical Quarterly 61 (1989): 225–37.
Barrett, C. K. “Paul’s Speech on the Areopagus.” In New Testament Christianity for Africa and the World: Essays in Honour of Harry Sawyer, eds. Mark Glasswell and E. W. Fasholé-Luke, 69-77. London: SPCK, 1974.
Bartholomew, Craig G. “Babel and Derrida: Postmodernism, Language, and Biblical Interpretation.” Tyndale Bulletin 49 (November 1998): 305-328. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 281
Beasley-Murray, George R. “Romans 1:3f: An Early Confession of Faith in the Lordship of Jesus.” Tyndale Bulletin 31 (1980): 147-154.
Beker, J. Christian. “Paul the Theologian: Major Motifs in Pauline Theology.” Interpretation 43 (1989): 352–65.
______. “Paul’s Theology: Consistent or Inconsistent?” New Testament Studies 34 (1988): 364–77
Black, David Alan. “Paul and Christian Unity: A Formal Analysis of Philippians 2:1-4.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 28 (September 1985): 299-308.
Blasi, Anthony. “Sociology of Early Christianity -- By Way of Introduction.” Sociology of Religion 58 (1997): 299-303.
Bloesch, Donald. “The Sword of the Spirit: The Meaning of Inspiration.” Themelios (May 1980): 1-18.
Blomberg, Craig. “The Christian and the Law of Moses.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson, 397-416. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
Blount, Douglas K. “Apologetics and the Ordinances of the Church,” Southwestern Journal of Theology 43 (Spring 2001): 68-83.
Blue, Brad. “The Influence of Jewish Worship on Luke’s Presentation of the Early Church.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson, 473-97. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
Boeve, Lieven. “Christus Postmodernus: An Attempt at Apophatic Christology.” In The Myriad Christ: Plurality and the Quest for Unity in Contemporary Christology, eds. T. Merrigan and J. Haers, 577-93. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2000.
Bolt, Peter G. “Mission and Witness.” In Witness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts, eds. I. Howard Marshall and David Peterson, 191-214. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 282
Boring, M. Eugene. “The Language of Universal Salvation in Paul.” Journal of Biblical Literature 105 (June 1986): 269-292.
Boyer, James L. “A Classification of Imperatives: A Statistical Study.” Grace Theological Journal 8 (Spring 1987): 35-54.
Bregman, L. “Baptism as Death and Birth: A Psychological Interpretation of Its Imagery.” Journal of Ritual Studies 1:27-42.
Brown, Raymond E. “Diverse Views of the Spirit in the New Testament.” Worship 57 (1983): 216-229.
______. “The Paraclete in the Fourth Gospel.” New Testament Studies 13 (1966-1967): 113-32.
Bruce, F. F. “Colossian Problems: Part 4, Christ as Conqueror and Reconciler,” Bibliotheca Sacra 141 (October 1984): 291-302.
Carson, D. A. “Pauline Inconsistency: Reflections on 1 Corinthians 9.19-23 and Galatians 2.11-14.” Churchman 100 (1986): 6-45.
Clark, David K. “Narrative Theology and Apologetics.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 36 (December 1993): 499-515.
Clowney, Edmund P. “Interpreting the Biblical Models of the Church: A Hermeneutical Deepening of Ecclesiology.” In Biblical Interpretation and the Church: Text and Context, ed. D. A. Carson, 64-109. Exeter: Paternoster Press, 1984.
______. “The Biblical Theology of the Church.” In The Church in the Bible and the World: An International Study, ed. D. A. Carson, 13-87. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.
Conzelmann, Hans. “The Address of Paul on the Areopagus.” In Studies in Luke-Acts, eds. L. E. Keck and J. L. Martyn, 217-32. London: SPCK, 1968. Reprint, 1976.
______. “Paulus und die Weisheit.” New Testament Studies 12 (1966): 231-244. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 283
Copeland, E. Luther. “Christian Theology and World Religions.” Review and Expositor 94 (1997): 423-35.
Dahl, Nils Alstrup. “The Particularity of the Pauline Epistles as a Problem in the Ancient Church.” In Neotestamentica et Patristica: Freundesgabe Oscar Cullmann, 261-271. Novum Testamentum Supplement, 6. Leiden: Brill, 1965.
Davies, J. G. “The Primary Meaning of paravklhto~.” Journal of Theological Studies 4 (1953): 35-38.
De Silva, David A. “Paul’s Sermon in Antioch of Pisidia.” Bibliotheca Sacra 151 (January-March 1994): 32-49.
Easley, Kendall. “The Pauline Usage of Pneumati as a Reference to the Spirit of God.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27 (September 1984): 299-313.
Eberts, Harry Jr. “Plurality and Ethnicity in Early Christian Mission.” Sociology of Religion 58 (1997): 305-21.
Ellis, E. Earle. “Paul and His Co-workers.” New Testament Studies 17 (1971): 437-452.
______. “‘Spiritual’ Gifts in the Pauline Community.” New Testament Studies 20 (1974): 128-144.
Evans, Craig A. “‘Preacher’ and ‘Preaching’: Some Lexical Observations.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 24 (December 1981): 315-22.
Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler. “The Ethics of Biblical Interpretation: Decentering Biblical Scholarship.” Journal of Biblical Literature 107 (1988): 3-17.
Fiorenza, F. S. “The Crisis of Hermeneutics and Christian Theology.” In Theology at the End of Modernity, ed. S. G. Davaney, 128-36. Philadelphia: Trinity Press, 1991.
Frame, John. “Christianity and Contemporary Epistemology.” Westminster Journal of Theology 52 (Spring 1990): 131-51. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 284
______. “In Defense of Something Close to Biblicism: Reflections on Sola Scriptura and History in Theological Method.” Westminster Theological Journal 59 (Fall 1997): 269-91.
______. “The Spirit and the Scriptures.” In Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon, eds. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge, 217-35. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986.
Fuller, Daniel P. “The Holy Spirit’s Role in Biblical Interpretation.” In Scripture, Tradition, and Interpretation, eds. W. Ward Gasque and William Sanford LaSor, 187-201. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.
Fung, Ronald Y. K. “Some Pauline Pictures of the Church.” Evangelical Quarterly 53 (1981): 83-107.
Gasque, W. Ward. “Images of Paul in the History of Biblical Interpretation.” Crux 16 (1980): 1-12.
Gordon, T. David. “The Problem at Galatia.” Interpretation 41 (1987): 32-43.
Grayston, K. “The Meaning of PARAKLETOS.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 13 (1981): 67-82.
Grube, Dirk-Martin. “Realism, Foundationalism, and Constructivism: A Philosopher’s Bermuda Triangle,” Neue Zeitschrift für Systematische Theologie und Religions-philosophie 40 (1998): 101-118.
Harrison, Everett F. “Some Patterns of the New Testament Didache.” Bibliotheca Sacra 119 (April 1962): 118- 128.
Hartt, Julian N. “Theological Investments in Story: Some Comments on Recent Developments and Some Proposals.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 52 (1984): 116-29.
Hay, David M. “Pistis as ‘Ground for Faith’ in Hellenized Judaism and Paul.” Journal of Biblical Literature 108 (1989): 461-76.
House, H. Wayne. “The Christian Life According to Colossians,” Bibliotheca Sacra 151 (October 1994): 440-54. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 285
Howell, Don Jr. “The Center of Pauline Theology.” Bibliotheca Sacra 151 (January 1994): 50-70.
Hoyt, Herman A. “A Genuine Christian Non-Conformity: Romans 12:2,” Grace Journal 8 (Winter 1967): 3-9.
Hübner, Hans. “Pauli Theologiae Proprium,” New Testament Studies 26 (1980): 445–73.
Hurtado, L. W. “Jesus as Lordly Example in Philippians 2:5- 11.” In From Jesus to Paul: Studies in Honour of Francis Wright Beare, eds. P. Richardson and J. C. Hurd Jr., 113-26. Waterloo: Wilfried Laurier University Press, 1983.
Ingraffia, Brian. “Deconstructing the Tower of Babel: Ontotheology and the Postmodern Bible.” In Renewing Biblical Interpretation, eds. C. Bartholomew, C. Greene, and K. Möller, 284-306. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000.
Jackayya, B. H. “ALHQEIA in the Johannine Corpus.” Concordia Theological Monthly 41 (March 1970): 171- 75.
Jervell, Jacob. “The Church of Jews and Godfearers.” In Luke-Acts and the Jewish People: Eight Critical Perspectives, ed. J. B. Tyson, 11-20, 383-404. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1988.
Judge, Edwin A. “The Early Christians as a Scholastic Community,” Journal of Religious History 1 (1960): 4-19.
Keck, Leander E. “Images of Paul in the New Testament.” Interpretation 43 (1989): 341–51.
King, Daniel H. “Paul and the Tannaim: A Study in Galatians.” Westminster Theological Journal 45 (1983): 349-61.
Klooster, Fred H. “The Role of the Holy Spirit in the Hermeneutic Process: The Relationship of the Spirit’s Illumination to Biblical Interpretation.” In Hermeneutics, Inerrancy, and the Bible, eds. Earl D. Radmacher and Robert D. Preus, 451-472. Grand Rapdids: Zondervan, 1984. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 286
Köstenberger, Andreas. “What Does It Mean to Be Filled with the Spirit? A Biblical Investigation.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 40 (June 1997): 229-40.
Kroeger, Catherine. “The Apostle Paul and the Greco-Roman Cults of Women.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 30 (March 1987): 25-38.
Külling, Heinz. “Zur Bedeutung des AGNOSTOS THEOS. Eine Exegese zu Apostelgeschichte 17, 22.23.” Theologische Zeitschrift 36 (1980): 65-83.
Lampe, Peter, and Ulrich Luz, “Post-Pauline Christianity and Pagan Society.” In Christian Beginnings: Word and Community from Jesus to Post-Apostolic Times, ed. Jürgen Becker, 242-80. Louisville: Westminster / John Knox, 1993.
Lash, Nicholas. “What Might Martyrdom Mean?” Ex Auditu 1 (1985): 14-24.
Lincoln, Andrew. “The Church and Israel in Ephesians 2.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 49 (October 1987): 605- 24.
Lindbeck, George. “Scripture, Consensus, and Community.” This World 23 (1988): 11-19.
Lindsay, Dennis R. “What Is Truth? jAlhvqeia in the Gospel of John,” Restoration Quarterly 35 (1993): 129-45.
Lints, Richard. “The Vinyl Narratives: The Metanarrative of Postmodernity and the Recovery of a Churchly Theology.” In A Confessing Theology for Postmodern Times, ed. Michael Horton, 91-110. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2000.
Loader, W. R. G. “Christ at the Right Hand: Psalm CX.i in the N. T.” New Testament Studies 24 (1977-1978): 199-217.
Lohse, Eduard. “Emuna und Pistis.” Zeischrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 68 (1977): 147-63. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 287
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Secondary Sources: Articles / Essays
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New Testament Background and the Early Church
Books
Angus, S. The Religious Quests of the Graeco-Roman World. London: John Murray Publishing, 1929.
Aune, David E. The New Testament in Its Literary Environment. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987.
Armstrong, A. H., ed. The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1968.
Barrett, C. K. The New Testament Background: Writings from Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire That Illuminate Christian Origins. Rev. ed. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1987.
Bauckham, Richard. The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1998. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 312
Borgen, Peder. Early Christianity and Hellenistic Judaism. Edinburgh: T and T Clark, 1996.
Brown, Peter. Authority and the Sacred: Aspects of the Christianisation of the Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Brox, Norbert. A History of the Early Church. Translated by John Bowden. London: SCM Press, 1994.
Bultmann, Rudolf. Primitive Christianity in Its Contemporary Setting. Translated by R. H. Fuller. New York: Meridian Books, 1957.
Chadwick, Henry. The Early Church. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1967.
Chevallier, Raymond. Roman Roads. Translated by N. H. Field. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.
Conzelmann, Hans. History of Primitive Christianity. Translated by John E. Steely. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1973.
Crowe, Jerome. From Jerusalem to Antioch: The Gospel Across Cultures. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1997.
Cullmann, Oscar. The State in the New Testament. London: SCM Press, 1957.
Davies, J. G. Daily Life in the Early Church. London: Lutterworth Press, 1952.
Deissmann, Adolf. Light from the Ancient East: The New Testament Illustrated by Recently Discovered Texts of the Graeco-Roman World. Translated by Lionel R. M. Strachan. New York: George H. Doran Company, 1927. Reprint, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1995.
Dodd, C. H. The Apostolic Preaching and Its Developments. New York: Willett, Clark, and Company, 1937.
Donfried, Karl P. and Peter Richardson, eds. Judaism and Christianity in Rome in the First Century. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1998. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 313
Doran, Robert. Birth of a Worldview: Early Christianity in Its Jewish and Pagan Context. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995.
Droge, Arthur J. Homer or Moses? Early Christian Interpretation of the History of Culture. Tübingen: Mohr, 1989.
Elliger, Winfried. Paulus in Griechenland: Philippi, Thessaloniki, Athen, Korinth. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1978.
Elwell, Walter A. and Robert W. Yarbrough, eds. Readings from the First-Century World: Primary Sources for New Testament Study. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998.
Engberg-Pedersen, Troels, ed. Paul in His Hellenistic Context. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995.
Feldman, Louis H. Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World: Attitudes and Interactions from Alexander to Justinian. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 2d ed. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1993.
Ferguson, Everett, Michael McHugh, and Frederick Norris, eds. Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. 2d ed. New York: Garland Publishing, 1997.
Fox, Robin Lane. Pagans and Christians. New York: Knopf, 1987.
Frend, W. H. C. The Archaeology of Early Christianity: A Survey. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1996.
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______. The Rise of Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 314
Freyne, Sean. Galilee from Alexander the Great to Hadrian: 323 BCE to 135 CE. University of Notre Dame Center for the Study of Judaism and Christianity in Antiquity, 5. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1980.
Fustel de Colanges, N. D. The Ancient City. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976.
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Gamble, Harry Y. Books and Readers in the Early Church. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.
Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973.
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Horsley, Richard A., ed. Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1997.
Kelly, Joseph F. The Concise Dictionary of Early Christianity. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1992.
______. The World of the Early Christians. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1997.
Kollmann, Bernd. Jesus und die Christen als Wundertater: Studien zu Magie, Medizin, und Schamanismus in Antike und Christentum. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1996. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 315
MacMullen, Ramsay. Paganism in the Roman Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981.
Malherbe, Abraham J., Frederick Norris, and James W. Thompson, eds. The Early Church in its Context: Essays in Honor of Everett Ferguson. New York: Brill, 1998.
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Malina, Bruce J. Christian Origins and Cultural Anthropology: Practical Models for Biblical Interpretation. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1986.
Martin, Luther, ed. Hellenistic Religions: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Metzger, Bruce M., ed. Historical and Literary Studies: Pagan, Jewish and Christian. Leiden: Brill, 1980.
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Reitzenstein, Richard. Hellenistic Mystery-Religions: Their Basic Ideas and Significance. 3d ed. Translated by John E. Steely. Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1978.
Safrai, Samuel and Menahem Stern, eds. The Jewish People in the First Century. 2 vols. Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 316
Segal, Alan. Rebecca’s Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.
Seltzer, Robert, ed. Religions of Antiquity. New York: Macmillan, 1989.
Sherwin-White, A. N. Roman Law and Roman Society in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1963.
Theissen, Gerd. The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth. Translated by John H. Schütz. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982.
______. Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity. Translated by John Bowden. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978.
Trocme, Etienne. The Childhood of Christianity. Translated by John Bowden. London: SCM Press, 1997.
Veyne, Paul, ed. A History of Private Life: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Translated by Arthur Goldhammer. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987.
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Wilkin, Robert. The Christians as the Pagans Saw Them. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.
Wilson, Stephen. Related Strangers: Jews and Christians, 70- 170 C.E. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1996.
Winter, Bruce. Seek the Welfare of the City: Christians as Benefactors and Citizens. Vol. 1, First-Century Christians in the Greco-Roman World. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1994.
Witherington, Ben, III. Women in the Earliest Churches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 317
Essays / Articles
Achtemeier, Paul. “Omne verbum sonat: The New Testament and the Oral Environment of Late Western Antiquity.” Journal of Biblical Literature 109 (1990): 62-70.
Barthes, Roland. “L’ancienne rhétorique.” Communications 16 (1970): 172-229.
Baugh, S. M. “The Apostle Among the Amazons.” Westminster Theological Journal 56 (Spring 1994): 153-171.
Black, C. Clifton. “Rhetorical Questions: The New Testament, Classical Rhetoric, and Current Interpretation.” Dialog 29 (1990): 62-70.
Clark, D. L. “Imitation: Theory and Practice in Roman Rhetoric.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 37 (1951): 11-22.
Cosigny, Scott. “Rhetoric and Its Situation.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 7 (1974): 175-185.
Cullmann, Oscar. “The Significance of the Qumran Texts for Research into the Beginnings of Christianity.” Journal of Biblical Literature 74 (1955): 213-26.
Harding, Mark. “Church and Gentile Cults at Corinth.” Grace Theological Journal 10 (Fall 1989): 203-223.
Harrison, Everett F. “The Attitude of the Primitive Church toward Judaism.” Bibliotheca Sacra 113 (April 1956): 130-140.
Hay, David M. “What Is Proof? Historical Verification in Philo, Josephus, and Quintilian.” Society of Biblical Literature 1979 Seminar Papers, 87-100. Missoula: Scholars Press, 1979.
Judge, Edwin A. “The Early Christians as a Scholastic Community.” Journal of Religious History 1 (1960- 1961): 4-15, 125-137.
______. “St. Paul and Classical Society.” Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum 15 (1972): 14-32.
Kessler, Martin. “An Introduction to Rhetorical Criticism of the Bible: Prolegomena.” Semitics 7 (1980): 1-27. Eric Thomas, Ph. D. First Baptist Church Norfolk, VA 318
King, Donald B. “The Appeal to Religion in Greek Rhetoric.” Classical Journal 50 (1955): 363-371, 376.
Kroeger, Catherine. “The Apostle Paul and the Greco-Roman Cults of Women.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 30 (March 1987): 25-38.
Marshall, I. Howard. “Palestinian and Hellenistic Christianity: Some Critical Comments.” New Testament Studies 19 (1972–73): 271–287.
McKeon, Robert. “Literary Criticism and the Concept of Imitation in Antiquity.” Modern Philology 34 (1936): 1-35.
Metzger, Bruce M. “Methodology in the Study of the Mystery Religions and Early Christianity.” In Historical and Literary Studies: Pagan, Jewish and Christian, ed. Bruce M. Metzger, 1-24. Leiden: Brill, 1980.
Rajak, Tessa. “The Location of Cultures in Second Temple Palestine: The Evidence of Josephus.” In The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham, 1-12. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.
Reid, Marty L. “A Consideration of the Function of Rom 1:8- 15 in Light of Greco-Roman Rhetoric.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 38 (June 1995): 181-191.
Theissen, Gerd. “Die Starken und Schwachen in Korinth: Soziologische Analyse eines theologischen Streites.” Evangelische Theologie 35:155-172.
Unger, Merrill F. “Historical Research and the Church at Thessalonica.” Bibliotheca Sacra 119 (January 1962): 33-44.