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A Selected Chronology of Computer A Selected Chronologyof ComputerArt: Exhibitions, Publications,and Technology By CopperGiloth and Lynn Pocock-Williams he following time line presents a his- reasonsfor this; many of the technologies novation-> application of technology --- torical review of computer art from were borrowedfrom other fields and their effect on culture -> technological oppor- 1960 to 1990 with an encapsulated sum- true origins are therefore somewhat ob- tunities for artists -> experimentation-> mary of technological developmentsfrom scure. Another complication arises from art theorizing-> education-> intellectual the preceding fifteen years. To provide a the fact that many of the ideas were "in- evolutionof culture-> technological inno- context in which to see computerart, each vented" severaltimes for differentclasses vation, and aroundagain. By placing this year in the time line has been subdivided of problems;that is, a new idea was com- informationin a time line we hope to reveal into threecategories: exhibitions, publica- monly tried first in a research environ- connections between the entries and pro- tions, and technology. Following the time ment, then modified for use by computer vide a starting point for further personal line is a selected bibliographyof exhibition professionals,and then changed again be- investigation by the reader. Finally, the catalogues, books, and articles, and a fore being made availableto artists. time line is meantto promotecommunica- glossary of common technical terms. Due Given currentconcerns with taking art tion about events happening in different to limitationsof space, it is possible to list in context, it seems impossibleand unwise international cultures and within the only a selection of exhibitions and to separateany art from its economic, his- realms of art, science, and technology. publications. torical, social, political, or ethnic context; Researchfor the technology portion of The chronology of technical achieve- likewise, it is inadvisableto try to separate the time line and the glossary was done by ments is meant to give an overview of the computerart from technological develop- Chris Dobbs; others who contributedin- most significant events. While dates are ment and the intellectualhistory it imple- clude Jane Veeder, Justin P. West, Patric given as specifically as possible for the ments and influences. The time line is an Prince, Suzan Shutan, Tekla McInerey, introductionof these technologies, many attemptto presentcomputer art as a partof and TerryGips. are only approximate.There are several the interrelatedcycle of technological in- TimeLine Note: An asteriskafter an exhibitionlisting meansthat a cataloguewas produced. Complete citations for exhibitioncatalogues, articles, and books appearin the bibliography.Additional books and articlesare listed in the bibliographybut not mentionedin the time line. V Technology 1950 mid-1950s 1945 RCA develops a version of color televi- Line drawingplotters are developed by ElectronicNumerical IntegratorAnd sion compatiblewith black-and-white Benson-Lehnerand Electronic Associ- Computer(ENIAC) is completed (devel- technology (to become NTSC). ates, Inc. oped by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert)-the first general-purposefully 1951 1959 electronic computer. CRTsbegin to be used as outputdevices MassachusettsInstitute of Technology for computers. (MIT) Lincoln Labs develops first light 1946 pen for the TX-2 computer. Firstpoint plotters are developed by 1952 late 1950s Electronics Inc. Associates, Ben Laposky photographsan image from CaliforniaComputer Products (CAL- Xerox model first commercial D, dry an analog screen. COMP) develops plotters using stepping copier, is marketed. motors and moving-paper/fixed-pen "Light Gun," precursorof the light pen, designs. is the for the 1954 developed by military D. Ross creates Whirlwindproject. "Scope InputProgram" on Whirlwind,the first example of free- hand drawingwith a computer. Fall 1990 283 V Publications V Technology Dennis Gabor, "Inventingthe Future." William Fettercoins the term "computer graphics"to referto plotterdrawings. V Technology I. Sutherlanddevelops his "Sketchpad" W. Clark and C. Molnarof MIT design system, the first truly interactive the LINC (LaboratoryInstrument computer-graphicssystem. Computer)-the first work station. V Technology ASCII (AmericanStandard Code for In- L. Robertsdevelops the first practical formationInterchange) is establishedas a hidden-lineremoval algorithm. standard. I'd V Technology Rand Corporationdevelops the first posi- JohnKemeny and Thomas Kurtz develop tioning tablet. BASIC (Beginner'sAll-Purpose Sym- KennethKnowlton writes BEFLIX, the bolic InstructionCode) programming first general-purposeprogramming lan- language. guage for computeranimation. Douglas Engelbartinvents the mouse. V Exhibitions "MaughanS. Mason, Bela Julesz and Michael Noll," Las Vegas, Nev.: Fall JointComputer Conference. "Nam June Paik: ElectronicArt," New York:Galeria Bonino.* "Georg Nees and FriederNake," Stutt- gart:Niedlichs Galerie. "WorldExhibition of Computer Graphics," New York:Howard Wise Gallery. V Publications Gyorgy Kepes, ed., Structurein Art and Science. KennethKnowlton, "Computer-Produced Movies." MarshallMcLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensionsof Man. V Technology Sony releases Portapak,the first inexpen- sive, nonbroadcast-quality,portable black-and-whitevideo camera. FriederNake, Hommageto Paul Klee, 1965, silkscreenon paper, 20 x 20 inches. Privatecollection. 284 Art Journal V Exhibitions V Technology "P. Hertwig, K. Alsleben, FriederNake Experimentsin Art and Technology and Georg Nees," Frankfurtam Main, (EAT) is foundedby RobertRauschen- Germany:Galerie d. berg and Billy Kliiver (physicist in laser researchat Bell Labs) to promotecollab- V Publications orationsby artistsand scientists. Allon Schoener, "2066 and ALL That." E Alterio and R. Dunlareyof Teletype EATNews, newsletterof Experimentsin Corporationdevelop Inktronic,the first Art and Technology,is founded. ink-jet printer. V Publications V Technology ExakteAsthetik, special issue on "Art Centerfor AdvancedVisual Studies from the Computer." (CAVS) is establishedat MIT by Gyorgy EdmundC. Berkeley, "ComputerArt: Kepes to providecollaborative environ- TurningPoint." ment for artistsand scientists. Michael Noll, "The Digital Computeras R. Mastersand H. Fretheimof Control a CreativeMedium." Data Corporationdevelop first touch- sensitive screen. V Exhibitions "CyberneticSerendipity: The Computer and the Arts," London:Institute of Con- temporaryArt.* "On the Pathto ComputerArt," Berlin: the parallel group in conjunctionwith a joint conferenceof MIT and the Techni- cal University,Berlin. "Some More Beginnings: An Exhibition of SubmittedWorks Involving Technical Materialsand Processes," New York: Brooklyn Museum.* "The Machine, as Seen at the End of the MechanicalAge," New York:Museum of Moder Art.* V Publications JackBurnham, Beyond Modern Sculp- ture: The Effects of Science and Technol- ogy on the Sculptureof This Century. KawanoHiroshi, "The Aesthetic for ComputerArt." Douglas Davis, "Artand Technology: The New Combine." Leonardo begins publication. (Numerous articles on computerart have appearedin this journal, which continues to be published.) V Technology Oki Electric IndustryCompany of Japan develops a dot-matrixprinter in orderto produceOriental characters. Ilford introducesthe Cibachrome process. RobertMallary develops TRAN2, the first programfor the computer-aidedde- RobertMallary, Quad III, 1968, laminatedwood veneer, sign of sculpture. 86 x 16 x 16 inches. Privatecollection. First attemptsat 2-D animationsoftware take place. Fall 1990 285 V Exhibitions V Publications "Computerkunst-On the Eve of Tomor- WalterBenjamin, "The Workof Art in row," Hanover,Munich, Hamburg,Oslo, the Age of MechanicalReproduction" Brussels, Rome, and Tokyo. (1955) appearsin first English "Event One," London: ComputerArts translation. Society. RobertMallary, "Computer Sculpture: Galerie Franzius-a gallery specializing Six Levels of Cybernetics." in computer-graphicsart-is founded in Munich. "Tendencija4," Zagreb:Museum of Modem Art. V Exhibitions "ComputerGraphics Exhibition," Mad- rid: MathematicalInstitute of the Univer- sity of Madrid. "InteractiveSound and Visual Systems," Columbus:College of Arts, Ohio State University.* "Software,Information Technology: Its New Meaning for Art," New York: Jewish Museum.* Venice Biennale, includes computer- graphicsworks by A. Lecci, Frieder Nake, Georg Nees, H. Ph. Peterson, Her- bert Franke,and the ComputerTechnique Groupof Japan. V Publications John Canaday,"Less Art, More Computer." GuntherPfeiffer, "Artand Computer." JasiaReichardt, The Computerin Art. Gene Youngblood,Expanded Cinema. V Technology Popularityof rasterdisplays increases; vector displays decrease. Color videotape recordersbecome available. Nam June Paik and ShuyaAbe develop Paik/Abevideo synthesizer. Collette and Charles Bangert, Land Lines, 1970, computerplotter and ink drawingon paper, 32 x 23 inches. Privatecollection. V Exhibitions "Technicsand Creativity,"New York: V Technology "Arteonica,"Sao Paulo. Museum of Moder Art.* First microprocessoris developed by "Artey Ciberetica," Buenos Aires: Intel. Centrode Estudios de Arte y V Publications Michael Noll develops first random- Comunicacion. JackBurham, "Problemsof Criticism: access frame buffer. "Eighth EuropeanSystems-Engineering Art and Technology." Thomas Defanti develops GRASS Symposium," Madrid:Palacio de HerbertW. Franke,Computer Graphics, (GraphicsSymbiosis System),
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