A Selected Chronologyof ComputerArt: Exhibitions, Publications,and Technology

By CopperGiloth and Lynn Pocock-Williams

he following time line presents a his- reasonsfor this; many of the technologies novation-> application of technology --- torical review of computer art from were borrowedfrom other fields and their effect on culture -> technological oppor- 1960 to 1990 with an encapsulated sum- true origins are therefore somewhat ob- tunities for artists -> experimentation-> mary of technological developmentsfrom scure. Another complication arises from art theorizing-> education-> intellectual the preceding fifteen years. To provide a the fact that many of the ideas were "in- evolutionof culture-> technological inno- context in which to see computerart, each vented" severaltimes for differentclasses vation, and aroundagain. By placing this year in the time line has been subdivided of problems;that is, a new idea was com- informationin a time line we hope to reveal into threecategories: exhibitions, publica- monly tried first in a research environ- connections between the entries and pro- tions, and technology. Following the time ment, then modified for use by computer vide a starting point for further personal line is a selected bibliographyof exhibition professionals,and then changed again be- investigation by the reader. Finally, the catalogues, books, and articles, and a fore being made availableto artists. time line is meantto promotecommunica- glossary of common technical terms. Due Given currentconcerns with taking art tion about events happening in different to limitationsof space, it is possible to list in context, it seems impossibleand unwise international cultures and within the only a selection of exhibitions and to separateany art from its economic, his- realms of art, science, and technology. publications. torical, social, political, or ethnic context; Researchfor the technology portion of The chronology of technical achieve- likewise, it is inadvisableto try to separate the time line and the glossary was done by ments is meant to give an overview of the computerart from technological develop- Chris Dobbs; others who contributedin- most significant events. While dates are ment and the intellectualhistory it imple- clude Jane Veeder, Justin P. West, Patric given as specifically as possible for the ments and influences. The time line is an Prince, Suzan Shutan, Tekla McInerey, introductionof these technologies, many attemptto presentcomputer art as a partof and TerryGips. are only approximate.There are several the interrelatedcycle of technological in- TimeLine

Note: An asteriskafter an exhibitionlisting meansthat a cataloguewas produced. Complete citations for exhibitioncatalogues, articles, and books appearin the bibliography.Additional books and articlesare listed in the bibliographybut not mentionedin the time line.

V Technology 1950 mid-1950s 1945 RCA develops a version of color televi- Line drawingplotters are developed by ElectronicNumerical IntegratorAnd sion compatiblewith black-and-white Benson-Lehnerand Electronic Associ- Computer(ENIAC) is completed (devel- technology (to become NTSC). ates, Inc. oped by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert)-the first general-purposefully 1951 1959 electronic computer. CRTsbegin to be used as outputdevices MassachusettsInstitute of Technology for computers. (MIT) Lincoln Labs develops first light 1946 pen for the TX-2 computer. Firstpoint plotters are developed by 1952 late 1950s Electronics Inc. Associates, Ben Laposky photographsan image from CaliforniaComputer Products (CAL- Xerox model first commercial D, dry an analog screen. COMP) develops plotters using stepping copier, is marketed. motors and moving-paper/fixed-pen "Light Gun," precursorof the light pen, designs. is the for the 1954 developed by military D. Ross creates Whirlwindproject. "Scope InputProgram" on Whirlwind,the first example of free- hand drawingwith a computer.

Fall 1990 283 V Publications V Technology Dennis Gabor, "Inventingthe Future." William Fettercoins the term "computer graphics"to referto plotterdrawings.

V Technology I. Sutherlanddevelops his "Sketchpad" W. Clark and C. Molnarof MIT design system, the first truly interactive the LINC (LaboratoryInstrument computer-graphicssystem. Computer)-the first work station.

V Technology ASCII (AmericanStandard Code for In- L. Robertsdevelops the first practical formationInterchange) is establishedas a hidden-lineremoval algorithm. standard.

I'd

V Technology Rand Corporationdevelops the first posi- JohnKemeny and Thomas Kurtz develop tioning tablet. BASIC (Beginner'sAll-Purpose Sym- KennethKnowlton writes BEFLIX, the bolic InstructionCode) programming first general-purposeprogramming lan- language. guage for computeranimation. Douglas Engelbartinvents the mouse.

V Exhibitions "MaughanS. Mason, Bela Julesz and Michael Noll," Las Vegas, Nev.: Fall JointComputer Conference. ": ElectronicArt," New York:Galeria Bonino.* "Georg Nees and FriederNake," Stutt- gart:Niedlichs Galerie. "WorldExhibition of Computer Graphics," New York:Howard Wise Gallery. V Publications Gyorgy Kepes, ed., Structurein Art and Science. KennethKnowlton, "Computer-Produced Movies." MarshallMcLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensionsof Man. V Technology Sony releases Portapak,the first inexpen- sive, nonbroadcast-quality,portable black-and-whitevideo camera.

FriederNake, Hommageto Paul Klee, 1965, silkscreenon paper, 20 x 20 inches. Privatecollection.

284 Art Journal V Exhibitions V Technology "P. Hertwig, K. Alsleben, FriederNake Experimentsin Art and Technology and Georg Nees," Frankfurtam Main, (EAT) is foundedby RobertRauschen- :Galerie d. berg and Billy Kliiver (physicist in laser researchat Bell Labs) to promotecollab- V Publications orationsby artistsand scientists. Allon Schoener, "2066 and ALL That." E Alterio and R. Dunlareyof Teletype EATNews, newsletterof Experimentsin Corporationdevelop Inktronic,the first Art and Technology,is founded. ink-jet printer.

V Publications V Technology ExakteAsthetik, special issue on "Art Centerfor AdvancedVisual Studies from the Computer." (CAVS) is establishedat MIT by Gyorgy EdmundC. Berkeley, "ComputerArt: Kepes to providecollaborative environ- TurningPoint." ment for artistsand scientists. Michael Noll, "The Digital Computeras R. Mastersand H. Fretheimof Control a CreativeMedium." Data Corporationdevelop first touch- sensitive screen.

V Exhibitions "CyberneticSerendipity: The Computer and the Arts," :Institute of Con- temporaryArt.* "On the Pathto ComputerArt," : the parallel group in conjunctionwith a joint conferenceof MIT and the Techni- cal University,Berlin. "Some More Beginnings: An Exhibition of SubmittedWorks Involving Technical Materialsand Processes," New York: Museum.* "The Machine, as Seen at the End of the MechanicalAge," New York:Museum of Moder Art.* V Publications JackBurnham, Beyond Modern Sculp- ture: The Effects of Science and Technol- ogy on the Sculptureof This Century. KawanoHiroshi, "The Aesthetic for ComputerArt." Douglas Davis, "Artand Technology: The New Combine." Leonardo begins publication. (Numerous articles on computerart have appearedin this journal, which continues to be published.) V Technology Oki Electric IndustryCompany of Japan develops a dot-matrixprinter in orderto produceOriental characters. Ilford introducesthe Cibachrome process. RobertMallary develops TRAN2, the first programfor the computer-aidedde- RobertMallary, Quad III, 1968, laminatedwood veneer, sign of sculpture. 86 x 16 x 16 inches. Privatecollection. First attemptsat 2-D animationsoftware take place.

Fall 1990 285 V Exhibitions V Publications "Computerkunst-On the Eve of Tomor- WalterBenjamin, "The Workof Art in row," Hanover,Munich, Hamburg,Oslo, the Age of MechanicalReproduction" Brussels, Rome, and Tokyo. (1955) appearsin first English "Event One," London: ComputerArts translation. Society. RobertMallary, "Computer Sculpture: Galerie Franzius-a gallery specializing Six Levels of Cybernetics." in computer-graphicsart-is founded in Munich. "Tendencija4," Zagreb:Museum of Modem Art.

V Exhibitions "ComputerGraphics Exhibition," Mad- rid: MathematicalInstitute of the Univer- sity of Madrid. "InteractiveSound and Visual Systems," Columbus:College of Arts, Ohio State University.* "Software,Information Technology: Its New Meaning for Art," New York: Jewish Museum.* Venice Biennale, includes computer- graphicsworks by A. Lecci, Frieder Nake, Georg Nees, H. Ph. Peterson, Her- bert Franke,and the ComputerTechnique Groupof Japan. V Publications John Canaday,"Less Art, More Computer." GuntherPfeiffer, "Artand Computer." JasiaReichardt, The Computerin Art. Gene Youngblood,Expanded Cinema. V Technology Popularityof rasterdisplays increases; vector displays decrease. Color videotape recordersbecome available. Nam June Paik and ShuyaAbe develop Paik/Abevideo synthesizer. Collette and Charles Bangert, Land Lines, 1970, computerplotter and ink drawingon paper, 32 x 23 inches. Privatecollection.

V Exhibitions "Technicsand Creativity,"New York: V Technology "Arteonica,"Sao Paulo. Museum of Moder Art.* First microprocessoris developed by "Artey Ciberetica," Buenos Aires: Intel. Centrode Estudios de Arte y V Publications Michael Noll develops first random- Comunicacion. JackBurham, "Problemsof Criticism: access frame buffer. "Eighth EuropeanSystems-Engineering Art and Technology." Thomas Defanti develops GRASS Symposium," Madrid:Palacio de HerbertW. Franke,Computer Graphics, (GraphicsSymbiosis System), the first Oriente.* ComputerArt. easy-to-programanimation language. "Exhibitionof ComputerArt," Kansas JasiaReichardt, ed., Cybernetics,Art, City, Mo.: Nelson Gallery of Art. and Ideas. "ManfredMohr: Computer Graphics," JohnWhitney, "A ComputerArt for the :Musee d'ArtModere. Video PictureWall."

286 Art Journal V Exhibitions V Publications V Technology "Grenzgebieteder bildendenKunst," Sonia Landy Sheridan, "Generative Noland Bushnell invents PONG-the :Staatsgalerie. Systems." first videogame; he founds Atari. "Multiple Interaction,"Chicago: Dan Sandin builds the Image Processor Museum of Science and Industry.* and distributesplans for this user-built artist-orientedvideo synthesizer.

V Exhibitions "Interaction,Machine: Man: Society," V Technology "Arty Computadoras,"Buenos Aires: Edinburgh:Computer Art Society. Videodiscs developed. organizedby Jorge Glusbergas partof Thomas DeFanti and Dan Sandin estab- the first InternationalConference on V Publications lish the ElectronicVisualization Lab at Computingin the Humanities(ICCH) Douglas Davis, Art and the Future:A the University of Illinois at Chicago. (held also in 1975 and 1977). History/Prophecyof the Collaborationbe- "Artet l'ordinateur,"Bordeaux, France. tweenScience, Technologyand Art. "The FirstInternational Festival of Com- William Newman and RobertSproull, puter Art," New York:The Kitchen. Principlesof InteractiveComputer Graphics.

V Exhibitions V Publications V Technology "Aesthetikals Informationsverar- StewartKranz, Science and Technology Bally introduces"Baseball" and "Gun- beitung," Vienna and New York. in the Arts: A Tourthrough the Realm of fight," the first videogames with ani- "Artet informatique,"Angers, France. Science/Art. mated humancharacters. "Bat-Sheva-Seminaron the Interactionof Sony introducesthe Mavica (Magnetic Art and Science," Jerusalem. Video Card) Video Card and Player- "InternationalExhibition of Computer precursorof Mavica Videodisc. Graphics," :Museum of Fine Firstattempts at 3-D modeling and ani- Arts.* mation softwaretake place.

V Exhibitions "B. Bek, V. Ziljak," Zagreb:Galerija SuvremeneUmjetnosti. "FirstElectronic Visualization Event," Chicago: University of Illinois at Chi- cago Circle (interactivecomputer perfor- mances are also held in 1976 and 1978). V Publications James Gips, Shape Grammarsand Their Uses: ArtificialPerception, Shape Gener- ation and ComputerAesthetics. George Stiny, Pictorial and FormalAs- pects of Shape and Shape Grammars. V Technology Betamax-first home half-inchvideo- cassette recorder-is introduced. First truly personal computer,Altair Microcomputer,becomes availablefor $350. Alvy Ray Smith (at New YorkInstitute of the Technology) develops PAINT, proto- ManfredMohr, P-155 Cubic Limit, 1974-76, silkscreen of most moder type paint programs. on paper,27/2 x 271/2inches. Privatecollection. Benoit Mandelbrotbegins development of the mathematicsof fractalgeometry. Fall 1990 287 V Publications James Blinn develops "bump-mapping" Ruth Leavitt, ed., Artist and Computer. algorithmfor mappingtexture onto vir- RobertRussett and Cecile Starr,Experi- tual surfaces. mentalAnimation: Origins of a New Art. Society of Motion Pictureand Television Engineers(SMPTE) forms High- V Technology DefinitionTelevision (HDTV) study Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniakdevelop group. the Apple I and found Apple Corporation.

V Exhibitions V Publications V Technology "ComputerGenesis: A Vision of the CharlesCsuri, "3-D Computer Apple introducesthe Apple II. '70's," Syracuse,N.Y.: Joe and Emily Animation." Alan Kay and Adele Goldbergof Xerox Lowe Art Gallery,.* Palo Alto ResearchCenter (PARC)pub- "L'Ordinateuret les arts visuels," Paris: lish "PersonalDynamic Media," which Swedish CulturalCenter. introducesthe idea of the "Dynabook" and contains the original ideas embodied in the Macintosh. Victor Companyintroduces VHS (Video Home System) format. Half-inchvideo cassettes emerge as the consumerformat of choice.

V Exhibitions V Publications "Space Invaders," "Asteroids," and "Artand the Computer,"Worcester, ComputerGraphics World begins "Pac Man" sparkthe videogame craze. Mass.: WorcesterArt Museum. publication. Aspen Movie Map Project-a videodisc- "Artisteet informatique,"Paris: Swedish based projectthat allows a user to drive CulturalCenter. V Technology arounda databaseof Aspen, turn cor- "EnergizedArtscience," Chicago: Mu- Thomas DeFantidevelops ZGRASS, a ners, change seasons, and go into seum of Science and Industry.* programminglanguage for artistsand buildings-is designed by Architecture "The Vasulka's:Steina: Machine Vision; educators. Machine Groupat MIT. Woody: Description," Buffalo, N.Y.: Magnavoxintroduces the laser-videodisc Albright-KnoxArt Gallery. player.

V Exhibitions "ArsElectronica," , :Inter- nationalBruckner Festival is initiatedand continues as a yearly event. "Artisteet ordinateur,"Paris: Swedish CulturalCenter. "CyberneticSymbiosis," Berkeley:Law- rence Hall of Science. V Publications FrankJ. Malina, ed., VisualArt, Mathe- matics and Computers:Selections from the JournalLeonardo. V Technology Scitex Color System-allowing for elec- tronic image color correction,text input, and layoutdesign and manipulation-is developed. LarryCuba, lwo Space, 1979, still frame trom hilm.

288 Art Journal V Exhibitions V Publications V Technology "Art In/Art Out," Chicago: Ukrainian David Topperand John H. Holloway, TurnerWhitted develops first ray tracer. Instituteof Modem Art. "Interrelationshipsbetween Visual Arts, 3M offers Scan-A-Muralservice. "InternationalFestival voor Elek- Science and Technology:A Quantelintroduces its first digital video- tronischeMuziek, Video en Computer Bibliography." effects device. Art," Brussels. John Whitney,Digital Harmony:On the First "Symposium on Small Computers "Video Art: The ElectronicMedium," Complementarityof Music and Visual in the Arts" is held in Philadelphia. Chicago: Museum of ContemporaryArt. Art. "Struycken:Structures-Elements 1969-1980," Rotterdam:Museum Boymans-vanBeuningen.*

V Exhibitions V Publications "ComputerCulture 81," Toronto:On- Symposiumon Small Computersin the tario College of Art. Arts (first conferenceproceedings). "High TechnologyArt: A Congressional Exhibition," Washington,D.C.: Library V Technology of Congress. IBM introducesthe PC. "SIGGRAPH'81 Art Show" is inaugu- Music Television (MTV), the first 24- rated in Dallas. (Exhibitionsare now an- hour satellite-distributedcable-television nual events, sometimes with a special programbased on the visual interpreta- focus. A catalogue and a slide set are tion of popularmusic ("rock videos"), is produced.) introduced.

Bill Viola, Hatu Yume(First Dream), 1981, still frame from video. CourtesyMuseum of Modem Art, New York.

Darcy Gerbarg,May I, 1981, ceramic tiles, 100 x 50 inches. Collection of the artist.

Fall 1990 289 V Exhibitions V Publications "Artand the Computer,"New York: Donald Greenberg,Aaron Marcus, Allan Hansen Gallery. H. Schmidt, and VernonGorter, The "Artists/Computers/Art,"London: Can- ComputerImage. ada House Gallery;Paris: Centre Culturel YochiroKawaguchi, Digital Image. Canadien.* "L'Artet l'ordinateur,"Paris: Compag- V Technology nie Internationalede Service en Ampex introducesthe ADO digital- Informatique. video-effects device, the first system able "Nam June Paik," New York:Whitney to move two-dimensionalimages in three Museum of American Art.* dimensions. The Sony Mavica-the first still-video camerato be able to store images on a magnetic disc-is invented.

V Exhibitions "The Computerand Its Influenceon Art and Design," Lincoln, Nebr.: Sheldon MemorialArt Gallery.* "DIGICON'83"- InternationalConfer- ence of ComputerArts, Vancouver. "Electra:L'Electricite et l'6lectronique dans l'art au XXe siecle," Paris:Musee d'ArtModere de la Ville de Paris.* "Exhibitionof ComputerGraphics in Collaborationwith SIGGRAPH'83 Ex- hibition of ComputerArt," Tokyo:Isetan Museum and Hakuhodo, Inc.* "Exposition d'art photo/electrique,"La Chartreuse,Villeneuve-les-Avignon, France:Computer Culture.* V Publications Jean Baudrillard,Simulations. Hal Foster, ed., The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on PostmodernCulture. LucindaFurlong, "Notes towarda His- tory of Image-ProcessedVideo: Eric Siegel, Stephen Beck, Dan Sandin, Steve Rutt, Bill and Louise Etra." Grace Glueck, "Portraitof an Artist as a Young Computer." Myron Krueger,Artificial Reality. 16 x 20 inches. Privatecollection. RobertScott Root-Bernstein,"Paradigms Alyce Kaprow,Fazes, 1983, photograph, and Revolutionsin Science and Art: The Challenge of Interpretation." Gene Youngblood, "ComputerArt as a Way of Life." V Technology Apple introducesLISA (Local Integrated SoftwareArchitecture) and Apple IIe.

290 Art Journal V Exhibitions V Publications V Technology "Artistas a Young Machine," Toronto: Stan Augarten,Bit by Bit: An Illustrated Apple introducesthe Macintosh with a OntarioScience Center. History of Computers. commercialthat emphasizes its total- "CADRE '84," San Jose, Calif.: San HerbertW. Franke,Computergrafik- itariancontrol of information.This 60- Jose State UniversityArt Department.* Galerie; Bilder nach Programm:Kunst second spot airs only once but is replayed "Immaginida Computer,Mostra di im elektronischenZeitalter. as a news item. ComputerGrafica," Prato, Italy.* Hiroshi Inose and John Peirce,Informa- Canon introducesthe first consumer- tion Technologyand Civilization. grade laser-printengine. Judy E. Sachter,"The Basic Concepts of IBM develops a one-million-bitRAM Three-DimensionalComputer Graphics (random-accessmemory). for Artists." Mitsubishivideo printeris introduced;it Lee Silverman, "Inside the Loop: Com- prints black-and-whiteimages from puterGraphics within the Technological video signals. Highway." WavefrontTechnologies introducesfirst Brian Wallis, ed., Art after Modernism: comprehensive,commercially available RethinkingRepresentation. softwaresystem incorporatingmodeling, Thomas Defanti, "The Mass Impactof motion choreography,and rendering. VideogameTechnology." (All 3-D animationsoftware had been availableonly in researchareas of indus- try and academia.)

I,3_ V Exhibitions "The Artist and the ComputerII," Louisville, Ky.: Louisville Art Gallery.* "EmergingExpressions," New York: Bronx Museum of the Arts. "SIGGRAPHTraveling Art Show 1985," Tokyo: Hakuhodo, Inc.* V Publications Roy Ascott, "ConcerningNets and Spurs." KatherineDieckmann, "ElectraMyths: Video, Modernism, Postmodernism." FrankDietrich, "Visual Intelligence:The First Decade of ComputerArt (1965-1975)." LucindaFurlong, "TrackingVideo Art: 'Image Processing' as a Genre." CopperGiloth and Jane Veeder, "The Paint Problem." Joan L. Kirsch, "When Will Computer Art Be TakenSeriously?" BarbaraLondon, "Video: A Selected Chronology,1963-1983." JoachimSchmid, "The ElectronicPho- tographeris Coming." Visual Computerbegins publication. V Technology Jane Veeder,Vizgame, 1985, video screen image interactiveinstallation. Collection of Amiga PC is introducedand used by the artist. many artistsand educatorsas a personal instrument.

Fall 1990 291 V Exhibitions V Publications V Technology "artware:Kunst und Elektronik,"Han- Rene Berger and Lloyd Eby, eds., Art Megaprint,a laser-scanningcomputer- over:Messe AG and Siemens AG (first and Technology. airbrushsystem, producesbillboard-scale exhibition;others in 1987, 1988, 1989, Nancy Burson, RichardCarling, and prints. 1990).* David Kramlich,Composites: Computer- "The Computeras an Art Tool," Green- GeneratedPortraits. wich, Conn.: HurlbuttGallery. Isaac Victor Kerlowand JudsonRose- "Images Digital: ComputerArtists in bush, ComputerGraphics for Designers Germany,"Munich: Galerie der and Artists. Kuenstler.* R. Lucas, "Evolving Aesthetic Criteria for Computer-GeneratedArt."

V Exhibitions V Technology "ComputerAssisted: The Computerin Apple introducesthe Mac II. ContemporaryArt," Reading, Pa.: Scannersfor PCs become available. FreedmanGallery, Albright College.* AT&T shows the Pixel Machine at SIG- "Computersand Art," Syracuse:Ever- GRAPH, demonstratingits capabilityto son Museum of Art. manipulateray-traced objects in real "The InteractiveImage," Chicago: Mu- time. seum of Science and Industry. Hypercard-a personal-computerimple- "The Second EmergingExpression Bien- mentationof hypermediaconcepts-is nial: The Artist and Computer,"New releasedby Apple. York:Bronx Museum of the Arts.* SMPTEWorking Group on High- DefinitionElectronic Production gives V Publications unanimousendorsement to the 1125/60 CynthiaGoodman, Digital Visions. HDTV productionstandard. Hal Foster,ed., Discussions in Contem- The Fine Art, Science, and Technology porary Culture:Number One. (F.A.S.T.) ElectronicBulletin Board is CatherineRichards, "VirtualWorlds, foundedby Ray Laau7zanaat the Univer- Digital Images." sity of Massachusettsat Amherst.

V Exhibitions V Publications V Technology "Computersand Art," New York:IBM TimothyBinkley, "CameraFantasia." FAX machines are mass marketed. Gallery of Science and Art. ChristopherBurnett, "Computersand "Digital Photography:Captured Images, Art in the Age of the WorldPicture." Volatile Memory,and New Montage," TimothyDruckrey, "User Friendly?" San Francisco:SF Camerawork.* David Ross, The Art of David Em: 100 ComputerPaintings. Wim Van Der Plas, ed., ElectronicArt.

292 Art Journal V Exhibitions V Publications MarthaRosier, "Image Simulations, "Computersand Photography,"Roches- EdwardBarrett, The Society of Text:Hy- ComputerManipulations: Some ter, N.Y.: PyramidArts Center. pertext, Hypermedia,and the Social Considerations." "Jenny Holzer," New York:Solomon R. Constructionof Information. Leonardobegins publicationof F.A.S.T. GuggenheimMuseum.* AndrewS. Glassner,3D Computer ElectronicBulletin Board. "ImageWorld,"New York:Whitney Mu- Graphics:A User's Guidefor Artists and seum of AmericanArt.* Designers. V Technology "The Techno/LogicalImagination: Ma- John Lansdownand Rae A. Earshaw, Intel introducesthe 80860 micro- chines in the Gardenof Art," Min- eds., Computersin Art, Design, and processorchip-equivalent power of a neapolis: IntermediaArts Minnesota and Animation. Cray 1 supercomputer. the Minneapolis College of Art and Margot Lovejoy,Postmodern Currents: Mass marketingof still video cameras Design. * Art and Artists in the Age of Electronic begins. "Micro-Macro:The Workof Art in the Media. Age of the Microcomputer,"New York: Bertha and Karl LeubsdorfArt Gallery at HunterCollege.

Mark Wilson, 30J89, 1989, acrylic on canvas, 36 x 48 Karl Hauser,wall-o-fish, 1989, computer-animatedneon, inches. Collection of the artist. 60 x 84 inches. Collection of the artist.

V Exhibitions "Computersand the CreativeProcess," Eugene: University of Oregon Museum of Art. Venice Biennale, Pavilion-Jenny Holzer. V Publications TerryGips, "CriticalQuestions for Com- puter Artists of the 1990's." Renee LeWinterand CynthiaBaron, "ArtisticChallenge." Fred Ritchin, In Our Own Image: The ComingRevolution in Photography. Dorothy Spencer, "ComputerArt-An Oxymoron?Views from the Mainstream."

Jenny Holzer, sign installationat the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, 1989-90, electronic lightboards.Courtesy BarbaraGladstone Gallery, New York.

Fall 1990 293 Bibliography

Exhibition Catalogues Images Digital: ComputerArtists in Ger- van Beuningen, 1980-81). Artists/Computers/Art(London: Canada many (Munich:Galerie der Kuenstler, Technicsand Creativity(New York:Mu- House Gallery; Paris: Centre Culturel 1986). seum of Moder Art, 1971). Canadien, 1982). Immagini da Computer,Mostra di Com- RobertaWilliams, TheArtist and the Com- The Asahi Shimbun and Louise Ledeen, puter Grafica(Prato, Italy, 1984). puter II (Louisville, Ky.: Louisville Art The ACM/SIGGRAPHTraveling Art International Exhibition of Computer Gallery,1985). Show 1985 (Tokyo: Hakuhodo, Inc., Graphics (Montreal:Museum of Fine 1985). Arts, 1974). Books B. Bek, V. Ziljak (Zagreb: Galerija Suv- Some More Beginnings: An Exhibitionof Stan Augarten, Bit by Bit: An Illustrated remene Umjetnosti, 1975). Submitted WorksInvolving Technical Historyof Computers(New York:Tick- Ridell T. Breval, L. Bergquist, B. E. Materials and Processes (New York: nor and Fields, 1984). Bengtsson, and S. Henriksson, Artist BrooklynMuseum, 1968). Arttransitions, conference proceedings and Computer(Paris: Centre Culturel JackieLipsky, The Computerand Its Influ- (Cambridge:MIT Centerfor Advanced Suedois, 1979). ence on Art and Design (Lincoln, Visual Studies [CAVS], 1975). Jack Burnham, Software, Information Nebr.: Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, ReynerBanham, Theoryand Design in the Technology:Its New Meaning for Art 1983). First MachineAge (New York:Praeger, (New York:Jewish Museum, 1970). MultipleInteraction (Chicago: Museum of 1960). CADRE '84 (San Jose, Calif.: San Jose Science and Industry,1972). EdwardBarrett, The Society of Text:Hy- State University Art Department, NamJune Paik: Electronic Art (New York: pertext, Hypermedia, and the Social 1984). GaleriaBonino, 1965). Construction of Information (Cam- Luis R. Cancel, TheSecond Emerging Ex- Jasia Reichardt, ed., Cybernetic Seren- bridge:MIT Press, 1989). pressionBiennial: TheArtist and Com- dipity: The Computerand the Arts, In- Jean Baudrillard,Simulations (New York: puter (New York:Bronx Museum of the stitute of ContemporaryArt, London Semiotext(e), 1983). Arts, 1987). (London: Studio International,1968). Ren6Berger and Lloyd Eby, eds., Art and ComputerGenesis: A Vision of the '70's David Rubin, Computer Assisted: The Technology(New York:Paragon House, (Syracuse, N.Y.: Joe and Emily Lowe Computerin ContemporaryArt (Read- 1986). ArtGallery, Syracuse University, 1977). ing, Pa.: Freedman Gallery, Albright StewartBrand, The Media Lab: Inventing Charles Csuri, InteractiveSound and Vi- College, 1987). the Futureat MIT (New York:Viking, sual Systems (Columbus: College of ChristineSchopf, ed., PRIXArs Electron- 1987). Arts, Ohio State University,1970). ica (Linz, Austria: TMS-Verlag- JackBurnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture: Eighth European Systems-Engineering Bremen, 1979-90). The Effects of Science and Technology Symposium (Madrid: Palacio de Ori- Sonia Landy Sheridan, Energized Art- on the Sculptureof This Century(New ente, 1971). science (Chicago: Museum of Science York:Braziller, 1968). Electra: L'Electricite et l'electronique and Industry,1978). Nancy Burson, Richard Carling, and dans l'art au XXe siecle (Paris:Musee Neil Sieling, ed., The Techno/Logical David Kramlich, Composites: Com- d'Art Modere de la Ville de Paris, Imagination:Machines in the Gardenof puter-GeneratedPortraits (New York: 1983). Art (Minneapolis: Intermedia Arts William Morrow,1986). Exposition d'art photo/electrique (La Minnesota and the Minneapolis Col- Douglas Davis, Art and the Future: A Chartreuse, Villeneuve-les-Avignon, lege of Art and Design, 1989). History/Prophecyof the Collaboration France:Computer Culture, 1983). SIGGRAPHexhibition catalogues 1982- between Science, Technologyand Art David Galloway,ed., artware:Kunst und 88 (New York:ACM SIGGRAPH): (New York:Praeger, 1973). Elektronik (Hanover: Meese AG and CopperGiloth, ed., SIGGRAPH'82 Art James D. Foley and Andries Van Dam, Siemens AG, 1986-90). Show. Fundamentalsof InteractiveComputer Marnie Gillett and Jim Pomeroy,Digital Copper Giloth, ed., SIGGRAPH'83 Graphics (Reading, Mass.: Addison- Photography: Captured Images, Vol- Exhibitionof ComputerArt. Wesley, 1982). atile Memory,and New Montage (San Patrick Whitney, ed., SIGGRAPH'84 Hal Foster,ed., TheAnti-Aesthetic: Essays Francisco:SF Camerawork,1988). Computer-SupportedDesign Exhibi- on Postmodern Culture (Port Towns- John Hanhardt,ed., Nam June Paik (New tion. end, Wash.: Bay Press, 1983). York: Whitney Museum of American Louise Ledeen, ed., SIGGRAPH'85 Art Hal Foster,ed., Discussions in Contempor- Art, 1982). Show. ary Culture: Number One (Seattle, Marvin Heifermanand Lisa Phillips, Im- Patric Prince, ed., SIGGRAPH'86 Art Wash.:Bay Pressin associationwith the ageWorld(New York:Whitney Museum Show. DIA Art Foundation,1987). of AmericanArt, 1989). Joanne P. Culver, ed., SIGGRAPH'87 Herbert W. Franke, Computergrafik- LaurenHerr, Yuriko Kuchiki, and Copper Art Exhibition. Galerie; Bilder nach Programm:Kunst Giloth, eds., Exhibition of Computer Lucy Petrovich, ed., SIGGRAPH'88 im elektronischenZeitalter (: Graphics in Collaboration with SIG- Art Show (videotape catalogue). DuMont Buchverlag, 1984). GRAPH'83 Exhibitionof ComputerArt SIGGRAPHexhibition catalogues 1989- Herbert W. Franke, ComputerGraphics, (Tokyo:Isetan Museum and Hakuhodo, 90 (Oxford and New York:Pergamon ComputerArt, trans. Gustav Metzger Inc., 1983). Press): and Antje Schrack (Berlin and New Jenny Holzer (New York: Solomon R. Mark Resch, ed., SIGGRAPH'89 Art York: Springer-Verlag,1985; London GuggenheimMuseum, 1989). Show: ComputerArt in Context. and New York:Phaidon, 1971). K. G. Pontus Hult6n, The Machine, as Tom Linehan, ed., SIGGRAPH'90 Art HerbertW. Frankeand Horst Helbig, Die Seen at the End of the MechanicalAge Show:Digital Image-Digital Cinema. Weltder Mathematik;Computergraphik (New York: Museum of Modem Art, Struycken: Structures-Elements 1969- zwischen Wissenschaft und Kunst 1968). 1980 (Rotterdam:Museum Boymans- (Diisseldorf:VDI-Verlag, 1988).

294 Art Journal James Gips, Shape Grammarsand Their (New York:Aperture, 1990). puter," New YorkTimes, August 30, Uses: ArtificialPerception, Shape Gen- Robert Rivlin, The Algorithmic Image: 1970, D19. erationand ComputerAesthetics ( Graphic Visions of the ComputerAge Charles Csuri, "3-D Computer Anima- and Stuttgart:Birkhauser, 1975). (Washington, D.C.: Microsoft Press, tion," in Advances in Computers,vol. Andrew S. Glassner, 3D Computer 1986). 16 (New York:Academic Press, 1977), Graphics: A User's Guide for Artists Robi Roncarelli,The ComputerAnimation 1-55. and Designers (New York: Design Dictionary (New York: Springer- Douglas Davis, "Artand Technology:The Press, 1989). Verlag, 1989). New Combine," Art in America 56 Cynthia Goodman, Digital Visions (New David Ross, The Art of David Em: 100 (January/February1968): 28-47. York:Harry N. Abrams, 1987). ComputerPaintings (New York:Harry Thomas Defanti, "The Mass Impact of Donald Greenberg,Aaron Marcus, Allan N. Abrams, 1988). Videogame Technology," in Advances H. Schmidt, and Vernon Gorter, The Robert Russett and Cecile Starr,Experi- in Computers,vol. 23 (New York:Aca- Computer Image (Reading, Mass.: mentalAnimation: Origins of a NewArt demic Press, 1984), 93-140. Addison-Wesley,1982). (New York:Da Capo Press, 1976). Katherine Dieckmann, "Electra Myths: Gerard J. Holzmann, Beyond Photogra- George Stiny, Pictorial and Formal As- Video, Modernism, Postmodernism," phy: The Digital Darkroom (Murray pects of Shape and Shape Grammars Art Journal45 (Fall 1985): 195-203. Hill, N.J.: Bell Laboratories,1988). (Basel and Stuttgart:Birkhauser, 1975). FrankDietrich, "Visual Intelligence:The HiroshiInose andJohn Peirce, Information Symposium on Small Computers in the First Decade of Computer Art Technologyand Civilization(New York: Arts, conference proceedings (Phila- (1965-1975)," IEEE CG&A 5, no. 7 W. H. Freeman, 1984). delphia: SCAN and IEEE Computer (July 1985). Yochiro Kawaguchi, Digital Image (To- Society, 1981-89). Timothy Druckrey, "User Friendly?" kyo: ASCII, 1982). Nadia Magnenat-Thalmannand Daniel Views 9, no. 3 (Spring 1988). Gyorgy Kepes, ed., Structurein Art and Thalmann, ComputerAnimation: The- ExakteAsthetik,special issue on "Artfrom Science (New York: George Braziller, ory and Practice (New York:Springer- the Computer," Frankfurtam Main: 1965). Verlag, 1985). Gesellschaft fur Exakte Asthetik, 5 Isaac VictorKerlow and Judson Rosebush, JoanTruckenbrod, Creative Computer Im- (1967). ComputerGraphics for Designers and aging (EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.: Prentice LucindaFurlong, "Notes towarda History Artists (New York:Van NostrandRein- Hall, 1988). of Image-ProcessedVideo: Eric Siegel, hold, 1986). SherryTurkle, The Second Self (New York: StephenBeck, Dan Sandin, Steve Rutt, StewartKranz, Science and Technologyin Simon and Schuster,1984). Bill and Louise Etra," Afterimage 11 the Arts: A Tourthrough the Realm of Webster'sNew WorldDictionary of Com- (Summer1983). Science/Art (New York:Van Nostrand puter Terms (New York: Simon and Lucinda Furlong, "Tracking Video Art: Reinhold, 1974). Schuster,1988). 'Image Processing' as a Genre," Art Myron Krueger,Artificial Reality (Read- Brian Wallis, ed., Art after Modernism: Journal45 (Fall 1985): 233-37. ing, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,1983). RethinkingRepresentation (New York: Dennis Gabor, "Inventing the Future," John Lansdown and Rae A. Earnshaw, New Museum of ContemporaryArt in Encounter,May 1960. eds., Computersin Art, Design, and associationwith David R. Godine,Bos- Paul Gardner, "The Electronic Palette," Animation (New York: Springer- ton, 1984). Artnews84 (February1985): 66-73. Verlag, 1989). John Whitney,Digital Harmony: On the Copper Giloth and Jane Veeder, "The Ruth Leavitt, ed., Artist and Computer Complementarityof Music and Visual Paint Problem," IEEE CG&A 5, no. 7 (New York:Harmony Books, 1976). Art (New York:McGraw-Hill, 1980). (July 1985). MargotLovejoy, Postmodern Currents: Art StephenWilson, Using Computersto Cre- TerryGips, "CriticalQuestions for Com- and Artists in the Age of ElectronicMe- ate Art (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren- puterArtists of the 1990's" (Arlington, dia (Ann Arbor:UMI ResearchPress, tice Hall, 1986). Va.:National Computer Graphics Asso- 1989). Gene Youngblood, Expanded Cinema ciation ConferenceProceedings, 1990). FrankJ. Malina,ed., VisualArt,Mathema- (New York:Dutton, 1970). Grace Glueck, "Portraitof an Artist as a tics and Computers:Selections from the Young Computer," New YorkTimes, Journal Leonardo (Oxford and New Articles February20, 1983. York:Pergamon Press, 1979). Roy Ascott, "Concerning Nets and KawanoHiroshi, "The Aestheticfor Com- Marshall McLuhan, UnderstandingMe- Spurs," Artificial Intelligence in the puterArt," Bit International2 (Zagreb: dia: TheExtensions of Man (New York: Arts 1 (1985). IzdavacPublisher, 1968). McGraw-Hill,1965). WalterBenjamin, "The Workof Art in the JoanL. Kirsch, "WhenWill ComputerArt William Newman and Robert Sproull, Age of MechanicalReproduction," Il- Be TakenSeriously?" Digitalk, Winter Principles of Interactive Computer luminations(1955), trans. HarryZohn 1985, 2-6. Graphics (New York: McGraw-Hill, (New York:Schocken Books, 1969). KennethKnowlton, "Computer-Produced 1973). Edmund C. Berkeley, "Computer Art: Movies," Science 150 (November 26, Dale Peterson, Genesis II: Creation and TurningPoint," Computersand Auto- 1965): 1116-20. Re-creation with Computers (Reston, mation (August 1967). 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Fall 1990 295 Levels of Cybernetics," Artforum 9 Judy E. Sachter, "The Basic Concepts Oxymoron? Views from the Main- (May 1969): 29-35. of Three-Dimensional Computer stream," SIGGRAPH'89 Panel Pro- MichaelNoll, "The Digital Computeras a Graphics for Artists," thesis, Ohio ceedings (New York: ACM SIG- Creative Medium," IEEE Spectrum, State University, 1984 (includes GRAPH, 1990). October 1967. videotape). David Topperand John H. Holloway,"In- Gunther Pfeiffer, "Art and Computer," JoachimSchmid, "The ElectronicPhotog- terrelationshipsbetween Visual Arts, magazinKUNST 39 (1970). rapherIs Coming," trans. JohnS. We- Science and Technology:A Bibliogra- Catherine Richards, "Virtual Worlds, ber, European Photography22 (April/ phy,"Leonardo 13, no. 1 (Winter1980): Digital Images," 1987 AFI VideoFesti- May/June1985). 29-33. val Catalog (Los Angeles: AFI, 1987). Allon Schoener, "2066 and ALL That," Wim Van Der Plas, ed., Electronic Art, Robert Scott Root-Bernstein, "On Para- Art in America54 (March-April 1966). supplementalissue of Leonardo (Ox- digms and Revolutionsin Science and Sonia Landy Sheridan, "GenerativeSys- ford and New York: PergamonPress, Art: The Challenge of Interpretation," tems," Afterimage,April 1972. 1988). ArtJournal 48 (Summer1984): 109-18. Lee Silverman, "Inside the Loop: Com- John Whitney, "A Computer Art for the Martha Rosier, "Image Simulations, puter Graphicswithin the Technologi- Video PictureWall," Art International Computer Manipulations:Some Con- cal Highway," Views, Summer 1984, 15, no. 7 (September1971): 35-38. siderations,"Afterimage 17 (November 6-9. Gene Youngblood, "ComputerArt as a 1989), 7-11. Dorothy Spencer, "Computer Art-An Way of Life," Send, no. 8 (Fall 1983).

Glossary

Algorithm Digital processing that make up a computersystem, such as A set of well-defined instructionsfor the The task of taking digital informationand scanners, printers,and displays. solution of a problem. changing("processing") it throughthe use HDTV of an Analog algorithm. High-definition television. A proposed A scale of measurethat is continuous,like Digitizer television system with significantlybetter the volume control on a stereo, or a ther- An input device used to transform a picture quality than that of the current mometer. The term refers also to signals graphicrepresentation into a digital repre- broadcaststandard. that have not been sentationso that it can be a sampled. processed by Hypermedia Artificial computer.Types include video digitizers, An extension of the idea of to intelligence and tablets. hypertext The scientific field concerned with creat- laser scanners, includeother kinds of information,such as ing computer systems that can achieve Display video images and sound. "human"intellectual faculties such as the An device that contains a CRTand output Hypertext abilities to perceive, reason, and learn. interpretsdata from the computer,showing A term coined Ted Nelson (based on a it as text and A screenis by animation images. computer 1945 article VanavarBush) for an envi- Computer a by Use of the computerto make images with display. ronmentwhere informationcan be linked the illusion of movement. Dot-matrix printer freely across conventionalsubject bound- to strike aries. An essential is that of "au- CRT A printerthat uses tiny hammers concept dots on the of each user to Cathode tube. The tube of a an inked ribbonto produce paper. thoring," ability easily ray picture dots make an reorganizethe informationinto a custom- television set, video monitor,or computer Many together up image. ized body. display. Film recorder An output device that records data onto Ink-jet printer Cursor A device that createsan used as a photographicfilm or paper. printing image by A small graphic symbol pointer a thin stream of ink onto to indicate on a screen. Fractals spraying paper. position display Coloredink can be used, in color The movementof the cursor is controlled A term, coined Benoit Mandelbrot,for resulting by images. by a keyboard,mouse, light pen, or tablet a type of mathematicsvery useful for un- stylus. derstandingand defining certain natural Interactive shapes and phenomena. As appliedto computerart, any computer, DataGlove or artworkthat relies on on the Frame buffer device, program, A glove containing sensors, worn active communication with a human hand to detect the motion and position of A of computermemory that special type being. the hand and feed that informationto a stores the image data requiredfor a raster computer. It is useful for virtual-reality display. Laser printer A device thatuses a laser beam to applications. Graftal printing place images on a rotatingdrum. The drum DataSuit A type of modeling that createsplants and picks up a toner powder on the laser- The extension of the DataGlove for the trees by describing them in mathematical exposed areas, which are then pressedand whole body. terms. Alvy Ray Smith developed these fused into paper,forming the image. algorithms based on the earlier work of Digital Laser scanner discretenumbers to infor- Aristid Lindenmayer. Using represent A that uses a laser beam for the mation. On these numbersare Hardware digitizer computers, conversion of an of 0 and 1. The or image into digital combinations physical components equipment information.

296 Art Journal Light pen to carry out specific activities or tasks three-dimensionalobject by defining its An input device, much like a writing pen, (algorithms). shape, dimensions, color, and surface that is used to draw and manipulateinfor- texture. mation Programming language on a computerdisplay by touching A scheme of formalnotation used to Touch-sensitive screen the of the to the spell tip pen display. out instructions for the computer. Pro- A display screen on which the user can Microprocessor gramminglanguages include BASIC, Pas- enter commands by pressing designated The arithmetic, logic, and control ele- cal, and C. areas with a finger or other object. The ments for information, screen can detect the where it is required processing Raster display position containedon one touched, and the then usually integrated-circuit A displaydevice thatstores and displays an computer performs chip. Microprocessors are used inside as a two-dimensional of the function indicated. most and in a wide image (data) grid personal computers pixels. Vector display varietyof specializedapplications, such as tracer A display in which images are drawn on computer-controlledlight signs. Ray the screen of a CRT a beam that con- A computerprogram that producesrealis- by Mouse structs a series of lines, or "vectors," of tic images from models of ob- A device, connected to a a geometric and at computer by jects. The in the sur- any length any angle. cable, for a cursoror other surroundingsappear moving object faces of the reflective objects, enhancing Video digitizer aroundon the displayscreen. As the mouse the realism of the scene. A of a video camera cursor digitizer consisting moves, the moves correspondingly with hardware and software on Scan-a-Mural specialized the screen. that enables the conversion of an A service (offeredfor severalyears by 3M image Network and now offered into digital information. A Corporation by Computer system of interconnectedcomputers and a im- Virtual otherhardware that allow for the Image Systems) whereby computer reality exchange can be transferredto a A interactiveenviron- of link age large-scale computer-generated information. Networks can com- canvas. ment 3-D in the same room or in various featuring stereoscopic graphic puters parts scenes. One or more are immersed of the world. Scientific visualization players Use of and animation in this environmentby headgearpresent- NTSC computer graphics a video monitorto each and block- techniquesto give visual form to complex ing eye NationalTelevision Standards Committee. numericaldata. ing out the natural world. Interactionis The standardfor broadcastcolor television providedby means of a DataGlove,which used primarily in North, Central, and Software conveys gestural informationto the com- South America, and Japan. Anothername for programs. puter.Current applications include telepre- Pixel Still-video camera sent operatorsin remote or dangerousen- and research in An acronym for "picture element." The A camera that does not require film but vironments, e.g., space smallestunit on the screenthat can rather makes an electronic record of an cognition and human interaction. Also display called virtualenvironment. be stored, displayed, or addressed.Pixels image and stores it on a small magnetic are the tiny dots that are seen when an disk. The image can then be displayedon a Virtual surface image displayed on a computer screen is video monitoror put into a computer. The surfaceof an imaginaryobject defined examinedclosely. Tablet within a computer. Plotter A digitizer, normally consisting of a flat Work station An outputdevice that drawslines or points tablet, on which a patternis traced over A relativelysmall but powerfulconfigura- on paperunder the controlof a computer.It with a penlike stylus or other cursor tion of computerequipment designed to be was used extensively for early computer device. The patternstraced by the opera- used by one person. art. tor are automatically entered into the for Printer computer's memory subsequent CopperGiloth is an associate professor processing. An outputdevice for the productionof text of art at the Universityof Massachusetts and images that works much like a type- Thermal printer at Amherst,where she teaches computer writerbut is given instructionsfrom a com- A printer that produces output on heat- animation, electronic still photography, puter.Dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser, and ther- sensitive paper. It uses heat to melt wire and design. mal are the of that contain ink, which are then majortypes printers. particles Lynn Pocock-Williamsis a visiting transferredto paper. Program professorof art at the Universityof A set of instructions,written in a program- Three-dimensional modeling Vermontin Burlington,where she teaches ming language,used to instructa computer The use of a computersystem to create a computergraphics and design.

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