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Routledge Handbook of Football Marketing

Nicolas Chanavat, Michel Desbordes, Nicolas Lorgnier

Marketing of Professional Soccer in the United States

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 Eric Brownlee, Nicolas Lorgnier Published online on: 23 Mar 2017

How to cite :- Eric Brownlee, Nicolas Lorgnier. 23 Mar 2017, Marketing of Professional Soccer in the United States from: Routledge Handbook of Football Marketing Routledge Accessed on: 30 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315267203.ch3

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 player salaries, allows thisstructure forsignificant freedom whenitcomes tomarketing, sales, and onlyallows2014). Whilethesingleentity structure tonegotiate teamowners minimal rights ofteams(Coates, distribution Jewell,perhaps themostprofoundimpact onthesalary Frick, & Designated Playerthe salary, whichwillbediscussedinmore detail laterinthechapterandhas Thisincludes but dohave distribution. tonegotiate withplayers ofsalary somerights in terms controlled by theleague. Team owners tooperatethefranchise, intheMLSonlyown therights leaguesthroughouttheworld,sports theMLSplayer contractsandtheownership ofallteamsis oftheleague.the singleentitystructure More specifically, unlike many othermajorprofessional for theMLSwas 2.95 millionUSdollars, several suchas teams exceededthisfigure duetofactors Journal,“Beckham Rule” cap 2015).Whilethe2013salary Business also nicknamedthe(Sports Designated Player oftheleagueandpromptedtoenact Rule,tract inthehistory Davidby Beckhamforapproximately peryear 6.5millionUSdollars thatisstillthelargestcon- stadiums, andplayer have salaries increased dramatically. Thisincludesthe2007contractsigned Journal, 2015). Business (Sports professionalsports major American MLS teamandrenamed theteamRedBulls, namedteamin thuscreatingcorporate thefirst in2006whentheRedBullcompanyAnother majormilestoneoccurred purchased anexisting Crew soccerspecificstadiumforprofessionalintheU.S. openedupthefirst Columbus ing rapidlyever since. Apivotal in1999whenthe oftheleagueoccurred pointinthehistory Clash withacrowd ofalmost32,000fans,Jose andtheleaguehasbeenexpand- and theSan and WashingtonD.C. regular Thefirst seasongamewas playedD.C. in1996between United wereColumbus, placedinBoston,Jersey, LosAngeles,New New York (LongIsland),Jose, San single teaminplace. Thisleaguewas namedMajorLeagueSoccer(MLS), andthefir dealforanew professionalsoccerleagueintheU.S.rights thathadnoplayers, coaches, oreven a 1994, aftertheWorldCup intheU.S., shortly television ESPNandABCannouncedthefirst ofMajorLeagueSoccer(MLS)andunveilingthe formation theleaguelogo (Abnos, 2015).In deFootball Association(FIFA)from USASoccertotheFédérationInternationale by announcing Neartheendof1993, promise WorldCEO AlanI.Rothenbergfulfilledalong-term Cup USA’s SOCCER INTHEUNITEDSTATESSOCCER MARKETING OFPROFESSIONAL Astheleaguehascontinued togrow, several teamshave been addedaswell assoccerspecific Major LeagueA casestudySoccer of andNicolas Brownlee Eric Lorgnier Introduction Introduction 3 73 st seven teams Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 professionals and sport marketingprofessionals andsport students. marketing executives andprovides recommendations ofsalesandmarketing tacticsforsoccer Designated Player cap.such asthe Ruleandsalary ofMLS Thechapterincludesinterviews features oftheMLSpractices oftheMLSwhileexaminingsomedistinctstructural Paul, andMiami(Davis, explore thesuccessfulmarketing 2016).Thischapterwillfurther NFL citieslike Atlanta,added orpotentialMLSteamsare in LosAngeles, Minneapolis-St. Not surprisingly, manyMLS teamsandcapitalizingonexistingcityrivalries. oftherecently top-levelby offering soccerinnew venues andisfocusingoncreatingamong new rivalries leaguesintheU.S.,and othermajorprofessionalsports theMLSisgoingabove andbeyond NFL Similartothe forfans. duetotheoneofakindmatchday experiences leagues primarily tially indicatethattheMLSisbecomingoneofmostpopularU.S. professionalsports leagueintheU.S.,most successfulmajorprofessionalsports andthesesurvey results poten- NFL games(King,NFL haslongbeenviewed asthe to 2014).Thisisinteresting becausethe cited thein-venue atMLSgameswas amongfans superior atmosphere andthatcamaraderie National Footballpreferred attendingMLSgamesoverLeague(NFL)games.Therespondents Forrience. instance, arecent footballfans nationalsurvey indicatedthat54%ofAmerican is stillheavily reliant onticket salesrevenue are lookingforauniqueingameexpe- and fans planning phase, andthisisakey aspecttothedevelopment oftheleaguebecause stadiumsforMLSteams. and therepushformore isacurrent soccer-friendly service. theirteamplays Oneofthebiggestaspectsthatowners cancontrolisthefacility in, strategies employedstrategies by theMLSthatcanbe helpfulforallsoccerprofessionals. Consequently, in2015(Barrabi,lion USdollars 2016). there may beseveral salesandmarketing newly built soccerspecificstadiumshas increased theaverage value ofanMLSteamto157mil- viewership growth hasbeendynamic. Additionally, and thecombinationofnew mediarights not bethesamecaliberofplay asmajorEuropean soccerleagues, theattendanceand television the successofleagueingrowing attendance andincreasing ticket sales.WhiletheMLSmay duetotheheavyMLS gamesisimportant dependenceonticket salesrevenue by theleagueand in2016(Stephenson, that driveESPN platforms attendanceto thefactors 2016). Understanding broadcast rights, andthisrevenue stream hasincreased significantly, with 32%more viewers on come (Broughton, 2014).With thatbeingsaid, the majorarea ofgrowth fortheMLSistelevision revenue in2018, thatticket itappears saleswillremain themainsource ofrevenue foryears to this dependenceisexpectedtodecrease from31%oftotalrevenue in2008 to28%oftotal oftickettinued importance sales andrevenue forthecontinued successoftheMLS. pergame(MLS, 20,000fans surpass 2015; Thomas, 2014a).Table illustratesthecon- 3.1further league professionalsbelieve thatwithinthenextfew years average attendanceatMLSgameswill City.Premier League(EPL)teamslike Manchester Thefuture oftheMLSlooksbright, andsome the SeattleSounders, isaveraging over pergame, 44,000fans andthisfigure issimilartoEnglish National Hockey tomentionthatoneMLSteam, Association(NHL).Itisalsoimportant or the leaguesintheU.S.figures forothermajorsports National Basketball Association(NBA) like the This majormilestonerepresents timetheMLShasbeenabletorival theattendance thefirst average oftheleague. timeinthehistory attendanceforanMLSgamepast21,000thefirst TheMLSfinishedthe2015seasonwitha12.7%netpositive gaininattendance, the bringing Since1999, theMLShasbuilt 12soccer-specificstadiumswithseveral more already inthe The MLS primarily dependsongateorticket salesasthemainsource ofrevenue, TheMLSprimarily andwhile Eric Brownlee andNicolas Brownlee Eric Lorgnier Attendance 74 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 MLS over thepast20years. 2015). Thefollowing sectionsoutline thethree majorreasons fortheinitialgrowth ofthe ofattendancewithinthenextfewbe oneofthetopfive years (MLS, soccerleagues interms attendance pergame, and ifattendancekeeps increasingpace, atthecurrent theMLScould in Table 3.2 , theMLSisnow ofaverage the7thlargestsoccerleagueinworld interms 20years thefirst ofitsexistence. tremendous Asnoted growth during MLS hasexperienced 2016). To say thegrowth of theMLShasbeenprolificwould beanunderstatement, andthe team inthenearfuture, withseveral othercitiesshowing interest inhostingateam(Davis, Sacramento andSt.Louisarementionedasthe top candidatecitiesforanMLS currently yet tobedetermined), andtheseteamsare expectedtobeaddedbetween now and2020. MLS teamsare AtlantaUnitedFC, LosAngelesFC, MinnesotaUnitedFC, andMiami(name has paralleledthegrowth inattendance, television ratings, andfranchisevalue. Thenewest more, there willbe24teamsby 2020.Thistremendous growth inthenumber ofMLSteams There are now 20teams, withadditional expansionscheduledinthenearfuture. Further- with10initialteams in1996, TheMLSstarted andby 2016, theleaguehaddoubledinsize. Source: (MLS, 2015; Thomas, 2014a) . League Vancouver WhitecapsFC Toronto FC Sporting KC Sporting Seattle Sounders Jose Earthquake San Real SaltLake Portland Timbers Philadelphia Union Orlando City New York RedBulls New YorkCity FC New EnglandRevolution Montreal Impact LA Galaxy Houston Dynamo FC Dallas D.C. United Columbus Crew Colorado Rapids Chicago Fire Team Table 3.1 2015 MLSAttendance andgrowth MLS expansion Marketing intheUnitedMarketing States 75 19,687 (–1.6%) 44,247 (+1.2%) 21,574 (+12.7%) 20,507 (+0.5%) 23,451 (+6.2%) 20,979 (+40.3%) 20,160 (–0.9%) 17,451 (–1.0%) 32,847 (N/A) 17,750 (+1.9%) 23,451 (+10.3%) 20,658 (+2.7%) 16,013 (–4.7%) 15,657 (+3.8%) 16,003 (–0.5%) 21,142 (+1.6%) 19,657 (+1.2%) 29,016 (N/A) (+17.7%) 19,627 16,244 (–4.6%) 16,985 (+0.6%) (Change from2014) Average PerGame Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 nearly 30,000 fans in attendance.nearly 30,000fans This prolificincrease inattendance aswell asthetalkshow 55% higherratethanwhenhe didnotplay, andtheMLSsaw fully sold outgames, itsfirst with the Beckhamera,than aggressiveDuring attendedgamesthatheplayed expansion. fans inata MLS was growing, but itwas more of aslow growth, andthe leaguewas focused more onsurvival owner),future (asamajority continues interest to grow. andsupport fans Before Beckham the “Beckham Effect,” anew MLSteamin Miamiinthenear andasBeckhamisscheduledtostart Stephenson, 2008). MLS hasincreased from12in2007 to20in2015(Lamport-Stokes, 2015; Lawson, Sheehan, & leagueintheU.S., thananygrow othermajorsports faster andthenumber ofteamsinthe ham era.BeckhamhadsuchaprofoundimpactontheMLS thattheleaguehascontinued to theBeck- inunique ticketannual salary salesfortheLAGalaxyandtheiropponentsduring ResearchershaveDavidtime period. Beckhamgeneratedmore alsonotedthatthantwice his theBeckhamera,during this tobuild soccerspecificstadiumsduring andteamsalsostarted years afterBeckhamretired. For example, attendancegrew by over pergame 3,000fans intheMLS,was ofasignificantgrowth period thestart andthismomentumhascontinued tional soccerplayers,David Beckhamwas thistime signedby theLAGalaxy. andduring This In2007, itwas announcedthattheMLSwas signingoneofthemostwell-known interna- ThisprofoundeffectthatBeckhamhadontheMLSandU.S. the soccerhasbeentermed Source: (MLS, 2015) . Super Lig(TUR) Premier League(SCO) Allsvenskan (SWE) Liga(POR) Primeira Premier Liga(RUS) A-League 2014–15(AUS) J-League (JPN) Championship (ENG2) A(BRA) Série Eredivisie (NED) 2.Bundesliga (GER2) Ligue 1(FRA) Division 2014–2015(ARG) A Primera Major LeagueSoccer Chinese SuperLeague(CHN) A(ITA)Serie (MEX) Liga MXApertura La Liga(ESP) Premier League(ENG) Bundesliga (GER) Team Table 3.2 Highest average attendance(by league) Eric Brownlee andNicolas Brownlee Eric Lorgnier Issue Effect one:Beckham 76 (2015 Season) Average PerGame 12,005 12,459 12,513 16,891 17,118 17,300 18,398 19,147 20,904 21,374 21,574 22,580 23,893 24,625 28,773 36,487 43,177 9,206 9,904 9,845 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 Munich (Thomas, 2015). future soccerfranchisessuchasBayern andestablishspecificrelationships withinternational around theworld, andtheMLShopestomove beyond inthenear television partnerships Africa, Asia, Europe, andtheMiddleEast.Theeventual goalisfortheMLStobebroadcast tobroadcasttheirgamesinLatinandSouthAmerica, mediapartnerships tional longterm broadcastpartnership,2015). Inadditiontotherecent African theMLShasannouncedaddi- (Davis, 2016; Lamport-Stokes, 2015; Lawson, Sheehan, &Stephenson, 2008; MLSSoccerStaff, viewership andincreaseof theMLStocreate international additionalforeign partnerships Coast,can MLSplayers,Drogba fromtheIvoryandshows Didier thecommitment suchas Thisdealisadirect result ofthesignificantgrowthSaharan Africa. inthenumber ofkey Afri- tobroadcastlive from2015–2018withFox Africa a partnership MLSgamesinSub- Sports possible andimproving thequalityofplay infuture seasons.TheMLSrecently announced and teams, aboutsigningthebesttalent sincehissigningdemonstratedtheleaguewas serious leagues withinternational The Beckhamsigningsetthegroundwork fortheMLStopartner the MLS, thisisanarea where theMLShasbeenfocusingmuch oftheirresources recently. LA Galaxy, orventure partnership for was majorsuccessfulinternational possiblythefirst David Beckham, While played whoformerly forManchesterUnited, RealMadrid, andthe Sheehan, &Stephenson, 2008). “Beckham Effect” tothe(Davis,is dueatleastinpart 2016; Lamport-Stokes, 2015; Lawson, perceptions ofthevalue oftheMLSproduct, aggressive andthecurrent expansionandgrowth David popcultureBeckhamforever iconstatusof appearances andtheAmerican changedfan (Newcomb, 2015). cific stadiumswithmany ofthesamefeatures ofmajorEuropeanprofessionalsoccerteams more andmore important,City recently built soccerspe- andteamslike Portland andKansas As theMLScontinued togrow andsignmajortelevision broadcastdeals, thestadiumsbecome specific stadiumswere designedtolimitcosts, andthey didnothave many high-techfeatures. Chicago,Dallas, etc. wave decided tobuild soccerspecificstadiums.This first ofnew, soccer and thiswas kind ofananomalyuntil2010whenseveral otherteamssuchasLosAngeles, Lyonnais (Miller, 2016). suchasParc Europeansoccerfacilities stadiums inthesamemannerasfamous Olympique for thedesignofseveral new, soccerspecificMLSstadiums, hasdesignedmany oftheMLS Populousfacilities. Sports, thathasbeen responsible architecture whichis a majorsport firm with theMLSview theMLS as aviablealternative andacompetitive leaguewithquality andcontrastingmajorEuropean professionalsoccer whoare comparing fans that discerning NBC hasincreased by 60%.Itisimportant viewership oftheeightMLSgamesbroadcaston Network intheU.S., NBC Sports product. SincethePremier League hasbeenbroadcaston televisionaquality dealsanddemonstratingthattheleagueoffers international MLS securing New soccerspecificstadiumshaveEuropean professionalsoccer. beenakey aspectofthe stadiums andplayers are paidmore andmore eachyear untilthepay issimilartohigh-level demand toimprove thequalityofproductby makingsure gamesare played insoccer-specific AstheMLShascontinued togrow bothdomesticallyandinternationally, there hasbeena The Columbus Crew were MLSteamtobuildColumbus asoccerspecificstadiumin1999, thefirst The Issue three: soccer-specifi Issue partnerships two:foreign Marketing intheUnitedMarketing States 77 c stadiums Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 has effectively grown theleague. MLS salesandmarketing professionalssothatreadersmay gaininsightintohow theMLS oftheMLS,the uniquestructure of andthefinalsectionofthischapterincludesinterviews oftime. outlinescompetitive Thenextsectionofthischapterfurther period withinashort abouthow new interested leaguehasbeenabletogrowers inlearning afairly andbecome new teams/soccer-specificstadiums, market- andtheMLSisanexcellentcasestudyforsport significant growth ineverything fromattendancetoviewership andeven theadditionof (Love, Kavazis, Morse, &Mayer, 2013;Newcomb, 2015).Overall, theMLShasexperienced plans toofferalloftheirgamesinhigh-tech, soccer-specificstadiumsinthenearfuture MLS teamssuchasMinnesotaUnitedcontinue TheMLS toaddfeatures totheirfacilities. eventsattending professionalsports intheU.S., Thenewest asthishasbecomethenorm. and highqualityaudio. Also, offoodandcraftbeeroptionswhen expectavariety fans eventsmajor sports intheU.S. expecthigh-qualityscoreboards withhigh-definitiondisplay andexpectedtoimprovenecessary For experience. instance, thefan usedtoattending fans addition tothisinitialattendanceincrease, someofthefeatures ofthesenew stadiums are effect oninitialattendance,“Novelty andthisisknown orHoneymoon astheEffect.” In in the MLS players are employed by thesameemployer underthissystem.Thissystemwas challenged havewhile salaries increased inrecent years, there isnotanopenlabor market, andtechnicallyall leagues.Free existintheMLS, agencydoesnotcurrently majorprofessionalsports current and National League(whichgave totheMLB)than any ofthe birth ilar totheinitialsetupof cap(Parrish,a leaguemandatedandcontrolledsalary 2013). oftheMLSalsohasadirectstructure andmajorinfluenceonplayer throughtheuseof salaries have apromotionorrelegation systemsimilartoEuropean professionalsoccer. Thesingle-entity like theBundesligaorPremier League. anddoesnot TheMLSisaclosedleaguestructure than theprivate ownership ofmostthemajorEuropeanprofessionalsoccerleagues structure professionalsports,very uniqueinthelandscapeofmajorAmerican but itisalsovery different sequently, oftheMLSbecausethisisnotonly theleaguestructure tounderstand itisimportant aspects oftheorganizationthatthey candirectly oversee (Coates,Jewell, Frick,Con- & 2014). In otherwords, focusonmarketing andsalesbecausetheseare the theMLSowners primarily all player contracts.MLSteamowners tothebusiness own operationsoftheteam. therights ownership ofallteamsandcontrols single entitystructure. This meanstheleaguehasprimary leagueintheU.S. theonlymajorprofessionalsports TheMLSiscurrently tooperateundera next subsection (Arangue Jr.,next subsection (Arangue 2015). is significantlydifferent inthe U.S., thanany othermajorprofessionalsport asoutlinedinthe structure,has helpedtheleaguetomaintain itsoriginal capsystemfortheMLS andthesalary weers would seeinmajorU.S. ThesuccessoftheMLSinthislegalbattle professionalsports. and whiletheleaguehasinvestors, theteam owners are own- more like thanmajority operators MLS successfullyarguedthata free agencysystemwould destroy the profitabilityoftheleague, createdthat thesingleentitystructure amonopoly, andthey wanted afree agencysystem.The 2002 andremains asingleentity. thiscase,During eightMLSplayers suedtheleague, arguing Research hasshown thatthenewly created soccerspecificstadiumscanhave asignificant InthecontextofU.S. sport, theMLSisunusual, ismore andthesingleentitystructure sim- Fraser vs. MLS antitrust lawsuit antitrust in1996, but theMLSultimatelyprevailed inthiscase Eric Brownlee andNicolas Brownlee Eric Lorgnier Issue one:leaguestructure cap rules MLS salary 78 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 in theMLS. below,Designated Player explainthe rule andthenextsectionofthischapterwillfurther taxsimilartoMLB. taxinMLSisoutlined andsmallluxury Thisluxury rule Table 3.3 Designated Player capwith majorexceptionssuchasthe system isacombinationofsalary MLB teamsbasedonteamspending(Coates,Jewell, Frick,“soft” & 2014).TheMLScap However, thisisrarely thecase, of inperformance andthere istypicallyamajordisparity market canusethemoney tobecomemore teamsthatintheory competitive inthefuture. “taxes”that spendbeyond aspecificthreshold. Thecollected are tosmaller redistributed “taxes” taxsystemdoesnothaveMLB luxury floorand asalary orpenalizesteamsfinancially and losingspecifiedamountsofrevenue over ofaseason(Thompson, thecourse 2015).The below floororspendingtoomuchize soccerclubsforfalling money asalary onplayer wages taxregulations. TheUEFABaseball (MLB)luxury FinancialFairPlay essentiallypenal- rules ciations (UEFA) FinancialFairPlay rules, whichare much more similartotheMajorLeague of paying players beyond thecap(Coates,Jewell, Frick, & 2014). NFL have“hard” whatare consideredthe caps, salary orcapswithlessexceptionsandmethods capandwaysthe salary thatteamscanpay players above andbeyondNHL and thecap. Boththe capinplaceforMLSteamssetbywhile there theleague, isasalary there exceptionsto are certain NFL. Thismeansthat NHL orthe system,NBA but significantlydifferent thanthe similartothe “soft” oftheMLSisconsidered capstructure capstructure. tobesimilaracap Thesalary salary leaguesintheU.S., Similartomostothermajorprofessionalsports theMLSoperatesundera 05U$. ilU$3,5 S4620US$436,250+ US$387,500+ US$368,750+ US$436,250 US$350,000+ US$387,500 US$335,000+ US$436,250 US$368,750 N/A US$335,000+ US$387,500 US$350,000 Sources: (Coates,Jewell, Frick, & 2014; Mayers, 2014; Tannenwald, 2015). N/A US$3.5mill N/A DP =designatedplayer;Note: mill=million;NAnotavailable. US$368,750 N/A US$335,000 US$3.1mill N/A 2015 US$350,000 US$335,000 US$2.9mill US$335,000 2014 US$335,000 N/A US$325,000 US$2.8mill N/A US$325,000 2013 US$335,000 Third DP Costof US$2.7mill US$415,000 2012 US$400,000 US$2.6mill US$400,000 CostofSecondDP 2011 US$2.3mill N/A US$2.3mill N/A 2010 US$2.1mill CostofFirstDP 2009 US$2.0mill 2008 US$1.9mill 2007 Cap Salary 2006 2005 Year Table 3.3 The MLS salary capsystemisvery different TheMLSsalary thantheUnionofEuropeanFootball Asso- History of the Designated Player ofthe rule History Marketing intheUnitedMarketing States cap Issue salary two: 79 $250,000 tax $250,000 tax $250,000 tax $250,000 tax $250,000 tax $250,000 tax

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 for 20%ofallleaguerevenue (Coates,Jewell, Frick, & 2014). teams. For instance,David Beckhamplayed while fortheLosAngelesGalaxy, theteamaccounted becauseitsignificantlyinfluencesthemarketability tounderstand and successof is important able toafford isuniqueinU.S. allthree designatedplayers.DPrule The and professionalsports are notassuccessfulfinanciallyorlocatedinasmallermarket withasmallerstadiummay notbe owners orhigherrevenues canpurchase themaximum designatedplayers, whileotherteamsthat area ofplayer thatcanbecontrolledby teamowners. salaries Inotherwords, teamswithwealthy favorsDP rule larger-market teamswithmore financialresources becausethisistheonemajor thancompetingteamsbefore theplayera highersalary free agent.The becomesanunrestricted Bird Exception”NBA“Larry teamstheabilitytosignastarveteran thatallowplayerlike the to capexceptions NBA salary market issimilarto teamswithmoreDP rule financialresources. The Stephenson, 2008; Parrish, 2013). the effectiveness ofincreasing MLSattendancewithdesignatedplayers (Lawson, Sheehan, & isoutlinedin DP rule related tothe information Table 3.3 , andafew studieshave outlined teamsmayand currently have uptothree designatedplayers (Parrish, 2013).Thefinancial without goingover cap, thesalary hasbeenamendedseveral therule timesover theyears, “Beckham” designedtoallow player teamstosignonesuperstar wasDP orrule originally the “Beckham Rule.” referredtoasthe hasoftenbeeninformally DP rule subsequently the While wasDavidDP rule initiallyenactedtoallow Beckham, theLosAngelesGalaxytosign and highly marketable player withouthaving thatplayer’s cap. countagainstthesalary salary The In2007,Designated Player thatallowed theMLSinstituted (DP)rule teamstosignone Statistics in the near future to mine the data they collect from fans during the purchase process Statistics inthenearfuture during tominethedatathey collectfromfans the LAGalaxy, andtheplanisforallMLSteamstobeusingSASVisualAnalytics andSASVisual evident with bywithSAS. withSAShasstarted theirrecent Therecent partnership partnership every season(Heitner, 2015). online streaming asaviablebroadcastmethod, andmore gameshave beenavailable live online thepastfew years.leagues tofullyembrace increased digits The MLSisoneofthefirst by triple ofthekey playersbased ontheorigin intheleague. Overall, viewership digital intheMLShas viewershipMLS hasbeenfocusingoninternational by expandingintospecificbroadcast markets up additionaldomestictelevision markets andhopefullyincrease viewership. Additionally, the cast markets significantly inthenext4years. Theexpansionintonew U.S. markets willopen youngest average league in theU.S. baseofany majorprofessionalsports fan (Heitner, 2015). social mediapresence inorder tocontinue toreach millennialfans, andthey have currently the MLS seasonamongyounger TheMLSplanstoimprove customers. onlinestreaming andincrease the sevenofMLShave sponsors the majorcorporate seensignificantincreases insalesduring ticultural millennials.To datetheMLShasbeenvery successfulingainingyounger viewers, and 34, andtheMLSplanstonotonlyincrease viewership amongmillennials, but toalsotargetmul- Currently,on marketing tomillennials. 65%oftheMLSaudienceisbetween theageof18and plan,gic andthemainaspectsofthisplanare discussedbelow. First, theMLShasastrongfocus andambitiousexpansionplanshave Theuniquestructure significantlyimpactedtheMLSstrate- Scholars and practitioners have andpractitioners DesignatedPlayer Scholars tendstofavor noticedthatthe rule large Finally, engagement, theMLS isextremely focusedondata acquisition andfan andthisis Second, theMLSplanstoexpand number ofteams, soccerspecificstadiums, andbroad- Issue Player three: rule Designated Eric Brownlee andNicolas Brownlee Eric Lorgnier plan MLS strategic 80 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 next section with interviews ofMLSsalesandmarketingnext sectionwithinterviews professionals. MLS isvery innovative initsapproachtosalesandmarketing. investigated Thisisfurther inthe revenues pergameandfortheseasonvery accuratelywiththissoftware (SAS, 2015).Overall, the Theteamswillalso be abletopredictbest possiblechanceforpurchase potential orsatisfaction. can helpteamslike toachieve theLAGalaxypickwhichpromotiontoofferaspecificfan the and market tothemeffectively andimprove For experience. instance, theirfan thissoftware below theuppertierofEuropeanSoccer Clubs. MLS istofillthestadium.This may besimilartoteamsthathave beenrelegatedorthosethatareanotch ofmarketing andsales.more aggressive interms thantoplevel Europeanclubs The numberone goalofthe to letfans knowthattheycanfollowtheChicagoFireandtheirteam abroad. Overall, theMLS hastobe favorite teamabroad tofans ofanMLSteam. Consequently, wehave realized thatitmakesthemostsense or oneofthemajorEuropeanclubs, totransition anditischallenging thesefans frombeingfans oftheir withtheHispanicdemographicchallenge isthattheyusually followanotherteamfromtheirhome country advertisements ontrainsportation andbuses, aswell I andsocialmediaadvertising.nternet The biggest targeted zipcodetelevisionadvertisement buys andbillboards. ForMillennials, masstrans- wepurchase for morethan1millionofthesepeople.“Soccer Moms” Marketingto andHispanicfans usually includes segment forChicagobecauseinacityoflittleover 10millionpeople, theHispanicdemographic accounts soccer fans whogrewupplaying thegameandoftenlive inthecity.The Hispanicfans arean interesting panic fans. SoccerMomsarethefamilies wholive intheChicagosuburbs.The Millennialsaretheyounger “Soccer Moms,” ThethreekeymarketsegmentswetargetattheChicagoFireinclude Millennials, andHis- MLS? How dothesepracticescompare andcontrastwithEuropean SoccerLeagues? Whatare themajormarketing andsalestacticsusedby theChicago Fire andthe Fire, thepast6years, andduring I have workedmy way frominsidesalesto Sales.Ticket Vice Presidentof approximately 2.5years. Aftertheteammoved toOklahomaCityIacceptedapositionwiththeChicago levelentry insidesalesaccountexecutive positionwiththeSeattleSuperSonics, andIworkedfortheteam department, team. andIappliedforasalespositionwiththeSeattleSuperSonicsNBA Iwas hiredinan this pointinmy life, Ihadheard that thebestway was industry throughthesales tobreakintothesports Management.graduate attheUniversity degreeinSport ofIowa school andcompletedaMasterofArts At when Irealized veryquickly thatthiswas notwhatIwanted todofortherestofmy life. So, Ienrolledin Shortly aftergraduating college, Iworkedforaphonecompany inthecollectionsdepartment, andthis is degreeinMarketingandCommunication fromSt. ofArts IcompletedaBachelor AmbroseUniversity. What isyour background? be applicabletoallsoccermarketing marketing andsalesprofessionalssport students. lent casestudyofhow may tomarketsoccerproduct. Someofthesestrategies andsellanemerging ofqualityplay, thebestproductinterms fans professional socceroffers andtheMLSisanexcel- Consequently, gies. thefollowing were interviews conductedfromthepointofview thatEuropean oftimeanduniquesuccessfulsalesmarketing strate- tremendous period growth inashort utives. fromtheperspective thattheMLSisavery Thissectioniswritten innovative leaguewith Thefollowing ofkey frominterviews sectionpresents information MLSmarketing andsalesexec- ticket sales, one: Mike president of Ernst, seniorvice Interview service, marketing, and club operations fortheChicagoFire marketing,service, andcluboperations interviews executive MLS marketing Marketing intheUnitedMarketing States 81

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 world in terms ofplayerworld interms competitionthatisbasedintheU.S. becoming moreknowledgeable aboutallofthesoccerleagues. Itistheonly league that isnotthetopin we face HowdoyouThis isachallenge becausesoccerfans market asecond-rate intheU.S. product? are marketing andsales? Whatarechallenges of fortheMLSandChicago thecurrent Fire interms also keytothefuturesuccessofMLS. buyers power. willhave purchasing The successoftheU.S. Men’sWomen’s and NationalSoccerteamsis foryounger Americans. ofchoice soccer iscurrentlythesport Itisonly amatteroftimebeforethesepotential playing TheMLSisahugegrowthmarketbecauseofthelargenumberyounger Americans soccer. Also, the Chicago Fire inthenext5years? ofmarketing andsalesfortheMLS and interms Whatare themajoropportunities specific teams. theleagueitselfratherAll oftheteamsareverysuccessfulandIwouldrecommendbenchmarking than competition withothersports.The futuresuccessoftheMLSdepends onsuccessinthebiggermarkets. Newteamsaremostsuccessful,Toronto, Seattle, duetobeinginasmallermarketplaceandhaving less ofsalesandmarketingMLS franchisesare andwhy? themostsuccessfulinterms How couldEuropean soccerclubs benchmarkMLSteams, andinyour opinion, which teams aregettingmoreplayers fromoverseas. ofcompetition.terms The MLSdraft doesnothave asignificantimpactbecauseofthehomegrownrule, and The MLSistheonly leagueinthe U.S. major professionalsports thatisnotthetopleague in theworld capandlowerplayer spendingduetoasalary ThereislessdebtforUSfranchisesanderrant salaries. infl uence business andmarketing intheMLS? trast withtheUEFA FinancialFair Play Regulations? Also, how dothesepractices How dotheMLSDesignatedPlayer, Draft, CapRulescompare andcon- andSalary professional sports. the MLSteams.The MLShasperhapsthemostdeveloped andaggressive salestacticsofAmerican Center, andafterextensive thegraduates training areemployed andsubjecttoperformance by oneof U.S. andpossibly theworld. salesaccountexecutivesTraining Futureticket attendtheNationalSales training andresearch.TrainingThe MLSNationalSales Centeristheonly operation ofitskindinthe like theAspireGroup. thatinvolves tosellingtickets extensiveThe MLSusesaverymatureapproach TheMLSusesamoreaggressive salespushthanEuropeanclubs. usingoutsideagenciesThis includes ofmarketing from andsales? MLSclubsinterms clubs learn could beappliedtoEuropean soccer?Inotherwords, whatcouldEuropean soccer How doyou thinksomeofthemajormarketing andsalespracticesusedintheMLS dayand thematch app. Uniqueandengagingcontentisbest. demographics.The MLSbelieves strongly inmobilevideocontentandpushesthisoutthroughsocialmedia advertising.We usemany Facebook adsandwearemoreaggressive withsocialmediaduetotheyounger Fire.We onInvestment have (ROI) foundthatwegetthebestReturn withsocial mediaengagementand Thisdependsonthecriteria, but socialmediaengagementisthemosteffective strategy usedby theChicago Chicago Fire andwhy? Whatare themosteffective marketing usedby andsalesstrategies theMLSand

Eric Brownlee andNicolas Brownlee Eric Lorgnier 82

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 and Seattlearesellingoutallofthe games, andtheyareselling35,000seasontickets. Thereissuccessacrosstheboard andattendancehasincreasedforthe past5years. Portland, Kansas City, ofsalesand marketing,MLS franchisesare themostsuccessfulinterms andwhy? How couldEuropean soccerclubsbenchmarkMLSteams, andinyour opinion, which and ClintDempseyiscurrentlyabigdraw fortheentireleague. profile designatedplayers salesimmediately. canincreaseseasonticket Starscandraw moreontheroadalso, significant parity.The MLSissingleentitysoownersonly operate theclub, theydonotownthem. High TheMLSisuniqueinthatthereaprettyunfair advantage inleaguesliketheEPL, but theMLShas infl uence business andmarketing intheMLS? trast withtheUEFA FinancialFair Play Regulations? Also, how dothesepractices How dotheMLSDesignatedPlayer, Draft, CapRulescompare andcon- andSalary couldbeemployed salestechniques Data-driven tobettertailorsalesandmarketing. training center.emulated withasignificantamountofplanningand workwiththecurrent inanothercountry TheMLSusesmoretargeting,Training andtheMLSNationalSales Centercouldpossibly berecreatedor ofmarketing from andsales? MLSclubsinterms clubs learn could beappliedtoEuropean soccer?Inotherwords, whatcouldEuropean soccer How doyou thinksomeofthemajormarketing andsalespracticesused intheMLS or followers. moreefficientthansomeoftheotherleaguesbecausedigitalengagementfans.The MLSismuch Digitalsalesisthemosteffective becauseconversion rates arehigherthanotherleagueslikeMLB, NFL, but lesslikes Whatare themosteffective marketing usedby andsalesstrategies theMLSandwhy? performance.to improve theirsalesandservice Japanese soccerleague. Forinstance, wehave workedwitha and marketingtheEuropean=bestplayers. Several outsideleagueshave usedtheMLSsalescentertraining andcanlooktotheMLSforawell-developed model. ofsalesandservice the importance The MLS=bestsales feel theydon’t have todosalesandmarketingdue tothedemand. However, Europeansoccerleaguesarerealizing sections areveryyoung.The leagueembraces peoplebeingdifferent. The majorEuropeansoccerleaguessometimes leagues intheU.S. isveryinteractive anddrums,The in-gameexperience withchants “Supporter” andthe Everyteamisdifferent, but thefans younger aremuch andmoreengagedthanothermajorprofessionalsports practices compare andcontrastwithEuropean soccerleagues? Whatare themajormarketing andsalestacticsusedby theMLS? How dothese Traininghave beenthedirectorofMLSNationalSales Centerfor3.5years. inMississippiandworkedasGroupSalesManagerfortheMLSChicagoFire.in minorleaguehockey I Jaguars. worked Ialsobriefly Jacksonville Timberwolves andtheNFL became groupsalesmanagerforthe Timberwolves.sales withtheMinnesota salesandeventually Iledtheteaminrevenue productionandticket Women’snesota Lynx team, NationalBasketballAssociation(WNBA) andeventually gotajobininside toteams whocouldplayTargetgroup salesforsellingtickets atthe Center. Afterthat, IworkedfortheMin- Timberwolves.the Minnesota inbasketballoperations thatwasof This personofferedmeaninternship part about teaching. team MysenioryearforonecreditandImetsomeonefromtheNBA Itookabasketballclass degreeinSociology ofArts andthought IwenttotheUniversity ofMinnesotaandcompletedaBachelor What isyour background? two: director Beryhill, MLSNational Jeff Interview SalesTraining Center Marketing intheUnitedMarketing States 83

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 see which is capturing the most attention and driving someone to go on our website and purchase a ticket. a ticket. someoneto goonourwebsiteandpurchase the mostattentionanddriving iscapturing see which feedback, weareable totweakwhatissaidonthebanner, differentplayers try oractionshotsand really ally astohowthecampaignisdoing. trackourspendingandprovidereal-timefeedback With this typeof have been themosteffective Ourdigitalcampaignsfortheclub becauseitistheoneway thatwecanactu- New York RedBulls, andwhy? Whatare themosteffective marketing usedby andsales strategies theMLSand aswellpotentially holders.an offertoupcomingmatch gainnewseasonticket areas withpeoplewhohave aninterestinplaying soccer. andwatching This helpsusprovideaway tosend From asalesperspective, welooktohave synergy withourtraining academy astheyareinvolved inmany festivals inkeyareas, tohelpgrowourclub.These events helptoshowourinvolvement inthecommunity. the digitalspace.We have atonofgrassroots events, atlocalpubsandyouth soccer asviewingparties such Fromamarketingperspective, many revolve ofourefforts arounddigitalcampaignsandre-marketingin the MLS?How dothesepracticescompare andcontrastwithEuropean soccerleagues? Whatare themajormarketing andsalestacticsusedby theNew York RedBullsand truly enhancethefan experience. wecantogatherdetaileddataand help makealloursystemsworktogetherandattaintheinformation to helpfindnewways andlookingfornewways withspeedofentry toenhancethecustomerexperience to overseeing ourstrategy perspective. fromasalesandservice Ihave alsobeeninvolved operations inourticket salesfor thenewly seasonticket constructedBarclaysleading asmallstafftodrive Centergrand opening. JerseytoNewYork City.located inBrooklyn whenthe teammoved fromNew thisexperience, During Iwas my lastpositionattheNets, Sales andwas oneofthefirstteammembers Ticket Iwas theAssistantDirectorof next salestalentfortheorganization, revenue by andgrewthedepartment year. over 200%fromtheprior In lyn. Inmy 5thyear withtheNets, Iwas promotedtoInsideSalesManager, allowedmetohelpgrowthe which Jersey toNewYork interestinBrook- seasonticket Cityandtohelpdrive focusing ontheteammove fromNew following season. Afterafewyears asanaccountexecutive, Iwas promotedtoaPremiumSeatingExecutive, my During timeasaccountexecutive the selleronceandthesecondhighestduring Iwas thetopticket workingintheInsideSalesprogramI started andwas promotedlessthanayear latertoAccountExecutive. college, IcompetedinNationalCollegiateAthleticAssociation(NCAA)DivisionIIIwrestlingandbaseball. ofSciencedegreeinBusinessAdministrationManagement.While Bachelor withaspecializationinSport cross country. Jersey, Afterhighschool, CollegeinHackettstown, IattendedCentenary New andcompleteda Jersey, JohnFKennedy inPaterson, HighSchool New andcompetedinwrestling, Iattended baseball, and What isyour background? continues tobuild itsfan base, andsoccerisforthenew generation. Buildingrelevance andfinally havingageneration offans whohave grown up withsoccer. EveryMLSteam ofmarketingWhat arechallengesandsales? fortheMLSandinterms thecurrent nowisgrowth, Thebigfocusright TV deal, andthereisanew TV viewership. andthebiggestareaofgrowthis the innext5years? ofmarketing andsalesfortheMLS interms Whatare themajoropportunities Shortly after college, I was hired by the New Jersey Nets of the NBA and worked there from 2005 to 2011. andworkedtherefrom2005to2011. JerseyNetsoftheNBA Shortly aftercollege, Iwas hiredby the New Currently, fortheNewYork SalesandService Ticket IamtheDirectorof RedBullsandhave been three: Jamie Ponce,Interview ticket sales director of and service, Newand service, York Red Bulls Eric Brownlee andNicolas Brownlee Eric Lorgnier 84

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 Inmany oftheEuropeanclubs ofmarketing from andsales? MLSclubs interms clubs learn could beappliedtoEuropean soccer?Inotherwords, whatcouldEuropean soccer How doyou thinksomeofthemajormarketing andsalespracticesusedintheMLS make salescallsforseveral aboutthesales processtheMLSway, MLSteams. Studentslearn and based atthesalestrainingcenter, and andstudentslive theirtrainingperiod onthecampusduring haveof thesalestrainingcenterprograms beenplacedwithMLS teams.Two salescoaches are the center, potentialsalesexecutives have madeover 1millionsales calls, andover 150graduates inmajorprofessionalU.S.only leagueoperatedsalestraining facility Sincetheinceptionof sports. had175applicantsforapproximatelycohort 20available positions.Thesalestrainingcenteristhe Center openedinBlaine,National SalesTraining TheMLS Minnesota, in2010, andthefirst amount withalittle, event weputonhas to bespecialandhasmakeanimpactwithourfans. soeach same levels thatacoupleoftheotherMLSteamsareable toaccomplish. Inasensewehave todo asignificant option. Ourfundsattimescanbelimited, anditistoughtobreakthroughthecrowdedspacespendat arewiththeNewYork challenges Thecurrent Citymarket, hasseveral andentertainment which sports of marketing and sales? Whatarechallenges fortheMLSandNew thecurrent York RedBulls interms their seats, andinteract withourrewards allinthesamespace. portal “one stopshop”having ateamspecificappandsourceforfans tohave a inontheclub, tocheck manage perspective istheadvancement fromourclub Oneofthemajoropportunities ofmobiletechnology, as such the New York RedBullsinthenext5years? ofmarketing andsalesfortheMLS interms Whatare themajoropportunities asmobileticketing,gies andsoftware such card cashless/ticketless systems, andRFIDscannerstospeedupentry. training academy revenues. Poweredby astrongleadershipteam, welooktostay attheforefrontofnewtechnolo- seasontickets,the RedBullshave including stillbeenable toshowgrowthinallcategories sponsorships, and optionsintheNewYorkamount ofsports Citymarketplace, anewMLS team(NewYork including CityFC), OfcourseIwouldhave tosay thatEuropeanteamsshoulduseasabenchmark. wewouldbeaclub Despitethe ofsalesandmarketingMLS franchisesare andwhy? themostsuccessfulinterms How couldEuropean soccerclubs benchmarkMLSteams, andinyour opinion, which I amnottooinvolved ofthebusiness soIamnotsureaboutthedifferences. inthisportion infl uence business andmarketing intheMLS? trast withtheUEFA FinancialFair Play Regulations? Also, how dothesepractices How dotheMLSDesignatedPlayer, Draft, compare Caprules andcon- andSalary U.S. infan retentionandservice. becauseoftheirexperiences sports inEuropeansoccer.importance arebeinghiredfromseveral AfewoftheleadersEuropeanclubs major andoverallcustomer experience engagementoffansintheMLSandisgaining iscurrentlyveryimportant differently andretentionthanMLSclubs.sales approach andseemtofocuslessonservice Improvingthe revenue fromsourcesotherthantickets. thatdohave available Europeanclubs inventoryhandletheoutbound sponsors.large corporate Inotherwords, don’t mostEuropeanclubs have many seatstosellandneedseek building andgainnewfans, andgainmoredollarsfrom arelookingtogrowtheirreach whileEuropeanclubs National SalesTraining andsalesstrategies: MLS unique marketing Center , sales is not approached inthesame way,sales isnotapproached wherewearelookingtofillthe Marketing intheUnitedMarketing States 85

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 • Engaging fans is very important intheMLS, isvery important fans Engaging toengagefans andtheMLSusestechnology • Overall, the MLSisvery focusedonsalesandservice, ofsalesandser- andtheimportance • trainingare very Salesandservice important, andtheMLSinvests significantresources • Theuniquesingleentitystructure,DP rule, cap, salary taxintheMLSallow andluxury the • ofrevenue, are interms very Whiletelevision important broadcastrights thein-gameexpe- • Highlytargetedmarketing andsalescanbevery effective. MLSteamsandtheleagueseem • Thissectionoutlinesafeworfuture potentiallessonsforcurrent EuropeanSoccerProfessionals. a potentialmodelforothersoccerleaguestousetrainingtheirsalesstaff. inprofessionalsports,Center isperhapsthemostsuccessfulsalestrainingprogram andit provides a future career insaleswithanMLSteam(Thomas,NationalSalesTraining 2014b).TheMLS clubs andprovides thestudentswithoneofakindsalestrainingthatcanhelpprepare themfor thatisusedtoteachthem.Thecallcenterhelpsdrive salesforMLS there isaspecificcurriculum Abnos, ofaleague. A.(2015).Thebirth Barrabi, T. withfans? (2016,June 2).Ismajorleague soccerscoring Heitner,D. (2015,December 22).How majorleaguesocceris closingthegapwithbigfour. Davis,J. (2016).Rivalries are centraltomajorleaguesoccer’s expansionplans. Arangue,Jr.,J. (2015, March 3). ‘It issimplyacartel’: behind MLSwinningthelaborwars against Thestory Coates,D., Frick, B.,Jewell, & T. andsoccer success: salaries (2014). Superstar Theimpactofdesignated Broughton,D. (2014, October6).Forecast: Biggrowth ahead. Lamport-Stokes, M.(2015,“pretty significant” March 5).Beckhameffect onMLS. King, B. (2014,June 2).Soccer’s growing reach. the-story-behind-mls-winning-the-labor-wars-against-players soccer-expansion-plans http://www.espnfc.us/major-league-soccer/19/blog/post/2874585/rivalries-key-to-major-league- players. longform/2015/mls/ players inMajorLeagueSoccer. www.foxbusiness.com/features/2016/06/02/is-major-league-soccer-scoring-with-fans.html soccer-is-closing-the-gap-with-the-big-four/#214e906b7b39 Money http://www.reuters.com/article/us-soccer-mls-beckham-idUSKBN0M12KC20150305 mobile rewards anddiscounts. and improve service. Thisincludescreating teamapps, mobileticketing, andinteractive examined andimplementedby Europeanprofessionalsoccerclubs. very goodatproviding anexcellentingameexperience, andthisissomethingthatcouldbe and are interested inmore thanjust thequalityofcompetition.Inotherwords, theMLSis vice forEuropeansoccerleaguesmay continue becomemore toincrease discerning asfans Europe. effective saleseducationinitiative, sport couldbeadoptedin andperhapsthisprogram in developingCenter isavery futureNational SalesTraining salesemployees. TheMLS tonotethatmostoftheMLSteamsare profitableduetothisuniquestructure.important teams intheleaguetoremain more Itisalso competitive thantheirEuropeancounterparts. isalsoimportant,rience andthisisvery evident intheMLS. to have excellentknowledge oftheirfans . . Retrieved fromhttp://www.forbes.com/sites/darrenheitner/2015/12/22/how-major-league- Vice Sports Online Vice Sports Lessons forsoccer andsalesprofessionals marketing . Retrieved fromhttps://sports.vice.com/en_us/article/it-is-simply-a-cartel- Eric Brownlee andNicolas Brownlee Eric Lorgnier Journal of Sports Economics ofSports Journal , 1–20. Sports IllustratedSports Online Bibliography Journal Business Sports , 1–8. 86 Journal Business Sports , 1. .Retrieved fromhttp://www.si.com/ Fox Business ESPN FC . Retrieved fromhttp:// Reuters . Retrieved from . Retrieved from Forbes Sports Forbes Sports Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9781315267203, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315267203.ch3 Thompson, play E.(2015).Financialfair explained.Retrieved fromhttp://www.financialfairplay.co.uk/ Thomas, I.(2015, March 30).MLSmakes headway deals. withinternational Thomas, I.(2014b,November 24).BryantPfeiffer, MLSnationalsalescenter. Thomas, I.(2014a,November 3).MLSaverage attendancepushespast19,000. Tannenwald,J. (2015, May 1).MLSannounces2015rosterrules, finally. C. Stephenson, (2016,July 27).TVratingsforMLSare upfromlastyear onallESPNplatforms. (2015,Journal. March Business 2).Timeline: Sports Two decadesofMLS. Retrieved fromhttp://www. SAS(2015,NHL’s March 9). LAKingsandMLS’ usingSAS®Analytics. LAGalaxyshoottoscore withfans Parrish, C. (2013).Soccerspecificstadiumsanddesignatedplayers: Parrish, theMajorLeagueSoccer Exploring Newcomb, T. (2015, fornew waveDefining characteristics September4). ofMLSsoccer-specificstadiums. MLSSoccerStaff(2015).MLS, tobroadcastMLSinSub-Saharan FOX announcepartnership Africa sports MLS(2015).setsnew attendancerecords, Seattleholdhighestaverage inleague. Retrieved from Miller, B. force behindMLSstadiumdesign. (2016).Thedriving Mayers,J. (2014, for2014. March 7).LookingatchangestotheMLSrosterandcompetitionrules Love, A., Kavazis, A., Morse, A.L., &Mayer,C. (2013).Soccer-specificstadiumsandattendanceinmajor K. Lawson, R.A., Sheehan, K., &Stephenson, E.F. (2008).Vend itlike Beckham:David Beckham’s effecton financial-fair-play-explained.php 2015-roster-rules-finally.html delphia Inquirer from http://www.mlssoccer.com/post/2016/07/27/tv-ratings-mls-are-last-year-all-espn-platforms sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2015/03/02/In-Depth/Timeline.aspx sports.html Retrieved fromhttp://www.sas.com/en_za/news/press-releases/2016/march/customer-intelligence- attendance assumption. stadium-mls-orlando-dc-united-minnesota-miami Illustrated Sports Online partnership-broadcast-mls-sub-saharan-africa Retrieved fromhttp://www.mlssoccer.com/post/2015/11/18/mls-fox-sports-africa-announce-Africa. average-league http://www.mlssoccer.com/post/2015/10/26/mls-sets-new-attendance-records-seattle-hold-highest- com/posts/driving-force-behind-mls-stadium-design/ looking-at-changes-to-the-mls-roster-and-competition-rules-for-2014/ Times Sounders FCBlogSeattle league soccer: Investigating thenovelty effect. MLS ticket sales. . Retrieved fromhttp://www.philly.com/philly/blogs/thegoalkeeper/MLS-announces- International Journal of Sport Finance ofSport Journal International , 3(4), 189–195. . Retrieved fromhttp://www.si.com/planet-futbol/2015/11/05/soccer-specific- International Journal of Sport Management Recreation & Tourism ManagementRecreation& ofSport Journal International , 12, 57–70. . Retrieved fromhttp://blogs.seattletimes.com/soundersfc/2014/03/07/ Marketing intheUnitedMarketing States Journal of Applied Sports Management ofAppliedSports Journal , 5(2), 32–46. 87 Populus . Retrieved fromhttp://populous. The GoalkeeperBlogOnlinePhila- Sports BusinessDailySports , 4. Journal Business Sports Journal Business Sports , 3–4. MLS . Retrieved , 31–32. Seattle