The Inscriptions on Tricycle (Keke) Example

Full Length Research Paper

Language, communication on wheels and national development: The inscriptions on tricycle (Keke) example

Judith Mgbemena

Department of English and Literary Studies, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria.

Accepted 15 October, 2013

Commercial transportation is strategic in national economy. It facilitates the mobility of material and human resources. In Nigeria, a significant number of commercial vehicles have inscriptions on different parts; an indicator that the labour force engaged in this sub sector has messages for the public. This study therefore examines language use, forms, popular themes and objectives of the writings, using tricycle, popularly known as keke as an example. Insights from Sociolinguistics and Systemic Functional Grammar conventions provide explanatory tools. Data on language use highlight current realities of Nigeria’s multilingualism – language dominance and shift. Data on language forms reflect short catchy names and expressions which relate to diverse issues – identity, aggressive stance towards opposition, personal philosophy. Information from the study indicates the intricate societal relationships that give impetus to this form of mass communication; trends in language usage in this domain add to language development and a study on language use and communicative needs of a group can assist in the understanding and development of that sector of the economy.

Key words: Language use, communication, mobile writing, identity, national development.

INTRODUCTION

Communication is the oil that lubricates activities within One peculiar and interesting field in which people in any human society. Language in turn has been identified contemporary Nigerian urban societies employ language as one indispensible vehicle that helps man to achieve in communication is on inscription on automobiles and effective communication, as it mirrors the mind in deep other automotive devices such as tricycles and trucks; it and significant ways (Akmajian et al., 2012 p.11). Man presents an instance of the use of articles of trade in utilizes language in various forms, in varied context of communication. It is common to find inscriptions on situations to communicate his experiences, feelings, different parts of all kinds of vehicles – private and ideologies, among others, for various reasons which may commercial – in Nigeria. However, inscriptions on include to educate, persuade, manipulate others, etc. tricycles in Nigeria present an interesting form of Hence, an examination of the way people use language communication both in style and content that calls for in different social contexts provides a wealth of infor- scholarly attention. To this end, this study examines mation about how language works, the social relation- language use, forms of language usage, the commu- ships that exists in communities and the way people nication content as well as the purposes of inscription on signal aspects of their social identities (Holmes, 2008 tricycles (a recent means of commercial transportation in p.1). Such information will invariably assist in charting Nigeria, which is popularly known as keke), with samples developmental plans in respect of that society. from commercial tricycles in three Eastern states of

E-mail: [email protected]. 530 Int. J. English Lit.

Nigeria – Abia, Imo and Enugu States. NAPEP as a commercial means of transportation in the Federal Capital Territory FCT Abuja. This was to serve as a strategy to convert area boys from idlers to a productive Justification for the study work force. According to NAPEP, the justifications for the distribution of keke nationwide include: Some factors provide justification for the study. First, writing on keke is a recent medium of mass communi- 1. to ensure mass gainful employment for the idle work cation in Nigeria. Some studies exist on writings on the force; older means of transportation such as commercial trucks 2. to sustain wealth creation; and luxury buses (see Nwagbara, www.unilag. 3. to provide affordable mass transit services; edu.ng/opendoc.php?no=14919&doctype and http://www. 4. to provide opportunity for the growth of other ancillary ghanaweb.com), but, no known study exists on services such as vending, portal water, mobile food inscriptions on keke. Second, the proliferation of keke in canteens, mobile grocery shops, post delivery, etc. major cities as well the penchant for writing on the 5. to facilitate technical entrepreneurs and related small different parts certainly calls for an academic inquiry. businesses that will in turn facilitate transfer of tech- Third, the history of keke as well as the antecedent nology; issues that led to its introduction and popularity in Nigeria 6. to facilitate other subsidiary businesses such as the necessitates that attention should be given to the sale of tricycle spare parts, operators, mechanics and messages, which the work force engaged in this sector building of local contents, among others. and who contribute significantly to the national economy, desire to relay to the public. More so, an inquiry of this Again, in 2004, five thousand units of tricycles were nature is bound to provide insights on how language distributed to the thirty six states of the federation to works in different media and contexts, the societal factors further ensure the actualization of the set objectives that contribute to language development and the various (Source: NAPEP web site http://www.napepnigeria.org/ purposes which language serves. In addition, an programmes/theKEKENAPEPproject). However, NAPEP examination of the language usage of a particular group is not the only source of keke in Nigeria. After the such as the subjects under study can provide information distribution of Keke NAPEP to several parts of the that would be utilized in proactive developmental country, businessmen and other individuals in Nigeria decisions and policies that will make for national develop- began to import, buy, sell and operate keke as a means ment. This study attempts to provide insights on the way of intra city commercial transportation in several cities in people utilize language to serve their purposes and the Nigeria. effects of socio-cultural variables on language. The func- Keke is imported from India, in particular the yellow tionality of language is central in language studies and colour brand from Bajaj Group. Currently, the cost of the way people use language to aim for communicative keke is Nigeria is between three hundred and fifty and strategic competence is a continuous question in thousand to four hundred thousand naira. One significant language studies. factor that led to the proliferation of keke in Nigeria is the ban on motorbikes, popularly known as okada, as a means of commercial transportation in several cities in Background on tricycle (Keke) in Nigeria Nigeria, especially in most of the cities in the South eastern states such as Aba and Umuahia in Abia State, The history of keke as a means of commercial trans- Owerri in Imo State, Uyo in Akwa Ibom State, Port portation in Nigeria is directly traced to the government of Harcourt in Rivers State, among others. Several state Mohammed Buba Marwa, who was the military Governor governments, at different times, banned the use of of Lagos State from 1996 to 1999. He first launched the motorbikes as a means of commercial transportation in use of tricycle as a means of commercial transportation in major cities in their states as their operators were Lagos. This led to the name keke Marwa, which commer- allegedly collaborating with criminals to perpetuate cial tricycle is still referred to in Lagos till date. Equally, crimes in the states. For instance, the wave of kidnapping the word keke is directly derived from Yoruba, the which hit Abia State from 2009 to 2011 was allegedly dominant indigenous language in Lagos. However, the facilitated by okada operators, who served to provide a popularity of keke across the nation can be attributed to fast means of escape for the criminals, consequently, the National Poverty Eradication Programme NAPEP, which ban on commercial motorbikes. was inaugurated under the administration of President With the ban, the work force that was engaged in this Olusegun Obasanjo to alleviate poverty and provide sector of the economy was thrown into loss of source of economic empowerment to the people. Thus, the name income and consequently to poverty and depression. keke NAPEP gained popularity across Nigeria. Some recalcitrant ones who dared to defy the govern- NAPEP in 2001 launched and distributed two thousand ment by operating their bikes had their means of units of green colour tricycles with the inscription Keke livelihood confiscated and some had to suffer other Mgbemena 531

punitive measures apart from the confiscation of their use (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sociolinguists). It explains how motorbikes. The consequences on the ones who could social networks affect language. It also examines not readily find other sources of income were abject instances of variations in language and attempts to poverty and despondency. These experiences can account for the factors that contribute to the trends. The readily be inferred from the samples of their writings variationist theory in sociolinguistics as popularized by presented in this work. With the ban on okada and the William Labov’s studies in the 1960s demonstrates how paucity of other means of intra city transportation, people social variables such as class, sex, location can began to import and use different types of tricycle as a contribute to language variations. These variations often veritable means of commercial transportation. The dis- times yield to language change (Labov, 2001). Hence, in engaged work force moved into this business. this study, sociolinguistics convention in particular William But, before the proliferation, there was some form of Labov’s model on language variation serves as the attempt to locally manufacture a tricycle by constructing a explanatory tool to account for the variables that third wheel to a motor bike, more like an attempt to contribute to linguistic choices and variations in usage. It convert a motorbike to a tricycle; a local engineering of also accounts for the influence of the socio-economic keke. This innovation could not stand as the technicians group involved in keke business on language lacked the necessary raw material and expertise. The development and change in the societies under study. locally constructed tricycles could not serve the purpose. This work involves a linguistic analysis of the forms of It was evident that former operators of okada did not language usage in relation to their purposes in the have the money to purchase keke which involved a context of communication. Systemic Functional Grammar substantial capital, hence other entrepreneurs and micro SFG, a theory propounded by M.A.K. Halliday provides credit firms began to invest in the business. Those who the framework for studying language in context. This had resources bought keke and gave to some of the theory holds that the form of a language is determined by former commercial motorbike operators on hire purchase. the function it is made to perform and the multi- Legal agreements were drafted and signed. The hitherto dimensional architecture of language, a reflection of the idle work force went back to business again. The multidimensional nature of human experience and prospects and profit in the business soon attracted interpersonal relations (Chapelle, 1998 p. 1). SFG takes several other investors and this led to a boom in keke into account the contextual dimensions of language. It business. Statistics from Abia Ministry of Transport views language as a social semiotic, a resource people (Tricycle Unit) shows that there are over 20,000 use to accomplish their purposes by expressing meaning registered keke in Aba metropolis excluding those in context. The Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) belonging to recalcitrant citizens; in particular those in the therefore provides the framework for examining the sub urban areas who refuse to comply with the functions which the samples of data for this study are government directive of compulsory registration of meant to perform in their context of usage. SFG gains tricycles. The boom in the business gave rise to other relevance in textual analysis, as Halliday (1985 p. 10) subsidiary businesses such as the administrative officers, argues “for a linguist to describe language without ticket officers, the union officials, the importers, the spare accounting for text is sterile; to describe text without parts dealers, the technicians, and all other subsidiary relating to language is vacuous”. Thus, the metafunctions services associated with the business. From the of SFG provide the tools for examining the functions of statistics, one could assert that about 40,000 people, a the data as well as the intricate societal relationships that significant percentage of the national economy is give motion to the forms of language usage in this involved in this business in one city! Of this number, domain of communication. some operators have taken the pains to write on their articles of trade. There is therefore the need to look closely into what they want to relay to the public. Thus METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS this study sets out as one of the objectives to examine the message this group wants to communicate to the This study which involves a sociolinguistic survey on public. language use and forms of usages in vehicle writing entails field work. Data for this study were sourced from some major cities in three Eastern states in Nigeria – Aba THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK and Umuahia in Abia State; Owerri in Imo State; Enugu in Enugu State. Data were primarily derived from samples This study examines both the sociolinguistic and linguistic of inscriptions on keke found in these cities where it has aspects of the language of communication in this domain become a major source of intra city commercial trans- and adopts insights from both sociolinguistic and portation. It is relatively difficult to determine the exact linguistic models. Sociolinguistics involves the descriptive number of keke in these cities that have any form of study of the effects of different aspects of the society – inscriptions – writings, posters, registration numbers, cultural norms, expectations, among others on language graphics. This study therefore adopted the stratified 532 Int. J. English Lit.

Table 1. Language use spectrum.

S/N Language No of samples 1. Igbo 44 2. English 184 3. Nigerian Pidgin 5 4. Admixture of Igbo and English 12 5. Admixture of Igbo and Nigerian Pidgin 2 6. Admixture of Nigerian Pidgin and English 3

random sampling technique to record inscriptions found language. This calls for Igbo language maintenance. The on two hundred and fifty commercial keke in these cities number of samples in Nigerian Pidgin is not signi-ficant; under study. Fifty samples were recorded from Umuahia Nigerian Pidgin is not common in Igbo speaking societies in Abia State, Owerri in Imo State and Enugu in Enugu in Nigeria. The samples with different admix-tures of State respectively, while hundred samples were recorded languages in use reflect the sociolinguistic reality of from Aba in Abia State, where the researcher observed a language contact and consequently arbitrary diglossia relatively higher number of keke with inscriptions. This which has come to characterize oral communication in study also employed structured interviews to derive Nigeria. Its usage and codification presents an innovation information from the drivers that have one form of writing in language use which may tilt towards creolization and or the other on their vehicle about their target audience possibly to linguistic change in English (Romaine, 1994; and their purposes of communication. McMahon, 1994). McMahon (1994) succinctly argues that The data derived were analyzed using linguistic and language contact yields to kinds of admixture that usually sociolinguistic models – Systemic Functional Grammar metamorphose to language birth such as pidginization or and Labov’s Variationist Linguistics. creolization. This study therefore notes the trend in the codification of admixtures in the samples of data as an indicator of a subtle linguistic change in progress! Data on inscriptions on tricycles The English language usage here is also marked by creativity and transfer with resources from Igbo and Language use English as seen in samples 7 and 8 below. Consider samples on the language use spectrum: The language use spectrum here reflects the linguistic pluralism in Nigeria. Samples of data show the languages 1. Anaghi eji nwa agu achu aja. (Igbo) in use – Igbo, English and Nigerian Pidgin. Some sam- A lion cub cannot be used for sacrifice – Apparently a ples reflect the admixture of languages. Table 1 shows warning to ward off attacks and opposition. this. 2. Shut up! Are you God? (English) From the data in the table, it is evident that English is The expression appears to serve as a retort against the dominant language used in communication on wheels gossips and mockers. in cities where the inhabitants are predominantly Igbo. 3. E no concern me (Nigerian Pidgin) The preference for English by people who are not highly It is not my concern: meaning I don’t care about what educated – mainly primary school certificate holders and people say – a retort against gossip secondary school drop outs – points to the status 4. Achomu case (Admixture of Igbo and English) accorded to the language in Nigeria. It may be argued I don’t want case: I don’t want trouble – a declaration of that English is the language of mass communication in philosophy Nigeria. Hence, the users adopt the language to reach a 5. ọnukwuwa, onye na wey ya (Admixture of Igbo and greater number of the target audience. But, the use of Nigerian Pidgin) English by people who may not have adequate facility in Let mouth talk, everyman and his ways the language and whose target audience is predo- 6. God dey O! Beware! (Admixture of Nigerian Pidgin and minantly Igbo suggests class aspiration. English is the English) language of prestige and a status marker; the users may God lives/exists! Beware! – A warning against those who thus aim to associate with the prestige accorded to arrogate powers to themselves English. It also shows evidence of the English language 7. Iminimous God (coinage) dominance and a trend towards language shift – a shift Mysterious God: an assertion of the incomprehensible from Igbo to English. nature of God – clearly a reflection of personal On the other hand, the non preference for the domi- experience. The expression is coined from a fusion of nant Indigenous language – Igbo – may be an indicator Igbo lexical item, ime, which means deep and English that the language users may not be literate in their noun forming suffix, -ous); Mgbemena 533

8. No time for petepetepete: I have no time for frivolities – usually longer and express broader themes than those at petepetepete is an idiophonic expression which conveys the front side. The writings at the back often comprise the declaration of the serious mindedness of the driver. personal philosophies about life, aspired names, names of God, life experiences, bible passages, among others. Samples 7 and 8 serve as instances of innovation in The samples are characterized by short catchy names English usage. Sample 7 is a coinage achieved with the and expressions, subjectless declaratives, incomplete combination of elements from English and Igbo. The Igbo structures, admixture of languages, rhetorical questions noun, ime is used to derive an adjective iminimous with and sometimes imperatives! The interpretation of the English adjectival derivative suffix –ous, for example, forms is often dependent on extra linguistic variables, fame + -ous = famous. Also, in sample 8, the idiophone mainly contextual. Consider these examples: petepetepete which denotes trivial stories is a transfer from Igbo. We note that the expressions iminimous and 16. Njama the king petepetepete are used in informal communication in the 17. Total trust God’s time common parlance and not really the invention of the 18. Who is like God? users. 19. Respect 20. Favour from God 21. For God so loved the world that he gave His only Forms of language usage begotten son, whoever believes in Him will not perish but have everlasting life. (John 3:16). Divers forms of inscriptions are found on the different 22. Sagacity parts of the tricycles – stickers, emblems, professional 23. Mind your business! calligraphic printing, rough writing. The calligraphic inscriptions are usually legible and of high aesthetic appeal. However, sometimes one can observe some Themes and purposes of writings on Keke writings by amateur artists often characterized by wrong spellings, punctuation errors, wrong grammar and ire- The proliferation and popularization of writing on keke gularity in line and font. This can be exemplified with this clearly indicate that the workers in this subsector of the sample: economy desire to achieve mass communication using their articles of trade, keke. This provides them with a 9. OdoMiri Bessider (Odommiri Bethsaida – Pool of relatively cheap and effective means of reaching a large Bethsaida). cross section of the public which cuts across age, sex, ethnic affiliation, economic class and educational back- One delimiting factor in this type of communication is ground. The examination of the language choice and space. Keke is relatively small in size in comparison to forms reflects some of the themes and purposes of other means of commercial transportation. The samples writing. Also, the background on the introduction of keke recorded from inscriptions on keke are written at the front highlights that those who took up this business had a – the upper or lower side of the windscreen and at the history of economic hardship which reflects on the back – right on the tarpaulin that serves as the roof. The themes. Some of the popular themes which the inscri- expressions at the front side often consist of two words ptions on tricycles convey are outlined below. which denote names, although sometimes the expressions relate to other subjects. However, there are variations as some samples consist of a single word and Self identity sometimes three words. The size of the available space does not make for more than four words. Here are some It is evident that these names serve the purpose of self samples of inscriptions on the windscreen: identification. However, some of the names are used by the writers to express their source of inspiration as well 10. Italian boy as aspirations and one occasionally observes some 11. Essien onye ball (Essien, the great footballer) names that appear to be meaningless as seen in sample 12. Williams 15. Some of the names are either the real names of the 13. Who is free? drivers/owners or their nick names, while some are the 14. No time for women names of things or people they hold in high esteem – 15. Sae sae sae German machine, Mickel (an international footballer). Some samples of names convey aspiration of who or The expressions at the front are usually names. Few what the drivers want to be – Eze ndi Igbo (king of Igbo), samples reflect the use of declaratives and interrogatives Italian boy. Here, language serves the function of self which convey personal experiences or ideologies. identity and expression of aspirations. The writings commonly found at the back of keke are Expression of identity through naming in this medium 534 Int. J. English Lit.

also reflects a cultural pattern of naming among the Igbo, intimate experiences in details. The use of language in which involves people without a title giving themselves sharing experiences and ideologies bears on the names/titles which they wish to be identified with besides ideational function of language. The effect of the society their real names. This is a reflection of Africans penchant can be observed in language usage here. Some expres- for title and recognition. In most situations, the drivers sions are not explicit as seen in the biblical allusion in become popularly known by the names they inscribe on sample 29. The user apparently believes that the target their keke! Some of the keke drivers who served as audience is predominantly Christian. subject for this study added that the names serve different purposes which include easy identification by their colleagues and customers, stylistic effect, security Declaration of religious affiliation/evangelism purposes – to mark their vehicles against theft. Samples of names include: Some samples highlight that the intent of communication is to express religious inclinations, in particular their 24. Enyi kwo nwa (an elephant with a baby; an indication Christian faith. The writings that relate to God and that the user seeks for a bloated personality) Christianity serve different purposes – expression of testi- 25. Bird man (indicates that he cannot easily be trapped monies of the blessings of God, more like a testimony of as he is constantly in flight) how God delivered them from poverty to affluence and 26. Nna Africa (father of Africa) from financial crises to affluence; advertising church; 27. Nwa Aba (a child of Aba – an assertion of authority as evangelizing Christ and appealing for God’s protection. a protégée of the city) See the samples below:

34. For I know my redeemer liveth Personal experiences 35. Jesus! Nnu turu osimiri (Jesus the salt that salted the ocean – a declaration of His sufficiency) Some samples of expressions highlight an attempt to 36. He leadeth me share personal experiences, immediate circumstances of 37. Who is like God? the family, source of wealth, social and spousal reflec- 38. Jesus is the ultimate tions as well as some significant events that impacted on 39. God is wonderful their lives through their resource capital. Some of the 40. Covered by the blood of Jesus drivers in their period of crises underwent diverse kinds of 41. Flesh shall not prevail experiences ranging from rejection by friends, ridicule, 42. Rock of ages deprivation, all manner of degradation and family crises. 43. Remember the cross No cross no salvation These experiences they attempt to convey to the public. Consider these samples: Life philosophy 28. No money no friend 29. Don’t rest on the laps of Delilah (a biblical allusion to Some inscriptions on tricycles convey personal ideo- Samson and Delilah) logies, folk wisdom, patterns of thought and popular 30. Fear women belief/world views of the users. Some are easily accept- 31. Ashiri alala (gossip has come to an end) able as representing general opinions, while some 32. Ezi enyi ka ego (a true friend is greater than money) samples simply reflect the idiosyncrasies of the writers. 33. Money no more nonsense However, one significant factor is that this medium of mass communication affords an ordinary man, who may The trend in sharing personal experiences through the not have access to any other mass medium, an oppor- mass media also has a cultural implication. This relates tunity to air his views on issues of public concern. Thus, to the interpersonal function of language and coveys the writings on keke project the voice of the ordinary man to ties inherent in the society. The writers apparently the public. Samples of inscription that relate to philo- understand the cultural trait and societal relations that sophies include: attract people to seek to know the happenings in the life of others who they may not know. Some people even 44. Pain is love attempt to probe into the life of others when the 45. No food for a lazyman information is not given. Hence, the writers encode their 46. Who is free? experiences believing to gain attention. Inscription on 47. Men as all over the world vehicle is not the only mass media in which people share 48. Business before pleasure experiences that should be personal to the public. In 49. No condition is permanent contemporary times, social communities such as tweeter, facebook have provided the media for people to share The issues raised relate to different people and different Mgbemena 535

situations. But, a good number of expressions in this 60. Remain close to God category bother on the issue of labour; an echo of folk 61. Pray until something happens belief or Igbo philosophy of hardwork as the true measure of manhood. DISCUSSION

Protest and aggression Samples of writings presented as data in this study clearly reveals that those who are writing on the different Inscriptions on keke also convey protest as well as parts of the body of keke clearly wish to achieve commu- readiness to combat real and perceived threat. This may nication. Mass communication through a conventional not be remote from their experience as disbanded print or electronic media involves a substantial amount of commercial motorbike operators. The enemies implied in money. Hence, the people involved in this business use some samples may include government and union their articles of trade to achieve their communication officials, who collect sundry levies on daily basis, other needs. The writings on keke, as a medium of communi- road commuters whose reaction towards the tricycle and cation appear to be relatively cheap yet effective as the that of the owners is that of superiority stance, diabolical information gets to a cross section of the public as these men who may not want them to complete the payment of tricycles move to different parts of the town. This form of the hire purchase and be financially free, people who communication also does not involve much literacy as the maltreated them during their period of financial crises, operators choose to write in any of the languages or among others. Their aggressive stance towards opposi- combination of the languages in use in the society. They tion can be implied from their samples of writing: can equally hire the services of professionals who inter- pret and encode their communicative intention although 50. Fire me I fire you ( if you fight me, I will fight back) as noted, one observes some form of error in mechanics 51. Onye irom huru m kujaa (my enemy saw me and and ambiguity in expressions in some samples. However, became startled) it is clear that those who are using this medium to com- 52. Aka onye wetara (any hand you bring/ however you municate know exactly what they want to achieve and the want it) most effective way to achieve this. This is evinced by 53. The gentle movement of a lion does not mean that it their choice of language, the forms of expressions – short is timid (This expression has dual connotation. It could catchy names and expressions, the use of declaratives mean that the slow movement of the tricycle does not and rhetorical questions which serve as attention getters. suggest lack of force. It could also mean that the gently The position of the writings on the parts of keke also disposition of the driver does not entail weakness). indicates an aim towards strategic and communicative 54. Otu isirim ndi ya dikwa gi otua n’aha Jesus Amen! competence. The writings at the front often bear names (whatever you wish me may it be the same for you) that serve as self identity whereas the longer writings that 55. Holy Ghost fire! (a weapon of prayer popularized by convey experiences, pieces of advice, among others are the Pentecostal sect) encoded at the back, where the target audience can be 56. Back to sender! (also popularized by the Pente- exposed to the expressions for a longer time. costals) The content and the various purposes which the 57. It pains you, why? (suggests a retort against those inscriptions are meant to serve have been highlighted but envious of his progress) it is worthy to note that an analysis of the samples indicate that the expressions which have religious contents and aggressive stance are relatively higher. This Advice to the general public reflects the religiosity that characterizes the life of the society under study. The expressions that convey Some samples of writing on keke can be seen as pieces aggression and determination to combat perceived of unsolicited advice to the members of the public. This enemies can be directly traced to the antecedents that again relates more to the interpersonal function of led to the proliferation of keke business as well as the language. In this type of mass communication, it may not personal experiences of the operators. In addition, a be conventional but it reflects a cultural trait of communal good number of the writers are operating the tricycle on life where people believe in kinship ties with neighbors or hire purchase and could be anxious to succeed. Hence, members of the same community which motivates a they aim to invoke the power of God through their sense of responsibility to encourage others in need. The writings, at the same time attempt to ward off any threat – tenor in the context of communication gives rise to such real and imaginary – that may pose as an obstacle to the forms as: achievement of their aims. While their ingenuity in using their articles of trade to 58. Every problem has an expiry date achieve communication and the strategies they adopt in 59. Be patient, God has answered me, he will answer you achieving communicative and strategic competence 536 Int. J. English Lit.

should be applauded, the analysis of data highlights a development and nativisation of English. The various salient issue. This study on the language of commu- purposes to which language is made to serve in the nication on wheels with particular focus on writings on society as pointed out in this study show the communal tricycle reflects the number of Nigerian productive work nature of the society that gives impetus to the sharing of force (over twenty thousand people excluding those in personal ideas and experiences through the mass media. ancillary services) who are engaged in providing This also points attention to further studies on the commercial transport services with tricycle in just a city definition and scope of mass media communication. and not directly on a productive arm of the economy. That should be of great concern to the government! Furthermore, the analysis of the samples of expression REFERENCES recorded in the language of communication of tricycle Akmajian A, Demers Richard A, Farmer Ann K, Harnish Robert M operators reveals that a significant percentage of lexical (2012). Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. items and expressions that convey lack of proper self ISBN10: 812034457X. identity, aggression, violence, readiness for combat. The Chapelle Carol A (1998). Some Notes on Systemic Functional expression of agitation and grievances over both real and Linguistics www.public.iastate.edu./¬carole/LING511/sfl.html (Retrieved on February 2, 2012). perceived enemies should not be ignored as they are Halliday Michael AK (1985). “Systemic Background” Systemic potential threat to national peace and development. This Perspectives on Discourse, Selected Theoretical Papers from the 19th demands the attention of various governments International Systemic Workshop. J. D. Benson & W.S. Greaves Eds. responsible for planning and development in Nigeria to Norwood N.J: Ablex publishing co 1:1-15 Holmes J (2008). Introduction to Sociolinguistics. U.K: Longman. this sub-sector of the national economy Inscriptions on Vehicles – Funny and Thought Provoking http://www.ghanaweb.com (Retrieved on February 7, 2013). Labov W (2001). Principles of Linguistic Changes: Social Factors. Conclusion Malden M.A: Blackwell, 2001. McMahon (1994). April Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. One of the concerns of this paper relates to the English National Poverty Eradication Programme http://www.napepnigeria.org/ language development in Nigeria. The examination of the programmes/theKEKENAPEPproject. (Retrieved on January 23, language of communication on wheels highlights that 2013). Nwagbara Austin. “Travelling Thoughts, Trailing Texts: Vehicle Writing English usage of people in this sector further reflects the as Discourse” http://www.unilag.edu.ng/opendoc?no=14919&doctype functionality of language in serving the myriad needs and (Retrieved on February 1, 2013). purposes of man in the society. It also demonstrates how Romaine S (1994). Language in Society: An Introduction to society influences language and how language is Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford university press “Sociolinguistics” from Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org/ influenced by the dominant culture in the society; the wiki/sociolinguistics (Retrieved on February 4, 2013). various usages of language in the society often lead to its further development as seen in the codification of admixture of languages, coinages – iminimous God, transfer of idiophones from Igbo – no time for petepetepete, among others. It also indicates a move towards language birth – creolization. The preference and use of English by people who have not acquired the necessary com- petencies and facility in the language lead to further

Mgbemena 537

APPENDIX. Some samples of inscriptions on tricycles.

Some samples of writings on the front side Some samples of writings at the back side Mickel Seek first the kingdom of God Enugu boy Jesus bus stop Oliver boy Total trust God’s time Igbo wawa Chinazaekpere (God answers prayers) Peaky two love Forward ever Odera (once He has written) But, one day Work hard He never comes late Wonder Ogoja Do not rejoice over me O my enemies Deputy Governor Beware of people Blessed Ezekiel onyebuchim?(Are you my God?) The bone shall rise again More money No king as God I pray for journey Daddy Chinweotito Eze ndi Igbo (the king of Igbo) Total trust God’s time Nwa Aba (Aba boy) Jesus is on my way Up up Jesus Be patient! God has answered me He will answer you Once more Back to sender Simosi Njama the king German machine Aka onye wetara (however you want it) Man u for life (Manchster United for life) Abuoma 121 Ka uche ya mee (let His will be done) Holy Ghost fire Eje ayo (safe journey) Iminimous God (Incomprehensible God) S.K. Asaba Mmesoma chi (God’s goodness) Nna Africa (father of Africa) Pain is love Don 4 real For I know my redeemer liveth Once more He leadeth me Belo Sagacity Division Blessing’s husband Law man Ashiri alala (Gossip has ended) Shadow No time for petepetepete (No time for triviality) Jesus is the ultimate Money no more nonsense Confirm Biggy boy If not God Eshiwe Aba Star boy Aba Junior Respect Who can battle with the Lord Dede Ngwa 1 I shall not lack Onye oma na voice (a smooth talker) Covenant child Young money Jesus bu okaka (Jesus is the ultimate) Sence boy (sense boy/smart boy) O nwa! KC boy Pray until something happens Tali takumi (a biblical allusion) God’s promises never fails More incentives Favour from God Ejem boy God is wonderful Look and live Remember the cross; no cross no salvation Remain close to God They start to seek God early find him; Joy to the wise, Joy to me, I refuse to be foolish Be not be dismayed for the future fate Forward ever Oh Lord! Let your will be done It is well in Jesus name Uwa bu nke onye? A.B. Don ajila mmadu arizoahu (Do not depend on any human being) Okuko onye uwa bu ehi ya (a poor man’s fowl is like a cow to him ) Share the grace Christ in you the hope of salvation Strive to walk the narrow path