Training Manual on Non−Sewered Urban Sanitation

TRAINING MANUAL ON NON−SEWERED URBAN SANITATION

DISPOSAL ACCESS TO TOILET & OR REUSE CONTAINTMENT NON SEWERED CIRCULAR SANITATION SYSTEM

EMPTYING TREATMENT & TRANSPORT PUBLISHER Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi

RESEARCH TEAM

Shubagato Dasgupta Senior Fellow, Centre for Policy Research

Anju Dwivedi Senior Researcher, Centre for Policy Research

Ambarish Karunanithi Senior Research Associate, Centre for Policy Research

Swati Dhiman Research Associate, Centre for Policy Research

Deepti Raj Research Associate, Centre for Policy Research

Neha Agarwal Research Associate, Centre for Policy Research

TRAINING MANUAL DESIGN

Bipin Bihari Nayak Designer, Centre for Policy Research

Disclaimer This training manual focuses on addressing the issues in the sanitation value chain, particularly in non-sewered networks. The training manual has been prepared referring to several other relevant documents with proper citations. No part of this report may be reproduced in any form (electronic or mechanical) without prior permission from or intimation to the Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi. The full report should be referenced as follows: CPR (2017), ‘Training Manual on Non-Sewered Urban Sanitation, 2017’. Text from this report can be quoted provided the source is acknowledged.

Suggested Citation

Karunanithi, A., Raj, D., Diwedi, A., Dhiman, S., Agarwal, N., Dasgupta, S. 2018. 7UDLQLQJ0DQXDORQ1RQȀ6HZHUHG8UEDQ6DQLWDWLRQ. CPR Research Report. New Delhi: Centre for Policy Research. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.10074.44484

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH Dharam Marg, Chanakyapuri New Delhi – 110021

Write to us: [email protected]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE 1.1 Sanitation 2 1.2 Components of Sanitation 3 1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation 16 1.4 Summary 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM 2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? 20 2.2 Components of SFD 20 2.3 Purpose of SFD 20 2.4 Summary 20

MODULE III: INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION 3.1 Acts and Policies 22 3.2 National Rating Scheme for Sanitation 25 3.3 Odisha Urban Sanitation Policy and Odisha Urban Sanitation Strategy, 2016 25 3.4 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, 2005 37 3.5 Swachh Bharat Mission, 2014 38 3.6 Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), 2015 39 3.7 Smart Cities Mission, 2015 39 3.8 International Experience in Wastewater Monitoring and Pollution Control: European Union 39 3.9 National Experience in Wastewater Monitoring and Pollution Control: Prodes, Brazil 40 3.10 Summary 40

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Wastewater Management Systems 42 )DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ 4.3 Summary 51

MODULE V: INTRODUCTION TO FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 5.1 What is Faecal Sludge? 54 5.2 Need for Faecal Sludge Management 54 4XDQWLȑFDWLRQRI)DHFDO6OXGJH 5.4 Characterization of Faecal Sludge 57 5.5 Physico-Chemical Constituents 58 5.6 Operational Factors Impacting the Variability of Faecal Sludge 62 5.7 Stages of Faecal Sludge Management 63 5.8 Summary 63

MODULE VI: CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE 6.1 Containment Systems for On-site Sanitation 66 7HFKQLFDO)DFWRUV$ȞIHFWLQJ)DHFDO6OXGJH&ROOHFWLRQ 6.3 Emptying Faecal Sludge 74 6.4 Transporting Faecal Sludge 85 6.5 Occupational Hazards and Safety 86 6.6 Summary 87

MODULE VII: TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE 7.1 Introduction 90 7.2 Objectives of Treatment 91 7.3 Faecal Sludge Treatment Technologies 91 7.4 Decision Matrix 111 7.5 End Use of Treatment Product 111 7.6 Site Selection for Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant 119 7.7 Summary 124

MODULE VIII: OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS 8.1 Introduction 126 8.2 Integrating O&M into the Planning Process of FSTPs 126 8.3 Receiving Faecal Sludge at the Treatment Plant 128 8.4 Operations and Maintenance Plan 129 8.5 Asset Management 131 8.6 Monitoring 132 8.7 Record-keeping 134 8.8 Plant Safety and Security 136 8.9 Administrative Management 138 8.10 Coordination 141 8.11 Summary 142

MODULE IX: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Financial Models 144 9.3 Summary 154

MODULE X: COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 10.1 Introduction 156 10.2 Evolution of Community Participation in Urban Programmes in India 156 10.3 Informal and Formal Spaces of Participation in Urban Programmes 157 10.4 Community Engagement Structures in Angul and Dhenkanal under Project Nirmal 157 10.5 Summary 158

MODULE XI: PLANNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 11.1 Planning 160 11.2 Exploring the Situation 161 11.3 Developing the Management Concept 165 11.4 Developing Financial Arrangements 170 11.5 Choosing Technology 170 11.6 Implementing the Concept 171 11.7 Summary 171

REFERENCES 173

ANNEXURES Annexure I: Recommended per capita water supply for institutions (CPHEEO, 1999) 178 Annexure II: Standards for provision of toilets as prescribed in the Manual on Water Supply and Treatment (CPHEEO, 1999) 178 $QQH[XUH,,,1RUPVDQGVSHFLȑFDWLRQVIRUFRPPXQLW\DQGSXEOLFWRLOHWVDVSHU6%0 8 JXLGHOLQHV LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Sanitation as a barrier to the faecal-oral pathway Figure 1.2: Components of sanitation Figure 1.3: General depiction of water supply network in a city Figure 1.4: Different toilet structures Figure 1.5: Flow of human waste through the sanitation chain: Urban India, 2011 (Census 2011) Figure 1.6: Examples of inadequate sanitation in India (GIZ, 2015) Figure 1.7: Economic impacts of inadequate sanitation in India (GIZ, 2015) Figure 3.1: UN Sustainable Development Goals Figure 4.1 : Schematic diagram of centralized wastewater collection and treatment (Bakir, 2001) Figure 4.2: Schematic of intensive wastewater treatment systems (WWT, 2017) Figure 4.3: Schematic of extensive wastewater treatment systems (Ecoideaz, 2017) Figure 4.4: Schematic of settled sewerage (UNEP, 2017) Figure 4.5: Schematic of simplified sewerage (UNEP, 2017) Figure 4.6: DEWATS configuration scheme (BORDA, 2017) Figure 4.7: Typical succession of treatment process within DEWATS (BORDA, 2017) Figure 5.1: Schematic differentiating excreta, faecal sludge and wastewater Figure 5.2: Wastewater treatment through various sanitation systems (India Urban) Figure 5.3: Stages of faecal sludge management Figure 6.1: Shallow pit latrines Figure 6.2: Simple pit latrines Figure 6.3: Borehole latrines Figure 6.4: Ventilated Pit Latrine Figure 6.5: Pour flush latrines Figure 6.6: Single or Double Pit Figure 6.7: Composting latrines Figure 6.8: Septic tank Figure 6.9: Aqua-privy Figure 6.10: Rate of accumulation of sludge and scum (Franceys et al., 1992) Figure 6.11: Procedure to check a septic tank Figure6.12: Components of Manual Diaphragm Pump Figure 6.13: Gulper in action (Strande et al., 2014) Figure 7.1: FS treatment options Figure 7.2: Schematic representation of Imhoff tank (Karunanithi, A. 2017) Figure 7.3: Schematic of the zones in a settling-thickening tank Figure 7.4: Twin settling-thickening tanks Figure 7.5: Schematic overview of an unplanted sludge-drying bed Figure 7.6: Black Soldier fly pre-pupae Figure 7.7: Schematic representation of the LaDePa machine Figure 8.1: Manifest form for Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation (BMC, 2016) Figure 8.2: Settleability tests performed on-site at the Manila Water South Septage treatment facility in the Philippines Figure 8.3: Record-keeping to track the loads delivered, time, date and driver’s details Figure 8.4: Safety Instructions on a notice Figure 8.5: Starting-up period of faecal sludge lagoon system, San Fernando City, Philippines Figure 9.1: Generic FSM business model (Rao et al., 2016) Figure 9.2: Model 1: Discrete collection and treatment model (Strande et al., 2014) Figure 9.3: Model 2: Integrated collection, transport and treatment model (Strande et al., 2014) Figure 9.4: Model 3: Parallel tax and discharge fee model (Strande et al., 2014) Figure 9.5: Model 4 Dual licensing and sanitation tax model (Strande, L., 2014) Figure 9.6: Model 5: Incentivized discharge model (Strande et al., 2014) Figure 10.1: Schematic showing formal and informal spaces Figure 10.2: Model for community engagement under Project Nirmal Figure 11.1: Stages in the planning process (IRCWASH, 2017) LIST OF TABLES 7DEOH5HFRPPHQGHGSHUFDSLWDZDWHUVXSSO\IRUWRZQVDQGFLWLHV &3+((2 Table 1.2: Water quality standards for various purposes (CPCB, 2008) 7DEOH6WDWXVRIZDWHUVXSSO\LQ2GLVKD 3+(2 ZHEVLWH 7DEOH7HFKQRORJLFDORSWLRQVIRU266XQGHU6%0 8 Table 1.5: Wastewater contaminants (adapted from Metcalf and Eddy (1991) 7DEOH6ROLGVPDWUL[VKRZLQJWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQYRODWLOHȍ[HGGLVVROYHGDQGVXVSHQGHGVROLGV 7DEOH(ȚȜOXHQWGLVFKDUJHVWDQGDUGVDVSHU&3+((2PDQXDO Table 1.8: MSW generation per capita Table 1.9: Composition of MSW 7DEOH5ROHVDQGUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVRIGLȚIHUHQWWLHUVRIJRYHUQPHQW Table 5.1: Reported faecal production rate (Strande et al., 2014) Table 5.2: Reported urine production rates (Strande et al., 2014) 7DEOH5HSRUWHGVWDQGDUGVRIIDHFDOVOXGJHIURPGLȚIHUHQWVRXUFHV 6WUDQGHHWDO Table 5.4: Pathogens and disease symptoms Table 6.1: Quantity of wet faeces excreted by adults (Franceys et al., 1992) Table 6.2: Faeces accumulation rate (Franceys et al., 1992) Table 6.3: Faeces accumulation rate (Franceys et al., 1992) 7DEOH5HFRPPHQGHGLQȍOWUDWLRQFDSDFLWLHV )UDQFH\VHWDO Table 6.5: Advantages and limitations of manual and mechanized emptying Table 6.6: Summary comparison table of manually operated mechanical equipment 7DEOH&KDUDFWHULVWLFVRIGLȚIHUHQW9DFXWXJV Table 6.8: Summary table for mechanized mechanical sludge emptying equipment (Strande et al., 2014) Table 6.9: Barriers to health and preventive measures Table 7.1: Most commonly used macrophytes for FS treatment Table 7.2: Decision-making matric for FS treatment Table 7.3: Potential resource recovery from faecal sludge (Strande et al., 2014) Table 7.4:Standard for trace element concentrations in wastewater sludge (Strande et al., 2014) Table 7.5: Nutrient content of urine, faeces and mass of nutrients needed to grow 250 kg cereals (Drangert, 1998) Table 7.6: Criteria for site evaluation with sine qua non conditions (Strande et al., 2014) 7DEOH'LVFKDUJHIHHVDQGUDWHVDWRȚȍFLDOGLVFKDUJHVLWHVLQ 6WUDQGHHWDO 7DEOH6XPPDU\RISURVDQGFRQVIRUHDFKRIWKHȍQDQFLDOPRGHOV MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

Learning Objectives

ʝ To understand the basic components of sanitation and their relevance to faecal sludge management as a whole ʝ To understand the gaps between infrastructure delivery standards/norms and actual practices TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE 1.1 Sanitation 2 1.2 Components of Sanitation 3 1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation 16 1.4 Summary 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM 2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? 20 2.2 Components of SFD 20 2.3 Purpose of SFD 20 2.4 Summary 20

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Wastewater Management Systems 42 )DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ 4.3 Summary 51

MODULE VII: TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE 7.1 Introduction 90 7.2 Objectives of Treatment 91 7.3 Faecal Sludge Treatment Technologies 91 SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

1.1 Sanitation Sanitation, as a system of hygienic practices, promotes the health and wellbeing of humans by preventing physical contact with hazardous wastes and all kinds of physical, chemical, biological and microbiological agents of disease.

7KH IDHFDORUDO FKDLQ DV H[SUHVVHG LQ )LJXUH FRQWLQXHV WR FRQWULEXWH VLJQLȑFDQWO\ WR morbidity and mortality in India. Sanitation, as a barrier for the faecal-oral chain, has an important role in human development. A substantial volume of research literature has presented and continues to furnish evidence on the linkages between poor sanitation and Sanitation is the provision health through diseases such as diarrhoea, typhoid and malaria. Diarrhoea alone accounted of facilities and services for safe IRUPLOOLRQDGXOWFDVHVDQGPLOOLRQFDVHVLQFKLOGUHQOHVVWKDQȑYH\HDUVRIDJHLQ management of human excreta. 2014. The impact of diarrhoea on children of diarrhoea is higher than on adults (RGI, 2014). Ǔ:+2 $VSHUWKHHVWLPDWHVLQLWFDXVHGDERXWGHDWKVLQFKLOGUHQXQGHUȑYH\HDUVRI age (RGI, 2014).

Open defecation is strongly correlated with stunted growth and malnutrition. It hampers the body's ability to absorb and retain nutrients, resulting in a permanent and adverse impact on the mental development of children. Expenditure on health stemming from inadequate sanitation in India amounted to INR 2.44 trillion, 6.4% of the national GDP, in 2006. In other words, the economic impact amounted to INR 2180 per capita (WSP, 2008).

Figure 1.1: Sanitation as a barrier to the faecal-oral pathway

Stored Legend Fig. 1: F-diagram – Linking sanitation and health P: Primary Barrier drinking S: Secondary Barrier water P P Fluid S S Fields Faeces Food New host Flies

Fingers P

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 2 MODULE I

1.2 Components of Sanitation

Figure 1.2: Components of sanitation

Water supply

Storm water Access to management toilets

Sanitation

Solid waste Wastewater management management

1.2.1 Water Supply Water supply, in this manual, refers to the water supplied by the designated Urban Local Body (ULB) to the city for daily use. This includes water supplied to individual households, various institutions (hospitals, schools, colleges, etc.), and commercial and religious establishments (excluding industrial and irrigational supply).

Water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which facilitate the supply of water.

A water supply system (Fig 1.3) is typically constituted of the following:

a. A drainage basin b. A raw water collection point (above or below ground), where the water accumulates, such as a lake, a river or groundwater from an underground aquifer. Raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or XQGHUJURXQGZDWHUSLSHVWRZDWHUSXULȑFDWLRQIDFLOLWLHV c. :DWHU SXULȑFDWLRQ IDFLOLWLHV IRU WUHDWPHQW RI ZDWHU WR PDNH LW SRWDEOH DV SHU VHW criterion d. Water storage facilities, including reservoirs, water tanks or water towers for large water systems; cisterns or pressure vessels for smaller water systems e. 3XPSLQJ VWDWLRQV ZKLFK PD\ EH ȑWWHG ZLWK DGGLWLRQDO ZDWHU SUHVVXUL]LQJ FRPSRQHQWVDWWKHRXWOHWRIWKHUHVHUYRLUVRUFLVWHUQLIȠORZXQGHUJUDYLW\LVLQIHDVLEOH f. A pipe network, for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private houses or industrial, commercial or institutional establishments) and other usage points

3 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

Figure 1.3: Water supply system

Drainage Basin

River, Lake, Groundwater etc.

Pumping Stations

Water Treatment Plant

Over Head Water Pressure Reserviors Tanks Towers Vessels

City Through Piped Network

1.2.1.1 Water Needs per Person

ʝ Domestic needs The quantity of water supplied to a city is directly proportional to the population (both ȠORDWLQJ DQG UHVLGHQWLDO 7KH SHU FDSLWD FRQVXPSWLRQ XVXDOO\ YDULHV LQ XUEDQ DQG UXUDO DUHDVGXHWRDGLȞIHUHQFHLQFRQVXPSWLRQKDELWVDQGOLIHVW\OH7KHUHFRPPHQGHGYDOXHVIRU domestic water supply for towns and cities in liter per capita daily (lpcd), as per the Central Public Health and Engineering Environment Organisation (CPHEEO ) norms, are listed in Table 1.1.

7DEOH5HFRPPHQGHGSHUFDSLWDZDWHUVXSSO\IRUWRZQVDQGFLWLHV &3+((2 Recommended Maximum Water Supply S.No. &ODVVLȑFDWLRQRI7RZQVDQG&LWLHV Levels (lpcd) 1 Towns with piped water supply but no sewerage system 70 2 Cities with piped water supply and existing/contemplated sewerage system 135 Metropolitan and Mega cities with piped water supply and Existing/ 3 150 contemplated sewerage system

Note: -In urban areas, where water is provided through public stand posts, 40 lpcd should be considered. -Figures exclude ‘Unaccounted for water (UFW)’ which should be limited to 15%. -Figures include requirements of water for commercial, institutional, and minor industries. However, the bulk water supply to such establishments should EHDVVHVVHGVHSDUDWHO\ZLWKSURSHUMXVWLȑFDWLRQ

ʝ Institutional needs Water needs to be provided for institutional consumption in addition to the provisions indicated in Table 1.1 above. Requirements of considerable magnitude, if not covered in the provisions already made, should be taken into account as well. The individual requirements for various institutions can be found in Annexure 1.

1.2.1.2 Standard Norms for Water Quality 7KHZDWHUGLUHFWO\SXPSHGIURPDVRXUFHLVJHQHUDOO\QRWȑWIRUPRVWFRQVXPSWLRQSXUSRVHV and needs to be treated before being supplied to the citywide network. The Central Pollution &RQWURO%RDUG &3&% KDVSURYLGHGGHWDLOVRQWKHFULWHULDIRUFODVVLȑFDWLRQRIZDWHUEDVHGRQ physicochemical properties and the designated best use for each class (refer Table 1.2).

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 4 MODULE I

Table 1.2: Water quality standards for various purposes (CPCB, 2008) Designated Best Use Class of Water Criteria Total coliforms organisms MPN/100 ml shall be 50 or less Drinking water source without pH between 6.5 and 8.5 FRQYHQWLRQDOWUHDWPHQWEXWDȻWHU A Dissolved oxygen - 6mg/l or more disinfection Biochemical Oxygen Demand - 5 days 20°C 2 mg/l or less Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100 ml shall be 500 or less pH between 6.5 and 8.5 Outdoor bathing (organized) B Dissolved oxygen - 5mg/l or more Biochemical Oxygen Demand - 5 days 20°C 3 mg/l or less Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 5000 or less 'ULQNLQJZDWHUVRXUFHDȻWHUFRQYHQWLRQDO pH between 6 to 9 C treatment and disinfection Dissolved oxygen 4mg/l or more Biochemical Oxygen Demand - 5 days 20°C 3mg/l or less pH between 6.5 to 8.5 3URSDJDWLRQRIZLOGOLIHDQGȑVKHULHV D Dissolved oxygen 4mg/l or more Free ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less pH between 6.0 to 8.5 Irrigation, industrial cooling, controlled Electrical conductivity at 25°C micro mhos/cm, max. 2250 E waste disposal Sodium absorption ratio max. 26 Boron max. 2mg/l Below E Not meeting A, B C, D and E

:DWHUVXSSO\VFHQDULRLQ2GLVKD To facilitate better understanding of the sector, let us consider the case of Odisha. Given in Table 1.3 are some statistics for the water supply scenario in Odisha.

7DEOH6WDWXVRIZDWHUVXSSO\LQ2GLVKD 3+(2 S. No. Parameters Data 1 No of ULBs 106 2 No of Census Towns 2 3 Population of 2013 60,54,100 4 Total water demand @ 135 lpcd 817.34 MLD Production of Water 5 Groundwater 316.20 MLD 6 Surface water 491.54 MLD Supply of Water 7 Total daily supply 807.74 MLD 8 Total number of wards 1872 Fully covered 1165 Partly covered 566 Uncovered 141 9 No of house connections 303,023 10 No of public stand post 22611 11 No of functional hand pump & tube wells 28,327

1.2.2 Access to Toilets As per the Census of India 2011, 81% of urban households have access to a toilet within the premises, 6% are dependent on public/community toilets, and 12% resort to open defecation. The right to toilet access not only has hygienic importance, but also grave social implications.

5 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

The Indian Standard Code of Basic Requirements for Water Supply, Drainage and Sanitation, 1993, lists important points for the provision of toilets and can be found in Annexure 2.

1.2.2.1 Toilet as a unit In order to understand the entire wastewater chain, one needs to understand the origin point of the waste, i.e. a toilet unit. It consists of two parts: the superstructure and the substructure. The superstructure consists of the unit plinth, walls, door, roof and the water closet (WC). The substructure consists of the containment unit housing the excreted waste.

)LJXUH'LȚIHUHQWWRLOHWVWUXFWXUHV

Note: (A) Toilet unit with no substructure, direct outlet into open (not recommended at all); (B) Toilet unit with unlined pit as substructure; (C) Toilet unit with septic tank as substructure; and (D) Toilet unit with sewer line as substructure.

An individual can choose from several available toilet designs based on factors like availability of connectivity to centralized treatment systems, availability of land for construction of the substructure, funds for construction, etc. The following technological options for on-site sanitation systems (OSSs) are recommended under the Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban) – SBM (U) – for construction of Individual Household Latrines (IHHLs)/ household toilets, group/shared latrines, and community and public toilets (Table 1.4).

7DEOH7HFKQRORJLFDORSWLRQVIRU266XQGHU6%0 8 Sl. OSS Option Kind of Latrine Application No IHHL1 SL2 CL3 PT4 In low- to medium-density areas, particularly peri-urban areas, where there is space to install pits and where the digested sludge can be applied to local Twin-pit latrines/ 1 ȇ ȑHOGVDQGRUJDUGHQVDVDIHUWLOL]HUDQGVRLOFRQGLWLRQHU leach pits Where water use is in the range 30-50 litres per capita per day depending upon the characteristics of the soil or groundwater level Septic tanks are widely used to provide partial treatment of wastewater Septic tank from individual homes, household clusters or institutional buildings where 2 system with soak ȇȇȇ ȇ there is no sewerage network pit )RUVRDNSLWVWRIXQFWLRQVRLOFRQGLWLRQVPXVWEHVXLWDEOHIRULQȑOWUDWLRQRI HȞȠOXHQWIURPVHSWLFWDQNV Widely used to provide 80% treatment of wastewater from IHHL, household clusters or institutional buildings where there is no sewerage Bio digester network toilets (anaerobic 3 ȇȇȇ ȇ 7KHHȞȠOXHQWVKRXOGEHSDVVHGWKURXJKDUHHGEHGRUVRDNSLWEHIRUH – developed by discharge DRDO) )RUVRDNSLWVWRIXQFWLRQVRLOFRQGLWLRQVPXVWEHVXLWDEOHIRULQȑOWUDWLRQRI HȞȠOXHQWIURPVHSWLFWDQNV Widely used to provide 100% treatment of wastewater from IHL, clusters of 4 Aerobic bio tank ȇȇȇ ȇhouses or institutional building where there are no sewerage networks. The HȞȠOXHQWFDQEHGLUHFWO\GLVFKDUJHGVLQFHLWLVFRPSOHWHO\VDIH 1 IHHL: Individual Household Latrine , 2 SL: Shared Latrine, 3 CL: Community Latrine, 4 PT: Public Toilet

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 6 MODULE I

1.2.3 Wastewater Management

1.2.3.1 Understanding wastewater %URDGO\ZDVWHZDWHUUHIHUVWRWKHHȞȠOXHQWIURPKRXVHKROGVFRPPHUFLDOHVWDEOLVKPHQWVDQG LQVWLWXWLRQVKRVSLWDOVLQGXVWULHVHWF,WDOVRLQFOXGHVVWRUPZDWHUDQGXUEDQUXQRȞIDQG DJULFXOWXUHKRUWLFXOWXUHDQGDTXDFXOWXUHHȞȠOXHQW

$Q\NLQGRIOLTXLGRUVHZHUDJHVWUHDPȠORZLQJIURPLWVGLUHFWVRXUFHRUIURPWUHDWPHQWSODQWV DQGEHLQJGLVFKDUJHGLQWRZDWHUERGLHVLVUHIHUUHGWRDVHȞȠOXHQWZKLOHZDWHUZDVWHZDWHURU DQ\RWKHUNLQGRIOLTXLGVWUHDPȠORZLQJLQWRDUHVHUYRLUEDVLQRUWUHDWPHQWSODQWLVFDOOHG LQȠOXHQW +RXVHKROGV WKDW GR QRW KDYH VHZHUDJH QHWZRUN FRQQHFWLYLW\ UHVRUW WR RQVLWH sanitation systems. The waste generated in these systems is termed faecal sludge (FS).

Urban wastewater is a mix of domestic as well as industrial wastewater. Domestic wastewater comprises wastewater coming from various sources such as bathrooms, kitchens, toilets, open areas, etc. The characteristics of wastewater depend on the source and it is of the following types:

a. Grey water: washing water from kitchens, bathrooms, laundry (without faeces and urine) b. %ODFNZDWHUZDWHUIURPȠOXVKWRLOHW DFRPELQDWLRQRIIDHFHVXULQHZDVKZDWHUDQG ȠOXVKZDWHU c. Yellow water: urine from separated toilets and urinals d. Brown water: black water without urine or yellow water

Dual plumbing systems and other such innovations aimed at separating urine from faeces have not been widely employed in India. Thus, grey water and black water are the only two categories of wastewater that need to be managed at the municipal level.

Grey water is easier to purify compared to black water, i.e. sewage. However, these two waste VWUHDPVDUHGLVFKDUJHGLQFRPELQDWLRQLQWRDSXEOLFVHZHUQHWZRUN2ȻWHQWKHWZRVWUHDPV are also contained as a mixture in septic tanks or other on-site sanitation systems at the household level.

1.2.3.2 Calculating domestic wastewater generation As per CPHEEO standards, on an average, a person requires 135 to 150 litres per day to carry out all necessary activities such as cooking, bathing, washing, etc. The volume of water being XVHGE\DQLQGLYLGXDOSHUGD\LVRȞȑFLDOO\PHDVXUHGDVǕOLWUHVSHUFDSLWDGDLO\ǖ OSFG

These estimates are widely used by public water supply and sewerage bodies/authorities across the country for estimation of probable water consumption. The standard benchmark of 135 lpcd is used and accordingly, the total quantity of raw water required (measured as number of residents x 135 lpcd + transmission losses) is pumped into the water treatment SODQW IRU IXUWKHU WUHDWPHQW :DVWHZDWHU WUHDWPHQW SODQWV ::73V DUH RȻWHQ GHVLJQHG assuming wastewater generation amounting to 80% of the volume of water supplied. In most cases, the actual waste generated exceeds this estimate and causes overloading of the WWTP.

The gap in the estimate and actual waste generation is commonly due to a poor tracking of water consumption owing to non-availability of water meters or similar water volume and ȠORZPHDVXUHPHQWGHYLFHVLQUHVLGHQWLDOFRPSOH[HVDQGJDWHGFRPPXQLWLHV,QVRPHFDVHV where a device has been installed, the water consumption has been found to be twice or thrice the estimated benchmark of 135 lpcd.

Human occupation in a commercial complex occurs only during ‘duty hours’, i.e. for DSSUR[LPDWHO\WRKRXUVSHUVKLȻWDQGZDWHUFRQVXPSWLRQLVWDNHQDVOSFG

7 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

Figure 1.5: Flow of human waste through the sanitation chain: Urban India, 2011 (Census 2011)

Direct Waste Total Public sewerage water waste latrine (no septic tank) safely water 6.6 % 35.9% collected ~10-11%

Urban population Septage 322 million Improved Septage safely pit with slab safely Deposited/ Individual 36.8% collected treated households 81.6 % Septage and waste water unsafely disposed

Others 9% Open defecation 11.8 %

COLLECTION/ TREATMENT/ GENERATION CONTAINMENT TRANSPORTATION DISPOSAL Source : Author's representation, based on data from Census 2011

1.2.3.3 Chemical constituents of wastewater 2IWKHWRWDODYDLODEOHIUHVKZDWHURQO\LVȑWIRUKXPDQFRQVXPSWLRQDQGDPHUH of this is available for drinking water supplies. The remaining available water has very high salt content which renders it unusable for drinking purposes due to high desalination costs. The water used for domestic purposes like drinking, washing, bathing, etc. is ultimately discharged back into surface waterbodies or aquifers, from where it is redrawn, treated and reused. Consequently, the drinking water drawn at present is likely to be the wastewater discharged in the past. Therefore, it is imperative that the chemical and microbiological component of the drinking water be monitored to safeguard the interests of the downstream users.

1.2.3.4 Wastewater analysis The scope of wastewater analysis depends on the nature of the end use or disposal. For instance, if the wastewater is discharged into a lake, the primary concern would be the level RIQXWULHQWV([FHVVQLWURJHQDQGSKRVSKRUXVLQWKHHȞȠOXHQWPD\FDXVHHXWURSKLFDWLRQD process where the presence of nutrients leads to increased algal growth in the waterbody. The plants reduce the concentration of dissolved oxygen through take-up, thereby causing DQR[LFFRQGLWLRQVWRSUHYDLO'HSOHWLRQLQR[\JHQOHYHOVLQWKHZDWHUERG\DGYHUVHO\DȞIHFWV aquatic life. A precautionary step would be to run biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) tests in the sample of wastewater to measure the amount of oxygen-consuming organics.

7KHWHVWVIRU%2'DQG&2'GRQRWVSHFLȑFDOO\LGHQWLI\WKHLQGLYLGXDOFRPSRQHQWVLQWKH ZDVWHZDWHUVWUHDPEXWUDWKHUSURYLGHDQLQGLFDWLRQRIWKHHȞIHFWWKHZDVWHZDWHUPLJKW have, particularly on the levels of dissolved oxygen, when discharged into a waterbody.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 8 MODULE I

Table 1.5: Wastewater contaminants (adapted from Metcalf and Eddy ,1991) Contaminant Reason for Importance Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates and fats, biodegradable organics are measured most commonly in terms of BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) and COD (chemical oxygen Oxygen-consuming organic matter demand). If discharged untreated to the environment, their biological stabilization can lead to the depletion of natural oxygen resources and to the development of septic conditions. Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge deposits and anaerobic conditions Suspended solids when untreated wastewater is discharged in the aquatic environment. Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with carbon, are essential nutrients for growth. When discharged into the aquatic environment, these nutrients can lead to the growth of undesirable Nutrients aquatic life. When discharged in excessive amounts on land, they can also cause the pollution of groundwater. Organic and inorganic compounds selected on the basis of their known or suspected carcino- Priority pollutants genicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity or high acute toxicity. Many of these compounds are found in wastewater. These organics tend to resist conventional methods of wastewater treatment. Typical examples Refractory organics include surfactants, phenols and agricultural pesticides. Heavy metals are usually added to wastewater from commercial and industrial activities, and Heavy metals may have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused. Pathogens Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the pathogenic organisms in wastewater. Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium and sulfate are added to the original domestic Dissolved inorganics water supply as a result of water use and may have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused.

ʝ Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) While the presence of dissolved oxygen is critical for the waterbody, oxygen is sparingly soluble in water (e.g. at 25°C, the equilibrium concentration of oxygen in water is only PJO 7KHTXDOLW\RIWKHȑVKKDELWDWEHJLQVWRGHFUHDVHZKHQWKHGLVVROYHGR[\JHQ concentration drops below 4 or 5 mg/l. Consequently, even if the receiving stream is at saturation, which is unlikely, it leaves only 3 or 4 mg/l of oxygen to be used for assimilation of the wastewater discharge.

7KHUHIRUHWKHLPSDFWWKDWWKHHȞȠOXHQWPD\KDYHRQWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIGLVVROYHGR[\JHQ in the receiving stream should be measured. This can be determined by conducting the BOD test which directly measures the oxygen-consuming capacity of the wastewater. In the BOD test, a prescribed volume of wastewater sample is collected. Several observations are required to obtain a reliable and reproducible result. The normal BOD test determines WKH FDUERQDFHRXV %2' DQG H[FOXGHV WKH HȞIHFWV RI QLWULȑFDWLRQ DQG RWKHU R[LGDWLRQ processes which are only accounted for in the COD test.

ʝ Chemical oxygen demand (COD) The COD test is an alternative method to examine the oxygen-consuming potential of the wastewater. Like BOD, the unit measurement for COD is milligram of oxygen per litre (mg /l). In this test, both organic and inorganic matter are oxidized and the total oxygen requirement measured.

Therefore, there is still a need to ascertain how much of the oxygen demand is contributed by the biodegradable portion of all oxidizable matter, since that is how the performance of ELRORJLFDOZDVWHZDWHUWUHDWPHQWV\VWHPV HJDFWLYDWHGVOXGJHWULFNOLQJȑOWHUVDQDHURELF digesters, rotating biological contactors, oxidation ponds, lagoons, etc.) is evaluated. In addition, the BOD (not COD) is the component that is expected to induce an oxygen demand in the receiving stream.

Further, the presence of certain compounds can interfere with the results of the COD test. For instance, low molecular weight fatty acids and aromatic hydrocarbons may not be well oxidized during the test and inorganic ions (chloride and nitrite for instance) may be oxidized. The addition of certain catalysts during the test can eliminate most of these interferences.

9 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

ʝ Solids The solid content in a wastewater stream is directly related to its pollutant load and potential sediment load. The total volume of solids can be further categorized into suspended solids and dissolved solids. The former consists of material which can be ȑOWHUHGRXWRIDVDPSOHE\DPLFURQVȑOWHUZKLOHWKHODWWHULVFRQVWLWXWHGE\WKH IUDFWLRQRIVROLGVZKLFKSDVVWKURXJKWKHȑOWHU:LWKLQWKHGLVVROYHGDQGVXVSHQGHGVROLGV IUDFWLRQVWKHVROLGVFDQEHIXUWKHUFKDUDFWHUL]HGDVYRODWLOHRUȑ[HGVROLGV9RODWLOHVROLGV ZLOOFRPEXVWDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRIr&EXWȑ[HGVROLGVZLOOQRW7KHLPSOLFDWLRQLVWKDWWKH volatile solids represent the organic portion of the solids.

,QDELRORJLFDOWUHDWPHQWV\VWHPWKHYRODWLOHVROLGVDUHRȻWHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHELRPDVV DQG FDQ EH XVHG DV D PHDVXUH RI WKH PLFURRUJDQLVP SRSXODWLRQ 7KH GLȞȑFXOW\ ZLWK WKLVDVVXPSWLRQLVWKDWWKHRUJDQLFVROLGVLQWKHZDVWHZDWHUIHGWRWKHV\VWHPDUHRȻWHQ incorporated into total solids retained by the system. Determining the volatile portion of these solids does not guarantee that the solids are part of the active degrading population. Therefore, care must be exercised in correlating the volatile solids concentration with the microbial population. The dissolved solids in the sample include both organic compounds (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oils, surfactants, volatile acids, urea, ammonia, trace pollutants, etc.) and inorganic compounds.

1.2.3.5 Need for wastewater treatment • Protecting public health: Pathogenic microorganisms and heavy metals present in wastewater are dangerous for human and animal health. • Protecting the environment: Untreated wastewater discharged openly in the environment pollutes the soil and deteriorates surface water and groundwater resources. • Preventing groundwater pollution and facilitating groundwater recharge and reuse: 7KH WUHDWHG HȞȠOXHQW FDQ EH XVHG IRU JURXQGZDWHU UHFKDUJH LUULJDWLRQ DQG industrial purposes.

1.2.3.6 Wastewater treatment The primary objective of wastewater treatment is to help dispose human and industrial HȞȠOXHQWVLQWKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWZLWKRXWFDXVLQJDQ\DGYHUVHLPSDFWV7KHEHVWZD\ to do so would be to separate the pollutants from water, and recycle and reuse the by- SURGXFWV IRU H[DPSOH WUHDWHG VOXGJH DV IHUWLOL]HU IRU IDUPV ZDWHU IRU LUULJDWLQJ ȑHOGV tapped methane gas for cooking, etc.

$FRVWHȞIHFWLYH>ZDVWHZDWHUWUHDWPHQW@VROXWLRQLVRQHWKDWZLOOPLQLPL]HWRWDOFRVWVRI the resources over the life of the treatment facility. Resources are not only the capital, RSHUDWLRQDQGPDLQWHQDQFHFRVWVEXWDOVRVRFLDODQGHQYLURQPHQWDOFRVWV%HQHȑWVIURP VOXGJHDQGHȞȠOXHQWUHXVHPXVWDOVREHLQFOXGHGLQWKHIHDVLELOLW\VWXG\ $KOXZDOLD

(ȚȜOXHQWGLVFKDUJHVWDQGDUGV The objectives of the sewage treatment plants are as follows: • to reduce the concentration of polluting substances to the limits prescribed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). The standards centrally prescribed cannot be relaxed by the state Pollution Control Boards (PCBs). However, based on WKHVSHFLȑFGLVFKDUJHHQYLURQPHQWWKH\DUHIUHHWRLPSRVHPRUHVWULQJHQWVWDQGDUGV • to reduce pathogen contamination to the limits prescribed for faecal coliforms laid down by the National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD).

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 10 MODULE I

9DULRXVHȞȠOXHQWVGLVFKDUJHVWDQGDUGVDVSHU&3+((2QRUPVDUHFRPSLOHGDQGSUHVHQWHG in table below.

7DEOH(ȚȜOXHQWGLVFKDUJHVWDQGDUGVDVSHU&3+((2PDQXDO S. Standards Characteristics No. Inland Surface Water Public Sewers Land for Irrigation Marine Coastal Areas 1 Colour and odour B - B B <501 <501 <501 C,D 2 SS <1002 <1002 <1002 3 Particle size of SS E - - F,G 4 pH value 6.5 to 9.0 6.5 to 9.0 6.5 to 9.0 6.5 to 9.0 5 Temperature H - H Oil 6 Oil and Grease 10 20 10 10 7 Total residual chlorine 1.0 1.0 8 Ammonical nitrogen (as N) 50 50 - 50 9 Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) (as N) 100 - - 100 10 Free ammonia (as NH3) 5.0 - - 5.0 201 201 201 201 11 BOD 302 302 302 302 12 COD 250 - - 250 13 Arsenic (as As) 0.2 14 Mercury (as Hg) 0.01 0.01 - 0.01 15 Lead (as Pb) 0.1 1.0 - 2.0 S. Standards Characteristics No. Inland Surface Water Public Sewers Land for Irrigation Marine Coastal Areas 17 Hexavalent chromium (as Cr 6+) 0.1 2.0 - 1.0 18 Total chromium (as Cr) 2.0 2.0 - 2.0 19 Copper (as Cu) 3.0 3.0 - 3.0 20 Zinc (as Zn) 5.0 15.0 - 15.0 21 Selenium (as Se) 0.05 0.05 - 0.05 22 Nickel (as Ni) 3.0 3.0 - 5.0 23 Cyanide (as CN) 0.2 2.0 0.2 0.2 24 Fluoride (as F) 2.0 15.0 - 15.0 25 Dissolved phosphates (as P) 5.0 - - 26 Sulphide (As S) 2.0 - - 5.0 27 Phenolic compounds (as C6H5OH) 1.0 5.0 - 5.0 Radio Active Materials 28 Alpha emitters, micro curie/L 10-7 10-7 10-8 10-7 Beta emitters, micro curie /L 10-6 10-6 10-7 10-6 29 Bio-assay test I 30 Manganese (as Mn) 2.0 2.0 - 2.0 31 Iron (as Fe) 3.0 3.0 - 3.0 32 Vanadium (as V) 0.2 0.2 - 0.2 33 Nitrate nitrogen (as N) 10.0 - 20.0 34 Faecal coliform, MPN/100 ml for discharge J K J K <1000 <1000 <1000 <1000 1 Metro Cities, all State Capitals except in the State of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir and Union territory of Andaman and

Nicobar Islands, Dadar and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu and Lakshadweep

2 Areas/regions other than mentioned above

11 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

A. These standards shall be applicable only if the sewer leads to a secondary treatment including biological treatment system; otherwise the discharge into sewers shall be treated as discharge into inland surface waters. B. $OO HȞIRUWV VKRXOG EH PDGH WR UHPRYH FRORXU DQG XQSOHDVDQW RGRXU DV IDU DV practicable. C. For process wastewater 100 mg/l D. )RUFRROLQJZDWHUHȞȠOXHQWDERYHWRWDOVXVSHQGHGPDWWHURILQȠOXHQW E. Shall pass 850 microns IS Sieve F. Floatable solids max. 3 mm G. Settleable solids max. 850 microns H. Shall not go 5°C above the receiving water temperature I. VXUYLYDORIȑVKDȻWHUKRXUVLQHȞȠOXHQW J. Desirable

K. Maximum permissible

1.2.4 Solid Waste Management

1.2.4.1 What is solid waste? Solid waste consists of the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from human activities in residential, industrial or commercial areas (Indian Water Portal, 2017). It can EHVHJUHJDWHGLQWRGLȞIHUHQWFDWHJRULHV • RULJLQEDVHG FODVVLȑFDWLRQ GRPHVWLF LQGXVWULDO FRPPHUFLDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ RU institutional waste • FRQWHQWVEDVHG FODVVLȑFDWLRQ RUJDQLF PDWHULDO JODVV PHWDO SODVWLF SDSHU DQG SRWHQWLDOO\KD]DUGRXVVROLGZDVWH LQFOXGLQJWR[LFQRQWR[LFȠODPPDEOHUDGLRDFWLYH infectious, etc.)

6ROLGZDVWHPDQDJHPHQW 6:0 LVDQHȞIHFWLYHZD\RIKDQGOLQJWKHZDVWHJHQHUDWHGWR reduce its hazardous impact on the environment and eliminate the risk of adverse impact on human health. The responsibility for it lies with the municipality, which monitors waste JHQHUDWLRQDQGLVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUFROOHFWLRQWUDQVSRUWSURFHVVLQJUHF\FOLQJDQGȑQDOO\ safe disposal of the waste to safe sites. Solid waste generation is mainly seen as an urban issue, therefore the variation in the quantum of waste generation has been linked directly WRYDULDWLRQVLQOLIHVW\OHRIWKHXUEDQSRSXODWLRQRZLQJWRDGLȞIHUHQFHLQVRFLRHFRQRPLF conditions.

SWM as one of the most essential services to be provided by the municipalities through D FRQFHUWHG HȞIRUW KDV EHHQ SRRUO\ UHQGHUHG 7KH UHDVRQV IRU WKLV IDLOXUH UDQJH IURP XQVFLHQWLȑFRXWGDWHGDQGLQHȞȑFLHQWV\VWHPVDQGPDQDJHPHQWWRWKHPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQRI poor and low service coverage.

One of the basic failures has been the curbing of littering, which exposes the population WRWKHULVNRILQVDQLWDU\OLYLQJFRQGLWLRQV([LVWLQJPXQLFLSDOODZVDUHLQHȞIHFWLYHLQGHDOLQJ with the increasing problem of solid waste management, and when viewed in light of growing urbanization, the problem takes on an even more critical hue.

1.2.4.2 Types of solid waste 'HSHQGLQJRQWKHVRXUFHRIJHQHUDWLRQRIVROLGZDVWHLWFDQEHFODVVLȑHGLQWRWKHIROORZLQJ three categories:

l. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Solid waste generated by households consists of municipal solid waste, which includes household waste, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue and waste dumped on the streets (generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes). MoEF also includes solid or semi-solid waste, excluding industrial hazardous wastes and treated biomedical waste generated in WKHPXQLFLSDOERXQGDUHDE\FRPPHUFLDORUUHVLGHQWLDOFRPSOH[HVLQWKHGHȑQLWLRQ of MSW.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 12 MODULE I

m. Industrial Solid Waste (ISW): Mostly toxic substances, corrosive in nature, highly LQȠODPPDEOHRUUHDFWLYHXQGHUFHUWDLQSK\VLFDORUFKHPLFDOFRQGLWLRQV HJJDVHV present in any form in the waste that are termed hazardous.

n. Biomedical Waste or Hospital Waste: Highly infectious in nature due to its source of RULJLQELRPHGLFDORUKRVSLWDOZDVWHLQFOXGHVWKHGLȞIHUHQWNLQGVRIZDVWHSURGXFWV that come directly from hospitals. It includes waste products like sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, etc., XVXDOO\ LQ WKH IRUP RI GLVSRVDEOH V\ULQJHV VZDEV EDQGDJHV ERG\ ȠOXLGV KXPDQ excreta, etc. Biomedical waste can pose a serious threat to human life and therefore QHHGVWREHKDQGOHGLQDVFLHQWLȑFPDQQHU

1.2.4.3 Composition of solid waste As an essential requirement, each ULB should assess the quantity and composition of waste generated in their jurisdiction to plan for and design municipal solid waste management 06:0 V\VWHPVHȞIHFWLYHO\7KHTXDQWLW\DQGFRPSRVLWLRQRI06:JHQHUDWHGLQWKH8/% determines the collection, processing and disposal options that could be adopted. They are dependent on the population, demographic details, principal activities in the city or town, income levels and lifestyle of the community (CPHEEO, 2016).

Waste generation is strongly dependent on the local economy, lifestyle of the community, and availability of infrastructure. It has been well established that the volume of waste generated in an area is directly proportional to the average income of the residents. An assessment states that the per capita waste generation is increasing at about 1.3% per year. With an urban growth rate of 3.0%-3.5% per year, the annual volume of waste generated may be estimated to be increasing at 5% per year. Impacts of increasing ULB jurisdiction should also be considered while assessing future waste generation rates. Several studies have been conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) over the last two decades to arrive at the waste generation composition data for the country. Summaries of WKHVHYHUDOȑQGLQJVDUHOLVWHGLQWKHWDEOHEHORZ

7DEOH06:JHQHUDWLRQSHUFDSLWD &3+((2 Population Range (in Million) No. of Cities Surveyed Average Per Capita Value (Kg/Capita/Day) 0.1 to 0.5 12 0.21 0.5 to 1.0 15 0.25 1.0 to 2.0 9 0.27 2.0 to 5.0 3 0.35 >5.0 4 0.50

1996: The characterization studies carried out by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) in 1996 indicated that MSW contains 30-40% organic material, DVKDQGȑQHHDUWKSDSHUDQGOHVVWKDQHDFKRISODVWLFJODVVDQGPHWDO 7KHFDORULȑFYDOXHRIUHIXVHUDQJHVIURPWRNFDONJ NLORFDORULHVSHUNLORJUDP while the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio lies between 20 and 30 kcal/kg. Carried out in 43 cities of varying sizes, the study revealed that the quantum of waste generation increases with increasing urban population density. MSW generation varied between 0.2 and 0.4 kg/capita/day in urban centres and increased to 0.5 kg/capita/day in metropolitan cities. The detailed results of the study can be found in the report published by NEERI titled ‘Strategy Paper on Solid Waste Management in India (1996)’.

1999-2000: The study conducted by CPCB through the Environment Protection Training and Research Institute (EPTRI) in 1999-2000 in 210 Class I cities and 113 Class II towns indicated that Class I cities generated 48,134 tons per day (TPD) of MSW, while Class II towns produced 3401 TPD of MSW. The study revealed that the waste generation rate in Class I cities was approximately 0.34 kg/capita/day while that in Class II towns was found to be 0.14 kg/capita/day.

2004-2005: NEERI's study ‘Assessment of Status of Municipal Solid Wastes Management in Metro Cities and State Capitals’ in 2004–2005 assessed 59 cities – 35 metro cities and 24

13 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE state capitals. The study revealed that the waste generation rate varied from 0.12 to 0.60 kg/capita/day between the cities. Analysis of the physical composition of MSW indicated (Table 1.8) that the total compostable matter in the waste was 40%-60%, while recyclable fraction constituted 10%-25% of the total weight. The moisture content in MSW was found to be 30%-60%, while the C/N ratio varied between 20 and 40.

Table 1.8: Composition of MSW (Kumar,2008) Composition Year Plastic/ Biodegradable Paper Metal Glass Rags Other Inerts Rubber 1996 42.21 3.63 0.60 0.49 0.60 - - 45.12 2005 47.43 8.13 9.22 0.50 1.01 4.49 4.016 25.16

2010-2011: In a follow-up survey conducted by the Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology (CIPET), it was reported that 50,592 TPD of MSW was generated in 2010- 2011 in the aforementioned 59 cities.

2014-2015: As per CPCB, 1,43,449 TPD of MSW was generated by 34 states and union territories during 2013-2014. The average rate of waste generation in India, based on this data, was found to be 0.11 kg/capita/day. Of the total waste generated, approximately 1,17,644 TPD (82%) of MSW was collected and 32,871 TPD (22.9%) was processed or treated.

Other studies and observations have indicated that the waste generation rate is between 200 and 300 gm/capita/day in small towns and cities with a population below 2,00,000, while it is usually 300-350 gm/capita/day in cities with a population between 2,00,000 and 5,00,000; 350-400 gm/capita/day in cities with a population between 5,00,000 and 10,00,000; and 400-600 gm/capita/day in cities with a population above 10,00,000. +RZHYHUWKHVHDUHRQO\LQGLFDWLYHȑJXUHVZKLFKQHHGWREHYHULȑHGZKLOHSODQQLQJFLW\ VSHFLȑF06:0V\VWHPV

'LȚIHUHQWPHWKRGVIRUVROLGZDVWHPDQDJHPHQW Centralized method: The centralized method involves waste collection from all the local DUHDVLQFOXGLQJPXQLFLSDOZDVWHDQGZDVWHIURPODQGȑOOVDQGGXPSLQJVLWHVRXWVLGHWKH OLPLWVRIWKHORFDODUHDDXWKRULW\ FLW\QDJDUSDQFKD\DW )RUHȞIHFWLYHPDQDJHPHQWRIVROLG waste, the system also incorporates door-to-door collection of solid waste with the help of waste pickers employed by the municipal corporation or nagar panchayat. Waste pickers collect waste from households and hand it over to the collection team to discard in the ODQGȑOOV7KHFROOHFWLRQWHDPLVJHQHUDOO\FRQWUDFWHGRXWE\DWHQGHULQJSURFHVV

Decentralized method: In the decentralized method, waste is collected within smaller localities and conveyed to the nearest treatment/composting facility. The waste collected at ward level is segregated based on biodegradability. The former is then transported to a nearby facility for composting, while the latter is again segregated into paper, plastic, metals and other types of waste, for recycling and further disposal.

1.2.5 Storm Water Management

1.2.5.1 Storm water drains $ VWRUP ZDWHU GUDLQ LV GHVLJQHG WR VLSKRQ RȞI H[FHVV UDLQ DQG JURXQGZDWHU IURP impermeable surfaces such as paved streets, car parks, parking lots, footpaths, sidewalks, URRIV HWF 7KH SXUSRVH RI WKHVH GUDLQV LV WR SUHYHQW ȠORRGLQJ RI VWUHHWV E\ TXLFNO\ WUDQVIHUULQJUDLQZDWHUWRQDWXUDOERGLHVRIZDWHUDQGWKXVWKH\RȻWHQOHDGWRZDWHUVKHGV streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, etc. This means that any pollutants that go down these drains end up fouling the natural waterways.

During times of heavy rainfall and storms, street gutters feed into the storm water drains. Households and building gutters are also connected to the storm drains. A storm water drainage system, mostly designed on the principle of a gravity sewer, drains the untreated

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 14 MODULE I

storm water into a river, stream or other waterbodies. This type of drainage system is not GHVLJQHGIRUWKHȠORZRIFKHPLFDOVRURWKHUKD]DUGRXVVWUHDPV7KHVWRUPZDWHUGUDLQVFDQ JHWLQXQGDWHGZLWKUDLQZDWHUGXULQJKHDY\UDLQVFDXVLQJEDVHPHQWDQGVWUHHWȠORRGLQJ

1.2.5.2 Discharge into storm water channels or Pipes While discharging water through a pipe or subsidiary channel to the open drainage channel, care should be taken to prevent corrosion of the channel lining. Discharge VKRXOGEHWRZDUGVWKHGLUHFWLRQRIȠORZRIWKHPDLQFKDQQHODQGDERYHWKHOHYHORIQRUPDO GUDLQDJHȠORZ,QFDVHRIDQXQOLQHGPDLQFKDQQHODSURWHFWLYHFRQFUHWHDSURQVKRXOGEH placed at the point of discharge. Subsidiary channels should be laid down, ensuring a self- cleansing gradient. There should not be any trace of human waste, sewage water or any other harmful substances in the drains.

The presence of a small volume of discharge in the storm drain, as in the case of long dry seasons in tropical countries, increases the risk of infestation due to breeding of parasites and protozoans in shallow pools or waterlogged ground. Even more infrequent discharges into a virtually dry drain or channel can cause considerable nausea due to the presence of deleterious substances like oil and grease.

1.2.5.3 Combined sewers $FRPELQHGVHZHUDOORZVWKHȠORZRIERWKVHZDJHDQGUDLQZDWHUWKURXJKLW7KHV\VWHPLVDQ old concept and hardly recommended in the present times due to its many disadvantages. ,WLVQRWDYHU\HFRQRPLFDOV\VWHPDVLWUHTXLUHVKLJKȠORZIRUWKHWUDQVSRUWRIVHZHUWR WKHVHZDJHGLVSRVDOSODQWFRPSDUHGWRKDYLQJEHHQGHVLJQHGIRUDODUJHȠORZFDSDFLW\ 2YHUȠORZRIWKHGUDLQGXULQJKHDY\GRZQSRXUVPD\EHKD]DUGRXVIRUKXPDQKHDOWKEXW WKHVHRYHUȠORZVDUHLPSRUWDQWWRVXUFKDUJHWKHV\VWHPGXULQJSHDNȠORZV

Despite its disadvantages, the system is useful for congested areas, especially in the older SDUWVRIDFLW\ZKHUHOD\LQJQHZLQIUDVWUXFWXUHPD\SRVHDKXJHSK\VLFDODQGȑQDQFLDO challenge. Moreover, in many places an additional connection for a sewer system is not feasible.

1.2.5.4 Soakways Discharge of rainwater to a gutter is important for groundwater recharge. In the case of a VORSLQJURRIUDLQZDWHUFDQEHFDUULHGE\GRZQSLSHVRUGRZQVSRXWVZKLOHIRUDȠODWURRI vertical pipes should be used. Drainage should be connected to the surface water sewer RUVXLWDEOHVRDNZD\E\DSLSH7KHJXWWHUDQGGRZQSLSHVSUHYHQWUXQRȞIVGXHWRWKHȠORZ of water from the height of the building to the ground below. In case of a thatched roof, where guttering is not possible, a concrete path for the outlet of rainwater should be laid immediately under the eaves. The size of gutters, downpipes and downspouts will depend on the area and slope of the roof, intensity of expected rainfall in the area, and slope of the JXWWHU,QVWRUPSURQHDUHDVJXWWHULQJZRXOGEHLQHȞIHFWLYHH[SHQVLYHDQGRIOLWWOHEHQHȑW when the entire surrounding receives the downpour. Therefore, the average storm intensity H[SHFWHGVKRXOGEHHVWLPDWHGDQGVWDQGDUGVȑ[HGDFFRUGLQJO\ 7D\ORU :RRG 1.2.5.5 Considerations While Planning Storm Water Drainage

a. While laying a new drainage system at the downstream, the designer should factor in the possibility of future improvements of the upstream systems as also include DXJPHQWHGFDSDFLW\WRKDQGOHLQFUHDVHGȠORZIURPWKHXSVWUHDP

b. $GHTXDWHSURWHFWLRQVKRXOGEHSURYLGHGWRORZO\LQJDUHDVZLWKLQȠORRGSODLQVLQQHZ rural areas.

c. 7KHHȞIHFWRIWURSLFDOF\FORQHVRQVHDOHYHOVVKRXOGEHWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQW

d. 2YHUȠORZRIVWRUPZDWHUGUDLQVGXULQJDKHDY\GRZQSRXUPD\FDXVHDVHULRXVȠORRGLQJ problem, choking the drainage system. Therefore, a risk management approach is necessary to mitigate the risk with measures such as fail-safe design to avoid performance failure during a heavy downpour, design redundancy with provisions RI RYHUVL]HG GUDLQDJH FRQGXLWV RU VHFRQGDU\ GUDLQDJH DQG VDIH RYHUODQG ȠORRG SDWKV$UHDVZLWKGHQVHSRSXODWLRQZKLFKLQFOXGHERWKQHZWHUULWRULDOȠORRGSODLQV and urban areas, may have to face some economic and social disruption for which necessary measures, such as slope gradient away from hinterland, long steep roads, depressed roads, road or railway tunnels and pedestrian walkways, should be taken.

15 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation Inadequate sanitation is much more than just an inconvenience – it costs lives, dignity and productivity. Poor sanitation has a direct impact on increasing mortality rates of children and the number of girls dropping out of school. It limits the number of opportunities, especially for women and urban poor, and increases their vulnerabilities. Lack of adequate sanitation is thus not only a symptom of poverty, but also a major contributing factor to other burdens of inequality experienced by the urban poor. It increases living costs, decreases money spent on education and nutrition, lowers the income earning potential, and threatens safety and welfare (GIZ, 2015). A summary of the crucial impacts inadequate sanitation has on certain areas of society is presented in Figure 1.6. Globally, 2.5 billion people lack access to improved sanitation and 1.1 billion still practise open defecation. Of these, 597 million people reside in India alone, making sanitation a key concern in the country. It was estimated that India will fall way short of meeting the Millennium Developmental Goals target for sanitation in 2015, with up to 40% of urban Indians still lacking improved access to sanitation. The problem is not restricted merely to access to toilets. Where sanitation access may be available, many urban residents still use toilets that are not connected to any further system for treatment of black water generated by these toilets. Therefore, only providing access to toilets does not solve the sanitation problem.

Sewerage treatment plants in India have the capacity to treat only 37% of the 62,000 MLD wastewater generated in urban areas. This limited capacity is still underutilized and only 30% of the wastewater is actually treated. Even when there are sewerage networks, much of the waste fails to reach wastewater treatment plants due to improper household connectivity to sewerage networks, among other reasons.

Figure 1.6: Examples of impact of inadequate sanitation in India (GIZ, 2015)

Examples of impacts of inadequate sanitation in India

• More than 2 billion of human hours lost annually • Economic costs related to health care expenses were INR 21, 200 crore in the year 2006 • Productivity loss due to health problems caused by inadequate sanitation = INR 217 billion/year Economy • Reduced value of properties • Reduced income from tourism

• Women & girls face drudgery & serious health disorders – due to lack and dirtiness of toilets, lack of privacy, long waiting time • Girls miss out school, discontinue their schooling

Gender • High rate of crimes and violence against women when they are out for open defecation

• Roughly 2.2 million people die / year due to sanitation related ailments • Globally, close to 1800 children below 5 years die every day due to lack of water and sanitation facilities Health • 24% of total deaths of children below 5yrs in India

• Contamination of the environment (soils, ground water, water bodies) • Reduced ecosystem services • Reduced scenic beauty Environment

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 16 MODULE I

1.3.1.1 Sanitation and health

• According to the UN Water 2012 report, globally, 34% reduction in mortality can be achieved through improved sanitation, which could be further doubled when coupled with hand-washing with soap.

• Models indicate that unsafe water and sanitation practices account for over 20% of global mortality and disease burden of children in the age group of 0-14 years. In fact, according to UNICEF, waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea and respiratory infections are the primary cause for child deaths in India, with up to 1000 deaths per GD\RIFKLOGUHQEHORZWKHDJHRIȑYHRFFXUULQJLQWKHFRXQWU\

• In India, poor sanitation severely impairs health, leading to high rates of malnutrition DQG SURGXFWLYLW\ ORVVHV $ERXW RI FKLOGUHQ LQ ,QGLD VXȞIHU IURP VRPH GHJUHH of malnutrition and a large part of this malnutrition burden can be traced to the unhygienic environment and poor sanitation in which children grow up.

1.3.1.2 Sanitation and economy

• The United Nations Developmental Report of 2006 noted that ‘on average, every US dollar invested in water and sanitation provides an economic return of eight US GROODUVǖ7KHHFRQRPLFORVVHVVXȞIHUHGE\WKHHQWLUHZRUOGGXHWRODFNRIVDQLWDWLRQDQG water services are staggering. More than a decade ago, the WHO in 2002 estimated the economic loses worldwide of deaths caused by sanitation to be USD 3.6 billion a year, i.e. the world could have potentially earned USD 3.6 billion per year if these deaths could have been averted.

• India lost as much as 6.4% of its GDP due to inadequate sanitation back in 2006. These costs included those associated with death and disease, accessing and treating water, and losses in education, productivity, time and tourism.

Figure 1.7: Economic impacts of inadequate sanitation in India (GIZ, 2015)

Premature mortality US$29,052 million (Rs. 1,317 billion)

Productivity loss US$4,787 million (Rs. 217 billion) HEALTH Health care US$4,677 million (Rs. 212 billion)

HH treatment, drinking water US$2,471 million (Rs. 112 billion)

Bottled water consumption US$132 million (Rs. 6 billion)

Piped water US$397 million (Rs. 18 billion)

Cost of fetching water US$1,235 million (Rs. 56 billion)

HH access US$10,544 million (Rs. 478 billion)

US$66 million School access (Rs. 3 billion)

US$132 million Workplace access (Rs. 6 billion)

Lost tourism earnings US$110 million (Rs. 5 billion)

US$154 million TOURISM ACCESS TIMEInternational WATER tourist illness (Rs. 7 billion)

17 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE

• According to the Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, more than INR 12 billion is spent every year on poor sanitation and its resulting illnesses.

• These are not mere statistics – they represent real lives of individuals which are DGYHUVHO\DȞIHFWHGDQGKHQFHJUHDWHUIRFXVRQHȞIHFWLYHSODQQLQJDQGPDQDJHPHQW of sanitation services is necessary.

1.3.1.3 Sanitation and gender Gender does not simply refer to women or men, but to the way their qualities, behaviors DQGLGHQWLWLHVDUHGHWHUPLQHGWKURXJKWKHSURFHVVRIVRFLDOL]DWLRQ:RPHQDQGJLUOVRȻWHQ experience health disorders due to the lack of toilets or unclean toilets, lack of privacy and long waiting times. Many girls also drop out of school due to the absence of sanitation facilities. Unless we understand gender roles and their impact on water and sanitation VHUYLFHVEULGJLQJWKHLQHTXDOLWLHVLVDGLȞȑFXOWWDVN

Women and girls do not need toilet facilities just for defecation; they also need privacy and dignity when menstruating. Menstruation, pregnancy and the post-natal period become more problematic if women have nowhere to adequately take care of themselves. Separate toilets at school lead to higher attendance of girls and more girls continuing their education post-puberty.

It was estimated that in Africa, 90% of the work of fetching water is done by women. The NSS Report No. 556: Drinking Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Housing Condition in India (2012) notes, ‘When drinking water had to be fetched from a distance in urban India, female members performed this task for 72.0 percent of households and male members in 23.5 percent.’ Further, women seldom have exclusive land ownership rights, which DȞIHFWVQRWMXVWWKHLUVRFLHWDOVWDWXVEXWDOVRWKHLUDELOLW\WRPRELOL]HȑQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHV for sanitation services. They are hardly ever considered important in policy and decision- making processes, increasingly marginalizing them. This burden coupled with lack of adequate sanitation facilities and societal pressures emanating from issues like privacy have always subjected women to poor health and indignities.

1.3.1.4 Sanitation and environment Out of the 1.2 billion inhabitants in India, more than a 100 million individuals lack safe drinking water and the number of people without access to any sanitation services is a great deal more. Poor sanitation management coupled with open defecation has allowed for an overwhelmingly unhygienic environment and a variety of widespread health problems. This includes contamination of natural waterbodies including groundwater, loss of soil fertility, adverse impacts on ecosystems, reduced scenic beauty, etc.

1.4 Summary This module gave a basic introduction to sanitation and its relevance. It provided insights on the components of sanitation and its impact on health, environment, society, economy, etc. Standards and norms for basic infrastructure provision under each of the components, and the current state of sanitation along with institutional structures and various government initiatives were also discussed.

Since the focus of the manual is faecal sludge management (FSM), emphasis was also laid on the source of sludge, i.e. toilets, wastewater systems and storm water systems.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM

Learning Objectives

ʝ To understand the working of the Sanitation Flow Diagram tool and simulate the tool for local sanitation systems ʝ To understand the challenges in the local sanitation system delivery standards/norms and actual practices TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE 1.1 Sanitation 2 1.2 Components of Sanitation 3 1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation 16 1.4 Summary 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM 2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? 20 2.2 Components of SFD 20 2.3 Purpose of SFD 20 2.4 Summary 20

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Wastewater Management Systems 42 )DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ 4.3 Summary 51

MODULE VII: TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE 7.1 Introduction 90 7.2 Objectives of Treatment 91 7.3 Faecal Sludge Treatment Technologies 91 SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM

2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? A Sanitation or Shit Flow Diagram(SFD) is a commonly used visual communication tool WRH[SODLQWKHȠORZRIH[FUHWDLQDFLW\RUWRZQ,WVKRZVWKHWRWDOH[FUHWDJHQHUDWHGDQGLWV ȠORZGLVSRVDODQGHQGXVHFRQWDLQHGZLWKLQWKHV\VWHPRURXWVLGHWKHV\VWHPLQFOXGLQJ open defecation. The diagram describes the sanitary service delivery in the city or town. This tool is generally used by urban planners and practitioners to visualize and explain the urban sanitation scenario and engage various key stakeholders, from political leaders to sanitation experts and civil society organizations, in devising innovative solutions for excreta management (SUSANA, 2016).

2.2 Components of SFD There are three parts to the SFD (SUSANA, 2016):

• A diagram: It helps to visualize the pathway for all the excreta generated in the city, right from open defecation to the end use, explaining its safe/unsafe discharge and disposal in the environment.

• A narration: The diagram is followed by a brief explanation about it and the context of the sanitation service delivery mechanism of the city.

• Data source: This part compiles the entire data sources used in the diagram and the report, including the various stakeholders consulted during the formulation, documents reviewed, and all the data validation and the quality control exercises adopted in the document.

2.3 Purpose of SFD Apart from its application as a communication tool, SFD is also used as an advocacy tool to provide technical and non-technical understanding to the various stakeholders to help and support planning and decision-making relevant to various plans and programmes of urban sanitation (SUSANA, 2016). It also helps present a clear picture of challenges in the management of wastewater and faecal sludge and to link this to the relevant areas in the service delivery chain for improvement (SUSANA, 2016). SFD simply enables easy visualization of the existing sanitation scenario of the city and is not an alternative to other integral complements of urban sanitation, such as integrated sanitation planning, promotion, investment, design, construction, and operations and maintenance (O&M).

2.4 Summary This module provided a detailed explanation of the Excreta/Shit Flow Diagram. SFD helps XQGHUVWDQGYLVXDOL]HDQGFRPPXQLFDWHWKHSK\VLFDOȠORZRIH[FUHWDWKURXJKDWRZQRUFLW\ providing an overview of the process from the excreta generated up to the end use. This is also used as an advocacy tool to engage various stakeholders for coordinated dialogue on the issue of urban sanitation

(For more detailed information, refer to https://sfd.susana.org/)

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 20

MODULE III: INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

Act

Statute

Regulation

Policies

Procedures

Guidelines

Learning Objectives

ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHUHJXODWRU\IUDPHZRUNDQGOHJDOFRQWUDFWVWRHQVXUHHȞIHFWLYHIDHFDOVOXGJHPDQDJHPHQW ʝ To understand the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders within the institutional framework ʝ To explore potential institutional arrangements and responsibilities of people engaged in the service chain ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGDQGDQDO\VHGLȞIHUHQWLQVWLWXWLRQDODUUDQJHPHQWV TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE 1.1 Sanitation 2 1.2 Components of Sanitation 3 1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation 16 1.4 Summary 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM 2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? 20 2.2 Components of SFD 20 2.3 Purpose of SFD 20 2.4 Summary 20

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Wastewater Management Systems 42 )DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ 4.3 Summary 51

MODULE VII: TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE 7.1 Introduction 90 7.2 Objectives of Treatment 91 7.3 Faecal Sludge Treatment Technologies 91 INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

3.1 Acts and Policies As per the Indian Constitution, water supply and sanitation are state subjects, and hence the responsibility of provision of urban water supply and sanitation services lies with the VWDWHJRYHUQPHQW$ȻWHUWKHWK$PHQGPHQWWRWKH&RQVWLWXWLRQWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRU provisioning of water and sanitation was given to ULBs. Irrespective of the fact that local and state governments have the mandate for provisioning of ULBs, the central government KDVEHHQDVLJQLȑFDQWDQGLQȠOXHQWLDOSOD\HULQXUEDQZDWHUDQGVDQLWDWLRQ

3.1.1 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, provides the regulatory framework for water pollution in India. The Act mandates abatement of polluting matter in streams, wells and sewers or on land, in accordance with standards established by the state pollution control boards. It has a permit or consent system for setting up of any industries or industrial unit. An individual must also obtain a permit for treatment and The Water Act provides for severe disposal or any such operations which may result in the discharge of sewage or industrial penalties. Any person who fails to comply HȞȠOXHQWLQDQ\ZDWHUERG\RURSHQODQG7KHVWDWHERDUGPD\SURYLGHFRQGLWLRQDOFRQVHQW with or contravenes any of the provisions based on location, type and use of industry and outlet, and the nature and composition of of the Act, or the rules or directions issued VHZDJHRUHȞȠOXHQW7KH$FWDOVRHPSRZHUVDVWDWHERDUGXSRQGD\VǖQRWLFHWRDSROOXWHU under the Act, shall be punished for each to execute any work required under the consent order that has not been executed. The failure or contravention, with a prison cost incurred by the board may be recovered from the polluter. A state board, under WKHSURYLVLRQVRIWKH$FWKDVWKHDXWKRULW\WRHQWHUDQGLQVSHFWWKHZRUNLILWȑQGVWKDW WHUP RI XS WR ȍYH \HDUV RU D ȍQH XS WR some unforeseen events or accidents have polluted waterbodies it has the power to take INR 1 lakh or both. The Act imposes an emergency measures. These measures include removing the pollutants, mitigating the DGGLWLRQDOȍQHXSWR,15IRUHYHU\ GDPDJHDQGLVVXLQJRUGHUVWRWKHSROOXWHUSURKLELWLQJHȞȠOXHQWGLVFKDUJHV &6( day of continuing violation (Section 15 (1). If a failure or contravention occurs 8QGHU WKH SURYLVLRQV RI WKH :DWHU $FW WKHUH LV QR GLȞIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ LQGXVWULDO DQG IRUPRUHWKDQRQH\HDUDȷWHUWKHGDWHRI domestic pollution. However, ULBs which are now responsible for the sewage or septage treatment, most of the time, do not have adequate resources to undertake the treatment FRQYLFWLRQ DQ RȚIHQGHU PD\ EH SXQLVKHG SURFHVVHȞIHFWLYHO\7KHUHIRUHVHSWDJHVHZDJHWUHDWPHQWLQXUEDQDUHDVUHPDLQVLQHȞȑFLHQW with a prison term which may extend to ZKLFKKDVEHHQLGHQWLȑHGDVWKHELJJHVWFDXVHRISROOXWLRQLQ,QGLD seven years (Section 15 (2).

3.1.2 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 The potential scope of the Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) covers various components of the environment, which include water, air and land, and the interrelationship among water, air, land, human beings, other creatures, plants, microorganisms and property. Section 3(1) of the Act empowers the central government to take all such measures as necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environmental pollution.

The central government is authorized to set new national standards for the ambient quality RI WKH HQYLURQPHQW DQG VWDQGDUGV IRU FRQWUROOLQJ HPLVVLRQV DQG HȞȠOXHQW GLVFKDUJHV regulate industrial locations; prescribe procedures for managing hazardous substances; to establish safeguards for preventing accidents; and collect and disseminate information UHJDUGLQJHQYLURQPHQWDOSROOXWLRQ7KH(3$ZDVWKHȑUVWHQYLURQPHQWDOVWDWXWHWRJLYH the GoI the authority to issue direct written orders including orders to close, prohibit or regulate any industry operation or process, or to stop or regulate the supply of electricity, water or any other services (Section 5). Other powers granted to the central government to ensure compliance with the Act include the power of entry for examination, testing of equipment and other purposes (Section 10), and the power to take samples of air, water, soil or any other substance from any place for analysis (Section 11). The Act explicitly prohibits the discharge of pollutants in excess of prescribed standards (Section 7). There is also a VSHFLȑFSURKLELWLRQDJDLQVWKDQGOLQJRIKD]DUGRXVVXEVWDQFHVZLWKRXWFRPSOLDQFHZLWK regulatory procedures and discharges (Section 8). Persons responsible for the discharge of pollutants in excess of prescribed standards must prevent or mitigate the pollution and must report the discharge to government authorities (Section 9.1).

The Act empowers the GoI to establish standards for the quality of the environment in several respects, including maximum allowable concentration of various environmental SROOXWDQWV LQFOXGLQJ QRLVH IRU GLȞIHUHQW DUHDV 7KHVH VWDQGDUGV FRXOG EH EDVHG RQ DPELHQW OHYHOV RI SROOXWDQWV ZKLFK DUH VXȞȑFLHQWO\ ORZ WR SURWHFW SXEOLF KHDOWK DQG welfare. Emission or discharge standards for particular industries could be adjusted to ensure that such ambient levels are achieved. The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, allow the state or central authorities to establish more stringent standards based on the recipient system.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 22 MODULE III

The EPA includes a citizen's suit provision (Section 19.6) and a provision authorizing the central government to issue orders directly to protect the environment (Section 5). The FHQWUDOJRYHUQPHQWPD\GHOHJDWHVSHFLȑHGGXWLHVDQGSRZHUVXQGHUWKH(3$WRDQ\RȞȑFHU state government or other authority (Section 23). The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is responsible for making rules to implement the EPA. The Ministry has delegated the powers to carry out enforcement to the central and state PCBs in the country. The 0R()KDVVRIDUHQIRUFHGVHYHUDOUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQV,WKDVDGRSWHGLQGXVWU\VSHFLȑF VWDQGDUGVIRUHȞȠOXHQWGLVFKDUJHVDQGHPLVVLRQVIURPGLȞIHUHQWFDWHJRULHVRILQGXVWULHV 7KH0LQLVWU\KDVDOVRDSSRLQWHGFHUWDLQVWDWHDQGFHQWUDORȞȑFLDOVWRFDUU\RXWVSHFLȑHG GXWLHVXQGHUWKH(3$DQGKDVGHVLJQDWHGVSHFLȑFODERUDWRULHVIRUWHVWLQJWKHVDPSOHVRI ‘All Indian cities and towns should air, water and soil obtained under the Act (CSE, 2011). become totally sanitized, healthy and liveable and ensure and sustain 3.1.3 Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992 good public health and environmental The primary objective of this policy document is to integrate environmental considerations outcomes for all their citizens with a into decision-making process at all levels. To achieve this, the document lays down steps VSHFLDO IRFXV RQ K\JLHQLF DQG DȚIRUGDEOH to be taken to prevent pollution at source, and encourage, develop and apply the best available practicable technical solutions (ICED, 2017). sanitation facilities for the urban poor and women.’ The policy document was adopted in 1992, in place of the conventional end-of-the- – NUSP, 2008 SLSHWUHDWPHQWZLWKWKHDLPRISUHYHQWLQJSROOXWLRQ,WLGHQWLȑHGWHFKQRORJLHVDVDNH\ element for the prevention of pollution and recommended the adoption of the best available and practicable technologies. The many programmes and schemes of the Ministry and its associated organizations related to pollution prevention and control are therefore focused on issues such as the promotion of clean and low-waste technologies, waste minimization, reuse or recycling, improvement of water quality, environment audit, natural resource accounting, development of mass-based standards, institutional and human resource development, etc. (ICED, 2017). The whole issue of pollution prevention and control is dealt with by a combination of command and control methods as well as YROXQWDU\UHJXODWLRQVȑVFDOPHDVXUHVSURPRWLRQRIDZDUHQHVVHWF ,&('

3.1.4 National Environmental Policy, 2006 The National Environment Policy is intended as a guideline policy document to provide assistance in regulatory reform, programmes and projects for environmental conservation, as well as review and enactment of legislation, by agencies of the central, state, and local governments. The policy also seeks to engage various stakeholders, i.e. government DJHQFLHV ORFDO FRPPXQLWLHV DFDGHPLD UHVHDUFKHUV DQG VFLHQWLȑF LQVWLWXWLRQV WKH investment/donor community, and international development agencies, to participate in the dialogue process for strengthening environmental management (India Water Portal, 2017). The underlying theme of this policy is that people are dependent on environmental resources for their livelihood and conservation of resources, rather than degradation, should be ensured (Indian Environmental Portal, 2017).

3.1.5 National Urban Sanitation Policy, 2008 The Government of India (GoI) formulated the National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP) with the aim of improving the sanitation scenario in urban areas. The policy paper was prepared by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD).

7KH1863GHȑQHVVDQLWDWLRQDVǕVDIHPDQDJHPHQWRIKXPDQH[FUHWDLQFOXGLQJLWVVDIH FRQȑQHPHQW WUHDWPHQW GLVSRVDO DQG DVVRFLDWHG K\JLHQHUHODWHG SUDFWLFHVǖ 0R8' 2008). It further recognizes that integral solutions are needed for other elements of environmental sanitation, such as solid waste management, generation of industrial and other specialized and hazardous wastes, drainage (e.g. storm water management) and management of drinking water supply (https://www.sswm.info/).

.H\SROLF\LVVXHVWREHDGGUHVVHGE\GLȞIHUHQWJRYHUQPHQWVWRDFKLHYHWKHJRDOVRIWKH SROLF\ZHUHLGHQWLȑHG7KHLVVXHVLQFOXGHGSRRUDZDUHQHVVDERXWWKHOLQNDJHVEHWZHHQ sanitation and public health; persistence of manual scavenging; gaps and overlaps in institutional roles and responsibilities at the national, state and city levels; lack of an integrated citywide approach when planning and implementing sanitation measures; limited technology choices; constrained access to sanitation facilities for the un-served and the poor; and lack of demand responsiveness (SSWM, 2017).

23 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

Assigning responsibility to the state governments, the NUSP has recommended state- level sanitation strategies by all state governments and guided ULBs to prepare City Sanitation Plans. The policy provides a comprehensive framework to achieve the goal of better sanitation conditions in urban areas. It also outlines plans for developing and implementing innovative strategies to accord priority to urban sanitation (SSWM, 2017).

3.1.6 Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 The Bill prohibits all kinds of manual scavenging work and employment for any such activities. It prohibits the manual cleaning of sewers and septic tanks without protective equipment, and the construction of insanitary latrines. Further, it seeks to rehabilitate people engaged in manual scavenging jobs and provide for their alternative employment. 7KH %LOO DOVR ȑ[HV WKH UHVSRQVLELOLW\ RI VXUYH\LQJ RI LQVDQLWDU\ ODWULQHV RQ WKH ORFDO authority, cantonment board and railway authority within their respective jurisdiction. The authorities are also responsible for constructing a number of sanitary community latrines. The Bill lays the onus on the occupier of an insanitary latrine to convert or demolish it at their own cost, failing which the responsibility transfers to the local authority with the cost to be recovered from the owner. The District Magistrate and the local authority are the LPSOHPHQWLQJDXWKRULWLHV2ȞIHQFHVXQGHUWKH%LOOVKDOOEHFRJQL]DEOHDQGQRQEDLODEOH and may be tried summarily.

3.1.7 Sustainable Development Goal, 2015 On 25 September 2015, countries adopted a set of 17 goals to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure prosperity for all as part of a new sustainable development agenda 8QLWHG1DWLRQV (DFKJRDOKDVVSHFLȑFWDUJHWVWREHDFKLHYHGRYHUWKHQH[W\HDUV Out of the total of 17 goals, one goal is to ensure access to water and sanitation for all. The major targets to achieve this goal by 2030, as underlined by the United Nations, are as follows (United Nations, 2015):

• $FKLHYHXQLYHUVDODQGHTXLWDEOHDFFHVVWRVDIHDQGDȞIRUGDEOHGULQNLQJZDWHUIRUDOO

• Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations.

• Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping, minimizing the release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater, and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.

Figure 3.1: UN Sustainable Development Goals

Image Courtesy: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 24 MODULE III

• 6XEVWDQWLDOO\LQFUHDVHZDWHUXVHHȞȑFLHQF\DFURVVDOOVHFWRUVHQVXUHVXVWDLQDEOH withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity, and substantially UHGXFHWKHQXPEHURISHRSOHVXȞIHULQJIURPZDWHUVFDUFLW\

• Implement integrated water resource management at all levels, including through trans-boundary cooperation as appropriate.

• Protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.

• Expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including ZDWHUKDUYHVWLQJGHVDOLQDWLRQZDWHUHȞȑFLHQF\ZDVWHZDWHUWUHDWPHQWUHF\FOLQJ and reuse technologies.

• Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management.

The guidelines framed by the 2GLVKD6HSWDJH0DQDJHPHQW5HJXODWLRQ The Housing & Urban Development Department (HUDD), Government of Odisha, intends +8'' RI 2GLVKD KDYH QRZ PDGH LW to provide guidelines for ULBs to formulate a regulatory framework for safe handling and compulsory for all households to construct management of septage and the entire sanitation delivery chain (containment, emptying, septic tanks and stop the sludge from transport, treatment and disposal/reuse). The initiative aims to achieve the goals of the ȜORZLQJ RXW LQWR PXQLFLSDO GUDLQV 7KH Odisha Urban Sanitation Strategy, 2011 (see below). rules direct houseowners to contact only The guidelines conform to the advisory note on septage management developed by the FLYLF ERG\ RȚȍFLDOV RU RWKHU UHJLVWHUHG MoUD, GoI, and the guidelines on the design and construction of septic tanks issued by sanitary agencies to clear out the septic the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and CPHEEO. Further, these guidelines are intended tanks and strictly keep away from to strengthen the existing framework focused on implementing the provisions of the engaging manual scavengers. Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013, in the state of Odisha.

The operational procedures outlined in these guidelines are applicable to all ULBs of Odisha and cover the following areas:

• Framework on septic tanks, including standard design and construction

• Adoption of desludging procedure for the septage generated

• Safe transportation of septage from collection point to receiving facility

• Technological intervention for proper treatment of septage, disposal and reuse

• Public awareness

3.2 National Rating Scheme for Sanitation In accordance with the NUSP and to promote and achieve sanitation goals, the GoI has institutionalized an annual rating award scheme for cities to recognize excellent performance in the area. The award Nirmal Shahar Purskara is initiated on the premise that cities must ensure improved public health and environment standards as the two key outcomes for their citizens. This can be achieved by implementing holistic FLW\ZLGH VDQLWDWLRQ SODQV WR DFKLHYH VDIH FROOHFWLRQ FRQȑQHPHQW DQG GLVSRVDO RI FLW\ waste (including conveyance, treatment and/or reuse without advance impacts on the environment in and around the cities). Currently, Swachh Swarvekshan has been launched (from 2015) which ranks the cities as per the sanitation parameters.

3.3 Odisha Urban Sanitation Policy and Odisha Urban Sanitation Strategy, 2016 The Odisha Urban Sanitation Policy (OUSP) and Odisha Urban Sanitation Strategy (OUSS), 2016, has been taken up as a mid-course correction to address the gaps in the state's sanitation system and to make the approach more outcome-oriented. The strategy has been realigned keeping in view the objectives of SBM. It has been made more practicable with a thrust on a feasible action plan set to work in phases: in the immediate term, medium term and long term. The strategy focuses on the following major outcomes: a. Achievement of open defecation free and open discharge free status b. Solid waste to be safely managed, treated and disposed c. Sewage/septage and liquid waste to be safely managed, treated and disposed

25 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

d. Women and girls to have access to safe menstrual hygiene management e. Preventing cities/towns from polluting the river basins of Odisha f. Sensitizing all stakeholders and ensuring community participation g. Putting in place a robust institutional mechanism in alignment with SBM to ensure smooth implementation of the strategy h. 6HWWLQJXSDVSHFLȑFUHJXODWRU\IUDPHZRUNDQGHQIRUFHPHQWPHFKDQLVP

3.3.1 Roles and Responsibilities of Government Institutions 'LȞIHUHQWWLHUVRIWKHJRYHUQPHQWKDYHEHHQDVVLJQHGUROHVDQGUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVWRPDQGDWH the various outcomes discussed above. The state government has an imperative to provide guidelines and assistance for the execution and implementation of various components under the policy document. The city-level governing body is responsible for ground-level implementation and execution of strategies. The role of the district government is limited to a few components such as solid waste management where a district-level committee is mandated as per the policy guidelines. The detailed roles and responsibilities of state, district and city governments for all the components are given in the table below:

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 26 MODULE III

District OUSS Component State Government City Government/ULBs Government I. Urban areas are open defecation free (ODF) and discharge free • Carry out a survey to identify un-served and under-served areas of city All households • Ensure that HHs have functional toilets (HHs) have adequate Establish norms to provide all HHs connected to septic tank/on-site systems or household or with household or community sewer networks community sanitation infrastructure • Where HH infrastructure is a constraint, infrastructure ensure community-level functional toilets connected to septic tank/on-site systems or sewer networks • Carry out a survey to identify un-served and under-served areas of city Adequate and equitable Direct the cities (ULBs) to carry out public sanitation a survey to identify un-served and • Based on the survey, plan for provision of infrastructure under-served areas of the city services to all vulnerable sections – women, FKLOGUHQDJHGSRRUGLȞIHUHQWO\DEOHG (irrespective of caste) Safe technology is used in construction, maintenance and management of sanitation infrastructure, ensuring: • no contamination of surface soil, groundwater or • Implement the technical guidelines surface water • Ensure that building codes include • that excreta are Develop necessary technical SURYLVLRQVLQWKHLUQRWLȑFDWLRQVDQG inaccessible to guidelines in this regard, and ensure procedures for construction approval that building codes also include these ȠOLHVDQLPDOVRU • Ensure functional sewerage and septage other vectors of SURYLVLRQVLQWKHLUQRWLȑFDWLRQVDQG procedures for construction approval management, depending on the local contamination and contexts disease • Ensure the competent authority within the • that there is no jurisdictional area of the ULB will bring handling of fresh out necessary bye-laws covering this, and excreta other guidelines for HH-based sanitation • that the environment infrastructure is free from malodour and the sight of human faeces and liquid waste • that the technology is culturally suitable/ acceptable Organize IEC campaigns in cities to generate increased awareness about sanitation, public Behaviour Change Development of IEC materials and health and hygiene, and environmental Communication campaigns pollution and protection; this may be undertaken in conjunction with NGOs and civil society groups

27 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

District OUSS Component State Government City Government/ULBs Government Monitor cities on three-stage (Basic ODF, ODF + and ODF ++) achievement Monitor themselves on three-stage (Basic of open defection and discharge free ODF, ODF + and ODF ++) achievement of open status, as given on page 10 of OUSS. defection and discharge free city using the Detailed framework for monitoring to framework attached in Annexure 1. be adopted, as provided in Annexure 1 of OUSS. II. Municipal solid waste is safely managed and treated

Treat waste as a potential resource and take Institutionalize a zero-waste policy necessary action to encourage the reuse of for Odisha by introducing a system waste material. For example, the reuse of RILQFHQWLYHVDQGȑQHVLQVKRSVD plastics could be encouraged through a system Reduction of solid reduction in food waste could be RILQFHQWLYHVDQGȑQHVLQVKRSVRUDUHGXFWLRQ waste encouraged through innovative in food waste could be encouraged through tie-ups with hotels, restaurants and innovative tie-ups with hotels, restaurants social functions to provide excess and social functions to provide excess food to food to homeless shelters homeless shelters. This is an important step in the zero-waste policy of Odisha.

• Institute a system of incentives and ȑQHVWRHQVXUHWKDWSHRSOHKRXVHKROGV and institutions do not litter the open environment, including constructed and natural drains Institute a system of incentives • Encourage all households and institutions DQGȑQHVWRHQVXUHWKDWSHRSOH Door-to-door (waste generators) to segregate their households and institutions do collection of MSW and waste at source, and store this waste in a not litter the open environment, segregation at source segregated manner including constructed and natural drains • Organize door-to-door collection, have segregated waste collected from all households and institutions, and then transported in its segregated form to the secondary storage points/depots/transfer stations. • Ensure the waste to be transported is stored in a segregated manner in secondary storage points/depots/transfer stations • Construction of facilities • Using these facilities as temporary Secondary storage 2UGHUQRWLȑFDWLRQWRFRQVWUXFWWKH collection points points/depots/ transfer facilities with the respective 2016 • If waste is being dumped in secondary stations rules storage points/depots/transfer stations without any removal or processing over many years, ULBs to reclaim these spaces in a time-bound manner. This process shall be completed within a year of setting up RIDSURFHVVLQJSODQWDQGVFLHQWLȑFODQGȑOO facility

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 28 MODULE III

District OUSS Component State Government City Government/ULBs Government • Ensure that waste is transported in a segregated manner by vehicles to DSSURSULDWHVLWHVIRUVFLHQWLȑFSURFHVVLQJ • Waste is to be handled mechanically across the MSW value chain with minimum 6FLHQWLȑFWUDQVSRUWDWLRQ Evolve guidelines and rules for human contact of MSW to a processing handling of waste through MSW site chain from time to time • Ensure that all those handling waste through the MSW chain, whether government or non-government players, have access to and use adequate safety gear, including protective clothing, tools and tackles (YROYHLQQRYDWLYHVFLHQWLȑFDQG (YROYHDQGLPSOHPHQWLQQRYDWLYHVFLHQWLȑF ecologically safe technological and ecologically safe technological options for options for processing of MSW as 6FLHQWLȑFSURFHVVLQJRI processing of MSW as long as these options long as these options conform to the MSW conform to the rules for processing of the waste rules for processing of the waste (by (by type of waste) set out by the GoI from time type of waste) set out by GoI from to time time to time • A committee of District Collectors to be chaired by the Collector where the cluster • Based on actions proposed under clustering facility is being VLWHV8/%VWRHQVXUHWKDWODQGȑOOVLWHVDUH Develop norms for clustering of ULBs proposed used only under unavoidable circumstances Disposal through for this purpose and review these • ,GHQWLI\DQGFORVHROGODQGȑOOVLWHVWKDW common sanitary • The committee norms and the implementation of are non-functional or insanitary as per the ODQGȑOOVLWHV to consider this policy on an annual basis all strategic provisions of the SWM Rules, 2016, or as options and amended from time to time suggest a cluster strategy to Commissioner- cum-Secretary, HUDD, for approval • Build a network with the ragpickers and kabadiwallas in the MSW system, thus promoting their livelihood • Direct the districts and the ULBs • Wherever possible use existing ragpickers to adopt a decentralized system of in the door-to-door collection system, also The informal sector as a composting biodegradable waste giving them access to secondary collection service provider under • Recycling of non-biodegradable points. MSWM in Odisha waste through a network of • Ensure the availability of necessary safety ragpickers, to be promoted clothing and gear for the ragpickers/ throughout the state kabadiwalla • Take stringent steps to ensure that the ragpickers/kabadiwallas are not exploited in the course of their work • Roll out IEC programmes across ULBs in a phased manner • Segregation to be strengthened through Engaging the public as • Evolve model templates for ULBs NGOs, SHGs and other citizens’ groups such responsible citizens for to contract NGOs, CBOs and SHGs/ as RWAs MSWM federations of SHGs with clear • Providing livelihood for ragpickers operational goals, and service- level benchmark standards

29 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

• Promote the enforcement of SWM Rules 2016 (or as amended by the GoI from time to time) by holding WKH([HFXWLYH2ȞȑFHUVRIWKH8/%V accountable • Extend all technical, institutional DQGȑQDQFLDOVXSSRUWIRUDVVLVWLQJ the ULBs in SWM in compliance with SWM Rules 2016. • Form an inter-departmental advisory body for SWM under the chairpersonship of the Commissioner-cum-Secretary, Enforcement of SWM HUDD, Government of Odisha Rules (Clause 23 of the SWM Rules 2016), to review matters related to the implementation of this plan vis- à-vis the provisions of the SWM Rules 2016 and the Odisha Urban Sanitation Policy 2016-26 (and subsequent revisions) • Advise the Government of Odisha to take measures that are necessary for the expeditious and appropriate implementation of this plan • Produce a review report covering the implementation plan

Direct the cities to develop CSPs • 6\VWHPDWLFWUDLQLQJRIVDQLWDWLRQVWDȞIWR to include septage management/ GHOLYHU\SXEOLFVHUYLFHVHȞȑFLHQWO\DQG FSM plans covering the entire built Monitoring improve their communication skills environment of the city, i.e. both households and non-household • Report to the state on achievement of zero institutions within the city waste across the solid waste chain

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 30 MODULE III

District OUSS Component State Government City Government/ULBs Government III. Sewage, septage/faecal and liquid waste is safely managed, treated and disposed 'UDȻWVHZHUDJHDQGVHSWDJH management guidelines for cities covering: • a. Safety standards for septic tanks and Provide/ other on-site systems facilitate land for development b. Safe transportation of sludge, of sanitation including a checklist of tools and infrastructure equipment to be kept with the for ULBs, either transportation vehicle, and norms for individually or in • Ensure provision of services to both maintenance of piped underground a cluster, as per household and non-household facilities – sewerage systems (including the plan for each public, community and establishment – pumping stations) wherever district where they exist in the city. applicable • Identify land • ULBs to ensure that safety standards, safe c. Setting standards and norms for safely based on transportation, safe treatment and service WUHDWHGVHSWDJHVHZDJHDQGHȞȠOXHQW technological delivery standards are strictly followed in and safety and public health and construction and maintenance of septage d. Service delivery standards for both environmental and faecal sludge services. sewerage and septage management considerations, • Develop a plan and monitor these at the city level the selection safety standards and report to the state e. Engage non-government stakeholders of which shall government periodically. including the public, through IEC be approved by • Contract out O&M in case of PPP campaigns, the private sector in the competent • Required support and monitoring O& M of infrastructure provision and O&M authority Sewerage and septage facilities through public-private-partnerships LGHQWLȑHGE\WKH management (PPPs), and the private informal state. • The IEC to be launched targeting the sector in service delivery of FSM at the • The competent general public (need for proper construction city/district levels authority shall, of on-site systems, and the public health HȞIHFWVRISRRUVDQLWDWLRQ VHSWLFWDQN f. Regulation, coordination and ULB among other masons (on environmental norms and primacy: this will cover strategies for considerations train them in the guidelines), and septage cost recovery (e.g. user charges) of VSHFLȑHGXQGHU transporters and other private operators service delivery, and clear planning the law, consider (ensure safe handling of septage at the time and implementation roles for ULBs in quantity of waste of desludging and transportation) this process. generated, and • 0DQGDWHWKHUHOHYDQWRȞȑFLDOVHOHFWHG g. 2 0DQGPRQLWRULQJ HYDOXDWLRQ compliance with representatives to attend the training 0 ( these guidelines must environmental programmes prioritize not just construction of laws. these facilities, but the O&M of these • Ensure • 1RPLQDWLRQRIDQRGDORȞȑFHUIRUVHSWDJH facilities for a minimum of 10 years monitoring and sewage management in the city post construction evaluation for h. State government will Organize a septage/sewage half-yearly review of these facilities management of and their operationality all ULBs within the district i. Develop IEC and BCC campaigns j. Capacity building and training: identify master trainers for capacity building and training, and devise a calendar of training for ULBs

31 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

District OUSS Component State Government City Government/ULBs Government IV. Safety standards and guidelines are followed in the physical handling and management of waste • Ensure the successful implementation of the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act (MSA), in collaboration with the relevant department of the state responsible for implementation of the Act • Ensure that the state rules under MSA 2013 are passed with clear indications of responsibilities and roles for the state government departments and ULBs • Ensure that all relevant state JRYHUQPHQWDQG8/%RȞȑFLDOV (including law enforcement) as • Identify insanitary latrines in the city for well as elected representatives conversion into sanitary latrines; these may are familiar with the provisions of be prioritized under SBM (U) action MSA 2013 and the relevant rules • Ensure that the urban public in the city • Identify insanitary latrines in the are sensitized as to the provisions of the state for conversion into sanitary law, come forward voluntarily to convert latrines; these may be prioritized insanitary latrines into sanitary latrines, and under SBM (U) action refrain from employing manual scavengers. • Ensure that the urban public are • Facilitate construction of sanitary and sensitized as to the provisions of ecologically safe toilets (and substructures) the law, come forward voluntarily that require neither manual scavenging nor to convert insanitary latrines into hazardous cleaning sanitary latrines, and refrain from employing manual scavengers • Take necessary steps (including OHJLVODWLRQUHVROXWLRQVDQGȑQHV to ensure that in the future no insanitary latrines are constructed in the state, and manual scavengers are not engaged for these latrines • Ensure that guidelines for sanitation infrastructure at the household and non-household institutional levels cover the construction of sanitary and ecologically safe toilets (and substructures) that require neither manual scavenging, nor hazardous cleaning

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 32 MODULE III

District OUSS Component State Government City Government/ULBs Government V. Women and girls have access to safe Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) • Ensure the safety of women in accessing public and community toilet facilities • Ensure that hygiene materials such as sanitary napkins are widely available to women at public and community facilities; ULBs can explore tie-ups with NGOs to provide sanitary materials to women at/ QHDUWKHVHIDFLOLWLHVDWDȞIRUGDEOHUDWHV • Promote household-level safe disposal of hygiene material such as used sanitary napkins • Ensure that all facilities for sanitation provide dignity and safety to menstruating women and girls • Disposal bins for sanitary napkins should be located within the toilet stalls itself Five-pronged strategy: • Ensure that all IEC and BCC • A separate area for washing, drying and • Access to programmes for sanitation in disposal of cloth napkins must be made information the state are designed to include within the toilet block, not outside in the • Access to MHM sessions on MHM that provide compound, or any area visible to people material access to accurate and pragmatic outside • Safe disposal of information on menstruation for • Ensure that all sanitation facilities have MHM materials at women and girls; additionally, access to water and soap within the toilet household level these programmes should also blocks for women and girls target sensitization of men • Access to facilities • Ensure that sanitation facilities have access that ensure privacy • Work with the education, women to disposal facilities for used menstrual and safety and child, and health departments material. This includes: to devise and roll out MHM and • Access to water and a. Bins being placed within the toilet sanitation programmes in urban soap and access to stalls itself to allow for privacy when schools and colleges across Odisha disposal facilities changing b. Bins being emptied regularly and the disposed menstrual waste regularly collected c. Disposed menstrual material may be treated as biomedical/ hazardous waste and disposal of this waste must follow the rules for treatment and disposal of biomedical/ hazardous waste accordingly • Ensure that institutional toilets built by private entities (e.g. workplaces) or public entities (e.g. schools, hospitals) also follow WKLVȑYHSURQJHGSROLF\ • Undertake regular monitoring to ensure that this system is functional across the city. • State guidelines for community and public toilets will include these provisions.

33 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

• Ensure that insanitary latrines are converted to sanitary latrines as per MSA 2013, and households defecating in the open because of a lack of household latrines are provided access either to an IHHL or a community toilet • Ensure that households, communities, public and institutional toilets with on-site sanitation are provided with and follow safe standards of FSM/septage management • Ensure that all constructed drains are repaired at vulnerable points to prevent leakages into the environment • Bring out technical guidance • Explore wastewater treatment facilities at notes from time to time to community and city levels to ensure that no specify standards, processes and wastewater (grey or black) reaches the open technologies that may be used to environment untreated Cities/towns do not ensure safe discharge of waste into • Ensure all MSW dumped into constructed discharge untreated the waterbodies of Odisha waste (solid, liquid and and/or natural drains is cleaned, and the • Develop a law on wastewater and faecal waste) into the ZDVWHFROOHFWHGVFLHQWLȑFDOO\WUHDWHGDQG faecal waste (management and waterbodies of Odisha disposed; all new (storm water) drains disposal) in urban areas should be constructed as per approved • Take necessary steps – regulatory norms or legal – to ensure enforcement of • Take special care with crematoria and these norms other institutions dealing with the disposal of human and/or animal bodies (e.g. slaughterhouses); ensure that such disposal is properly monitored, follows set norms and does not result in pollution of waterbodies of the state • Ensure that waste management in cities and towns is such that no solid and/ or liquid waste is disposed directly in the waterbodies; the waste must be VFLHQWLȑFDOO\SURFHVVHGDQGRQO\WUHDWHG HȞȠOXHQWWKDWPHHWVHQYLURQPHQWDO discharge norms may be released into waterbodies

3.3.2 Institutional Framework The existing multi-tier, state-/district-/city-level institutional arrangement, with clear assignment of roles and responsibilities to the institutions, is discussed below:

STATE GOVERNMENT To set up various committees and task forces at the state, district and city levels

I. High Powered Committee (HPC) The HPC is the apex body, chaired by the Chief Secretary, providing overall guidance and policy direction to urban sanitation initiatives in the state, and overseeing the planning and implementation of the state policy.

1. Guide the actions of the State Sanitation Directorate (SSD) and ensure convergence ZLWKRWKHUGHSDUWPHQWVIRURSWLPL]LQJHȞIRUWVWRZDUGVVXFFHVVIXORXWFRPHV 2. Prepare, approve and ensure online publication of the State Sanitation Policy and City Sanitation Plans (CSPs), if not already done. 3. Ensure comprehensive collection of citywide data on sanitation, covering the whole sanitation service chain – containment, collection, transportation, treatment, reuse/ disposal and, wherever possible, link this information to health outcomes in the state.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 34 MODULE III

4. Finalize the concept note on the urban sanitation situation in the state before submission to the SBM National Mission Directorate. 5. Empanel consultants of repute and experience for preparation of Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) for urban sanitation projects, including under SBM (U), and for conducting independent reviews and monitoring during execution of projects. 6. Empanel reputed institutes like IITs, NITs, State Technical Universities, etc. for the appraisal of DPRs. 7. Sanction projects related to urban sanitation service delivery. 8. 3ODQ IRU IXQG ȠORZ LQ WKH VKRUW PHGLXP DQG ORQJ WHUPV DQG DOVR IRU DGGLWLRQDO resource mobilization as needed. 9. Recommend proposals for release of instalments of funds for sanitation projects, including under SBM (U). 10. Monitor outcome and O&M arrangements of projects sanctioned and completed. 11. Review the progress of capacity building, IEC and public awareness activities, and approve annual action plans for these. 12. Ensure convergence of action for urban sanitation in the state, and bring about inter- departmental coordination and cooperation for this. 13. Ensure timely audits of funds released and review ‘action taken’ records in various audit reports and other similar reports. 14. Address violation of norms and conditions and review legal issues, if any.

II. State Sanitation Directorate (SSD) The SSD is the core HUDD line agency set up to provide implementation support under the policy, and to ensure successful implementation of the state policy by periodic review of progress across line agencies. The SSD functions as the State Mission Directorate for SBM (U) as well, headed by the Mission Director of SBM (U). The SSD's responsibilities include: • Support the HPC in the implementation of sanitation programmes and policy in the state. • 'HFLGHWKHIUDPHZRUNIRUDSSURSULDWHDQGHȞIHFWLYH0DQDJHPHQW,QIRUPDWLRQ System (MIS), Human Resource Management (HRM) and Monitoring & Evaluation (M&E) systems, implementation of the Urban WASH Communication Strategy, engagement with support organizations, and partnerships (PPPs or otherwise) required for the sanitation initiatives, especially SBM (U). • 6HWRXWJXLGHOLQHVIRU8/%VWRRSHUDWLRQDOL]HGLȞIHUHQWFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHVDQLWDWLRQ policy, including third party roles, etc. • Provide strategic direction to the state sanitation nodal agency for development, procurement and application of appropriate technology options and service standards for higher environmental and public health outcomes. • Responsible for the development and deployment of appropriate MIS and M&E systems to monitor progress under the policy. • Liaise with other line departments and agencies (such as the health and family ZHOIDUHGHSDUWPHQW63&%HWF WRȑQDOL]HRXWFRPHLQGLFDWRUVHQDEOHGDWDFDSWXUH etc. • Create/notify a uniform structure across the state for planning, designing, project preparation, appraisal, sanction and implementation of sanctioned projects, including under SBM (U) at the ULB level. • Review and appraise DPRs/project proposals received for urban sanitation under various programmes/ schemes, including SBM, and recommend them to the HPC. Wherever necessary, the SSD may engage empanelled appraisal agencies for the appraisal of these proposals/DPRs. • Bring in successful experiences/best practices in other cities, develop collaborations and suitable models for technical options and social mobilization (including making use of available expertise within the government), and disseminate these to other ULBs in the state through the capacity building mechanism.

35 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

• Advise the state to strategically implement the best available technology for sanitation service delivery as per the context of the urban sanitation situation in the state. • *XLGH8/%VLQWKHSUHSDUDWLRQRI&63VFKDQQHOOLQJȑQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHVIURPVWDWH central and externally aided sources and providing technical assistance required by ULBs. • Examine the need and possibilities of improving and securing (making safe) the work conditions of Safai Karmacharis. • Analyse the sanitation needs of the urban poor. • Examine the sanitation situation in schools, especially for girl children, with the idea of using this platform to also trigger behavioural change in the community, design and implement suitable reward schemes that provide incentives to ULBs to achieve positive sanitation outcomes, and promote demand-based sanitation while ensuring that suitable protocols for maintenance are set up. • $GYLVHWKHVWDWHJRYHUQPHQWRQQHFHVVDU\PRGLȑFDWLRQVQRWLȑFDWLRQVUHTXLUHGE\ law to better the sanitation policy, examine the updates made to the Development &RQWURO5HJXODWLRQVDQGSURYLGHRWKHUWHFKQLFDONQRZKRZIRUHȞIHFWLYH management.

Iii. District Government

District-level Review & Monitoring Committee (DLRMC) The DLRMC is constituted with the objective of ensuring satisfactory monitoring of projects under the Chairpersonship of a Member of Parliament. The DLRMC monitors SBM (U) projects in a given district as per the guidelines issued by the SBM (U) National Mission Directorate.

District Urban Sanitation Committee (DUSC at District Urban Development Agency) Chaired by the District Collector, it is the district-level monitoring and implementing agency for urban sanitation programmes, schemes and strategies with Mayors/ &KDLUSHUVRQVDQG&RPPLVVLRQHUV([HFXWLYH2ȞȑFHUVRI8/%VKHDGVRIOLQHGHSDUWPHQWV and representatives from local industries associations, NGOs, etc. The DUSC is to: 1. Remain in constant contact with the SSD for implementation of the State Urban Sanitation Policy and coordinate between the ULBs in the district and the state for WLPHO\DQGSURSHUȠORZRILQIRUPDWLRQ 2. Direct the integration of city sanitation planning in the ULBs according to the directions of the state-level nodal agency. 3. Monitor the progress of preparation of CSPs, and implementation of sanitation promotion, health and environment outcomes, in urban areas of the district and report as required by the SSD. 4. 3ODQ IRU HPHUJHQF\ UHTXLUHPHQWV ȠORRGV F\FORQHV HWF RI VDQLWDWLRQ DQG DOVR seasonal requirements (festivals, fairs, etc.) and approve the arrangements. 5. Direct the coordination of the activities of line department frontline personnel towards enabling planned sanitation outcomes. 6. Assist the ULBs in carrying out their tasks as detailed in the City Sanitation Task Force (see below) in the initial phase. 7. Oversee the clustering strategy in the district and its successful implementation. 8. Review DPRs for urban sanitation developed by the City PMU under various programmes, including SBM (U). In particular, the DUSC shall ensure no duplication RIHȞIRUWVUHVRXUFHV SK\VLFDODQGȑQDQFLDO DFURVVFOXVWHUVZKHUHYHUDSSOLFDEOH 9. Approve all sanitation projects, except large capital projects on composting, septage/ FS treatment plants or WWTPs. The SSD and HPC may amend the limits of these approvals from time to time, and issue instructions accordingly.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 36 MODULE III

Iv. City Government/ Ulbs

City Sanitation Task Force (CSTF) 8QGHU WKH OHDGHUVKLS RI WKH &RPPLVVLRQHU([HFXWLYH 2ȞȑFHU WKH &67) LV WR GHVLJQ implement and monitor the sanitation promotion programmes in the respective ULBs. The CSTF is to: 1. Prepare baseline database and situation analysis. 2. Design the CSP emphasizing participatory approaches. 3. Ensure use of sanitary latrines by all, as well as safe disposal of sewage and liquid waste. 4. Monitor progress of the campaign and make periodic corrections as needed, and regularly report to district and state coordination agencies. 5. Work with support organizations, line departments and civil society formations in setting up systems that enable community-level monitoring and management of common sanitary facilities. 6. Develop systems that enable community-based monitoring of public health and environmental outcomes. 7. Work with the appropriate line departments and civil formations to identify and develop suitable citizen interaction platforms as a hub for communication and also monitoring. 8. Design and implement incentive schemes for wards or suitable sub-city administrative WHUULWRU\DQGRWKHULGHQWLȑHGXQLWVǓVFKRROVVOXPVVKRSSLQJDUHDVHWF 9. 5HYLHZ '35V IRU XUEDQ VDQLWDWLRQ GHYHORSHG E\ WKH FRQFHUQHG RȞȑFLDOV XQGHU various programmes, including SBM (U), and recommend them to the DUSC for consideration. 10. Create necessary subcommittees (e.g. solid waste, septage, etc.) to ensure ward-level monitoring of the implementation the policy across all wards.

City Project Implementation Unit (PIU) 7KH&LW\3,8LVKHDGHGE\WKH&RPPLVVLRQHU([HFXWLYH2ȞȑFHUWRLPSOHPHQWWKHVDQLWDWLRQ programmes in the respective ULBs. The SSD will notify the technical support to be provided. The City PIU is to: 1. Conduct the baseline survey. 2. Provide necessary inputs for the CSP. 3. Conduct the citywide communication campaign. 4. Work with the community to ensure citizen engagement for sanitation service delivery across all categories, including the vulnerable. 5. Develop DPRs for urban sanitation under various programmes/schemes, including SBM (U), for consideration by the state government 6. Provide necessary support to the CSTF for implementation of sanitation programmes/ schemes in the city.

Ward Committees/Area Committees These are responsible for oversight and implementation of the CSP within the ward and report to the CSTF. They are also responsible for monitoring the progress of the campaign and school sanitation initiatives.

Other Support Organizations &67) PD\ LQYROYH LGHQWLȑHG FRPPLWWHG 1*2V DQG &%2V E\ DOORFDWLQJ FOHDU UROHV DQG RXWFRPHV 3ULYDWH VHFWRU HQJDJHPHQW LV WR EH HQFRXUDJHG WKURXJK YROXQWDU\ HȞIRUWV ȑQDQFLDOFRQWULEXWLRQVRUWKH333URXWH

3.4 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, 2005 The JNNURM was launched by the GoI on 3 December 2005 with the objective of providing urban infrastructure for service delivery on a sustainable basis by partially funding

37 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION

LQIUDVWUXFWXUHSURMHFWVDQGOLQNLQJVXFKVXSSRUWZLWKVSHFLȑFUHIRUPVDWWKHVWDWHDQG8/% levels.

-11850KDVEHHQUHFRJQL]HGDVWKHȑUVWQDWLRQDOȠODJVKLSSURJUDPPHWRDGGUHVVWKH concerns and challenges of urban India in the policy discourse on economic development. The initiative ensured the required large-scale investment in urban infrastructure, as well as policy and institutional reforms for the sustainable socioeconomic growth of cities through decentralized governance and involvement of all the stakeholders – the states, ULBs, communities and others.

Under JNNURM, schemes and projects were structured on a partnership basis involving WKH *R, VWDWH JRYHUQPHQWV DQG 8/%V $V D ȑUVW VWHS D &LW\ 'HYHORSPHQW 3ODQ &'3 followed by a well-aligned Detailed Project Report (DPR), had to be prepared by ULBs. In order to be a part of the JNNURM projects, the state government and the ULB(s) of the mission city had to implement the prerequisite reforms within a timeline and sign a memorandum of understanding.

With a clear focus on integrated development and inclusive growth, the government developed a strategic approach for rolling out JNNURM. The MoUD and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation were responsible for the management of the project. The former handled infrastructure development in cities and towns through two programmes: the Sub Mission for Urban Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) for 65 cities and the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) for all other towns and cities. The latter was responsible for components related to social housing and improvement of slums, under two programmes: the Sub Mission for Basic Services to Urban Poor (BSUP) for 65 cities and the Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) for all other towns and cities .

The UIDSSMT was launched to improve urban infrastructure in towns and cities in a planned manner. It subsumed the erstwhile schemes, the Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT) and Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP). The objectives of the scheme were to: a) Improve infrastructural facilities and help create durable public assets and quality- oriented services in cities and towns b) Enhance PPP in infrastructural development c) Promote planned integrated development of towns and cities

3.5 Swachh Bharat Mission, 2014 Swachh Bharat Mission was launched as a massive mass movement with the aim of creating a clean India by 2019. Based on the ideologies of Mahatma Gandhi, the scheme emphasizes cleanliness (swachhta) for a healthy and prosperous life. The scheme was launched by the central government on 2 October 2014, the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, for symbolic relevance. The mission covers sanitation for the entire country including all rural and urban areas. The urban component of the mission is implemented by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), and the rural component by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MoDWS).

Towards the goal of a clean India, SBM focuses on elimination of open defecation, FRQYHUVLRQRILQVDQLWDU\WRLOHWVWRSRXUȠOXVKWRLOHWVHUDGLFDWLRQRIPDQXDOVFDYHQJLQJ and improvement of municipal solid waste management (MSWM). It also emphasizes bringing about a behavioural change in people regarding healthy sanitation practices. The mission aims to cover 1.04 crore households, provide 2.5 lakh community toilets, 2.6 lakh public toilets, and a SWM facility in each town. Under the programme, community toilets ZLOOEHEXLOWLQUHVLGHQWLDODUHDVZKHUHLWLVGLȞȑFXOWWRFRQVWUXFWODWULQHV ,++/V 3XEOLF toilets will also be constructed in designated locations such as tourist places, markets, bus VWDWLRQVUDLOZD\VWDWLRQVHWF7KHSURJUDPPHZLOOEHLPSOHPHQWHGRYHUDȑYH\HDUSHULRG in 4401 towns. Following the guidelines of the mission, the Government of Odisha has rolled out the scheme in all the 113 ULBs of the state on a mission mode, which includes DFKLHYHPHQWRIWKHWDUJHWE\ZLWKDFDSLWDORXWOD\RI,15FURUH7KHVSHFLȑF targets include: a) 3,85,600 IHHLs b) 12,558 community toilet seats

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 38 MODULE III

c) 5191 public toilet seats G 6:0UROORXWLQFOXGLQJVFLHQWLȑFGLVSRVDOLQDOO8/%V e) Capacity building and behaviour change initiative

3.6 Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), 2015 This scheme was launched in June 2015 with a focus on urban renewal projects to establish infrastructure for robust sewerage networks and water supply for urban transformation. The convergence of AMRUT with various other schemes, such as SBM, Housing for All 2022, SMART cities mission and other state-sponsored schemes, has been emphasized. 7KHVFKHPHWDUJHWVRQHODNKSOXVFLWLHVLQWKHFRXQWU\7KHPLVVLRQSHULRGLVȑYH\HDUVLH 2015-2020.

The main objectives of AMRUT are to: i. Ensure every household has access to a tap with assured supply of water and a sewerage connection ii. Ensure proper drainage system to prevent possible health hazards iii. Increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well-maintained open spaces (e.g. parks) iv. Reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non- motorized transport (e.g. walking and cycling)

All these outcomes are valued by citizens, particularly women, and indicators and standards have been prescribed by MoUD in the form of Service Level Benchmarks (SLBs).

3.7 Smart Cities Mission, 2015 7KH6PDUW&LWLHV0LVVLRQLVDQXUEDQUHQHZDODQGUHWURȑWWLQJSURJUDPPHE\WKH*R,ZLWKD mission to develop 100 cities all over the country that are citizen friendly and sustainable. With the aim of accelerated urban growth, the mission aims to develop 100 smart cities as satellite towns of larger cities by modernizing the existing medium cities. The MoUD is the implementing agency, in collaboration with the state governments of the respective cities. The mission proposes to evaluate the nominated 100 potential smart cities. The proposed smart city plans prepared by potential smart cities have been evaluated for prioritizing FLWLHVIRUIXQGLQJ7KHWRSFLWLHVDȻWHUHYDOXDWLRQZHUHFKRVHQGXULQJDQGWKH rest have been asked to make the necessary changes. The Apex Committee in the MoUD is the decision-making body for the selection of the cities. The smart city plan also includes provision for waste and water management as given below: a) Waste to energy and fuel b) Waste to compost c) Wastewater to be treated d) Recycling and reduction of construction and demolition Waste e) Smart meters and management I /HDNDJHLGHQWLȑFDWLRQSUHYHQWLYHPHDVXUHV g) Water quality monitoring

3.8 International Experience in Wastewater Monitoring and Pollution Control: European Union The EU Urban Wastewater Treatment (UWWT) Directive (91/271/EEC) was adopted in May ZLWKVSHFLȑFGHDGOLQHVIRUWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIYDULRXVPHDVXUHV7KH,QWHJUDWHG Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive (96/61/EC) is also in operation and is DLPHGSULQFLSDOO\DWLQGXVWULDOGLVFKDUJHV(ȞIHFWLYHSROOXWLRQFRQWUROUHTXLUHVWKDWERWK directives be considered together.

7KH 8::7 GLUHFWLYH OD\V GRZQ PLQLPXP VWDQGDUGV WR EH PHW E\ HȞȠOXHQWV EDVHG RQ SRSXODWLRQHTXLYDOHQWZLWKGLȞIHUHQWVWDQGDUGVIRUGLVFKDUJHVLQWRǕVHQVLWLYHǖDQGǕQRQ sensitive’ areas. The term ‘sensitive area’ covers regions where eutrophication is a problem, RUDSRWHQWLDOSUREOHP,QDGGLWLRQWRGHȑQHGVWDQGDUGVWKHUHDUHPLQLPXPVDPSOLQJ UHTXLUHPHQWVDQDO\WLFDOSURFHGXUHVDUHDOVRVSHFLȑHG7KHVWDQGDUGVDUHWKHPLQLPXP standards to which all wastewater treatment plants must adhere. It is up to the member states to implement and monitor these standards as deemed appropriate, to impose higher standards if necessary, and to determine sensitive areas.

7KH,33&GLUHFWLYHKDVEHHQPRGLȑHGVXEVWDQWLDOO\VLQFHLWVLQWURGXFWLRQDQGKDVQRZ been superseded (2008/1/EC). In general, the IPPC directive requires industrial and

39 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR WASTEWATER AND SANITATION agricultural activities with a high pollution potential to obtain permits. This permit can only be issued if certain environmental conditions are met, so that industrial companies themselves bear responsibility for preventing and reducing any pollution they may cause. The directive applies inter alia to energy industries, metal production and processing, mineral and chemical industries, waste management, livestock farming, etc.

The implementation of the UWWT and IPPC directives, along with any other that might be relevant, is a matter for individual member states and each has its own procedures. )DLOXUHWRFRPSO\ZLWKWKHGLUHFWLYHVFDQUHVXOWLQWKHLPSRVLWLRQRIVXEVWDQWLDOȑQDQFLDO SHQDOWLHVZKLFKDUHXVXDOO\DVXȞȑFLHQWLQGXFHPHQWWRUHFWLI\GHȑFLHQFLHVDQGPHHWWKH standards. In addition to the UWWT and IPPC directives (which both focus principally on point source pollution), European member states are now in the process of complying with the Water Framework Directive (WFD – adopted in October 2000) which recognizes WKDWGLȞIXVHVRXUFHVKDYHDPDUNHGHȞIHFWRQWKHHQYLURQPHQW,WVSULQFLSDOREMHFWLYHLVWR restore European waterbodies to good ecological and chemical conditions.

3.9 National Experience in Wastewater Monitoring and Pollution Control: Prodes, Brazil 352'(6 3URJUDPD'HVSROXL©¥RGH%DFLDV+LGURJU£ȑFDV ZDVLQWURGXFHGLQE\WKH National Water Agency (http://www.ana.gov.br/prodes/). It is an innovative programme that aims to encourage the development of new wastewater treatment plants and to improve the performance of existing ones. Its great innovation lies in the fact that it departs from traditional funding routes and is grounded in an output-based system of ȑQDQFLDOLQFHQWLYHVDJDLQVWDVHWRISUHGHWHUPLQHGVWDQGDUGV,WZDVFRQFHLYHGDJDLQVW a background of previous public investments that were frequently overestimated, XQȑQLVKHG RU DEDQGRQHG DȻWHU FRQVWUXFWLRQ (QFRXUDJLQJ QHZ LQYHVWPHQWV ZDV QRW HQRXJK LW ZDV GHHPHG QHFHVVDU\ WR JXDUDQWHH WKDW WKH XQGHUWDNLQJV ZHUH HȞIHFWLYHO\ FRQFOXGHGDQGZHOOPDQDJHGDȻWHUZDUGV

352'(6GRHVQRWȑQDQFHZRUNVRUHTXLSPHQWQRUGRHVLWPDNHDQ\SD\PHQWEHIRUHWKH start of treatment. It is an incentive payment to utilities that invest in the construction, enlargement or improvement of wastewater treatment plants. There is only payment for the proven reduction of pollutant loads over a three-year period in accordance with performance targets pre-established on each contract. Reimbursement of some or all of the capital costs of the proposed undertakings can be made in return for the achievement of targets. The programme also encourages the transition from capital-intensive projects WRPRUHHFRQRPLFDODOWHUQDWLYHVWKDWRȞIHUVLPLODURSHUDWLRQDOUHVXOWVIRUORZHUFRVWV

&RQWUDFWYDOXHVDUHEDVHGRQDSURMHFW VH[SHFWHGȑQDOEHQHȑWVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHVL]HRIWKH population served and the pollution load removed. There are nine quality performance WDUJHWV VSHFLI\LQJ PLQLPXP UHPRYDO HȞȑFLHQFLHV RI WKH VSHFLȑHG FRQVWLWXHQWV HDFK with a per capita estimation of capital cost as a function of plant size. The maximum value of the incentive payment varies according to the size (population equivalent) of the wastewater treatment plant. Payment is not in one lump sum but is spread over a three- year period, during which 12 payments are made – one every three months – provided the period has been one of successful operation and all targets have been met. Failure to PHHWWDUJHWVLQLWLDOO\JHQHUDWHVDZDUQLQJWKHUHDȻWHUSD\PHQWVZRXOGEHZLWKGUDZQRU not made. Failure to meet the targets at the end of the period could result in all payments being returned to the treasury.

3.10 Summary A core governmental role is to formulate policies to engage and bring accountability to WKHYDULRXVVWDNHKROGHUVLQFOXGLQJLWVHOIIRUHȞIHFWLYHVDQLWDWLRQVHUYLFHVDQGZDVWHZDWHU management. Participatory policies encourage sustainable growth and development through a demand-driven approach.

This module focused on various acts/policies and missions initiated by the government. It also touched upon timelines and goals of each mission. Here, an overview of the existing rights and norms related to sanitation and water management has been provided followed by an insight into some international initiatives as well.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 40

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Learning Objectives

ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGGLȞIHUHQWV\VWHPVDYDLODEOHIRUZDVWHZDWHUPDQDJHPHQW ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHDGYDQWDJHVDQGGLVDGYDQWDJHVRIWKHGLȞIHUHQWV\VWHPV ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHYDULRXVIDFWRUVWKDWLQȠOXHQFHWKHVWUDWHJ\IRUZDVWHZDWHUPDQDJHPHQW TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE 1.1 Sanitation 2 1.2 Components of Sanitation 3 1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation 16 1.4 Summary 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM 2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? 20 2.2 Components of SFD 20 2.3 Purpose of SFD 20 2.4 Summary 20

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Wastewater Management Systems 42 )DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ 4.3 Summary 51

MODULE VII: TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE 7.1 Introduction 90 7.2 Objectives of Treatment 91 7.3 Faecal Sludge Treatment Technologies 91 URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

4.1 Wastewater Management Systems A wastewater management system is the responsibility of a ULB, or its counterparts under a framework process, ensuring that the municipal wastewater of a city/community/region is treated and that this will continue to function in future. In this module, we will focus on various wastewater management systems in general. A focus on other aspects of FSM will be discussed in detail in the subsequent modules.

Urban wastewater management systems work on three broad concepts based on the proximity of the source of wastewater to the treatment facility, as discussed in the subsequent sections.

2ȚI6LWH:DVWHZDWHU0DQDJHPHQW6\VWHPV 2ȞIVLWH DOVRFDOOHGFHQWUDOL]HG ZDVWHZDWHUPDQDJHPHQWFRQVLVWVRI :LOGHUHU a) A centralized collection/conveyance system, through a sewer network, to collect wastewater generated from households, commercial and institutional buildings, and industrial units/plants, and transport it b) A designated centralized WWTP, usually located outside the settlement areas, to which the wastewater is transported F 'LVSRVDOUHXVHRIWKHWUHDWHGHȞȠOXHQWXVXDOO\IDUIURPWKHSRLQWRIRULJLQ

7KHRȞIVLWHZDVWHZDWHUPDQDJHPHQWV\VWHP VHH)LJXUH ZDVGHYHORSHGLQWKHPLG nineteenth century. The system continued to serve populations even with increasing urbanization and changes in urban life style, which resulted in more wastewater generation locally. Initially, households were served by cesspools or simply deposited their waste in the streets, causing outbreaks of cholera, typhus and other fatal diseases in the major cities of Central Europe and the US. Looking to solve these problems, pioneers of bacteriology and hygiene discovered that these diseases are caused by the direct contact of humans with their own excreta and by the spread of pathogens and microorganisms present in the excreta (Hophmayer-Tokich, 2006).

The technical solution to the problem that was developed was constructing public sewer systems for wastewater collection and transportation. This resulted in wastewater being WUDQVSRUWHGRXWRIWKHFLWLHVLQWRWKHQHDUHVWZDWHUZD\ZKHUHVHOISXULȑFDWLRQFRXOGRFFXU As a result, outbreaks of cholera and typhus were reduced and eventually completely KDOWHG 7KH ȑUVW FRPSUHKHQVLYH VHZHU QHWZRUN ZDV FRQVWUXFWHG LQ +DPEXUJ VWDUWLQJ 1842, and soon other European cities began constructing large and centralized sewer network-based WWTPs for wastewater management. By the late nineteenth century, this model, seen as a successful one, was adopted by major cities of the US, based on technology transfer. However, as more wastewater was discharged into surface water, the VHOISXULȑFDWLRQFDSDFLW\RIWKHUHFHLYLQJZDWHUERG\ZDVH[FHHGHGDQGWKHZDWHUTXDOLW\ gradually deteriorated.

Since surface water was increasingly required to serve the need for potable water supply, the development of wastewater treatment technology became crucial. Mechanical treatments such as settling tanks to remove the settleable solids, and later on, bacterial SXULȑFDWLRQ ZHUH GHYHORSHG 7KH ODWWHU EDVHG RQ LQWHQVLYH PLFURELRORJLFDO WUHDWPHQW technologies, was suitable for larger cities and was used on a large scale. Trickling Filters was the dominant technology until the end of the 1950s when it was taken over by the Activated Sludge technology (Hartmann, 1999). Figure 9 below shows a centralized system where each household is connected to sewer lines (black lines) and all the sewer lines are diverted to the nearest WWTP through the conveyance system.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 42 MODULE IV

Figure 4.1 : Schematic diagram of centralized wastewater collection and treatment (Bakir, 2001)

Throughout the twentieth century, this centralized wastewater management was continuously extended to the spreading urban areas, especially in the industrialized countries. Developments in treatment technology catered to the changing needs of the population served and the varying requirements with respect to public health and environmental concerns. Today, the trend in these countries is towards further development and improvement of the centralized systems. Indeed, since the large-scale introduction of centralized wastewater infrastructure, cities in industrialized countries have been essentially free from waterborne diseases. Thus, this strategy has become the standard tool of environmental protection and control; from the end of the nineteenth In developing countries there is also century to the present day, it has remained the preferred urban wastewater management a tendency to copy and apply the same method in these countries, serving the major cities and towns of most European as well as other industrialized nations. collection and treatment technologies as used in the industrialized countries, In Germany, for example, over 95% of the population is currently connected to sewer although these are expensive solutions systems; in Israel the proportion is 96%. Thus, it is referred to as conventional wastewater and many believe that applying them management. As the preferred and conventional strategy in industrialized countries, as standard solutions for developing centralized management was extended to low- and middle-income countries as well. countries is not feasible (UNEP/GPA, In the Middle East and North African countries (middle-income countries), for example, centralized wastewater collection systems are typically provided to large cities and 2000). secondary towns. Tunisia's main cities and secondary towns are served with wastewater collection systems and central WWTPs; in Jordan 65% of the population is connected to collection systems and the largest towns are served by central treatment plants (Bakir, 2001).

2ȞIVLWH ZDVWHZDWHU PDQDJHPHQW LV D SRSXODU FKRLFH IRU VPDOOHU FRPPXQLWLHV DPRQJ planners and decision-makers (Bakir, 2001). However, smaller administrative boundaries PDNH LW GLȞȑFXOW WR SODQ IRU D FHQWUDOL]HG ::73 7KH RSHUDWLRQ RI VXFK D ODUJHVFDOH LQIUDVWUXFWXUHQHHGVUHJLRQDORULQWHUPXQLFLSDOFRRSHUDWLRQIRUȑQDQFLDOJDLQVLQWHUPV of economies of scale. In this case wastewater is transported from several adjacent communities to a centralized treatment plant that is constructed to serve them all (Reed, 1996).

In Germany, for example, the municipality is responsible for the management of ZDVWHZDWHU ,Q FDVH WKH ȑQDQFLDO DQG WHFKQLFDO FRPSRQHQW LV QRW RI YHU\ VLJQLȑFDQW amount, it is referred to the inter-municipal joint venture, constituted for the purpose. In France, joint ventures established by municipalities are responsible for wastewater management (WHO/UNEP, 1997) and so is the case in Israel. In Fayoum, a predominantly rural region in Egypt, a master plan for wastewater treatment was prepared based on this principle, and 70 towns and villages were clustered into 11 central treatment plants (Abd El Gawad & Butter, 1995). Thus, centralized wastewater management – for large cities, secondary towns or a few smaller communities – is the conventional strategy. It is applied in most cities and towns in industrialized countries and is the preferred choice of most planners and decision-makers in other countries as well.

43 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

1) $YDLODEOH7HFKQRORJLHVIRU2ȚIVLWH:DVWHZDWHU0DQDJHPHQW Within the framework of the centralized strategy, several treatment technologies can be applied, ranging from simple screening and settling operations to sophisticated biological and chemical operations. Basically, two main approaches for wastewater treatment can be LGHQWLȑHGLQWHQVLYHDQGH[WHQVLYH +RSKPD\HU7RNLFK

4.1.1.1.1 Intensive Treatment This is the most common approach in industrialized countries with Activated Sludge as the conventional technology. This conventional treatment is based on intensive biological WUHDWPHQWVWRUHPRYHSROOXWDQWVLQDUHODWLYHO\VKRUWWLPHDQGFRQȑQHGVSDFH$GGLWLRQDO advanced treatment – such as a disinfection unit (chlorination, ozonation, UV) and removal of nutrients (N and P) – can be added depending on the disposal/reuse requirements. These intensive technologies require a smaller space than the extensive technologies and WKXVKDYHȑQDQFLDOEHQHȑWVHVSHFLDOO\LQGHQVHO\SRSXODWHGXUEDQDUHDVZKHUHODQGYDOXH LVKLJK,QDGGLWLRQWKH\FDQUHDFKYHU\KLJKWUHDWPHQWHȞȑFLHQFLHV+RZHYHUWKH\DUH energy intensive, require highly skilled manpower (for design, construction, O&M), and require large amounts of capital for both construction and operation (Friedler, 2001).

Figure 4.2: Schematic of intensive wastewater treatment systems (WWT, 2017)

INFLUENT PUMP SCREEN SECONDARY INFLUENT RAW OVER FLOW SUMP CHAMBER SCREEN SEWAGE CHAMBER Lift Sewage and BOD= 250 mg/l Removes Rock, Removes Smaller To prevent provide consistent SS = 300 mg/l Roots and Rags and fine particles overflow flow

HOMOGENISATION FLOW AERATION TANK CLARFIER TANK TANK MEASUREMENT Removes major Separate the Balances and CHAMBER pollutants Measures and sludge Equalizes flow records flow

TREATED SECONDARY EFFLUENT SLUDGE TANK CALRIFIER BOD= 20 mg/l Sludge Storage SS = 50 mg/l

DRIED SLUDGE TO BE CARTED AWAY

4.1.1.1.2 Extensive treatment This is also referred to as natural treatment or ecological engineering, and includes methods such as lagoons, stabilization ponds and constructed wetlands. These are non- mechanical biological treatment systems in which natural processes of dissolution occur. 7KH GHVLJQ RI WKHVH ǕQDWXUDOǖ V\VWHPV LV EDVHG RQ WKH VWLPXODWLRQ RI VHOISXULȑFDWLRQ of waterbodies or the stimulation of natural biological processes. These systems are simple in O&M and have relatively low construction and operation costs. Their biggest disadvantage is that they have substantially greater land area requirements and thus are IHDVLEOHRQO\LIODQGLVDYDLODEOHDQGODQGSULFHVDUHVXȞȑFLHQWO\ORZ +RSKPD\HU7RNLFK 2006). The process involved in the treatment is discussed below. i. Pre-treatment done in a settler – a device that separates the liquid from the solid LL )LUVWWUHDWPHQWLQDQDQDHURELFEDȞȠOHGUHDFWRUǓDGHYLFHWKDWKDVLGHQWLFDOFKDPEHUV IRUWKHHȞȠOXHQWWRPRYHIURPWKHWRSWRWKHERWWRP LLL 6HFRQGWUHDWPHQWLQDQDQDHURELFȑOWHUǓDGHYLFHȑOOHGZLWKDȑOWHUPDWHULDO FLQGHU ZLWKWKHHȞȠOXHQWPRYLQJWKURXJKLWIURPWKHWRSWRWKHERWWRP LY 7KLUGWUHDWPHQWLQDSODQWHGJUDYHOȑOWHUǓDVWUXFWXUHȑOOHGZLWKJUDYHOPDWHULDODQG SODQWHGZLWKZDWHUUHVLVWDQWUHHGSODQWVWRSURYLGHR[\JHQWRWKHSDVVLQJHȞȠOXHQW

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 44 MODULE IV

Figure 4.3: Schematic of extensive wastewater treatment systems (Ecoideaz, 2017)

,Q DULG DQG VHPLDULG DUHDV ZKHUH WKH HȞȠOXHQW FDQ EH UHXVHG IRU LUULJDWLRQ VWRUDJH capacity is needed to regulate between wastewater ‘production’, which occurs throughout WKH\HDUDQGHȞȠOXHQWGHPDQGIRULUULJDWLRQZKLFKRFFXUVRQO\LQWKHGU\VXPPHUPRQWKV Thus, ponds and lagoons can serve this need.

These processes are well established and suitable for low-income rural communities. Most of them provide adequate treatment for the removal of organic matter, but some fail in the removal of nutrients (UNEP/GPA, 2000).

4.1.1.2 Wastewater Collection Systems $OWKRXJKWUDGLWLRQDOO\WKHFRVWHȞIHFWLYHQHVVRIYDULRXVZDVWHZDWHUWUHDWPHQWDOWHUQDWLYHV is commonly evaluated prior to selecting a treatment technology, alternatives for wastewater collection systems are rarely considered (Otis et al., 1996). The collection systems available today are the conventional system and the unconventional systems (Mara, 1996). The conventional system goes back to the historical development of wastewater management. It can be a combined system or a separate system. Combined systems carry sewage and VWRUPZDWHU XUEDQUXQRȞI DWWKHVDPHFRQGXLW6HSDUDWHV\VWHPVWUDQVSRUWVWRUPZDWHU in water drains and sewage in sanitary sewers. The conventional system is commonly used (hence ‘conventional’) without consideration of alternatives. The construction costs DUHKLJKGXHWRVSHFLȑFWHFKQLFDOUHTXLUHPHQWVVXFKDVDPLQLPXPGHSWKIRUSURWHFWLRQ DJDLQVWWUDȞȑFORDGVDPLQLPXPVORSHWRDYRLGVHGLPHQWDWLRQRIVROLGVDQGDPLQLPXP diameter to avoid blockage, which accounts for almost 80-90% of the total capital cost of the collection and treatment facility (Otis, 1996). Another problem of the conventional collection system is that these systems are waterborne and use water as a transportation medium. Without water, sewer systems can rapidly block. Thus, they require an adequate and reliable water supply system and consumption of more than 100 litres/capita/day. In water-scarce countries, these systems may be inappropriate due to large usage of fresh water, whereas in other places inadequate water supply systems alone will preclude the possibility of reliable conventional systems (Hophmayer-Tokich, 2006).

/HVVFRVWO\EXWHTXDOO\HȞIHFWLYHDOWHUQDWLYHVWRWKHFRQYHQWLRQDOFROOHFWLRQV\VWHPVKDYH been developed. These systems, developed to address the need for cheaper collection alternatives, are being used in various places, mainly in the developing world, and KDYH EHHQ VXFFHVVIXO LQ VLJQLȑFDQWO\ UHGXFLQJ WKH FRVW RI ZDVWHZDWHU IDFLOLWLHV 7KHVH ‘unconventional’ systems have only recently been seriously considered and they include, IRUH[DPSOHVHWWOHGVHZHUDJHDQGVLPSOLȑHGVHZHUDJH 2WLV

Settled sewerage, also known as small bore sewerage, is a sewerage system that is designed to receive only the liquid portion of household wastewater. Solids are removed in the interceptor tank, which is part of the household connection, prior to discharge to WKHVHZHU7KHFODULȑHGHȞȠOXHQWȠORZVE\JUDYLW\LQWRWKHVHZHUVZKLFKDUHGHVLJQHGDV JUDYLW\ȠOXLGFRQGXLWV7KHFRVWLVUHGXFHGLQWKHVHWWOHGVHZHUDJHV\VWHPGXHWRVKDOORZ excavation depths, and the use of small diameter pipe work and simple inspection chambers, in comparison to the conventional system. The interceptor tank used in the VHWWOHGVHZHUDJHV\VWHPDFWVDVDEDODQFLQJWDQNDQGUHGXFHVWKHȠORZWKXVHQDEOLQJWKH system to perform well regardless of the water-use rate (Bakir, 2001).

45 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

6LPSOLȑHGVHZHUDJHLVDPRGLȑFDWLRQRIWKHFRQYHQWLRQDOVHZHUDJHV\VWHPZLWKFKDQJHV in design requirements and standards such as reduction in minimum depth, minimum GLDPHWHU PLQLPXP VORSH DQG FKDQJH LQ VHUYLFH FRQQHFWLRQV 6LPSOLȑHG VHZHUV KDYH proven to be substantially less expensive than conventional sewers, with cost savings ranging from 20 to 50% (Otis, 1996).

Figure 4.4: Schematic of settled sewerage (UNEP, 2017)

Septic tank Community Sewer

House sewer Tank to community sewer pipe

)LJXUH6FKHPDWLFRIVLPSOLȍHGVHZHUDJH 81(3

This strategy was historically common until centralized management became the preferred strategy at the end of the nineteenth century.

In the US, privy vaults and cesspools were used with the outlet constructed at ground level, usually discharging into the yard, street or an open channel. In Europe and Asia, dry sewage systems were more common. In this case containers were placed beneath the seats of privies to collect human excrement; once full, they were emptied at a disposal location near the residence. This system entailed potential use of the waste as fertilizer for nearby farmlands. These systems were gradually replaced by the centralized strategy.

During the past few decades, however, there is a renewed interest in the previously discarded on-site management strategy. These QHZHURQVLWHWHFKQRORJLHVLQWURGXFHGVLJQLȑFDQWLPSURYHPHQWVWRWKHV\VWHPVRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WKH\DOVRKDYHWKH DELOLW\WRLQWHJUDWHHȞIHFWLYHO\ZLWKZDWHUFDUULDJHZDVWHUHPRYDO %XULDQ

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 46 MODULE IV

As we have seen, the off-site strategy from the past century continues to be the conventional wastewater management strategy. Indeed, it is proven to be very efficient in wastewater treatment and pollution control. However, these conventional systems, especially the conventional collection system and the intensive treatment technologies, require highly skilled labour, large amounts of capital, and steady socioeconomic conditions. All these make it difficult and in many cases not beneficial, especially in low population density areas, to apply this strategy for wastewater treatment. A viable alternative in these cases can be the decentralized management.

4.1.2 On-site Wastewater Management Systems In on-site (also referred to as decentralized) wastewater management, wastewater is managed – collected, treated and disposed/reused – at or near the point of generation (Crites, 1998). The interest in these technologies was renewed as it became apparent that the centralized strategy was not feasible in many places, or simply not the most cost- effective option in some cases. Thus, although on-site wastewater management is not the preferred strategy of most engineers and decision-makers, it has been applied and its use is increasing. It can serve areas of low population densities of industrialized countries as well (Wilderer & Schreff, 2000).

In the US, for example, in the early 1970s, with the passage of the Clean Water Act, it was announced that it was only a matter of time before centralized sewerage facilities would be available to almost all residents. Many years later, it was recognized that complete sewerage of the country may never be possible or desirable for both geographical and economic reasons. Thus, decentralized systems were also adopted; they currently serve 25% of the US population and approximately 37% of new development (Crites, 1998). The on-site system can be applied on different scales. It can be applied to (1) individual households, (2) a cluster of homes, (3) a neighborhood, (4) public facilities, (5) commercial areas, (6) industrial parks and (7) small portions of large communities (Crites, 1998). The different on-site sanitation systems are discussed in Module VI and the different technologies for the treatment of FS in on-site sanitation systems are elaborated in Module VII.

4.1.3 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (DEWATS) The Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (DEWATS) may be regarded as a single wastewater treatment system or collective module of all the systems involved in the process of the treatment, depending on the technologies used. This system was developed by a network of international organizations and experts. Incorporating lessons learned from the limitations of conventional off-site and on-site wastewater treatment systems, the approach seeks to meet the rapidly growing demand for on-site wastewater solutions (BORDA, 2017). DEWATS has the following features: • In addition to the technical and engineering aspects, it also encompasses specific local economic and social conditions. • It treats wastewater with a flow of COD/BOD ratios from 1 m³ to 1000 m³ per day and unit. • The system provides treatment for both domestic (households, colonies, etc.) and industrial (hospitals, business complexes, food processing units, etc.) wastewater at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. • Besides being an independent treatment system, it can also complement on-site and off-site wastewater systems as a comprehensive wastewater treatment strategy. • The renewable energy source generated from the system can be used as biogas for cooking and various power generation purposes, depending on the quality of the biogas. • The system is usually independent of the outside energy source and functions without technical energy outputs. This makes for more reliable operations and prevents fluctuations, thereby increasing the effluent quality. It is also cost efficient, and requires low control and maintenance. Water is lifted through a pump. • Modular and technical configuration, the concept on which the system is based, is selected through appropriation and requirements of treatment efficiency, cost and land availability.

47 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

• DEWATS units are quality products; it is crucial to maintain the quality standards in planning and construction. Local material and workforce could be used for the system WREHFRVWHȞIHFWLYHEXWWKHTXDOLW\VKRXOGPHHWDOOWKHVHWVWDQGDUGV&RPSUHKHQVLYH knowledge of the wastewater treatment process is essential for a well-designed DEWATS. • DEWATS require some few O&M skills. Most of the operational tasks are carried out by the users but local service providers may be needed for some of the maintenance services; in some cases, the entire O&M services may be carried out by the local service provider. • 7KHV\VWHPLVOHVVSROOXWLQJWKHUHIRUHLWȑWVWKHSUHVFULEHGOHJDOVWDQGDUGV7KHVOXGJH generated is treated and disposed according to the set environmental standards in a hygienic manner. • $QRWKHUDGYDQWDJHRIWKHV\VWHPLVWKHFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIWKHVSHFLȑFVRFLRHFRQRPLF environment conditions; neglecting this aspect would result in technical failure. A typical DEWATS combines the following technical treatment steps in a modular manner (BORDA, 2017). o Primary treatment – in sedimentation ponds, settlers, septic tanks or bio-digester R 6HFRQGDU\WUHDWPHQWǓLQDQDHURELFEDȞȠOHGUHDFWRUVDQDHURELFȑOWHUVRUDQDHURELF and facultative pond systems R 6HFRQGDU\DHURELFIDFXOWDWLYHWUHDWPHQWǓLQKRUL]RQWDOJUDYHOȑOWHUV o Post-treatment – in aerobic polishing ponds

)LJXUH'(:$76FRQȍJXUDWLRQVFKHPH %25'$

sedimentation pond fully mixed digester

Sedimentation septic tank

anaerobic bafȒ ed reactor anaerobic ȑ lter Anaerobic digestion

planted gravel ȑ lter Aerobic and facultative decomposition

aerobic-facultative ponds and aerobic polishing ponds

Post-treatment

7KHVHOHFWLRQRIWKHDSSURSULDWHWHFKQLFDOFRQȑJXUDWLRQIRU'(:$76GHSHQGVRQWKH • volume of wastewater • quality of wastewater • local temperature • underground conditions • land availability • costs • OHJDOHȞȠOXHQWUHTXLUHPHQWV • cultural acceptance and social conditions • ȑQDOKDQGOLQJRIWKHHȞȠOXHQW GLVFKDUJHRUUHXVH A DEWATS relies on the same treatment processes as conventional treatment systems.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 48 MODULE IV

)LJXUH7\SLFDOVXFFHVVLRQRIWUHDWPHQWSURFHVVZLWKLQ'(:$76 %25'$

Sedimentation removal of easily begin of anaerobic fermentation removal of settleable solids of bottom sludge possible sludge

Anaerobic digestion settling of mineralisation of mineralised removal of easily suspended or particles, removal of degradable organic dissolved organic collection and sludge solids compounds, ventilation of biogas production biogas

Aerobic and facultative decomposition mineralisation removal of easily settling of removal of of suspended or DQGPRUHGLȞȑFXOW mineralised sludge dissolved organic degradable solids particles compounds

Post-treatment removal of VHWWOLQJRIȑQHVW retaining of suspended digested removal of suspended living and solids and active sludge solids, removal dead algae bacteria mass of algae

)DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ A sanitation strategy should be environmentally sound, appropriate to local conditions, DQGDȞIRUGDEOHWRWKHFRQVXPHUVXVHUVSD\LQJIRUWKHVHUYLFH7KHDSSOLFDWLRQGHSHQGV on local factors, physical and social. Physical factors include land availability, topography, climate, soil, availability of energy and existing land use. Social factors include population GHQVLW\FRPPXQLW\UHVRXUFHV IXQGVVNLOOV DȞIRUGDELOLW\DQGZLOOLQJQHVVWRSD\IRUWKH WHFKQRORJ\DQGLWV2 0HWF7KXVWKHVWUDWHJ\DQGWKHWHFKQRORJ\VKRXOGEHDJRRGȑW for the local conditions: environmental, economic, cultural and institutional (Hophmayer- Tokich, 2006).

Several factors and parameters are involved in the selection of strategy and technology: RQVLWH ZHWRUGU\ RȞIVLWH H[WHQVLYHRULQWHQVLYH '(:$76XQFRQYHQWLRQDOVHZHUDJH or conventional sewerage. The main selection parameters are produced wastewater volumes (dependent on water consumption rates) and population density. The important parameters are described below.

4.2.1 Minimum Water Consumption in Target Community 7KHȑUVWSDUDPHWHUWRFRQVLGHULVWKHZDWHUFRQVXPSWLRQUDWH7KLVLVGHSHQGHQWRQWKH water supply system. If the water consumption rate is <50 lpcd (when water is supplied by wells or hand pumps), the volume of waste generated will be minimal and dry on-site sanitation such as pit latrines should be applied. For a higher water consumption rate of 50-100 lpcd (e.g. where water is supplied by public stand-posts), dry and wet on-site sanitation may be applied. Settled sewerage may be feasible if the population density is higher. If the water consumption rate is >100 lpcd (piped water is supplied to households), FRQYHQWLRQDO VHZHUDJH DQG RȞIVLWH WUHDWPHQW PD\ EH DSSOLHG DV WKHVH V\VWHPV DUH designed as waste transportation systems in which water is used as the transportation medium; 100 lpcd is a basic requirement for problem-free operation of the conventional system. Thus, communities with water consumption lower than that should not be served by conventional sewerage.

49 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

4.2.2 Wastewater Production Volume :DVWHZDWHU SURGXFWLRQ JUHDWHU WKDQ FP SHU KHFWDUH SHU GD\ ZRXOG UHTXLUH RȞIVLWH transportation. If the wastewater production rate is lower than that, on-site treatment may be applied: <5 cm per hectare per day – dry on-site sanitation; 5-10 cm per hectare per day – dry and wet on-site sanitation, possibly settled sewerage (Hophmayer-Tokich, 2006).

4.2.3 Population Density Population density is an important selection parameter. Generally, the higher the population density the lower the unit cost of sewerage and vice versa. For dispersed rural settlements, for example, the centralized system is not economical due to the high costs of conveyance and transportation. Conventional sewerage systems are reported to become economically feasible at population densities of 200-300 persons per hectare in developing countries and at 50 persons per hectare in industrialized countries. However, in developing countries, for a certain level of population density (e.g. 160 persons per KHFWDUHLQQRUWKHDVW%UD]LO ORZFRVWVHZHUDJHVXFKDVVLPSOLȑHGVHZHUDJHLVHYHQFKHDSHU than on-site systems. On-site sanitation may therefore be feasible for lower density towns, peri-urban areas and rural areas (Hophmayer-Tokich, 2006).

4.2.4 Local Groundwater Contamination Risk On-site sanitation facilities may cause groundwater contamination where there is an inadequate separation between the facility and the groundwater table. If the depth of the unsaturated zone is less than 2 metres and the hydraulic load exceeds 50 mm per day, groundwater contamination may occur. This is especially important if shallow wells IRUSRWDEOHVXSSOLHVH[LVWZLWKLQDGLVWDQFHRIWLPHVWKHKRUL]RQWDOJURXQGZDWHUȠORZ YHORFLW\ ,Q VXFK D FDVH DGYDQFHG RQVLWH WUHDWPHQW RU RȞIVLWH WUHDWPHQW VKRXOG EH applied. However, if the unsaturated zone beneath the facilities is greater than 2 metres, and the hydraulic loading does not exceed 50 mm/day, the risk is minimized (Hophmayer- Tokich, 2006).

4.2.5 Soil Permeability ,IVRLOSHUPHDELOLW\LVORZLWPD\QRWEHHQRXJKWRDFFRPPRGDWHWKHHȞȠOXHQWȠORZUDWH DQG HȞȠOXHQW ZLOO ȠORZ WR WKH JURXQG OHYHO ,Q WKLV FDVH RȞIVLWH VDQLWDWLRQ QHHGV WR EH considered (Hophmayer-Tokich, 2006).

4.2.6 Existing Infrastructure ([LVWLQJ LQIUDVWUXFWXUH FDQ RI FRXUVH DȞIHFW WKH VHOHFWLRQ SURFHVV )RU H[DPSOH LI D community already has septic tanks and the soil can no longer accept the septic tank HȞȠOXHQWǓUHVXOWLQJLQDQHHGWRFHQWUDOO\FROOHFWWKHHȞȠOXHQWǓWKHQVHWWOHGVHZHUDJHLV PRUHOLNHO\WREHFKHDSHUWKDQVLPSOLȑHGVHZHUDJHDQGFRQYHQWLRQDOVHZHUDJH WKLVQHHGV to be checked on a case-to-case basis) (Hophmayer-Tokich, 2006).

&RVWRI6\VWHPVDQG$ȚIRUGDELOLW\IRUWKH7DUJHW&RPPXQLW\ &RVWVSHUFDSLWDRIGLȞIHUHQWZDVWHZDWHUV\VWHPVGHSHQGRQWKHV\VWHP RQVLWHRȞIVLWH DQG WKH UHJLRQ 7KH WDUJHW FRPPXQLW\ V DELOLW\ WR DȞIRUG WKH ZDVWHZDWHU V\VWHP LV DQ important factor in selecting a strategy, as any long-term policy to provide a service must be based on certain assumptions of the capacity of the users to pay. Regular remuneration LVHVVHQWLDOIRUSURSHU2 0DQGWKXVHȞȑFLHQF\RIWKHV\VWHP$FRPPXQLW\ VDELOLW\WR SD\FDQEHDVVHVVHGE\FRPSDULQJWKHOLNHO\WDULȞIZLWKWKHPLQLPXPLQFRPHOHYHOVRIWKH majority of the community. It is normally accepted that a family should pay no more than 2% of its income on sanitation. It should be noted, however, that a community's ability to pay is not the same as its willingness to pay. In communities where sewerage is a high priority, there may be a willingness to contribute a higher percentage of income than 2%, DQGYLFHYHUVD,WPD\EHDGYLVDEOHWRȑUVWDGGUHVVFRPPXQLWLHVZLWKDNQRZQDELOLW\DQG ZLOOLQJQHVVWRSD\WKHWDULȞI +RSKPD\HU7RNLFK

4.2.8 Other considerations Other more qualitative factors, such as social considerations and institutional capacity, should also be considered. Social considerations play an important role in selecting a wastewater strategy for a community. In contrast to conventional sewerage, which does not require routine operational attention, the alternative systems are either more complex or require more maintenance by the community. If the target community is unwilling or unable to accept this responsibility, the conventional system may be more appropriate.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 50 MODULE IV

Institutional capacity and the availability of skilled labour and management are other important factors to consider. Wastewater schemes are implemented, operated and PDLQWDLQHGE\LQVWLWXWLRQV2ȻWHQDQLQVWLWXWLRQH[LVWVEHIRUHWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRID new scheme and it is expected to carry out the task. An institution's ability to cope with WKHGHPDQGVRIDQHZVFKHPHZLOOJUHDWO\DȞIHFWWKHVFKHPH VORQJWHUPVXFFHVVERWK WHFKQLFDOO\DQGȑQDQFLDOO\7KHDYDLODELOLW\RIVNLOOHGODERXUWRRSHUDWHWKHVFKHPHVKRXOG be considered. In many small rural communities, for example, due to lack of skilled ZRUNHUV WKH 2 0 RI WKH DFWLYDWHG VOXGJH SURFHVV PD\ EH GLȞȑFXOW WKHUHIRUH ODJRRQV RU SRQGV PD\ EH PRUH VXLWDEOH $QRWKHU SUHUHTXLVLWH IRU HȞIHFWLYH RSHUDWLRQ RI PRUH complicated schemes is the availability of management infrastructure to collect and process user charges and manage expenses. Also, in such cases, low-maintenance and low-tech solutions should be considered as they are more amenable to operation and management breakdown (Hophmayer-Tokich, 2006).

4.3 Summary 7KLV PRGXOH IRFXVHG RQ GLȞIHUHQW W\SHV RI ZDVWHZDWHU PDQDJHPHQW V\VWHPV WKHLU composition, evolution over time, and the available systems and technologies in each kind of wastewater management system, along with their advantages and disadvantages.

51 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION MODULE V: INTRODUCTION TO FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

DISPOSAL ACCESS TO TOILET & OR REUSE CONTAINTMENT

EMPTYING TREATMENT & TRANSPORT

Learning Objectives

ʝ To understand the need for faecal sludge management ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHGLȞIHUHQWPHWKRGVRIIDHFDOVOXGJHTXDQWLȑFDWLRQ TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE 1.1 Sanitation 2 1.2 Components of Sanitation 3 1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation 16 1.4 Summary 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM 2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? 20 2.2 Components of SFD 20 2.3 Purpose of SFD 20 2.4 Summary 20

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Wastewater Management Systems 42 )DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ 4.3 Summary 51

MODULE VII: TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE 7.1 Introduction 90 7.2 Objectives of Treatment 91 7.3 Faecal Sludge Treatment Technologies 91 INTRODUCTION TO FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

5.1 What is Faecal Sludge? Faecal sludge (FS) is raw, or partially digested, slurry, resulting from the collection, storage or treatment of combinations of excreta and black water, with or without grey water, in on-site sanitation systems (Strande et al., 2014). Examples of on-site technologies include pit latrines, un-sewered public ablution blocks, septic tanks, aqua privies and dry toilets. Faecal sludge management (FSM) includes the storage, collection, transport, treatment and safe end use or disposal of FS. It is highly variable in consistency, quantity and concentration (Strande et al., 2014).

)LJXUH6FKHPDWLFGLȚIHUHQWLDWLQJH[FUHWDIDHFDOVOXGJHDQGZDVWHZDWHU Excreta Fecal Sludge Wastewater =Urine + Faeces = excreta +Urine+ Faeces =excreta + Flush water + Anal cleaning material + Anal cleaning material Solid Waste

Transported through a sewered Collected in an on-site sanitation system technology (like a pit latrine or septic tank)

5.2 Need for Faecal Sludge Management 2.7 billion of the world population have access to on-site sanitation facilities and the number is expected to be close to 5 billion by 2030. Beyond the common perception of on-site sanitation facilities being predominant in rural areas, even in urban areas it is quite common with around 1 billion people dependent on it. Many cities have more coverage of on-site sanitation systems than sewer systems. In India, 81% of the urban population has ODWULQHVZLWKLQWKHSUHPLVHVRXWRIZKLFKDUHȠOXVKSRXUȠOXVKW\SH$OORILWLQDZD\ goes untreated as not many urban areas of a city are covered by the sewer network and the 24x7 functioning of existing WWTPs is questionable

For reasons of economy, the substructures of household /institutional/community/public toilets are not made very large. Their capacity is designed considering, among others, a certain rate of contribution of organic solids by individual users, the expected number of users, and the rate of degradation of the organic matter; the latter depends on local geo- climatic factors. For example, areas characterized by a high water table (including alluvial riverine belts, delta areas and coastal regions) and low soil permeability need higher maintenance (WASH Institute, 2015).

Figure 5.2: Wastewater treatment through various sanitation systems (India Urban)

HH urban (100%)

HH with latrine within premises (81%)

)OXVKSRXUȠOXVK (71%)

Piped sewer Septic Tank Others 33% 38% 2%

FSM Treatment?? 0%

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 54 MODULE V

,QWHUPVRIWKHQHHGVRIGLȞIHUHQWWHFKQRORJ\RSWLRQVIRUSRXUȠOXVKOHDFKSLWWRLOHWVWKH size of the perforated substructure (with 1-1.5 metres depth and 1.25 metres diameter) for DW\SLFDOIDPLO\RIȑYHWRVHYHQSHUVRQVLVGHWHUPLQHGFRQVLGHULQJVOXGJHDFFXPXODWLRQ rate of 40-60 litres/person/year for shallow and deep ground water table conditions, respectively, and a pit-emptying rate of once every year (WASH Institute, 2015).

Depending on factors such as intensity of use and geo-climatic conditions, the usage PD\ EH H[WHQGHG IURP WZR WR ȑYH \HDUV +RXVHKROG VHSWLF WDQNV DUH VL]HG EHWZHHQ 1 and 4 m3 based on an estimate of sludge accumulation rate of 25 litres/persons/year (intensive biological degradation under optimal conditions). Tanks are de-sludged once LQRQHWRWKUHH\HDUV7KHVL]HRIDVHSWLFWDQNDOVRGHSHQGVRQLWVDȞIRUGDELOLW\DQGWKH economic status of the owner as large tanks minimize the frequency of emptying the WDQN&RQVWUXFWLRQRIVHSWLFWDQNVLVQRWDYHU\WHFKQLFDODȞIDLULQ,QGLDDQGWKHUHDUHKDUGO\ any regulations and supervision to check the technicalities. Therefore masons construct them according to their wisdom and skills which cause technical problems, leading to environmental damage due to seepage of wastewater in the soil. Such irrational practices The abysmal condition of India's DW WKH JUDVVURRWV XOWLPDWHO\ XQGHUPLQH WKH SRWHQWLDO EHQHȑWV RI LPSURYHG VDQLWDWLRQ (WASH Institute, 2015). sewage system was revealed in the Lok Sabha on 9 August 2016. There is no regular practice of de-sludging in India. Tanks are emptied as and when they are full. A study on de-sludging reveals that about 16% of the households reported emptying In a written reply to a question in on-site toilets twice a year, 23% did it once a year, another 23% once every two years, and the Lok Sabha, the Minister of State RQFHHYHU\WKUHHWRȑYH\HDUV7KHUHPDLQLQJUHSRUWHGHPSW\LQJRXWWKH)6RQFH for Environment, Forest and Climate in six to ten years or more (Wash Institute, 2015). As per another study in the Kathmandu valley, Nepal, a typical household emptied its septic tank once in three to three-and-a-half Change, Anil Madhav Dave, categorically years on average (WASH Institute, 2015). In the case of larger installations, such as public stated that of the 816 WWTPs in the and community toilets, the frequency of emptying can be much higher, ranging from once country, only 522 were operational. a quarter to twice a year (WASH Institute, 2015). The minister informed the House that of the total WWTPs in India, 79 were 7LPHO\ UHPRYDO RI VOXGJH KHOSV LQ PDLQWDLQLQJ UHWHQWLRQ HȞȑFLHQF\ DQG FRQWUROOLQJ non-operational, 145 under construction HȞȠOXHQWTXDOLW\,WDOVRDLGVLQDYRLGLQJV\VWHPPDOIXQFWLRQDQGHQVXULQJXQLQWHUUXSWHG service. Here, it is also important to note that for septic tanks there is another essential and 70 in the planning stage. Moreover, PDLQWHQDQFH UHTXLUHPHQW WKH UHSODFHPHQWUHJHQHUDWLRQ RI WKH ȑOWHU PHGLD LQ WKH Dave's reply made it clear that even the VRDNZD\GUDLQDJHȑHOGWKLVPXVWW\SLFDOO\EHGRQHRQFHHYHU\IHZ\HDUVWRDYRLGFKRNLQJ RSHUDWLRQDO::73VZHUHQRWHȚȍFLHQWLQ and malfunction (WASH Institute, 2015). handling sewage. Diarrhoea is one of the leading causes of death and illness. Globally, about 361,000 According to the minister, currently children die every year from diarrhoeal diseases linked to poor WASH. That's about FKLOGUHQXQGHUȑYHHYHU\GD\&RXQWOHVVRWKHUVVXȞIHUIURPSRRUKHDOWKDQGORVW there was ‘an existing gap of more than educational opportunities leading to poverty in adulthood (CAWST, 2017). In addition to 38,600 KLD (kilo litres per day) in sewage KHDOWKDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOEHQHȑWVWKHHFRQRPLFEHQHȑWVRILPSURYHGVDQLWDWLRQDUHDOVR JHQHUDWLRQ DQG WUHDWPHQWǖ 7KH ȍJXUHV persuasive. Improved sanitation in developing countries typically yields about US$5.50 used by the minister were from the ZRUWKRIEHQHȑWVIRUHYHU\GROODUVSHQW7KHEHQHȑWVRILPSURYHGVDQLWDWLRQDOVRH[WHQG Central Pollution Control Board. beyond better health and economics. No one wants to live, work or go to school in dirty, smelly and unsanitary conditions. Improved sanitation also contributes to the general well-being of a population (CAWST, 2017). – From http://pib.nic.in/newsite/ PrintRelease.aspx?relid=148580 4XDQWLȑFDWLRQRI)DHFDO6OXGJH Accurate estimates for the volume of FS generated is essential for the planning and FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI LQIUDVWUXFWXUH UHTXLUHG IRU DQ HȞȑFLHQW VDQLWDWLRQ VHUYLFH FKDLQ ZKLFK includes collection and transport networks, discharge sites, treatment plants and end use or disposal options). FS generation varies from location to location. Therefore, an HVWLPDWLRQEDVHGRQH[LVWLQJOLWHUDWXUHLVQRWLGHDOUDWKHULWVKRXOGEHORFDWLRQVSHFLȑF which again depends on multiple factors. However, there is no proven method to estimate FS production in urban areas. Data and new relevant information are needed to develop a new and reasonable technology for estimation.

The Sludge Production Method and the Sludge Collection Method are two popular approaches for estimation. The former helps determine total sludge production, or the expected sludge loading at a treatment plant, while the latter is used for estimation of FS quantities generated at the household level (i.e. faeces and urine), the volume of water XVHGIRUFOHDQVLQJDQGȠOXVKLQJDQGLQWKHNLWFKHQDQGDFFXPXODWLRQUDWHVEDVHGRQWKH type of on-site containment technology used. The Sludge Collection estimate is based on

55 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INTRODUCTION TO FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT the collection and transport of faecal matter both by formal and informal operators; the Failure to properly manage FS is volume of FS is estimated based on the current demand for FSM services. Unfortunately, GLUHFWO\ UHVSRQVLEOH IRU DGYHUVH HȚIHFWV both the studies are based on assumptions and lack proper information, thus the estimates may be misleading. The following sections describe how these methods are on public health and the environment used to estimate the quantity of FS. worldwide. It is not enough to merely build a latrine to ensure good sanitation FS is collected and transported to a faecal sludge treatment plant (FSTP) for treatment but and protect public health. Without FSM due to technical reasons and physical constraints, all the FS produced is not discharged services, untreated sludge enters the to the FSTP. Therefore, these method for estimating total FS production results in an environment and contaminates drinking overestimation of the potential volumes to be delivered to a FSTP. ZDWHU VRXUFHV 7KLV LV RȷWHQ WKH FDVH 5.3.1 Sludge Production Method ZKHQ ODWULQHV DUH OHȷW WR RYHUȜORZ RU )6 Daily household faecal production varies considerably depending on dietary habits. is illegally dumped into the environment 8QSURFHVVHG IRRG ZLWK D KLJK ȑEUH FRQWHQW SURGXFHV D KLJKHU TXDQWLW\ RI IDHFHV PDVV (CAWST, 2017). and volume) compared to a proportionally higher meat-based and highly processed food intake. The standard frequency of faecal excretion is on average one stool per person per day, Excreta are a major source of pathogens EXWWKLVPD\DOVRYDU\IURPRQHVWRROSHUZHHNXSWRȑYHVWRROVSHUGD\5HSRUWHGYDOXHVIRU faeces production are presented in Table 11. The volume of urine excreted daily also varies – microorganisms such as bacteria, VLJQLȑFDQWO\EDVHGRQIDFWRUVVXFKDVOLTXLGFRQVXPSWLRQGLHWSK\VLFDODFWLYLW\DQGFOLPDWH viruses, protozoa and helminthes that Reported values for faecal and urine production are presented in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 . cause disease. Pathogens in untreated excreta can survive a long time in the environment. They can transmit diseases Table 5.1: Reported faecal production rate (Strande et al., 2014) to people and animals through direct Location Wet Weight (g/person/day) contact and contaminated soil, food and High-income countries 100-200 water (CAWST, 2017). Low-income countries, rural 350 Low-income countries, urban 250 China 315 Kenya 520 Thailand 120-400

Table 5.2: Reported urine production rates (Strande et al., 2014) Location Volume (g/person/day) General values for adult 1000- 1300 Sweden 1500 Thailand 600- 1200 Switzerland (home, weekdays) 637 Switzerland (home, weekends) 922

In addition to the volume of excreta generated daily, FS accumulation depends on time DQGVSDWLDOKDELWVWKDWLQȠOXHQFHZKHUHSHRSOHXVHWKHWRLOHWVXFKDVZRUNVFKHGXOHHDWLQJ and drinking habits, patterns of societal cohesiveness, and frequency of toilet usage. The volume of solid waste and other debris that is disposed in the system also needs to be taken into account (Strande et al., 2014).

A sound estimation of FS requires the following data: • number of users • location • types and number of various on-site systems • FS accumulation rates • population of socioeconomic levels

The challenges in the collection of data depend on the available information, as on-site V\VWHPVDUHIUHTXHQWO\EXLOWLQIRUPDOO\6RPHRIWKHGDWDKDVQRRȞȑFLDOUHFRUGPDNLQJLW H[WUHPHO\GLȞȑFXOWIRUFROOHFWLRQ$QDFFXUDWHHVWLPDWHRIWKLVZRXOGUHTXLUHLQWHQVLYHGDWD

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 56 MODULE V

collection at the level of household questionnaires. In some cases, detailed demographic information is available, while in others it does not exist. A further complication in low- income countries is the rapid urban growth. Many a time, vacuum trucks do not deliver the sludge to the treatment plant but empty at some other location, which should also be taken into account while estimation (Strande et al., 2014).

5.3.2 Sludge Collection Method FS collection depends considerably on the intake capacity of the FSM infrastructure, which includes the conveyance and transport system as well as the discharge and treatment capacity of the treatment plant. Currently, the collection estimate is based on interviews, site visits and a review of internal records of FS collection and transport companies. The estimation of data can be based on the number of collections made each day, the volume of FS per collection, the average emptying frequency at the household level, and the estimated proportion of the population that employ the services of collection and transport companies. The informal and illegal sector should also be considered in data HVWLPDWLRQDVLWLVDVLJQLȑFDQWSOD\HULQWKH)6VHUYLFHFKDLQ 6WUDQGHHWDO

The estimation involves numerous complications involving factors such as a legal discharge ORFDWLRQLQFDVHRIDȞIRUGDEOHGLVFKDUJHIHHRUHOVHRWKHUHQIRUFHPHQWPHDVXUHVWRFRQWURO illegal discharge and dumping. A legal discharge location makes data collection easier ZLWKLQVWDOODWLRQRIDȠORZPHWHUWRUHFRUGWKHLQWDNHRIVOXGJHLWDOVREULQJVWRJHWKHU all the sludge generated in the city. However, the system is not organized enough, and collection and transport companies in the informal sector are reluctant to cooperate due to their illegal activities, making estimation a tough job. Illegal collection and transport of FS is even more challenging to estimate. Another problem is that the estimation of FS is initially quite low due to the services provided by the informal sector and illegal activities but as soon as new infrastructure is built, the demand for the services increases beyond WKHFDSDFLW\RIWKHQHZO\FRQVWUXFWHGLQIUDVWUXFWXUHUHVXOWLQJLQRYHUORDGDQGLQHȞȑFLHQF\ (Strande et al., 2014).

Therefore, reliable and relevant data is crucial for the accurate estimation of FS generation; the assumptions made in data collection, too, should be more reasonable. Accurate data will help improve accuracy of estimation of FS and the FSTP capacity to be built, which will aid in FSM gaining more acceptance and legitimacy.

5.4 Characterization of Faecal Sludge While there is lack of detailed information on the features of FS, empirical research is being carried out to increase the knowledge of FS characteristics and allow more accurate predictions of FS attributes using less labor-intensive methods.

Solids concentration, COD, BOD, nutrients, pathogens and metals are important parameters for the characterization of FS. The characterizing parameter for both GRPHVWLFZDVWHZDWHUDQG)6DUHWKHVDPHKRZHYHUWKHWZRVXEVWDQFHVKDYHGLȞIHUHQW characteristics. Table 5.3 presents examples from literature illustrating the high variability of FS characteristics and provides a comparison with sludge from a wastewater treatment plant. The organic matter, total solids, ammonium and helminth egg concentrations in FS are typically higher by a factor of 10 or 100 compared to wastewater sludge (Strande et al., 2014).

57 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INTRODUCTION TO FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

7DEOH5HSRUWHGVWDQGDUGVRIIDHFDOVOXGJHIURPGLȚIHUHQWVRXUFHV 6WUDQGHHWDO FS Source Parameter WWTP Sludge Reference Public Toilet Septic Tank 1.5-12.6 - - (USEPA, 1994) pH 6.55-9.34 (Kengne et al., 2011) 52,500 12,000-35,000 - (Koné & Strauss, 2004) 30,000 22,000 - (NWSC, 2008) Total Solids, TS (mg/L) - 34,106 - (USEPA, 1994) >= 3.5% <3% <1% (Heinss, 1998) Total Volatile Solids, TVS 68 50-73 - (Koné & Strauss, 2004) (as % of TS) 65 45 - (NWSC, 2008) 49,000 1200-7800 (Koné & Strauss, 2004) COD (mg/L) 30,000 10,000 7-6.08 (NWSC, 2008) 20,000-50,000 <10,000 500-2500 (Heinss, 1998) 7600 840-2600 (Koné & Strauss, 2004) BOD (mg/L) - - 32-250 (NWSC, 2008) Total Nitrogen, TN - 199-300 - (Koné & Strauss, 2004) (mg/L) - - 32-50 (NWSC, 2008) Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen, 3400 1000 - (Katukiza et al., 2012) TKN (mg/L) 3300 150-1200 (Koné & Strauss, 2004) NH4-N (mg/L) 2000 400 2- 168 (NWSC, 2008) 2000-5000 < 1000 30-70 (Heinss, 1998) Nitrates, NO3 (mg N/L) - 0.2 – 21 - (Koottatep et al., 2005) Total phosphorous, TP 450 150 9-63 (NWSC, 2008) (mg P/L) Faecal Coliforms 1 x 105 1 x105 6.3 x 104-6.6 x 105 (NWSC, 2008) 2500 4000-5700 (Heinss, 1998) 20,000-60,000 4000 200-2000 (Heinss, 1998) (cfu/100 ml) - 600-6000 - (Ingallinella et al., 2002) - 16,000 - (EN-Phi, V.T., 2010)

5.5 Physico-Chemical Constituents :KHQFKDUDFWHUL]LQJ)6WKHTXDOLW\RIWKHUHVXOWVLVVWURQJO\LQȠOXHQFHGE\WKHZD\LQZKLFK samples are collected, as well as the laboratory methods and practices followed. This is H[DFHUEDWHGE\WKHGLȞȑFXOW\RIWU\LQJWRVDPSOHIURPZLWKLQDFORVHGRQVLWHV\VWHP

5.5.1 Nutrients The nutrient content in excreta originates from food consumed. Of the total nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium that are consumed, 10-20% of nitrogen, 20-50% of phosphorus, and 10-20% potassium are excreted in faeces; and 80-90% of nitrogen, 50- 65% of phosphorus, and 50-80% of potassium in urine. Ammonia (NH3) is produced by deamination of organic nitrogen, and hydrolysis of urea (CO(NH2)2) in urine by urease. The ammonia in raw urine is the major source of ammonia in FS. About 20% of the nitrogen content in faeces are as ammonia, 17% as organic nitrogen( in the cells of living bacteria), and the remainder as organic nitrogen (e.g. proteins, nucleic acid) (Strande et al., 2014).

5.5.1.1 Nitrogen Nitrogen concentration in FS is typically quite high (e.g. 10-100 times the concentration in domestic wastewater), thus making it an important parameter to consider in FS treatment. Depending on factors such as pH, length of storage, the presence of oxygen, and the type of FS, nitrogen will be present in a combination of the following forms: ammonium (NH4-N)/

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 58 MODULE V

ammonia (NH3-N), nitrate (NO3-N)/nitrite (NO2-N), and organic forms of nitrogen (e.g. amino acids and amines) (Strande et al., 2014).

When quantifying ammonia concentrations in FS, a preliminary distillation step is required, followed by a titrimetric method and an , electrode or a phenate method. To prevent volatilization, samples must be refrigerated and analysed within 24 hours, or IUR]HQRUDFLGLȑHGWRS+IRUDQDO\VLVZLWKLQGD\V $3+$ 7RWDO.MHOGDKO1LWURJHQ (TKN) is the sum of organic nitrogen and ammonia (NH3-N)/ammonium (NH4-N). TKN can be determined by the macro-kjeldahl method, the semi-micro-kjeldahl method, or EORFNGLJHVWLRQDQGȠORZLQMHFWLRQDQDO\VLV1LWUDWHDQGQLWULWHFDQEHGHWHUPLQHGE\LRQ chromatography, capillary ion electrophoresis, cadmium reduction, hydrazine reduction, FDGPLXPUHGXFWLRQȠORZLQMHFWLRQRUWKH89VSHFWURSKRWRPHWULFPHWKRG7KHUHDUHDOVR commercially available kits for these analyses which are commonly used. Total nitrogen FDQ EH GHWHUPLQHG E\ R[LGDWLYH GLJHVWLRQ WR QLWUDWH IROORZHG E\ TXDQWLȑFDWLRQ RI WKH nitrate, or by the sum of TKN and nitrate/nitrite results (Strande et al., 2014).

5.5.1.2 Phosphorous The concentration of phosphorus is also an important parameter to consider, as the total phosphorus concentration in FS is quite high (e.g. 2-50 times the concentration in domestic wastewater). Phosphorus in FS is present as phosphate, the acid or base form of orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4/PO4-P), or as organically bound phosphate (e.g. nucleic acids, phospholipids and phosphorylated proteins). The fate of phosphorus in the various treatment processes is based on factors such as sorption, precipitation, sedimentation, mineralization, pH, plant uptake in planted drying beds, and redox potential. Phosphate can be determined calorimetrically to determine ‘reactive’ phosphorus, or by following hydrolysis or digestion to quantify total phosphorus, including particulate and organic fractions (Strande et al., 2014).

5.5.2 pH The measurement of pH is essential for the understanding of water chemistry processes such as acid-base chemistry, alkalinity, neutralization, biological stabilization, precipitation, coagulation, disinfection and corrosion control. The pH of FS from septic tanks is normally in the range of 6.5 to 8.0 but can vary greatly from 1.5 to 12.6. A pH of more than 6-9 hinders natural biological process and inhibits anaerobic digestion and methane production. This could result from a change in the hydraulic loadings, the presence of toxic substances, a large increase in organic loading, or if the systems are receiving industrial or commercial wastewater. The pH can be measured with electrodes, meters and pH papers (Strande et al., 2014).

5.5.3 Total Solids The total solids (TS) concentration of FS comes from a variety of organic (volatile) and LQRUJDQLF ȑ[HG PDWWHU DQG FRQVLVWV RI ȠORDWLQJ PDWHULDO VHWWOHDEOH PDWWHU FROORLGDO material and matter in solution. Grit, sand and municipal waste are discussed below. 3DUDPHWHUVWKDWDUHW\SLFDOO\PHDVXUHGLQFOXGH76IUDFWLRQVRIYRODWLOHRUȑ[HGVROLGVDQG VHWWOHDEOHVXVSHQGHGRUGLVVROYHGVROLGV7KH76DUHTXDQWLȑHGDVWKHPDWHULDOUHPDLQLQJ DȻWHUKRXUVRIGU\LQJLQDQRYHQDWr&9RODWLOHVROLGV 96 FRQVLGHUHGWREHWKH RUJDQLFSRUWLRQDUHWKHIUDFWLRQWKDWLVLJQLWHGDQGEXUQHGRȞIDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRIr& 7KHȑ[HGVROLGVJHQHUDOO\UHJDUGHGDVWKHLQRUJDQLFSRUWLRQDUHWKHDPRXQWUHPDLQLQJ DȻWHULJQLWLRQ7KHUDWLRRI96WR76LVXVHGDVDQLQGLFDWRURIWKHUHODWLYHDPRXQWRIRUJDQLF matter and the biochemical stability of the FS. TS values are important as they are used to design FS treatment technologies such as planted and unplanted drying beds (Strande et al., 2014).

The suspended solids fraction of FS is constituted by the solids that are not able to pass WKURXJKDȑOWHUZKLOHWKHVROLGVWKDWGRSDVVWKURXJKDUHWHUPHGGLVVROYHGVROLGV6LQFH WKHVHYDOXHVDUHGHSHQGHQWRQWKHSRUHVL]HRIWKHȑOWHUWKDWLVXVHGLWLVLPSRUWDQWWR UHSRUW ȑOWHU VL]H ZLWK VXVSHQGHG VROLGV GDWD $ ŰP ȑOWHU LV W\SLFDOO\ XVHG IRU WKH DQDO\VLVRIZDVWHZDWHUHȞȠOXHQWVEXWȑOWHUVXSWRŰPFDQEHXVHG,IWKH)6LVWRRGHQVH WRSDVVWKURXJKȑOWHUVWKHQLWLVPRUHFRPPRQWRUHSRUW76FRQFHQWUDWLRQV 6WUDQGHHWDO 2014).

6ROLGVWKDWVHWWOHRXWRIVXVSHQVLRQDȻWHUDFHUWDLQSHULRGRIWLPHIRUH[DPSOHWKHVROLGV WKDW DFFXPXODWH DW WKH ERWWRP RI DQ ,PKRȞI FRQH DȻWHU PLQXWHV DUH WHUPHG

59 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INTRODUCTION TO FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT settleable solids. This value is reported as the sludge volume index (SVI), and is used for designing settling tanks (Strande et al., 2014).

5.5.4 Biological Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand The oxygen demand of FS is an important parameter to monitor, as the discharge of FS into the environment can deplete or decrease the oxygen content of waterbodies, resulting in the possible death of aquatic fauna. The oxygen demand is reduced through stabilization, and can be achieved by aerobic or anaerobic treatment. FS dewatering technologies do not necessarily decrease oxygen demand. BOD is a measure of the oxygen used by microorganisms to degrade organic matter. The standard method for detecting BOD LQYROYHVLQFXEDWLRQDWŧ&IRUȑYHGD\VDQGLVUHSRUWHGDV%2'LQPJ2/:DVWHZDWHU is considered to be weak, medium, strong and very strong, respectively, at BOD5 of 200, 350, 500 and >750 mg/L. As shown in Table 13, FS typically has a much higher BOD than that of ‘strong’ wastewater. Non-carbonaceous material can also consume oxygen, for example the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, which can increase the reported BOD YDOXHLIQRWWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQW7RSUHYHQWWKLVQLWULȑFDWLRQFDQEHLQKLELWHGWKURXJKWKH DGGLWLRQRIFKHPLFDOV7KHSDUWLFOHVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQDOVRKDVDQHȞIHFWDVVPDOOHUDQGPRUH VROXEOHSDUWLFOHVKDYHIDVWHU%2'UHDFWLRQUDWHFRHȞȑFLHQWV2WKHUIDFWRUVWKDWFDQDFFRXQW IRUVDPSOHYDULDELOLW\LQFOXGHVDPSOHȑOWUDWLRQGLOXWLRQVDQGVDPSOLQJPHWKRGRORJLHV (Strande et al., 2014).

BOD only represents biodegradable organics, whereas COD represents the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter that can be oxidized chemically with dichromate, a powerful chemical oxidant. The laboratory analysis of COD is more convenient than that for BOD, taking between a few minutes to hours depending on the method (Strande et al., 2014).

COD concentrations will be higher than BOD for a number of reasons including: • complex organic molecules like lignin, which are resistant to biodegradation, being oxidized by COD • some inorganic substances also being oxidized by COD • inhibition of bacteria in the BOD test

&2'LVGHWHUPLQHGLQWKHODERUDWRU\ZLWKDQRSHQRUFORVHGUHȠOX[PHWKRGFRPPHUFLDO kits are also readily available. The ratio of BOD to COD can also be used as an indicator RIWKHUHODWLYHELRGHJUDGDELOLW\RIWKHRUJDQLFPDWWHULQGLȞIHUHQWZDVWHVWUHDPV2LODQG grease, lard, meats, seeds and nuts, kerosene and lubricating oils are major sources of fats, oils and grease in FS. Oil and grease content must be balanced as an excess may reduce solubility due to microbial degradation and lead to an increase in the scum layer LQVHWWOLQJWDQNV,WFDQFDXVHPDMRUPDLQWHQDQFHSUREOHPVDQGȠORDWRYHUWKHVXUIDFH water, causing the environmental degradation. Extraction with solvents can be used to determine concentrations of oil and grease; this is reported as total oil and grease soluble LQWKHVSHFLȑFVROYHQWWKDWLVXVHG 6WUDQGHHWDO

5.5.5 Grit and Sand Grit and sand concentrations are important to consider in the treatment of FS, as their SUHVHQFH LQȠOXHQFHV WKH UHTXLUHG VL]H DQG ȑOOLQJ UDWHV RI WDQNV XVHG IRU VWRUDJH DQG treatment, and can increase the frequency of clogging in pipes and pumps. Unlined pit latrines, cleaning and washing of utensils and vegetables, cleansing (e.g. sand tracked into KRXVH DQGȠORRGLQJDUHPDLQVRXUFHRIJULWDQGVDQGLQ)6 6WUDQGHHWDO

6DQGLVDVLJQLȑFDQWWUHDWPHQWDQGGHVLJQFRQFHUQHVSHFLDOO\LQDVDQGSHUYDVLYHDUHD Installation of sand traps at entry points to pipes and sinks are a quick way to remove sand DQGJULWFRQWHQWIURP)6&RQFHQWUDWLRQVRIVDQGFDQEHGHWHUPLQHGE\ȑUVWGU\LQJWKH VDPSOHDWr&LQDQRYHQWKHQDWr&WRREWDLQWKHWRWDOȑ[HGVROLGV7KHDVKHVDUH then treated with a hot mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. The amount of sand is REWDLQHGDȻWHUȑOWUDWLRQIROORZLQJFDOFLQDWLRQDWr& 6WUDQGHHWDO

5.5.6 Municipal Solid Waste MSW is deposited in sanitation containment systems mostly because of the lack of a functional system for its collection and management. In addition, menstrual hygiene SURGXFWVDQGEDE\GLDSHUVDUHRȻWHQWKURZQLQWRVDQLWDWLRQV\VWHPV7KHDFFXPXODWLRQ

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 60 MODULE V

RI WKHVH VROLG ZDVWHV FDQ EH VLJQLȑFDQW DQG VKRXOG EH VWURQJO\ GLVFRXUDJHG WKURXJK educational campaigns. Solid wastes can cause problems in the collection and transport of FS, resulting in clogged pipes and pumps as well as increase in storage and treatment YROXPHVDȞIHFWLQJWKHTXDOLW\RIWUHDWPHQWHQGSURGXFWV,QRUGHUWRSUHYHQWFORJJLQJ DWWUHDWPHQWSODQWVWKHLQVWDOODWLRQRIDEDUVFUHHQDWWKHLQȠOXHQWLVHVVHQWLDO2UJDQLF decomposable wastes are the largest constituent in screenings from FS, typically accounting for 48% of the total waste. Other constituents include pebbles, rubble, sand DQGȑQHSDUWLFOHV LURQZRRGDQGWH[WLOHV DQGSODVWLFV LQPDVV GU\ weight) percentage (Strande et al., 2014).

5.5.7 Pathogens in Faecal Sludge Exposure to untreated FS is a threat to human health. Pathogen reduction from sludge and OLTXLGHȞȠOXHQWVGHSHQGVRQWKHHQGXVHRUGLVSRVDORIWKHHQGSURGXFWDȻWHUWUHDWPHQW Some common pathogens of concern that may be excreted in faeces, and their role in disease transmission, are presented in Table 5.4 (Strande et al., 2014).

Table 5.4: Pathogens and disease symptoms Group Pathogen Disease Symptom Aeromonas spp. Enteritis Campylobacteriosis – diarrhoea, cramping, abdominal pain, fever, Campylobacter jejuni/coli nausea, arthritis, Guillain-Barré syndrome Enteritis; in EHEC there are also internal haemorrhages that can Escherichia coli (EIEC, EPEC, ETEC, EHEC) be lethal Typhoid/paratyphoid fever – headache, fever, malaise, anorexia, Bacteria Salmonella typhi/paratyphic bradycardia, splenomegaly, cough Salmonella spp. Salmonellosis – diarrhoea, fever, abdominal cramps Shigellosis – dysentery (bloody diarrhoea), vomiting, cramps, Shigella spp. fever; Reiters syndrome

Vibrio cholera Cholera – watery diarrhoea, lethal if severe and untreated

Adenovirus Various; respiratory illness, Enteric adenovirus types 40 and 41 Enteritis Enterovirus types 68-71 Meningitis; encephalitis; paralysis Hepatitis – fever, malaise, anorexia, nausea, abdominal Hepatitis A Virus discomfort, jaundice Hepatitis E Hepatitis 3ROLRP\HOLWLVǓRȻWHQDV\PSWRPDWLFIHYHUQDXVHDYRPLWLQJ Poliovirus headache, paralysis Rotavirus Enteritis Cryptosporidium parvum Cryptosporidiosis – watery diarrhoea, abdominal cramps and pain

Cyclospora histolytica 2ȻWHQDV\PSWRPDWLFGLDUUKRHDDEGRPLQDOSDLQ Parasitic protozoa $PRHELDVLVǓRȻWHQDV\PSWRPDWLFG\VHQWHU\DEGRPLQDO Entamoeba histolytica discomfort, fever, chills Giardia intestinalis Giardiasis – diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, malaise, weight loss Generally no or few symptoms; wheezing; coughing; fever; Ascaris lumbricoides enteritis; pulmonary eosinophilia Taenia solium/saginata Taeniasis Helminths Trichuriasis – unapparent through to vague digestive tract distress Trichuris trichura to emaciation with dry skin and diarrhoea Hookworm ,WFKUDVKFRXJKDQHPLDSURWHLQGHȑFLHQF\ 6FKLVWRVRPDVSS EORRGȠOXNH Schistosomiasis or bilharzias

61 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION INTRODUCTION TO FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

5.6 Operational Factors Impacting the Variability of Faecal Sludge Variability in the observed FS characteristics depends on multiple factors like on-site WHFKQRORJ\XVDJHRIWKHV\VWHPVWRUDJHGXUDWLRQ ȑOOLQJUDWHVDQGFROOHFWLRQIUHTXHQFLHV LQȠORZDQGLQȑOWUDWLRQDQGWKHORFDOFOLPDWHFRQGLWLRQV7KHUHIRUHDOOWKHVHIDFWRUVVKRXOG be taken into account while determining FS characteristics.

5.6.1 Toilet Usage +RXVHKROGKDELWVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWRLOHWXVDJHLQȠOXHQFHWKHYDULDELOLW\RI)6LQRQVLWH containment technology. The TS concentration in FS depends on factors such as dry versus ȠOXVK WRLOHW YROXPH RI ȠOXVK ZDWHU XVHG FOHDQLQJ PHWKRG ǕZDVKHUVǖ YHUVXV ǕZLSHUVǖ and inclusion or exclusion of grey water from bathing or cooking. The fat, oil and grease concentration increases with the inclusion of kitchen wastewater without properly maintained oil and grease traps, and odours will also increase with additional organic ZDVWHVWUHDPV7KHȑOOLQJUDWHZLOOLQFUHDVHDVPRUHZDVWHVWUHDPVHQWHUWKHWRLOHW HJ solid waste from kitchen, rubbish), and with the number of people using the toilet. People also use additives, such as supplemental microorganisms, salt, sugar, ash, fertilizer and NHURVHQHWRDWWHPSWWRUHGXFHȑOOLQJUDWHV6RPHDGGLWLYHVFDQEHTXLWHKDUPIXODQGLQ JHQHUDOKDYHQRWEHHQIRXQGWREHHȞIHFWLYH 6WUDQGHHWDO

5.6.2 Storage Duration 7KH ȑOOLQJ UDWH DQG VWRUDJH GXUDWLRQ GHSHQGV RQ WKH W\SH RI WHFKQRORJ\ TXDOLW\ RI FRQVWUXFWLRQWRLOHWXVDJHDQGLQȠORZDQGLQȑOWUDWLRQ7KHOHQJWKRIWLPHWKDW)6LVVWRUHG LQ RQVLWH FRQWDLQPHQW V\VWHPV EHIRUH EHLQJ FROOHFWHG DQG WUDQVSRUWHG JUHDWO\ DȞIHFWV its characteristics due to the digestion of organic matter that occurs during storage. The emptying frequency of septic tanks varies greatly based on the volume and number of users, and can range from weeks to years. For example, in informal settlements in general, a large proportion of the population is dependent on public latrines and the constant use by the large population necessitates frequent emptying. FS stored in a septic tank IRUPDQ\\HDUVLVPRUHVWDELOL]HGWKDQ)6IURPSXEOLFWRLOHWV'XULQJWKHȑOOLQJRIRQVLWH containment systems, the FS gets denser at the bottom due to compaction. This FS is PRUHGLȞȑFXOWWRUHPRYHE\SXPSLQJLWLVWKHUHIRUHIUHTXHQWO\QRWHPSWLHGDQGOHȻWDWWKH bottom of the containment system (Strande et al., 2014).

,QȜORZDQG)LOWUDWLRQ 7KHFRQFHQWUDWLRQDQGYROXPHRI)6LVDOVRJUHDWO\LQȠOXHQFHGE\LQȠORZDQGLQȑOWUDWLRQ of leachate into the environment from the system and/or groundwater into the system. 7KH ȑOOLQJ UDWH RI V\VWHPV UHGXFHV ZLWK PRUH OHDFKLQJ UHVXOWLQJ LQ D WKLFNHU )6 7KH permeability of containment systems depends on the construction of the container and lining (it could be unlined, partially lined or completely lined), and connection to drain ȑHOGVRUVRDNSLWV,QDSHUPHDEOHV\VWHPLQȠORZDQGLQȑOWUDWLRQDUHDOVRLQȠOXHQFHGE\ the type of soil and the groundwater level. The exchange of groundwater with FS can result in groundwater contamination which worsens during periods of heavy and extensive rain GXHWRDQLQFUHDVHLQȠORRGLQJDQGWKHULVLQJRIWKHJURXQGZDWHUWDEOH7KLVLVRISDUWLFXODU concern when the pit latrine and septic tank builders are usually from the informal sector as they are hardly aware of the consequences of FS leaching into underground water, SDUWLFXODUO\LQORZLQFRPHFRXQWULHV'HWHUPLQLQJJURXQGZDWHUZDWHUOHYHOLVGLȞȑFXOWLQ such conditions due to lack of awareness (Strande et al., 2014).

5.6.4 Collection Method 7KH )6 FROOHFWLRQ PHWKRG DOVR LQȠOXHQFHV LWV FKDUDFWHULVWLFV )6 VHWWOHG DW WKH ERWWRP of containment systems gets too thick to be pumped; therefore it can be collected if it is manually emptied with shovels, or if water is added to decrease the viscosity and HQDEOH SXPSLQJ 8QOLQHG RU SDUWLDOO\ OLQHG SLW ODWULQHV UHTXLUH IUHTXHQW ȠOXVKLQJ ZLWK large amounts of water in order to pump the FS. Dilute FS is removed by pumping and viscous FS is collected manually. FS emptied from septic tanks will be more dilute if more supernatant than sludge is collected, or if the pump is not strong enough to remove all of the accumulated sludge.

5.6.5 Climate &OLPDWH KDV D GLUHFW LQȠOXHQFH RQ )6 FKDUDFWHULVWLFV PDLQO\ GXH WR WHPSHUDWXUH DQG moisture. Tropical countries may have one season of heavy rainfall, referred to as the wet season, while others have a bimodal rainfall and/or dry season. Temperatures may be at their lowest during the wet season and at their highest during the dry season. Frequently

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 62 MODULE V

the highest demand on collection and transport services occurs during the rainy VHDVRQDVKHDY\UDLQIDOOUHVXOWVLQRYHUȠORZLQJDQGȠORRGLQJRIRQVLWHV\VWHPV5DWHVRI biological degradation are also temperature dependent, and rates increase with warmer temperatures.

5.7 Stages of Faecal Sludge Management The stages of FSM include collection, transportation, treatment and proper disposal/reuse RI)6(ȞȑFLHQW)60LQFOXGHVVDIHGLVSRVDORIERWKVROLGDQGOLTXLGZDVWHWKDWRYHUȠORZIURP on-site sanitation systems. The stages of FSM (Fig 5.3) are:

5.7.1 Collection and Handling Safe removal of FS from on-site sanitation systems is crucial. Ease of collection of FS PDWHULDOIURPVHSWLFWDQNVLQXUEDQDUHDVLVDȞIHFWHGE\WKHJHRJUDSKLFDOORFDWLRQ7KHUH are a variety of on-site sanitation systems in urban/small towns and cities where the rate of )6JHQHUDWLRQZLOOYDU\DQGWKXVLQȠOXHQFHWKHFROOHFWLRQ0RUHGHWDLOVDUHJLYHQLQPRGXOH VI.

Figure 5.3: Stages of faecal sludge management

Collection Transportation Treatment Treatment • Septic Tank • Desludgers • Land Application • Soil Conditioner • Pit Latrine • Mounted Tractors • Co-treatment at • Energy Production • Cesspool • Vaccum Trucks STP • Ashes • Vaccutug/carts • Co-composting with solid waste

5.7.2 Transportation FS needs to be transported from the source to a treatment facility. Most commonly desludging trucks, including vacuum trucks, and mounted tractors are used for the transport of FS matter in urban areas in India. The size and design of transport vehicles varies across India; they are mostly indigenously assembled. For inaccessible areas small-sized vacuum trucks are more convenient for de-sludging FS. More details are given in module VI

5.7.3 Treatment FS can be treated in a variety of ways depending on regional and local conditions, including factors such as cost and reuse possibilities. The treatment process depends, to a large extent, on the quantity and quality of the on-site sludge collected. Land application, co-treatment at WWTPs, natural treatment options, and dewatering and co-composting with solid waste are some of the common and easily adaptable treatment options. More details are given in module VII.

5.7.4 Disposal/reuse Compost sludge can be used as a soil conditioner (humus) or an energy resource. There are some international and national examples of experiments conducted to generate energy from FS through incineration or pyrolysis.

5.8 Summary This module introduced FSM as a subject, and discussed the need for FSM, the TXDQWLȑFDWLRQ PHWKRGV SK\VLRFKHPLFDO FRQVWLWXHQWV FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQ DQG YDULRXV operational factors that impact variability in FS. This module also introduced stages of FSM that will be discussed in detail in the following module.

63 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION MODULE VI: CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

DISPOSAL ACCESS TO TOILET & OR REUSE CONTAINTMENT

EMPTYING TREATMENT & TRANSPORT

Learning Objectives

ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHGLȞIHUHQWFRQWDLQPHQWV\VWHPVIRURQVLWHVDQLWDWLRQV\VWHP ʝ To learn about the procedural and technical aspects related to the collection of from onsite technologies transport to a ʝ location where treatment occurs, the way in which service providers accomplish these tasks ʝ To understand the various options for handling faecal sludge from containments TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE 1.1 Sanitation 2 1.2 Components of Sanitation 3 1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation 16 1.4 Summary 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM 2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? 20 2.2 Components of SFD 20 2.3 Purpose of SFD 20 2.4 Summary 20

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Wastewater Management Systems 42 )DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ 4.3 Summary 51

MODULE VII: TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE 7.1 Introduction 90 7.2 Objectives of Treatment 91 7.3 Faecal Sludge Treatment Technologies 91 CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

6.1 Containment Systems for On-site Sanitation Figure 6.1: Shallow pit latrines Within the framework of an on-site strategy, several types of systems can be applied – wet or dry, basic or more advanced – all with the same principle of treating smaller quantities at or near the source. The following on-sanitation systems are used around the world:

6.1.1 Shallow Pit Latrines This is a common practice mainly in farmlands where the workers usually dig a small hole each time they defecate and then cover the faeces with soil. This is also sometimes called as the ‘cat’ method. Slightly deeper pits, about 300 mm, may be used multiple times and WKHH[FDYDWHGVRLOPD\EHXVHGWRFRYHUWKHIDHFHVDȻWHUHDFKXVH6KDOORZSLWVDOORZUDSLG decomposition due to the large-scale presence of bacteria in the topsoil; however, this DOVRDOORZVIRUHDV\EUHHGLQJRIȠOLHVLQODUJHQXPEHUVDQGWKHVSUHDGRIKRRNZRUPODUYDH around the holes. Hookworm larvae can migrate upwards from excreta buried less than 1 metre deep, to penetrate the soles of the feet of subsequent users (Franceys et al., 1992).

Advantages Disadvantages No cost &RQVLGHUDEOHȠO\QXLVDQFH %HQHȑWWRIDUPHUVDVIHUWLOL]HU Spread of hookworm larvae

6.1.2 Simple Pit Latrine Figure 6.2: Simple pit latrines A simple pit latrine has a slab placed over the pit, usually 2 metres or more in depth, to SUHYHQWHQWU\RIZDWHULQWRWKHSLWDQGȑUPO\VXSSRUWHGE\VRPHNLQGRIDVWUXFWXUHRQDOO the sides. A squat hole in the slab or a seat is provided so that the excreta fall directly into the pit (Franceys et al., 1992).

Advantages Disadvantages &RQVLGHUDEOHȠO\QXLVDQFH DQGPRVTXLWR nuisance if the pit is wet) unless there is a No cost WLJKWȑWWLQJFRYHURYHUWKHVTXDWKROHZKHQ the latrine is not in use Can be built by householder Smell Needs no water for operation Easily understood

6.1.3 Borehole Latrine A simple borehole dug manually in the ground using hands or a machine is used as latrine. Figure 6.3: Borehole latrines The diameter of the hole is usually about 400 mm and the depth varies between 6 to 8 metres (Franceys, 1992).

Advantages Disadvantages Can be excavated quickly if boring equip- Sides liable to be fouled, with consequent ment is available ȠO\QXLVDQFH Suitable for short-term use, as in disaster Short life owing to small cross-sectional situations area Greater risk of groundwater pollution owing to depth of hole

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Figure 6.4: Ventilated Pit latrines 6.1.4 Ventilated Pit Latrine 9HQWLODWLRQLQODWULQHVUHGXFHVIRXORGRXUDQGȠO\QXLVDQFHVXEVWDQWLDOO\9HQWLODWLRQLV SURYLGHGE\H[WHQGLQJDSLSHIURPDERYHWKHODWULQHURRIDQGLQVWDOOLQJȠO\SURRIQHWWLQJ across the top. The inside of the latrine is kept dark. Such a latrine is called a ventilated improved pit, popularly known as VIP (Franceys et al., 1992).

Advantages Disadvantages No cost Does not control mosquitoes Can be built by householder Extra cost of providing vent pipe Needs no water for operation Need to keep interior dark Easily understood (DVLO\FRQWUROVȠOLHV Absence of smell in latrines

)LJXUH3RXUȜOXVKODWULQHV 3RXUȜOXVKODWULQH $SRXUȠOXVKODWULQHLVXVXDOO\ȑWWHGZLWKDWDSSURYLGLQJDZDWHUVHDO7KHZDWHULVSRXUHG E\WKHXVHULQVXȞȑFLHQWTXDQWLWLHVWRFOHDUWKHIDHFHVLQWRWKHSLWDQGUHȑOOWKHZDWHUVHDO IRUWKHQH[WXVH7KHZDWHUVHDOSUHYHQWVȠOLHVPRVTXLWRHVDQGIRXOVPHOOIURPHVFDSLQJ into the latrine from the pit. The pan and the pit may be connected through a short length SLSHRUVRPHNLQGRIFRYHUHGFKDQQHO7KHSDQLVȑWWHGLQWKHJURXQGIRUDFFHVVLELOLW\RIDQ attached latrine within the house (Franceys, 1992).

Advantages Disadvantages A reliable (even if limited) water supply No cost must be available Unsuitable where solid anal cleaning &RQWURORIȠOLHVDQGPRVTXLWRHV material is used Absence of smell in latrine Contents of pit not visible 2ȞIVHWW\SH Gives users the convenience of a WC Can be upgraded by connection to sewer Pan supported by ground when sewerage becomes available Latrine can be in-house

Figure 6.6: Single or Double Pit 6.1.6 Single or Double Pit In rural and low-density urban areas, the usual practice is to dig a second pit when the one in use is full, to within half a metre of the slab. Superstructures and slabs are placed on the new pit if they are light and prefabricated, otherwise, new ones are constructed over the VHFRQGSLW2QFHWKHȑUVWSLWLVȑOOHGLWLVFRYHUHGZLWKVRLODQGRYHUWKHQH[WWZR\HDUVWKH IDHFHVGHFRPSRVHFRPSOHWHO\HYHQWKHPRVWSHUVLVWHQWSDWKRJHQVDUHGHVWUR\HG$ȻWHU complete decomposition, the pit area which has undisturbed soil can be dug for reuse. The contents of the pit may be used as a soil conditioner (Franceys et al., 1992).

Alternatively, two lined pits may be constructed simultaneously, each large enough to store faecal solids over a period of two years or more. One pit is used until it is full, and WKHQWKHVHFRQGSLWLVXVHGXQWLOWKDWWRRLVIXOOE\ZKLFKWLPHWKHFRQWHQWVRIWKHȑUVWSLW FDQEHUHPRYHGDQGXVHGDVDIHUWLOL]HUZLWKQRGDQJHUWRKHDOWK7KHȑUVWSLWFDQWKHQEH used again (Franceys et al., 1992).

Advantages of Single Pit Advantages of Double Pit Will last for several years if large Once constructed the pits are more or less permanent enough Easy removal of solids from the pits as they are shallow Pit contents can be safely used as a soil conditioner DȻWHU\HDUVZLWKRXWWUHDWPHQW

67 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

6.1.7 Composting Latrine Figure 6.7: Composting latrines In this latrine, excreta are diverted to a watertight tank where other biodegradable waste from the kitchen, such as vegetables and ash, is also dumped. Under balanced conditions of both chemical and moisture content of the soil, the mixture decomposes to form a good quality soil conditioner in about four months. Dry alkaline compost also kills pathogens, making for a good fertilizer. Composting latrines are of two types: one has a continuous production of compost and in the other, compost is produced in batches.

Advantages Disadvantages A valuable humus is produced Careful operation is essential Urine has to be collected separately in the batch system Ash or vegetable matter must be added regularly

6.1.8 Septic Tank Figure 6.8: Septic Tank $ VHSWLF WDQN LV D FRQFUHWH XQGHUJURXQG ZDWHUWLJKW FKDPEHU IRU WKH ȠORZ RI UDZVHZDJHFRQQHFWHGWKURXJKDSLSH39&RURWKHUSOXPELQJȑ[WXUHV3ULPDU\ treatment takes place in the tank with the settlement process; excreta get VHSDUDWHGLQWRVOXGJHDQGVFXPDQGWKHHȞȠOXHQWLQȑOWUDWHVLQWRWKHJURXQGRUWKH FRQQHFWHGVRDNSLW3HUPHDEOHVRLOHQDEOHVHDV\LQȑOWUDWLRQRIWKHHȞȠOXHQWDQG SUHYHQWVZDWHUORJJLQJRUȠORRGLQJKRZHYHUWKHVOXGJHIURPWKHWDQNVKRXOGEH removed at appropriate regular intervals to prevent it over-storage in the tank.

Advantages Disadvantages Gives the users the convenience of a WC High cost Reliable and ample piped water required Only suitable for low-density housing Regular dislodging required and sludge needs careful handling Permeable soil required

6.1.9 Aqua-privy Figure 6.9: Aqua-privy An aqua-privy is usually used in a water-scarce place. It has a watertight tank and the H[FUHWDIDOOVIURPWKHODWULQHȠORRUGLUHFWO\WRWKHWDQNFRQQHFWHGE\DSLSH7KHERWWRP of the pipe is submerged in the liquid in the tank, forming a water seal to prevent escape RI ȠOLHV PRVTXLWRHV DQG VPHOO 7KH WDQN IXQFWLRQV OLNH D VHSWLF WDQN (ȞȠOXHQW XVXDOO\ LQȑOWUDWHV LQWR WKH JURXQG WKURXJK D VRDN SLW $FFXPXODWHG VROLGV VOXGJH PXVW EH removed regularly. Enough water must be added to compensate for evaporation and leakage losses (Franceys et al., 1992).

Advantages Disadvantages Does not need piped water on site Water must be available nearby 0RUHH[SHQVLYHWKDQ9,3RUSRXUȠOXVK Less expensive than a septic tank latrine Fly, mosquito and smell nuisance if seal is ORVWEHFDXVHLQVXȞȑFLHQWZDWHULVDGGHG Regular de-sludging required and sludge needs careful handling Permeable soil required to dispose of HȞȠOXHQW

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7HFKQLFDO)DFWRUV$ȞIHFWLQJ)DHFDO6OXGJH&ROOHFWLRQ

6.2.1 Volume of Fresh Human Waste The per capita excreta and urine generation varies depending on water consumption, climate, dietary habits and occupation. Table 6.1 shows some reported average quantities of faeces excreted by adults (Franceys et al., 1992). The table provides only average values, as even in comparatively homogeneous groups there may be wide variations in the DPRXQWVRIH[FUHWDSURGXFHG*HQHUDOO\DFWLYHDGXOWVHDWLQJDKLJKȑEUHGLHWDQGOLYLQJ in a rural area produce more faeces than children or elderly people living in urban areas HDWLQJDORZȑEUHGLHW7KHDPRXQWRIXULQHLVJUHDWO\GHSHQGHQWRQWHPSHUDWXUHDQG humidity, commonly ranging from 0.6 to 1.1 litres per person per day.

,QWKHDEVHQFHRIORFDOLQIRUPDWLRQWKHIROORZLQJȑJXUHVDUHVXJJHVWHGDVUHDVRQDEOH averages: • high-protein diet in a temperate climate: faeces 120 g, 1.21 litre per person per day • vegetarian diet in a tropical climate: faeces 400 g, 1.01 litre per person per day

Table 6.1: Quantity of wet faeces excreted by adults (Franceys et al., 1992) Quantity S. No. Place (Grams Per Person Per Day) 1 China (men) 209 2 India 255-311 3 Peru (rural) 325 4 Uganda (rural) 470 5 Malaysia (rural) 477 6 Kenya 520

6.2.2 Decomposition of Faeces and Urine Faeces start to decompose as soon as they are deposited. In due course, they turn into a stable material with no unpleasant smell and containing important plant nutrients. During decomposition the following processes take place (Franceys et al., 1992): • Complex organic compounds, such as proteins and urea, are broken down into simpler and more stable forms. • Gases such as ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are produced and released into the atmosphere. • Soluble material is produced which may leach into the underlying or surrounding soil RUEHZDVKHGDZD\E\ȠOXVKLQJZDWHURUJURXQGZDWHU • Pathogens are destroyed because they are unable to survive in the environment of the decomposing material.

The decomposition is mainly carried out by bacteria although fungi and other organisms may assist. The bacterial activity may be either aerobic, i.e. taking place in the presence of air or free oxygen (e.g. following defecation and urination on the ground), or anaerobic, i.e. occurring in an environment containing no air or free oxygen (e.g. in a septic tank or at the bottom of a pit). In some situations, both aerobic and anaerobic conditions may apply in turn. When all available oxygen has been used by aerobic bacteria, facultative bacteria FDSDEOHRIHLWKHUDHURELFRUDQDHURELFDFWLYLW\WDNHRYHUDQGȑQDOO\DQDHURELFRUJDQLVPV commence activity (Franceys et al., 1992).

Pathogens are destroyed because the temperature and moisture content of the decomposing material create hostile conditions. For example, during composting of a mixture of faeces and vegetable waste under fully aerobic conditions, the temperature may rise to 70°C, which is too hot for the survival of intestinal organisms. Pathogens may also be attacked by predatory bacteria and protozoa, or may lose a contest for limited nutrients (Franceys et al., 1992).

69 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

6.2.3 Volume of Decomposed Faeces Excreta lose volume and mass as they decompose. This is due to the following reasons: • evaporation of moisture • production of gases which usually escape to the atmosphere • leaching of soluble substances • transport of insoluble material by the surrounding liquids • consolidation at the bottom of pits and tanks under the weight of superimposed solids and liquids

Information regarding the rate at which the reduction takes place is not available in abundance, but there are indications that temperature is an important factor. In the US, the sludge accumulation rate in 205 septic tanks was measured by Franceys et al. (1992) and the results are shown in Figure 6.10; other studies have reported the accumulation rates listed in Table 6.2.

Figure 6.10: Rate of accumulation of sludge and scum (Franceys et al., 1992)

300

Sludge and scum 200

Sludge

100 Scum Total sludge ad scum accumulatiom Total per sperso) (litres

0 WHO 91416 0 24 6 8 Time(years)

Table 6.2: Faeces accumulation rate (Franceys et al., 1992) Accumulated Faeces Location Remarks (Litres Per Person Per Day) Zimbabwe 20 Latrine regularly washed down; degradable cleaning material West Bengal 25 Wet pit; ablution water used West Bengal 34 Wet pit Philippines 40-60 Wet pit; degradable cleaning material USA 42 Faeces (adult); half amount for children Brazil 47 Dry pit

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7KHELJJHVWIDFWRUVDȞIHFWLQJWKHVOXGJHDFFXPXODWLRQUDWHDUHWKHW\SHRIDQDOFOHDQLQJ material used and whether the decomposition occurs above or below the water table. Decomposition under water produces a much greater reduction in volume than decomposition in air. This is due to better consolidation, faster decomposition and UHPRYDORIȑQHUPDWHULDOZLWKWKHZDWHUȠORZ$QDOFOHDQLQJPDWHULDOVYDU\ZLGHO\DURXQG the world, from those requiring little or no storage space, such as water, to those having a greater volume than the excreta, such as corncobs, cement bags or stones (Franceys et al., 1992).

Table 6.3: Faeces accumulation rate (Franceys et al., 1992)

Particulars Sludge Accumulation Rate (Litres Per Person Per Day)

Waste retained in water where degradable anal cleaning materials are used 40 Waste retained in water where non-degradable anal cleaning materials are 60 used Waste retained in dry conditions where degradable anal cleaning materials are 60 used Waste retained in dry conditions where non-degradable anal cleaning 90 materials are used

It is suggested that the local accumulation rates be measured when designing a latrine; KRZHYHUWKLVGDWDLVRȻWHQQRWDYDLODEOH,QVXFKDVFHQDULRWKHYROXPHVJLYHQLQ7DEOH DUHVXJJHVWHGDVDPD[LPXP7KHUHLVVRPHHYLGHQFHWRLQGLFDWHWKDWWKHVHȑJXUHVDUHRQ the high side. However, if refuse is added to excreta, the accumulation rate may be much greater (Franceys et al., 1992).

Where excreta are stored for short periods only, such as in double pit latrines or composting toilets, the reduction process may not be complete before the sludge is removed. In such cases it will be necessary to use higher sludge accumulation rates than indicated above. A 50% increase is tentatively suggested (Franceys et al., 1992).

6.2.4 Ground Conditions *URXQGFRQGLWLRQVDȞIHFWWKHVHOHFWLRQDQGGHVLJQRIVDQLWDWLRQV\VWHPVDQGWKHIROORZLQJ factors should be taken into consideration: • bearing capacity of the soil • self-supporting properties of the pits against collapse • depth of excavation possible • LQȑOWUDWLRQUDWH

6.2.4.1 Bearing Capacity of the Soil The type of soil also plays an important role in the decomposition process occurring in a desired manner. Marshy and peaty soils have low load-carrying capacity; hence such soils are suitable only for lightweight material. Installation of on-site sanitation systems (OSSs) requires a structurally stable base. It is understood that if the ground is suitable for building a house, it will be strong enough to support the weight of a latrine superstructure made of similar materials, provided the pit is appropriately lined (Franceys et al., 1992).

6.2.4.2 Self-supporting Properties of the Pits against Collapse The pits need to be lined to their full depth to prevent a collapse. This may be avoided if there is an existing unlined shallow well that has not collapsed. However, many soils PD\DSSHDUWREHVHOIVXSSRUWLQJZKHQȑUVWH[FDYDWHGSDUWLFXODUO\FRKHVLYHVRLOVVXFK DVFOD\VDQGVLOWVDQGQDWXUDOO\ERQGHGVRLOVVXFKDVODWHULWHVDQGVRȻWURFN7KHVHVHOI supporting properties may well be lost over time owing to changes in the moisture content or decomposition of the bonding agent through contact with air and/or moisture. It is almost impossible to predict when these changes are likely to occur or even if they occur at all. It is therefore safer to line the pit. The lining should permit liquid to percolate into the surrounding soil (Franceys et al., 1992).

71 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

6.2.4.3 Depth of Excavation Loose ground, hard rock or groundwater near the surface limits the depth of excavation SRVVLEOHXVLQJVLPSOHKDQGWRROV/DUJHURFNVPD\EHEURNHQE\OLJKWLQJDȑUHDURXQG them and then pouring cold water on the hot rock. Excavation below the water table and in loose ground is possible by ‘caissoning’, but it is expensive and not usually suitable for use by householders building their own latrines (Franceys et al., 1992).

,QȍOWUDWLRQ5DWH 7KHVRLOW\SHDȞIHFWVWKHUDWHDWZKLFKOLTXLGLQȑOWUDWHVIURPSLWVDQGGUDLQDJHWUHQFKHV &OD\VWKDWH[SDQGZKHQZHWPD\EHFRPHLPSHUPHDEOH2WKHUVRLOVVXFKDVVLOWVDQGȑQH VDQGVPD\EHSHUPHDEOHWRFOHDQZDWHUEXWEHFRPHEORFNHGZKHQWUDQVPLWWLQJHȞȠOXHQW containing suspended and dissolved solids (Franceys et al., 1992).

2SLQLRQVYDU\UHJDUGLQJWKHDUHDVLQZKLFKLQȑOWUDWLRQWDNHVSODFH8QWLOPRUHHYLGHQFHLV DYDLODEOHLWLVUHFRPPHQGHGWKDWWKHGHVLJQRISLWVDQGWUHQFKHVEHEDVHGRQLQȑOWUDWLRQ through the side walls up to the maximum liquid level. For trenches, the area of both walls should be used (Franceys et al., 1992).

7KHUDWHRILQȑOWUDWLRQDOVRGHSHQGVRQWKHOHYHORIWKHJURXQGZDWHUWDEOHUHODWLYHWRWKH OLTXLGLQWKHSLWRUWUHQFK,QWKHXQVDWXUDWHG]RQHWKHȠORZRIOLTXLGLVLQGXFHGE\JUDYLW\ as well as cohesive and adhesive forces set up in the soil. Seasonal variation may produce DFKDQJHLQWKHDPRXQWRIDLUDQGZDWHULQWKHVRLOSRUHVDQGWKLVZLOODȞIHFWWKHȠORZUDWH Conditions at the end of the wet season should normally be used for design purposes as this is usually the time when the groundwater level is at its highest. In the saturated ]RQHDOOSRUHVDUHȑOOHGZLWKZDWHUDQGGUDLQDJHGHSHQGVRQWKHVL]HRIWKHSRUHVDQG WKH GLȞIHUHQFH LQ OHYHOV EHWZHHQ WKH OLTXLG LQ WKH SLW RU WUHQFK DQG WKH VXUURXQGLQJ groundwater (Franceys et al., 1992).

6RLOSRURVLW\DOVRDȞIHFWVLQȑOWUDWLRQ6RLOVZLWKODUJHSRUHVVXFKDVVDQGDQGJUDYHODQG URFNVVXFKDVVRPHVDQGVWRQHDQGWKRVHFRQWDLQLQJȑVVXUHVGUDLQHDVLO\6LOWDQGFOD\ soils, however, have very small pores and tend to retain water. Soils containing organic materials also tend to retain water but the roots of plants and trees break up the soil, producing holes through which liquids can drain quickly (Franceys et al., 1992). The rate RI JURXQGZDWHU ȠORZ LQ XQVDWXUDWHG VRLOV LV D FRPSOH[ IXQFWLRQ RI WKH VL]H VKDSH DQG GLVWULEXWLRQ RI WKH SRUHV DQG ȑVVXUHV WKH VRLO FKHPLVWU\ DQG WKH SUHVHQFH RI DLU 7KH VSHHGRIȠORZLVQRUPDOO\OHVVWKDQPHWUHSHUGD\H[FHSWLQȑVVXUHGURFNVDQGFRDUVH gravels, where the speed may be more than 5.0 metres per day, with increased likelihood of groundwater pollution (Franceys et al., 1992).

6RLOSRUHVHYHQWXDOO\EHFRPHFORJJHGE\HȞȠOXHQWIURPSLWVRUGUDLQDJHWUHQFKHV7KLVPD\ UHGXFHRUHYHQVWRSLQȑOWUDWLRQWKURXJKWKHVRLO&ORJJLQJPD\EHFDXVHGE\ • EORFNDJHRISRUHVE\VROLGVȑOWHUHGIURPWKHOLTXLG • growth of microorganisms and their wastes • swelling of clay minerals • precipitation of insoluble salts

:KHQOLTXLGȑUVWLQȑOWUDWHVXQVDWXUDWHGVRLODHURELFEDFWHULDGHFRPSRVHPXFKRIWKH RUJDQLFPDWWHUȑOWHUHGIURPWKHOLTXLGNHHSLQJWKHSRUHVFOHDUIRUWKHSDVVDJHRIDLUDV ZHOODVHȞȠOXHQW+RZHYHURQFHRUJDQLFPDWWHUEXLOGVXSVRWKDWDLUFDQQRWSDVVWKURXJK the pores, the rate of decomposition (now by anaerobic bacteria) is slower, and heavy EODFNGHSRVLWVRILQVROXEOHVXOȑGHVDUHEXLOWXS )UDQFH\VHWDO

&ORJJLQJRIWKHSRUHVFDQEHPLQLPL]HGE\HQVXULQJWKDWLQȑOWUDWLRQRFFXUVXQLIRUPO\ RYHUWKHZKROHV\VWHP3RRUO\GHVLJQHGLQȑOWUDWLRQV\VWHPV SDUWLFXODUO\WUHQFKHV RȻWHQ cause the liquid to converge on a small section of the system. This produces localized KLJKLQȑOWUDWLRQUDWHVDQGFORJJLQJLQWKDWDUHD&ORJJLQJFDQVRPHWLPHVEHUHGXFHGE\ DUHJLPHRIDOWHUQDWHǕUHVWLQJǖDQGǕGRVLQJǖRIWKHVRLO7KHLQȑOWUDWLRQDUHDLVDOORZHGWR UHVWLHWREHFRPHIXOO\GUDLQHGRIOLTXLGIRUDSHULRGEHIRUHLQȑOWUDWLRQUHFRPPHQFHV During the resting period, air reaches the soil surface and the anaerobic bacteria causing WKHFORJJLQJGLHRȞIDOORZLQJWKHVXUIDFHWREHFRPHXQFORJJHG )UDQFH\VHWDO

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,W LV UDUHO\ SRVVLEOH WR PHDVXUH DFFXUDWHO\ WKH UDWH RI ȠORZ RI HȞȠOXHQW IURP SLWV DQG GUDLQDJHWUHQFKHVHVSHFLDOO\DVWKHȠORZRȻWHQGHFUHDVHVDVVRLOSRUHVEHFRPHFORJJHG Consequently, various empirical rules are used. Some recommendations are based on the rate of percolation of clean water from trial holes dug on the site of a proposed SLWRUGUDLQDJHȑHOGXVLQJYDULRXVGHVLJQFULWHULDWRDOORZIRUGLȞIHUHQFHVLQLQȑOWUDWLRQ rates. A conservative rate of 10 litres per m² per day has been recommended for general application (Franceys et al., 1992). On the other hand, rates of up to 200 litres per m² per day are considered applicable in practice in the US, whereas in Nigeria, designs with a PD[LPXPRIOLWUHVSHUPtSHUGD\KDYHSURYHGVDWLVIDFWRU\7KHLQȑOWUDWLRQFDSDFLWLHV given in Table 6.4 are recommended as a basis for the sizing of pits and drainage trenches ZKHUHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWDFWXDOLQȑOWUDWLRQUDWHVLVQRWDYDLODEOH7KHFDSDFLWLHVJLYHQIRU coarse soils are restricted to prevent possible groundwater pollution and therefore may be unnecessarily conservative in areas where this is not a problem. Gravel is capable of much KLJKHULQȑOWUDWLRQUDWHVZKLFKPD\EHDSUREOHPLQDUHDVZKHUHVKDOORZJURXQGZDWHULV used for human consumption.

7DEOH5HFRPPHQGHGLQȍOWUDWLRQFDSDFLWLHV )UDQFH\VHWDO ,QȑOWUDWLRQ&DSDFLW\6HWWOHG6HZDJH Type of Soil (Litre Per Cubic Metre Per Day) Coarse or medium sand 50 Fine sand, loamy sand 33 Sandy loam, loam 25 Porous silty clay and porous silty clay loam 20 Compact silty loam, compact silty clay loam and non-expansive clay 10 Expansive clay <10

The National Building Code of India states that septic tanks should be regularly maintained and desludged every two or three years. Septic tanks should be cleaned when a large quantity of septage has collected at the bottom of the tank. The interval of cleaning should QRWH[FHHGPRQWKV$ȻWHUFOHDQLQJWKUHHRUIRXUVKRYHOIXOVRIVXUIDFHHDUWKFRQWDLQLQJ grass roots and decaying vegetable matter should provide a good start. No disinfectants should be used in latrines attached to septic tanks as they kill the organisms which digest the faecal matter.

The following measures should be taken for emptying the septic tank: • To have the septic tank emptied, do not wait until the septic tank system shows signs RIIDLOXUHOLNHVHSWDJHZDWHURYHUȠORZRUVHYHUHRGRXUQHDUWKHVHSWLFWDQN7KHZDLWLQJ time can completely clog the tank, resulting in heavy repair charges. • Check the sludge depth of the septic tank every year (Figure 28). When it is two-thirds IXOOLQIRUPWKHPXQLFLSDORȞȑFHIRUHPSW\LQJ • Stir your septic tank properly with a stick just before the arrival of the cesspool truck for proper emptying (Figure 28). • It is necessary to leave some sludge in the tank as ‘seed’ or plant in case of a new tank. Do not use any acids or bleaches. • Protective masks/gear should always be worn while emptying the septic tank.

73 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

Figure 6.11: Procedure to check a septic tank

Image courtesy http://www.mowhs.gov .bt/wp-content/uploads/2013/ 06/Your-Septic-System-leaflet- Thimphu-Thromde2.pdf

6.3 Emptying Faecal Sludge There is a range of service providers for faecal sludge (FS) emptying and transport, from informal and independent individuals to formal and large companies. In some areas, services are also provided by public utilities or non-governmental organizations (CAWST, 2017). It is common to see a variety of service providers working in the same region. This is because of the complexity and accessibility of different on-site sanitation technologies and the customers’ ability to pay for the services (CAWST, 2017). Regardless of who provides the service, they should perform the following tasks when visiting a household: • Go to the household with the required equipment. • Meet the customer to arrange logistics and inform them of the service. • Tell them the fee or negotiate with the customer, depending on the business model. • Put on personal protective equipment (gloves, boots, masks and protective clothing). • Locate the on-site sanitation technology. • Determine the access point of the on-site sanitation technology. • Open the on-site sanitation technology cover. • Remove solid waste, if necessary. • Empty the on-site sanitation technology. • Evaluate the condition of the on-site sanitation technology.

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• Close and secure the on-site sanitation technology. • Clean the areas around the on-site sanitation technology. • 'RDȑQDOLQVSHFWLRQDQGUHSRUWDQ\LVVXHVWRWKHFXVWRPHU • Transport the FS to a treatment or disposal facility.

Service providers can provide valuable information to their customers and answer any questions. Local governments should work with service providers to distribute information about their on-site sanitation technology, and the importance of FSM and good hygiene practices. Service providers can hand out, for example, pamphlets on the importance of maintaining and emptying on-site sanitation technologies (Strande et al., 2014). The sludge-emptying process requires that the service provider has access to a number of tools and that the equipment is properly used and maintained. An example of inadequate PDLQWHQDQFHLVJLYHQLQ)LJXUH7KHVSHFLȑFWRROVXVHGE\VHUYLFHSURYLGHUVYDU\EDVHG on the technology used and the availability in the local market. Some tools common to all service providers include: • shovels, pry bars and probes to locate tanks and manholes • screwdrivers and other hand tools to open manholes and access port lids • long handle shovels and buckets which may be necessary to remove solids that cannot otherwise be removed • hooks to remove non-biodegradable solids • hoses for FS pumping as well as for adding water to tanks if available • safety equipment including: o wheel chocks to prevent the vehicle from moving when parked o personal protective equipment such as hardhats, face protection, eye protection, boots and gloves o disinfectants, barriers, sorbents and bags for cleaning up and collecting spilled material

Employees of the collection and transport company are responsible for maintaining tools and equipment in proper working order, and reporting to supervisors when repairs are required (Strande et al., 2014).

FS can be removed from septic tanks or latrines through the use of manual and mechanized techniques that may rely upon hand tools, vacuum trucks, pumping systems RUPHFKDQLFDODXJHUV7KHVSHFLȑFPHWKRGXWLOL]HGZLOOEHEDVHGRQWKHW\SHRIRQVLWH system, accessibility of the site, the type of equipment owned by the service provider, and the level of expertise (Strande et al., 2014).

Awareness of the properties of FS is necessary to understand the challenges faced in its FROOHFWLRQ DQG WUDQVSRUW 7KHVH SURSHUWLHV DUH SULPDULO\ LQȠOXHQFHG E\ ZDWHU FRQWHQW sludge age, and the presence of non-biodegradable material and organic material. For example, within a pit latrine containment system, recently deposited FS found in the top portion typically has a higher water and organic content than in deeper layers, and consequently a lower density (Strande et al., 2014). The top portion is therefore less viscous and relatively easy to collect. The absence of water and organic content in the deeper, ROGHUDQGPRUHGLJHVWHGOD\HUVPDNHVFROOHFWLRQPXFKPRUHGLȞȑFXOWWKLVFRQGLWLRQLV IUHTXHQWO\UHIHUUHGWRDVǕWKLFNǖ'HSHQGLQJRQWKHFROOHFWLRQPHWKRGǕWKLFNǖ)6RȻWHQQHHGV to have water added to facilitate pumping. This suggests that the deposition period can be used as a strong indicator of the ease with which FS can be collected (Strande et al., 2014).

6.3.1 Emptying Technologies There are two ways to empty sludge from an on-site sanitation technology: • manual emptying (using a bucket or hand pump) • mechanized emptying (using a mechanized pump or vacuum truck)

The advantages and limitations of each method are summarized in the following table and described in the subsequent sections.

75 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

Table 6.5: Advantages and limitations of manual and mechanized emptying Method Advantages Limitations Hard and unpleasant work Potential for local job and income Increased health risks to emptiers from generation exposure to FS Simple hand pumps can be built and Increased safety risks to emptiers from repaired with locally available materials entering pits and tanks Manual emptying Low capital costs Increased public health and environmental 3URYLGHVVHUYLFHWRGLȞȑFXOWWRDFFHVVRQVLWH risk from spilt FS sanitation technologies Time consuming, can take several days 0RUHDȞIRUGDEOHVHUYLFHIRUWKHSRRU depending on the size of the technology Bad smells High capital and operations and maintenance (O&M) costs Not all parts and materials may be locally available 1RWDOOKRXVHKROGVPD\EHDEOHWRDȞIRUG Potential for local job and income genera- the service tion 0D\KDYHGLȞȑFXOWLHVLQDFFHVVLQJRQVLWH Mechanized emptying )DVWDQGJHQHUDOO\HȞIHFWLYH)6UHPRYDO sanitation technologies (e.g. narrow roads) Reduced health, safety and environmental Cannot pump thick sludge (must be risks thinned with water or manually removed) Pumps can usually only suck down to a depth of 2-3 metres, cannot completely empty deep technologies Pump must be located within 25 metres of the technology

Whether on-site sanitation technologies are emptied manually or with mechanized equipment, owners can make it safer to empty in the following ways (CAWST, 2017): • They can fully line latrine pits to prevent the walls from collapsing when emptied • 7KH\FDQEXLOGWZR WZLQ ODWULQHSLWVVRWKHFRQWHQWVRIRQHSLWDUHOHȻWWRGHJUDGH while the other pit is being used. This makes the FS safer to handle when it is time to empty the pit • They can avoid disposing solid waste in the latrine. FS mixed with garbage can be impossible to empty using motorized equipment. Garbage such as glass, medical ZDVWHRUVKDUSREMHFWVDUHVLJQLȑFDQWKHDOWKDQGVDIHW\ULVNVWRWKHSHRSOHHPSW\LQJ the on-site sanitation technologies and treating the sludge

6.3.2 Manual Emptying Manual emptying is typically done in low-income areas and informal settlements that are inaccessible by mechanical equipment and trucks. A recent survey of 30 cities in Africa and Asia found that about one-third of households manually empty their on-site sanitation technologies. While family members sometimes do this job themselves, a manual emptier is hired almost 90% of the time (CAWST, 2017). Further, some OSSs can only be emptied manually. For example, composting latrines and dehydrating latrines must be emptied with a shovel. This is because the material is solid and cannot be removed with a vacuum or a pump.

There is a social stigma attached to manual emptying. People willing to do this work are RȻWHQ WKH SRRU DQG GLVDGYDQWDJHG LQ QHHG RI DGGLWLRQDO LQFRPH 0DQXDO HPSW\LQJ LV hard and unpleasant work, and it poses serious health and safety risks if it is not carefully managed. The tools used for manual emptying are simple, usually no more than a bucket, VKRYHO DQG URSH :RUNHUV RȻWHQ XVH PLQLPDO RU QR SHUVRQDO SURWHFWLRQ OLNH JORYHV RU boots, to prevent direct contact with FS. As a result, they report injuries, skin rashes and other diseases (CAWST, 2017).

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 76 MODULE VI

Workers (or the householders doing the work) need to understand the risks of emptying on-site sanitation technologies and handling FS. They must know to take health and safety precautions, such as: • They must wear gloves, boots, protective clothing and masks while emptying the pit, and wash hands and body with soap afterwards. • At least part of the slab or cover will have to be removed to allow access and improve air circulation. The on-site sanitation technology should be allowed to vent for a while before anyone begins work. Venting allows harmful gases (like methane, ammonia and sulphur dioxide) to escape and fresh air to enter. • No one should enter a pit without a harness and safety rope. There should be two people holding the rope that can pull the worker out if they are overcome by gases or if the pit walls collapse.

Some portable, manually operated pumps have been developed to improve the efficiency of manual emptying and protect the workers better.

Some of these technologies include:

6.3.2.1 Manual Diaphragm Pump It typically consists of a rigid, disc-shaped body clamped to a flexible rubber membrane called a diaphragm. An airtight seal technology between the diaphragm and the disc forms a cavity. To operate the pump, the diaphragm is alternately pushed and pulled, causing it to deform into concave and convex shapes in the same way a rubber plunger is used to unblock a toilet. When workers push and pull the handle of the hand pump, the FS is pumped up through the main shaft and discharged through a spout. A strainer and non-returning foot valve fitted to the end of the inlet pipe prevents non-biodegradable material from entering the pump and stops backflow of sludge during operation, respectively (Strande et al., 2014). Figure 6.12: Components of Manual While the pumps are light enough to be Diaphragm Pump transported by one or two persons, in some cases they are mounted on wheels for ease of transport. Depending on the model, the capital cost of a pump can vary from 300 to 850 USD (Strande et al., 2014). The following challenges have been reported with this technology (Strande et al., 2014): • clogging when pumping sludge containing non-biodegradable material • difficulties in keeping airtight seals at fittings, resulting in air entrainment and consequently low functionality • cracking of the rubber diaphragm • difficulty in locally sourcing or Image Courtesy : http://actionpump.com/ manufacturing the pumps and spare parts Diaphragm-Pumps

6.3.2.2 Nibbler A continuous, rotary action, displacement sludge pump called the Nibbler was developed by the LSHTM at around the same time as the Gulper (see below). It is capable of collecting medium viscosity sludge using a continuous roller chain loop enclosed in a PVC pipe. The pipe can be inserted into the access hole of a containment structure or pit latrine without the need to break any part of the structure (Strande et al., 2014). The chain is driven by manually rotating a double crank and sprocket located at the top of the pipe. Semi-circular metal discs loosely and horizontally attached to the chain at regular intervals scoop out the waste from the bottom of the pit and displace it to the top. Once at the top of the pipe, sludge is scrapped off the discs and into a Y-shaped connector, which guides the sludge into the container being used for onward transport. A vertical plate spanning the length of the pipe divides the downward and upward travel directions of the chain and discs. Due to limited success during trials, development of the Nibbler was suspended (Strande et al., 2014).

77 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

6.3.2.3 Manual Pit Emptying Technology (MAPET) The hand pump is connected to a vacuum tank mounted on a pushcart. When the hand pump is turned, air is sucked out of the vacuum tank and sludge is sucked up into the tank. From a technical point of view, trials have proven that the MAPET works well and is able to pump sludge from a depth of 3 metres at a rate of 10 to 40 litres/minute depending on the depth and viscosity of the sludge (Strande et al., 2014).

6.3.2.4 Gulper This works on the same concept as a water pump. When the handle is pumped, the sludge rises up through the bottom of the pump and is forced out of a spout. The Gulper has a simple design, and can be built using locally available materials and fabrication techniques generally common in low-income countries. It consists of a PVC riser pipe containing two stainless steel ‘non-return’ butterfly valves. One valve, the ‘foot’ valve, is fixed in place at the bottom of the riser pipe and a second valve, the ‘plunger’ valve, is connected to a T-handle and puller rod assembly.

As the handle is moved up and down, the two valves open and close in series, and sludge is lifted up the riser pipe to exit the pump via a downward angled spout. A strainer is fitted to the bottom of the riser pipe to prevent non-biodegradable material from entering and blocking the pump (Strande et al., 2014).

Manual emptying technologies have experienced various technical and implementation challenges. For instance, some pumps get clogged with sludge that contains household solid waste, which is commonly found in pit latrines. Further, some are not designed with locally available pumps or spare parts, and rely on importation (CAWST, 2017).

Since its initial development, the Gulper has undergone several modifications to make it more user-friendly and better adapted to local conditions. Modifications that have been trialled include a lever type handle to make pumping easier and a retractable riser to allow for the emptying of varying-depth containment systems. Other pumps have been developed that use similar principles, including the Poor Pump or the Manual Desludging Hand Pump (MDHP) (Strande et al., 2014).

The Gulper performs well with less viscous sludge and is capable of pumping at a rate of approximately 30 litres/min. The pumping head is fixed for each pump but is dependent on the configuration of the Gulper. Depending on the design and materials used, the capital cost of the Gulper ranges from 40 to 1,400 USD (Strande et al., 2014).

Some challenges reported by developers and users of the pump include: • difficulty setting up and operating the pump in toilets with a small superstructure • clogging of the pump by non-biodegradable material present in the sludge • cracking of the PVC riser pipe after long-term use • splashing of wet sludge during Figure 6.13: Gulpre in action operation Of the manually driven mechanical collection systems discussed in this section, the Gulper has reached the widest number of pit-emptying service providers in Africa and Asia. However, independent uptake or production of the pump by service providers without the intervention of external organizations (e.g. funding, training, technical support) has not been reported (Strande et al., 2014).

(Photo: Linda Strande accessed from Strande et al., 2014)

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 78 MODULE VI

Table 6.6: Summary comparison table of manually operated mechanical equipment Equipment Type Performance Purchase/Operating Cost (USD) Challenges 'LȞȑFXOW\LQDFFHVVLQJWRLOHWVZLWKD small superstructure Suitable for pumping low-viscosity Capital cost: 40-1,400 (depending on sludge Clogging at high non-biodegradable design) material content Gulper $YHUDJHȠORZUDWHVRIOLWUHVPLQ Operating cost: unknown PVC riser pipe prone to racking Maximum pumping head is dependent on design Splashing of sludge between the spout of the pump and the receiving container Clogging at high non-biodegradable Suitable for pumping low-viscosity content sludge 300-850 (depending on manufacturer Manual 'LȞȑFXOWWRVHDOȑWWLQJVDWWKHSXPS 0D[LPXPȠORZUDWHRIOLWUHV and model) Diaphragm Pump inlet resulting in entrainment of air min Operating cost: unknown pumps Maximum pumping head of 3.5-5 Spare parts currently not locally metres available May be unsuitable for dry sludge May be suitable for pumping higher Capital cost: unknown Nibbler with high non-biodegradable viscosity sludge Operating cost: unknown material content Requires strong institutional 0D[LPXPȠORZUDWHVRIOLWUHV Capital cost: 3,000 support for MAPET service providers min depending on the viscosity of Operating cost: 175 per annum Reliance on the importation of a key MAPET the sludge and the pumping head spare part (maintenance costs only) Maximum pumping head of 3 MAPET service providers unable to metres recover maintenance and transport costs from emptying fees

Design tip: Manually emptying sludge (with buckets and a shovel) from pits deeper than 1.5 metres is impossible, unless the emptier climbs inside the pit, ZKLFKLVDVHULRXVKHDOWKDQGVDIHW\ULVN$FRPSURPLVHPXVWEHPDGHEHWZHHQWKHSLWGHSWKDQGWKHIUHTXHQF\DQGGLȞȑFXOW\RIHPSW\LQJ6KDOORZSLWV OHVVWKDQPHWUHVGHHS DUHHDVLHUWRHPSW\DQGKDYHOHVVKHDOWKULVNVIRUHPSWLHUVWKDQGHHSHUSLWVEXWWKH\QHHGWREHHPSWLHGPRUHRȻWHQ

352+,%,7,212)(03/2<0(172)0$18$/6&$9(1*,1*$1'7+(,55(+$%,/,7$7,21$&7ɂɀɁɃ

Manual scavenging is historically linked to the practice of untouchability and the continuation of such practices is forbidden under the Constitution of India (Article 17). The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, prohibits the engagement or employment of persons for manually carrying human excreta and further prohibits the construction RUPDLQWHQDQFHRIGU\ODWULQHVKRZHYHULWKDVQRWVHHQDVLQJOHFRQYLFWLRQLQWKH\HDUVLWKDVEHHQLQIRUFH$QHZ%LOOZDVGUDȻWHG LQZLWKWKHDLPRIPDNLQJWKHODZUHJXODWLQJPDQXDOVFDYHQJHUVPRUHHȞIHFWLYH,WZDVSDVVHGE\ERWK+RXVHVRI3DUOLDPHQW on 7 September 2013 as the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 (Chikkerur, n.d.). FS collection should comply with the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013, wherein sections 2(1)(d), 5(1)(b), 7 and 33, read along with rules 3, 4 and 5, address the issues relating to manual scavenging with provisions to: • � SURKLELWHQJDJHPHQWRISHUVRQVGLUHFWO\RULQGLUHFWO\IRUPDQXDOVFDYHQJLQJRUKD]DUGRXVFOHDQLQJRIVHZHURUVHSWLFWDQN • � HQVXUHXVHRIDSSURSULDWHWHFKQRORJ\DQGHTXLSPHQWWRSUHYHQWPDQXDOKDQGOLQJRIH[FUHWDLQWKHSURFHVVRIFOHDQLQJ • � SURYLGHDGHTXDWHSURWHFWLYHJHDUVDQGVDIHW\GHYLFHVWRSHUVRQVLQYROYHGLQPHFKDQLFDOFOHDQLQJRIVHZHUDQGVHSWLFWDQN • � HQVXUHDGHTXDWHSUHFDXWLRQDU\PHDVXUHVSULRUWRFOHDQLQJRIVHSWLFWDQN • � HQVXUHDOOSHUVRQV HPSOR\HHV LQYROYHGLQWKHSURFHVVDUHDGHTXDWHO\WUDLQHG

79 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

6.3.3 Mechanized Emptying Mechanized FS emptying technologies are powered by electricity, fuel or pneumatic systems (using pressurized air or gas). They can be mounted on a frame or trolley for increased mobility, or mounted on vehicles for emptying and transporting large quantities of sludge over longer distances. This section discusses a range of fully mechanized technologies. It includes equipment that is widely available, such as motorized diaphragm pumps, trash pumps and some types of vehicle-mounted vacuum equipment. It also details some less commonly used equipment that is either in the early stages of development, such as the motorized pit screw auger, or no longer being developed, such as the Gobbler (Strande et al., 2014).

6.3.3.1 Motorized Diaphragm Pumps Other than being powered by a motor, motorized diaphragm pumps operate using the VDPHSULQFLSOHVDVWKHPDQXDOGLDSKUDJPSXPSV0DQ\GLȞIHUHQWFRPPHUFLDOEUDQGVDQG types exist covering multiple applications, one of which is the pumping of FS. Although they can be powered hydraulically, electrically or by compressed air, the most common type used for pumping FS is driven by a petrol or diesel engine. The pumps are typically mounted on a frame and moved by hand or using a trolley for increased mobility (Strande et al., 2014).

7KHSHUIRUPDQFHRIWKHSHWURORUGLHVHOHQJLQHGLȞIHUVGHSHQGLQJRQWKHVL]HDQGPRGHO They are generally suited to pumping liquid sludge but can also handle some solid particles (Strande et al., 2014). A typical 3-inch pump can pump solids ranging in size from WRPPZLWKDPD[LPXPȠORZUDWHRIWR/PLQDQGPD[LPXPSXPSLQJ head of 15 metres. Motorized diaphragm pumps were used to empty VIP latrines in South Africa but frequently blocked due to the presence of large pieces of non-biodegradable material in the sludge. A lack of spare parts for some components of the engine is also a constraint in some low-income countries. The approximate purchase price of a 3-inch motorized diaphragm pump is 2,000 USD (Strande et al., 2014).

6.3.3.2 Trash Pumps 7KH\ZRUNLQDVLPLODUZD\WRFHQWULIXJDOLPSHOOHUZDWHUSXPSVZLWKVRPHGLȞIHUHQFHV The impeller of a trash pump typically has fewer solid blades, sometimes with cutting edges that can break up the material being pumped. The impellers’ housing is usually simple and easy to remove, allowing for rapid unblocking if and when required. Trash pumps are suitable for pumping sludge with high liquid content. Similar to motorized GLDSKUDJP SXPSV WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI WKH SXPSV GLȞIHUV GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH VL]H DQG model. The 3-inch pumps can typically handle solid particles in the range of 20 to 30 mm, KDYHPD[LPXPȠORZUDWHVRIDSSUR[LPDWHO\/PLQDQGPD[LPXPSXPSLQJKHDGV of 25 to 30 metres. The approximate purchase price of a 3-inch trash pump is 1,800 USD (Strande et al., 2014).

6.3.3.3 Motorized Pit Screw Auger Pit screw augers (SASs) are based on the Archimedean screw design. Trials were carried out using manually operated AS; however, they were found to operate too slowly to be HȞIHFWLYH 6WUDQGH HW DO 0RWRUL]HG 6$6 DUH FXUUHQWO\ XQGHU GHYHORSPHQW ZLWK prototypes mimicking certain aspects of commercial motorized soil augers. They consist of an auger placed inside a plastic riser pipe and protruding by approximately 5-15 cm from the bottom end of the pipe. An electric motor is mounted on top of the riser pipe where it connects to the auger.

To operate, the riser pipe is placed in the FS and as the auger turns, FS is picked up by cutting EODGHVDWWKHERWWRPRIWKHDXJHUDQGOLȻWHGXSWKHULVHUSLSHDORQJWKHDXJHUȠOLJKWV$ downward angled spout at the top of the riser pipe allows material to be discharged into a collection container. Weighing between 20 and 40 kg, motorized SASs can be operated by one person. Flow rates are estimated to vary between 40 to 50 L/min and it may be suitable for pumping high viscosity FS and semi-solids. They can handle a small amount of QRQELRGHJUDGDEOHZDVWHZLWKPRUHUHFHQWSURWRW\SHVEHLQJȑWWHGZLWKDUHYHUVHJHDUWR facilitate dislodging of waste. It is reported that one of the prototypes costs in the region of 700 USD to build; however, no data is currently available on operating costs. Some of the challenges faced by motorized PSAs include (Strande et al., 2014):

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 80 MODULE VI

• FRPSOLFDWHGHPSW\LQJSURFHVVGXHWRWKHȑ[HGOHQJWKDQGULJLGLW\RIWKHDXJHUDQG riser pipe • unsuitability for use with dry sludge and large amounts of non-biodegradable waste • GLȞȑFXOWLHVZLWKFOHDQLQJDȻWHUXVH • GLȞȑFXOWLHVPDQRHXYULQJGXHWRZHLJKWDQGVL]H

6.3.3.4 Gobbler The Gobbler was prototyped by the South African Water Research Commission (WRC) LQDVDPRUHUREXVWDQGHȞȑFLHQWYHUVLRQRIWKH1LEEOHU8VLQJWKHVDPHRSHUDWLQJ principles as the Nibbler, the Gobbler is powered using an electric motor. The motor turns a double chain drive that rotates a heavier gauge chain than that of the Nibbler. The metallic disks used to pull FS out of the pits in the Nibbler have been replaced by metal VFRRSVDQGDVFUDSHULVLQVWDOOHGDWWKHGLVFKDUJHSRLQWWRUHPRYHWKH)6RȞIWKHVFRRSV (Strande et al., 2014). During testing, sludge blocking the drive chains of the Gobbler was IRXQGWREHDVLJQLȑFDQWSUREOHP 6WUDQGHHWDO 2WKHULVVXHVHQFRXQWHUHGLQWKH construction and operation include: • a complex fabrication process requiring a high number of parts • GLȞȑFXOW\PRYLQJDQGVHWWLQJXSWKHSXPSGXHWRLWVKHDY\ZHLJKW • GLȞȑFXOW\HPSW\LQJFRQWDLQPHQWVWUXFWXUHVRIGLȞIHUHQWGHSWKVDVWKHOHQJWKZDVQRW adjustable

The estimated cost of the prototype Gobbler was approximately 1,200 USD. As with the 1LEEOHUDQGGXHWRWKHVLJQLȑFDQWFKDOOHQJHVH[SHULHQFHGQRIXUWKHULQYHVWPHQWVKDYH been made in the development of the Gobbler (Strande et al., 2014).

6.3.3.5 Vehicle-mounted Vacuum Equipment 3XPSLQJV\VWHPVWKDWXWLOL]HDYDFXXPKDYHEHHQVKRZQWREHHȞIHFWLYHLQUHPRYLQJ)6 from on-site water-retaining systems. Vacuum pumps may be mounted on heavy-duty trucks or trailers, lighter duty carts, or even human-powered carts when smaller volumes are being collected or for use in dense urban settings not accessible by larger trucks. 9DFXXP SXPSV RȻWHQ XWLOL]H WKH WUXFN V WUDQVPLVVLRQ WR SRZHU WKH V\VWHP DOWKRXJK independently powered, dedicated motors can also be used. Vacuum trucks are available LQDZLGHYDULHW\RIVL]HVDQGPRGHOVWRDFFRPPRGDWHGLȞIHUHQWQHHGVZLWKWKHPRVW commonly used having capacities ranging from 200 to 16,000 litres (Strande et al., 2014).

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6.3.4.1 Conventional vacuum trucks 9DFXXPSXPSVDUHVL]HGEDVHGRQOLȻWHOHYDWLRQSXPSLQJGLVWDQFHYROXPHRIVOXGJHWREH removed, and volume of the tank. When designing collection and transport systems, local manufacturers should be consulted in order to determine what equipment is available. 3URGXFWVSHFLȑFDWLRQVPXVWEHFKHFNHGWRYHULI\WKDWWKHSURSRVHGWUXFNLVDGHTXDWHIRU the need.

The typical volume of trucks used for the collection of FS ranges from 10,000 to 55,000 OLWUHV 9DULRXV IDFWRUV LQȠOXHQFH WKH VHOHFWLRQ RI D YDFXXP WUXFN E\ D VHUYLFH SURYLGHU including: • typical volume of the tanks or vaults that will be serviced • road widths and weight constraints • distance to the treatment plant • availability • budget • skill level of the operators

&RQYHQWLRQDOYDFXXPWDQNHUVDUHW\SLFDOO\ȑWWHGZLWKHLWKHUDUHODWLYHO\ORZFRVWORZ volume sliding vane pump or a more expensive liquid ring pump. The former is more DSSURSULDWHIRUORZFDSDFLW\YDFXXPWDQNHUVZKHUHKLJKYDFXXPDQGORZDLUȠORZVOXGJH

81 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE removal techniques are used. Vacuum conveyance techniques work best for removing low- viscosity sludge such as that found in septic tanks (Strande et al., 2014).

Liquid ring pumps are more appropriate for high-capacity vessels and pneumatic conveying techniques. They are most suitable for emptying higher viscosity sludge typically found at the bottom of a septic tank or in a pit latrine.

6RPHFRQYHQWLRQDOYDFXXPWDQNHUVDUHDOVRȑWWHGZLWKGHZDWHULQJFDSDELOLWLHVLQRUGHUWR UHGXFHWKHYROXPHRIWKHVOXGJHWUDQVSRUWHGDQGLQFUHDVHHȞȑFLHQF\:DVWHZDWHUGLVSRVDO points (typically a sewerage network) then become necessary to dispose of the untreated OLTXLG HȞȠOXHQW 7KH GRZQVLGH RI WKLV PRUH FRPSOH[ V\VWHP LV WKH H[SHUW PDLQWHQDQFH needs, in terms of human capacity and spare parts (Strande et al., 2014).

6.3.4.2 BREVAC In 1983, the International Reference Centre for Waste Disposal (IRCWD) undertook a series RIȑHOGWHVWVLQ%RWVZDQDXVLQJPXOWLSOHFRQYHQWLRQDODQGVSHFLDOLVWYDFXXPWDQNHUVDV well as mechanical collection equipment. The BREVAC, developed by the Building Research Establishment (BRE), was one of the specialist vacuum tankers tested. The equipment was GHVLJQHGWRKDXODGRXEOHFRPSDUWPHQWDOYHVVHOWKHȑUVWEHLQJDPFRPSDUWPHQW IRUVOXGJHDQGWKHVHFRQGDPFRPSDUWPHQWIRUVHUYLFHOLTXLG LHZDWHU ,WZDVȑWWHG with a high performance liquid ring vacuum pump with a 0.8 bar suction capacity and PPLQXWHDLUȠORZUDWH7KHWDQNHUZDVDOVRȑWWHGZLWKDK\GUDXOLFWLSSLQJF\OLQGHUWR LQFOLQHWKHYHVVHODQGIDFLOLWDWHFOHDQLQJDȻWHULWKDGEHHQHPSWLHG 6WUDQGHHWDO

During testing, the BREVAC proved to be capable of emptying high viscosity FS from pit ODWULQHVDQGPDQRHXYULQJLQWLJKWVSDFHVDQGGLȞȑFXOWWHUUDLQ 6WUDQGHHWDO ,WV ability to hydraulically break up sludge masses with pressurized water streams eliminated the need for someone to get inside the septic tank or pit during cleaning. Some design IHDWXUHV UHTXLUHG UHFRQȑJXUDWLRQ HJ DGGLWLRQ RI D ȠORDWLQJ EDOO JDXJH WR GHWHUPLQH sludge level), and non-biodegradable materials caused clogging of the hoses. However, RYHUDOO WKH WHFKQRORJ\ ZDV GHHPHG WR EH WHFKQLFDOO\ VRXQG DQG ȑW IRU WKH SXUSRVH (Strande et al., 2014).

Due to the highly technical design and specialist parts necessary to operate it, and the high cost associated with such issues, the BREVAC failed to sustain demand and presence in the target market.

6.3.4.3 Vacutug In 1995, lessons learned from the development of the BREVAC and MAPET by IRCWD were WDNHQLQWRDFFRXQWLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKH81+$%,7$79DFXWXJ7KHȑUVWYHUVLRQ0DUN ,ZDVGHYHORSHGLQ,UHODQGE\0DQXV&RȞIH\$VVRFLDWHV 0&$ DQGWULDOOHGLQ.HQ\DE\WKH Kenya Water and Health Organization (KWAHO). Since then, four subsequent versions have been developed in Bangladesh, and several units of each sold (Strande et al., 2014) as mentioned in Table 6.7.

7DEOH&KDUDFWHULVWLFVRIGLȚIHUHQW9DFXWXJV Mounting & Version Capacity (Litres) Relative Width Travel Distance Cost (USD) Propulsion Mounted on self- Mark I & II 500 Very narrow Short-haul 10,000 propelled chassis Mounted on trailer chassis and Mark III 1,900 Average Long haul 20,000 propelled by tractor or pickup Mounted on chassis Mark IV 700 Narrow Medium haul 15,000 of motorized tricycle Mounted on chassis Mark V 1,000 Narrow Medium haul 15,000 of motorized tricycle

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 82 MODULE VI

6.3.4.4 Delivering Vehicle Mounted Vacuum Services Vacuum units for sludge removal are complex mechanical systems that must be operated correctly, not only to accomplish sludge removal, but also to protect the equipment and health of the service providers. The following steps are recommended for the operation of vacuum trucks: • Park the truck as close to the system as possible. The maximum distance is determined by the length of the hose and elevation rise from the bottom of the pit or septic tank to the vacuum truck tank inlet. This should typically be no more than 25 metres in linear GLVWDQFHDQGPHWUHVLQHOHYDWLRQJDLQ)XUWKHUGLVWDQFHVRUHOHYDWLRQGLȞIHUHQFHV may require intermediate pumps. • Inform the occupant of the pending service and note any concerns or issues. • Inspect the site for possible hazards, such as clearing the area of people, or identifying KLJKJURXQGZDWHUWKDWFRXOGFDXVHDWDQNWRǕȠORDWǖLIHPSWLHG • Secure the truck using wheel chocks. • Lay out and connect the hoses from the truck to the tank or pit to be emptied. • Open the tank or pit by removing the access ports or covers over the storage system. • (QJDJH WKH YDFXXP HTXLSPHQW E\ XVLQJ D SRZHU WDNHRȞI IURP WKH WUXFN V transmission. • Increase the vacuum to the proper level with the valve closed by watching the vacuum gauge, then lower the end of the hose into the storage system and open the YDOYHVXȞȑFLHQWO\VXFKWKDWWKH)6LVGUDZQRXWRIWKHWDQNRUSLW&ORVLQJWKHYDOYH periodically rebuilds the vacuum to enable the removal of further FS. • Continue this process until the job is complete. • Break up FS that has agglomerated into a solid mass. This can be done either by making use of a long handle shove and adding water when necessary to reduce the YLVFRVLW\RIWKH)6RUE\UHYHUVLQJWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHȠORZDQGIRUFLQJWKHFRQWHQWVRI the vacuum truck tank back through the hose and into the sanitation system in order WRXVHWKHKLJKSUHVVXUHVWUHDPWREUHDNXSWKHVOXGJH7KHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHȠORZLV then returned to normal and the contents removed. It is essential to ensure that the hose is in sound condition, and that the hose connections are locked into place prior to using this method. • Operators should remove 90-95% of the contents. It is recommended that this is YHULȑHGE\PDQDJHPHQWWKURXJKSHULRGLFVSRWFKHFNV • • Identify any abnormal conditions, such as high concentration of non- biodegradable materials, oils and grease. The colour and odour of the FS can provide clues as to how the occupants are using the system, and if excessive chemicals are being discharged down the drain. • Inspect the system once empty. In the case of a septic tank, the following checks should be carried out by the operator: o Listen for water running back from the discharge pipe, which could indicate plugged leach lines (if present). o Check to make sure that inlet and outlet tees are properly in place. Frequently, WKHVHVWUXFWXUHVEUHDNRȞIDQGFDQVRPHWLPHVEHIRXQGDWWKHERWWRPRIWKHWDQN o Inspect the tank for cracks or damage. o Verify that the tank is properly vented. o Ensure that the tank lids are properly attached when the pumping is complete and that they are properly secured. • Prepare a written report indicating: o how much waste was removed o the condition of the tank or pit o any recommendations for repairs or maintenance o any recommendations for proper use of the system • Secure the tank lid and pack away the hoses.; • Clean up any spillage using proper sorbent materials.; • ,QIRUPWKHFOLHQWWKDWWKHZRUNLVFRPSOHWHDQGJLYHWKHPWKHȑQDOUHSRUW,QVRPH

83 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE

instances, payment is received immediately for the service; however, payment is RȻWHQ PDGH GLUHFWO\ WR WKH VHUYLFH SURYLGHU WKURXJK VRPH W\SH RI ELOOLQJ V\VWHP 'XULQJWKLVȑQDOLQWHUYLHZWKHRSHUDWRULQIRUPVWKHFOLHQWRIWKHȑQGLQJVDQGDQ\ recommendations.; • Remove the wheel chocks and drive the truck to the next site or to the nearest approved disposal site.

Table 6.8: Summary table for mechanized mechanical sludge emptying equipment (Strande et al., 2014) Cost (USD) Equipment Type Performance Challenges Capital Operating Can handle liquid sludge and solid particles 40-60 mm in size Blocking due to non- Motorized Diaphragm 0D[LPXPȠORZUDWHRI biodegradable waste in the 2,000 Unknown Pump 330 L/min sludge Maximum pumping head of Spare parts not available Locally 15 metres (can easily empty from variable depths) Can handle very liquid sludge and solid particles 20-30 mm in size 'LȞȑFXOWWRȑQGVSDUHSDUWV 0D[LPXPȠORZUDWHRI Requires containment system Trash Pump 500- 2,000 Unknown approximately 1,200 L/min. Potential for clogging Maximum pumping head of 25-30 metres (can easily empty from variable depths) 7KHȑ[HGOHQJWKRIWKHDXJHU Can handle liquid sludge and riser pipe and a small amount of non- biodegradable waste Unsuitable for use with dry sludge and large quantities of Pit Screw Auger Flow rates of over 50 L/min 700 Unknown non-biodegradable waste Pumping head of at least 3 'LȞȑFXOWWRFOHDQDȻWHUXVH PHWUHV GLȞȑFXOW\HPSW\LQJ from variable depths) 'LȞȑFXOWWRPDQRHXYUHGXHWR weight and size Blocks easily due to sludge Complex fabrication process and build-up in the working parts a large number of parts Pumping head of at least 3 Gobbler 1200 Unknown Weight of the pump length not metres adjustable 'LȞȑFXOW\HPSW\LQJIURP variable depths

Can handle low-viscosity 25 /load (assuming Can be slow to transport sludge well and some non- two loads emptied per 'LȞȑFXOW\HPSW\LQJKLJK biodegradable waste day from an average viscosity sludge Vacutug Ideal for areas with limited 10,000-20,000 distance of 10 km from Small volume (500 to 1,900 access the disposal point and litres) Pumping head varies an average travel speed 1RWȑQDQFLDOO\YLDEOHIRUORQJ depending on model used of 10 km/h) haul transport

can easily handle low-viscosity GLȞȑFXOW\DFFHVVLQJKLJKGHQVLW\ sludge well and some non- areas biodegradable waste GLȞȑFXOWWRPDLQWDLQLQORZ Ideal for transporting large Conventional Vacuum income contexts due to quantities of sludge over long 10,000 – 100,000 Highly Variable Tanker specialized parts distances prohibitively expensive for some Pumping head varies service providers depending on pump model used

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 84 MODULE VI

6.4 Transporting Faecal Sludge A safe method for transporting FS must also be arranged. Similar to emptying, transport technologies can be classified into two categories: • manual using human or animal power • motorized using a fuel-powered engine • Manual service providers generally use simple, low-cost transportation methods that rely on human or animal power, such as: • cart • wheelbarrow • wagon • rickshaw

Manual service providers often use open containers to transport the FS. The sludge should be put into covered containers with tightly fitting lids to reduce the risk of spills when it is transported.

Containers of sludge with capacities of up to 200 litres can be transported using manual push or pull carts. The carts are designed to fit into tight spaces and can transport FS about 500 metres, and sometimes up to 3 km (CAWST, 2017). Larger-scale manual emptying operations may be able to afford a small pickup truck or other motorized vehicle to transport FS a longer distance away. Motorized tricycles are the smallest type of low-cost motorized vehicle used to move sludge. They vary in size and power, and are able to access narrower streets than larger trucks. Some tricycles can carry up to 1,000 kg of sludge, whereas pickup trucks can transport between 2,000 to 5,000 kg at one time (CAWST, 2017).

Both manual and motorized transportation methods face various challenges: • Road width and slope: In densely populated areas, roads can be narrow. Certain vehicles are not able to access the roads to service households. Steep slopes also reduce the accessibility of households. • Poor road construction: It is difficult and dangerous for certain vehicles to use roads that are not well maintained. Holes in the road, for example, could tip over a cart or pickup truck. Pedestrians could be hurt and FS could spill onto the streets. • Accessibility in rainy season: Roads can flood during a rainy season. Vehicles may not be able to pass through the flooded roads. • Traffic: In urban areas, traffic is often dense and dangerous. Larger vehicles are more likely to get stuck in traffic. Smaller vehicles need to be particularly attentive to other vehicles. • Breakdown and repair: Vehicles often break down and need to be repaired. The skills, tools and spare parts to repair a vehicle are often not available or are expensive. • The weight of FS: FS is heavy, which limits how much of it can be carried. Its weight also makes it expensive to transport sludge over a long distance. • Risk of theft, damage and abuse: This risk applies to all vehicles, including vehicles transporting sludge.

Vacuum trucks or other large vehicles with storage tanks are generally able to transport sludge directly to the treatment, use or disposal facility. However, due to the challenges faced by manual service providers in transporting sludge, a common practice is to dump or bury the FS near the home, or dispose it in the local sewer system. Moving the sludge just a few metres away from where it was collected does not provide a sustainable or hygienic solution for sludge disposal (CAWST, 2017).

Transfer stations are an option when FS cannot be easily transported over a long distance. Transfer stations are fixed (permanent) or mobile (temporary) places to dispose and store sludge. When the transfer station is full, a vacuum truck empties the sludge and takes it to a treatment or disposal facility. Easy and affordable access to a transfer station may help to

85 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING OF FAECAL SLUDGE reduce the incidence of illegal sludge dumping and encourage households to empty their on-site sanitation technologies more regularly. Transfer stations are still in the stage of LQQRYDWLYHWHFKQRORJ\ZLWKRXWDFWXDOȑHOGH[SHULHQFHLQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVRWKHUWKDQ a few pilot projects (CAWST, 2017).

6.5 Occupational Hazards and Safety

6.5.1 Hazards 7KHUH DUH PDQ\ VSHFLȑF KHDOWK DQG VDIHW\ FRQFHUQV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH FROOHFWLRQ transport and discharge of FS. Unfortunately, the current situation is that the majority of FS collection and transport service providers in low-income countries do not practise adequate health and safety protection, particularly when employing manual emptying techniques or using small-scale equipment. As a result, service providers are at a high risk of exposure to physical, chemical and biological hazards. This section provides a brief summary of some of these hazards as well as methods for reducing exposure.

6.5.1.1 Physical hazards The following physical hazards can exist in the handling of FS: • low bearing capacity of the soil surrounding an unlined pit can lead to the collapse of its sidewalls during emptying (in particular for manual emptying) • slips, trips and falls • exposure to sharp objects contained in the sludge (e.g. glass, metals) • FDUU\LQJKHDY\ORDGV HJFRQWDLQPHQWVWUXFWXUHFRYHURUVOXGJHȑOOHGFRQWDLQHUV • WUDȞȑF SDUWLFXODUO\UHOHYDQWGXULQJWUDQVSRUW

6.5.1.2 Chemical hazards The following chemical hazards are known to exist: • direct and indirect oral, nasal and dermal exposure to chemicals (e.g. hydrocarbons that are introduced as odour suppressants, although this practice is not recommended) • ZRUNLQJLQFRQȑQHGVSDFHVLQWKHSUHVHQFHRIKDUPIXOJDVHV HJPHWKDQHDPPRQLD sulphur dioxide), in an oxygen-depleted environment (in particular during manual emptying).

6.5.1.3 Biological hazards The following biological hazards can exist in the handling of FS: • direct and indirect oral, nasal and dermal exposure to multiple types of pathogens in FS

2WKHUKD]DUGV • pervasiveness of alcohol consumption in the FS collection profession

6.5.2 Mitigating Risk 3UHYHQWLYHPHDVXUHVIRUPLWLJDWLQJULVNVFDQEHDGRSWHGYROXQWDULO\RUDVVXPLQJHȞIHFWLYH enforcement measures are in place, through the introduction of regulation. 7KH ȑUVW DQG EHVW OLQH RI GHIHQFH IRU PLWLJDWLQJ ULVNV LV E\ OLPLWLQJ H[SRVXUH WR WKH SUHYLRXVO\GHȑQHGKD]DUGV7KLVLQFOXGHV • providing and wearing appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) to avoid direct and indirect exposure to FS (e.g. gloves, coveralls, rubber boots with a metal sole, safety glasses and safety masks) • developing and providing training on the use of tools customized for local conditions and local containment systems in order to avoid direct contact with FS • providing a training programme on standard operating procedures including the proper use of PPE, tools and equipment

Preventive measures related to personal healthcare, including immunization and a deworming programme, are recommended. The second measure is recommended particularly for service providers transitioning from unsafe to safe practices.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 86 MODULE VI

Table 6.9: Barriers to health and preventive measures

Barriers to Protect Health Action

Wear protective equipment, such as clothing, gloves, boots and mask. Use protective equipment Clean and disinfect the equipment used.

Wash hands :DVKKDQGVZLWKVRDSDȻWHUKDQGOLQJ)6WRROVDQGHTXLSPHQW

Disinfect the tools used for emptying and transport, and only use Clean tools them for this activity. Safely store the tools so people do not touch them or use them for another purpose.

8VHDQXQGDPDJHGFRQWDLQHUZLWKDWLJKWȑWWLQJOLGWRSUHYHQW)6 Use containers with lids from spilling during transportation.

Keep site clean Clean the area where FS may have spilled.

Train service providers on proper emptying and transport procedures and hygiene practices. Train local community on the importance of Train regular emptying and the importance of not putting solid waste into the latrine. Provide treatment for helminthes infection to service providers and Deworm their families to stop the cycle of transmission and reduce helminthes in FS.

6.6 Summary People and companies that collect and transport FS from on-site sanitation technologies such as septic tanks and pit latrines perform a valuable service for residents, neighbourhoods and cities where they are located. They provide a critical link in the service chain that makes access to sanitation a reality. Without collection and transport companies to remove FS, on-site systems will not be able to function properly.

This module highlighted aspects of an ideal, professional and safe sludge removal service. (ȞIHFWLYHVHUYLFHSURYLGHUVUHO\RQWUDLQHGSHUVRQQHOIXQFWLRQDOHTXLSPHQWDQGSURFHGXUHV for conducting the work safely and with minimal impact to the environment. Sanitation DXWKRULWLHV VKRXOG HQFRXUDJH PHDVXUHV VXFK DV ZRUNHU WUDLQLQJ DQG FHUWLȑFDWLRQ DQG licensing of collection vehicles. Activities should be adapted to suit the local context within which the services are implemented, while keeping these overall objectives in mind.

87 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION MODULE VII TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

DISPOSAL OR REUSE CONTAINTMENT

EMPTYING TREATMENT & TRANSPORT

Learning Objectives

ʝ To get an overview of existing and upcoming faecal sludge treatment technologies ʝ To understand the advantages, constraints and applicability of the various treatment technologies ʝ 7ROHDUQWRFRPSDUHDQGFRQWUDVWGLȞIHUHQWWUHDWPHQWWHFKQRORJLHVEDVHGRQSHUIRUPDQFHDQGDSSURSULDWHQHVVIRUORFDO contexts ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIȑQGLQJDFRQWH[WDGDSWHGFRPELQDWLRQRIWHFKQRORJLHV TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE I: SANITATION AND ITS RELEVANCE 1.1 Sanitation 2 1.2 Components of Sanitation 3 1.3 Impact of Poor Sanitation 16 1.4 Summary 18

MODULE II: SANITATION FLOW DIAGRAM 2.1 What is a Sanitation Flow Diagram? 20 2.2 Components of SFD 20 2.3 Purpose of SFD 20 2.4 Summary 20

MODULE IV: URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4.1 Wastewater Management Systems 42 )DFWRUV,QȠOXHQFLQJWKH&KRLFHRI6WUDWHJ\ 4.3 Summary 51

MODULE IX: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Financial Models 144 9.3 Summary 154

REFERENCES 173

7.1 Introduction A sanitation system deals with human excreta from the time it is generated until it is reused or safely disposed. The fourth component of the sanitation value chain addresses treatment of faecal sludge (FS) to reduce the health and environmental risks. A lack of available and low-cost treatment options contributes to harmful FS being dumped into WKHHQYLURQPHQW7KLVUHGXFHVWKHEHQHȑWVRIEXLOGLQJRQVLWHVDQLWDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVLQ WKHȑUVWSODFH &$:67

7KHW\SHDQGOHYHORIWUHDWPHQWZLOOGHSHQGRQWKHȑQDOJRDOIRUWKH)67UHDWPHQWFDQ mean reducing the pathogens to a safe level or transforming FS into a valuable product ZLWKHFRQRPLFDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOEHQHȑWV&UHDWLQJDXVDEOHSURGXFWUDWKHUWKDQZDVWH is called ‘resource recovery’. Treatment of FS helps to manage and reduce its negative impacts, as well as increase the potential positive impacts (CAWST, 2016).

Given the high content of coarse wastes such as plastics, tissues and paper in the FS discharged by collection and transport trucks, a preliminary screening is needed for most treatment technologies. Also, the characteristics of FS collected at industrial and commercial facilities should be checked as they can be contaminated with metals, have high concentrations of fats, oil and grease, or other concerns. They should be segregated DQGWUHDWHGVHSDUDWHO\ 6WUDQGHHWDO $ȻWHUWUHDWPHQWWKUHHW\SHVRIHQGSURGXFWV can be distinguished: • screenings • treated sludge • OLTXLGHȞȠOXHQW

Selection of treatment technologies, or combinations thereof, should be done taking into account the local context, existing regulations and end use goals. Treatment consists of combinations of: • the treatment of FS directly transported from the on-site sanitation systems (OSSs) – which can be done in one or several steps, and produces solid and liquid end products • the further treatment of the resulting end products – either the solid part of the WUHDWPHQW HQG SURGXFWV WUHDWHG )6 RU OLTXLG HȞȠOXHQWV Ǔ EHIRUH HQG XVH RU ȑQDO disposal

$GGLWLRQDOO\WHFKQRORJLHVKDYHGLȞIHUHQWȑHOGVRIDSSOLFDWLRQVRPHFDQEHXVHGIRUWKH treatment or co-treatment of ‘fresh’ FS (e.g. from public toilets); others are better suited for treating digested FS (e.g. from septic tanks) or pretreated FS. This is related to the fact that fresh FS, derived from bucket or public latrines with a high emptying frequency (once SHUPRQWKRUPRUHRȻWHQ LVPRUHGLȞȑFXOWWRGHZDWHUDQGPD\SURGXFHRGRXUVGXULQJ digestion (Strande et al., 2014).

In order to overcome these problems, fresh FS can be exposed to a chain of treatment WHFKQRORJLHVZLWKDȑUVWGLJHVWLRQVWHS$QRWKHURSWLRQLVWRPL[IUHVK)6ZLWKGLJHVWHG FS. In addition to treatment goals, a choice of technologies cannot be made without some IRUPRIFRVWFRPSDULVRQ+RZHYHUDFRPSOHWHRYHUYLHZRIWKHFRVWVLVGLȞȑFXOWWRREWDLQ DVPDQ\IDFWRUVSOD\DUROHDQGFRVWVDUHVWURQJO\FRQWH[WVSHFLȑFPRUHRYHUWKHODFNRI long-term experience of operational FS treatment implementations further complicates reliable cost estimation (Strande et al., 2014).

There are a number of technologies available for the treatment of FS; however, the level of operational information available for each of them is based on the varying degrees of implementation and current level of research. In this module, the FS treatment technologies that are covered with an operational level of detail are settling tanks, unplanted drying beds, planted drying beds and co-treatment with wastewater.

Technologies that have also been implemented and are relatively well established are: co- composting of FS together with municipal solid waste (MSW); co-treatment of FS in waste stabilization ponds; and deep row entrenchment. Several other technologies have been adapted from activated sludge wastewater treatment and sludge management practices. This category includes anaerobic digestion of FS, sludge incineration, mechanical sludge drying processes such as centrifugation, and chemical treatment through lime addition.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 90 MODULE VII

Finally, there is a whole range of technologies that are currently under development (Strande et al., 2014).

7.2 Objectives of Treatment 7KHW\SHDQGOHYHORIWUHDWPHQWZLOOGHSHQGRQWKHȑQDOJRDOIRUWKH)67KHUHDUHIRXU main treatment objectives: • Pathogen Inactivation:$NH\REMHFWLYHRI)6WUHDWPHQWLVRȻWHQSDWKRJHQUHGXFWLRQ to protect public health. Pathogens are bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminthes WKDWFDXVHGLVHDVH7KHOHYHORISDWKRJHQUHGXFWLRQUHTXLUHGGHSHQGVRQWKHȑQDOXVH or disposal of the FS. For example, sludge applied to crops needs more treatment to reduce pathogens than if it is buried. FS treatment deactivates pathogens in various ways (CAWST, 2016). • Dewatering: FS naturally has a high water content. Dewatering removes water from FS. The term drying is also sometimes used to suggest an increased level of GU\QHVV 'HZDWHULQJ LV GLȞIHUHQW IURP GU\LQJ OLNH ULQVLQJ D ZHW WRZHO ZRXOG EH dewatering while putting the towel out in air/sun would be drying (CAWST, 2016). It reduces the weight and volume of sludge, making it easier, cheaper and safer to PDQDJH'HZDWHUHGVOXGJHDOVRDWWUDFWVIHZHUYHFWRUV OLNHȠOLHVDQGUDWV DQGFDQ reduce smells. The more water in FS, the higher the risk of surface and groundwater FRQWDPLQDWLRQ3DWKRJHQVLQZHW)6ZLOOLQȑOWUDWHLQWRWKHJURXQGIDVWHUDQGWUDYHO farther than pathogens in dry FS (CAWST, 2016). Dewatering is sometimes needed before using other treatment technologies. For example, to compost sludge from a VHSWLFWDQNLWZRXOGȑUVWKDYHWREHGHZDWHUHG7KLVLVEHFDXVHWKHVOXGJHIURPD VHSWLFWDQNLVYHU\ZHWDQGFRPSRVWLQJLVPRUHHȞȑFLHQWZLWKGULHUVOXGJH+RZHYHU not all sludge is easy to dewater. In general, sludge that has not been stabilized is PRUHGLȞȑFXOWWRGHZDWHU &$:67 • Stabilization: Stabilization of FS refers to the process of degradation of easily degradable organic material by microorganisms. FS contains a lot of organic material, ZKLFKFDQEHEHQHȑFLDOIRUSODQWVRUFDQEHDFRQWDPLQDQWLQVXUIDFHZDWHU6WDELOL]HG sludge is more predictable, smells less, and contains nutrients, in a form that plants and microorganisms in the soil can more readily use (CAWST, 2016). If the goal is to produce energy, there should be less stabilized FS to start with. The breakdown of organic material during stabilization produces energy. In an anaerobic setting, it produces biogas, while in an aerobic setting, it generates heat. Less stabilized sludge has the potential to produce greater amounts of energy (CAWST, 2016) • Nutrient Management: FS contains nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous. These nutrients are needed for plant growth. Farmers apply them WRLQFUHDVHFURS\LHOG+RZHYHUWKHVHQXWULHQWVFDQDOVRLQȑOWUDWHWKURXJKVRLOLQWR JURXQGZDWHURUEHWUDQVSRUWHGE\UDLQZDWHUUXQRȞIWRVXUIDFHZDWHUERGLHV7KH\ can contaminate both drinking water and the environment (CAWST, 2016). Nutrient management generally means changing the form of nutrients (e.g. from liquid to solid, or from organic to inorganic). Nutrients are not necessarily removed during treatment, but transformed. When organic material is stabilized, nutrients are also stabilized (i.e. they are taken up and incorporated into organic material) (CAWST, 2016). The form of the nutrient is important for managing FS and protecting the environment. For example, nitrogen in an organic form (e.g. compost) is stable and VORZO\UHOHDVHG,WFDQEHGLUHFWO\DSSOLHGWRFURSVDQGEHQHȑFLDOO\XVHGZKHUHDV nitrogen in an inorganic or ionic form (e.g. nitrogen found in leachate) can have negative impacts. It could harm plants when applied directly, move down through the soil to groundwater, or volatilize into the environment and cause harm (CAWST, 2016).

7.3 Faecal Sludge Treatment Technologies 7KHUH DUH PDQ\ WHFKQRORJLHV DYDLODEOH WR WUHDW )6 HDFK ZLWK GLȞIHUHQW WUHDWPHQW objectives, treatment products and level of development. FS treatment is a process. To HȞIHFWLYHO\WUHDW)6VHYHUDOWUHDWPHQWWHFKQRORJLHVPD\EHQHHGHGLQDSDUWLFXODURUGHU )RULQVWDQFHVOXGJHPD\KDYHDORWRIZDWHUZKLFKRȻWHQQHHGVWREHUHPRYHGEHIRUHRWKHU technologies can be used, like composting or incineration. The choice of technologies will largely depend on the following factors: • Final Goal:,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRNHHSWKHȑQDOJRDOLQPLQGZKHQVHOHFWLQJDSSURSULDWH WUHDWPHQW WHFKQRORJLHV 7KH GHVLJQHU RU SODQQHU ȑUVW QHHGV WR NQRZ KRZ WKH

91 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

sludge will be used or disposed of. For example, the focus should be on dewatering, stabilization and inactivating pathogens to a safe level if the FS is being used for agriculture. However, if the goal is to produce energy, then dryness is important while pathogen inactivation may be a lower priority (CAWST, 2016). • Sludge Characteristics and Quantity: Sludge from one on-site sanitation technology FDQEHYHU\GLȞIHUHQWIURPVOXGJHSURGXFHGE\DGLȞIHUHQWWHFKQRORJ\7KHFRPSRVLWLRQ of sludge (what is in it), as well as its consistency (how liquid or solid it is) and quantity will depend on various factors. These include the type and number of on-site sanitation technologies, amount of grey water added, emptying method and climate. It is important to know the characteristics of the sludge to choose the appropriate treatment technologies. Some treatment technologies, for example, work better with dry sludge (like composting) while others treat wet sludge (like a settling-thickening pond) (CAWST, 2016). • Level of Technology Development: The level of research and knowledge on treatment WHFKQRORJLHV FDQ DOVR LQȠOXHQFH WHFKQRORJ\ VHOHFWLRQ 6RPH WHFKQRORJLHV IRU )6 treatment are well established, while others are innovative and under development. Then there are some technologies that are being transferred and adapted from wastewater treatment or other sectors for FS treatment. There is more operational information available for established technologies (CAWST, 2016). • Other Factors: In any given context, the technology choice will also depend on ȑQDQFLDO UHVRXUFHV FRVW ORFDO DYDLODELOLW\ RI PDWHULDOV DYDLODELOLW\ RI VSDFH DQG land requirements, soil and groundwater characteristics, availability of a constant source of electricity, skills and capacity for design and operation, and management considerations (CAWST, 2016).

7KHGLȞIHUHQWWHFKQRORJLHVXVHGIRU)6WUHDWPHQWDUHGLVFXVVHGEHORZ

7.3.1 Solid-Liquid Separation 2QVLWHVDQLWDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVOLNHSLWODWULQHVDUHRȻWHQXVHGDVDJDUEDJHELQE\XVHUV A study done by the pollution research group in Durban, South Africa, found various waste SURGXFWVLQWKHODWULQHVLQFOXGLQJSODVWLFV VRȻWDQGKDUG KDLUZLJVPHQVWUXDOSURGXFWV cloth, glass and metals (CAWST, 2016).

6ROLGZDVWHQHHGVWREHUHPRYHGȑUVWIURPWKH)6DVSDUWRIWKHWUHDWPHQWSURFHVV7KLVFDQ be done by the technologies detailed below (Strande et al., 2014).

,PKRȚIWDQN $Q ,PKRȞI WDQN LV D FRPSDFWVL]HG WDQN WKDW FRPELQHV WKH HȞIHFW RI D VHWWOHU DQG DQ anaerobic digestion system in one (Figures 7.1 and 7.2). It is a compact system which is well known for wastewater treatment and has been implemented in Indonesia for )6WUHDWPHQW,PKRȞIWDQNVDUHPRVWRȻWHQXVHGDVDSULPDU\WUHDWPHQWWHFKQRORJ\LQ wastewater treatment where it serves as a solid-liquid separation system including partial digestion for the settled sludge.

7KH,PKRȞIWDQNLVDKLJKUDLVHGWDQN XSWRPHWUHVIRUZDVWHZDWHUVOXGJH ZKHUHVOXGJH settles at the bottom and biogas produced by the anaerobic digestion process rises to the top. The settling compartment has inclined walls (45° or more) and a slot at the bottom, which allows the sludge to slide down to the centre into the digestion compartment. The gas transports sludge particles to the water surface, creating a scum layer. T-shaped SLSHVRUEDȞȠOHVDUHXVHGDWWKHLQOHWDQGWKHRXWOHWWRUHGXFHYHORFLW\DQGSUHYHQWVFXP from leaving the system. The sludge accumulates in the sludge digestion chamber, and is compacted and partially stabilized through anaerobic digestion. The liquid fraction has a short retention time (two to four hours) while the solids can remain up to several years in the digestion chamber. Both the supernatant and the settled sludge need further WUHDWPHQWEHIRUHȑQDOGLVSRVDORUHQGXVH7KHVOXGJHFDQEHIXUWKHUWUHDWHGLQDVHWWOLQJ thickening tank or on a sludge-drying bed; the liquid can be treated in, for example, a constructed wetland (Strande et al., 2014).

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 92 MODULE VII

Figure 7.1: FS treatment options

$Q,PKRȞIWDQNFDQEHXVHGZKHQFRQGLWLRQVDUHQRWIDYRXUDEOHIRUELRJDVGLJHVWHUVRU space for stabilization ponds is not available. Dimensioning of the anaerobic digestion compartment depends mainly on the temperature and sludge accumulation and the targeted degree of sludge stabilization, which are linked to the desludging frequency. The digestion chamber is usually designed for four to 12 months’ sludge storage capacity to DOORZIRUVXȞȑFLHQWDQDHURELFGLJHVWLRQ,QFROGHUFOLPDWHORQJHUVOXGJHUHWHQWLRQWLPH and, therefore, a bigger size is needed.

7KH,PKRȞIWDQNLVXVXDOO\EXLOWXQGHUJURXQGZLWKUHLQIRUFHGFRQFUHWH,WFDQKRZHYHU also be built above ground, which makes sludge removal easier because it can be done by gravity. For desludging, a pipe and pump have to be installed or access provided for vacuum trucks and mobile pumps. A minimum clearance of 50cm between the sludge

93 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE blanket and the slot of the settling chamber has to be ensured at all times. Scum and gas vent chambers are located at the sides of the tank; an outlet for desludging can be added. A bar screen or grit chamber is recommended prior to the sludge passing through Imhoff tank to prevent coarse material from disturbing the system (Strande et al., 2014).

The main advantages of Imhoff tanks compared to settling-thickening tanks are the small land requirement, the possibility of operating only one tank, and the physical separation between the settled sludge and the liquid fraction. The main constraints compared to settling-thickening tanks are the increased operational complexity, slightly higher costs as the Imhoff tanks require an additional elevation to accommodate the inclined baffles, and the risk of damage to the sludge draw-off pipe in case of an inadequate draw-off frequency. The operations and maintenance (O&M) component of an Imhoff system is not as complex as some technologies, but it requires skilled operators. Cleaning of flow paths, the sides of the tank as well as the removal of scum is very important. Stabilized sludge from the bottom of the digestion compartment should be removed according to the design (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.1.2 Settling-thickening tank Settling-thickening tanks are used to achieve separation of the liquid and solid parts of FS. They were first developed for primary wastewater treatment, and for clarification following secondary wastewater treatment, and follow the same mechanism for solid- liquid separation as that employed in septic tanks. Settling-thickening tanks for FS treatment are rectangular tanks, where FS is discharged into an inlet at the top of one side and the supernatant exits through an outlet situated at the opposite side; settled solids are retained at the bottom of the tank and scum floats on the surface. During the retention time, the heavier particles settle out and thicken at the bottom of the tank as a result of gravitational forces. Lighter particles, such as fats, oils and grease, float to the top of the tank. As solids are collected at the bottom of the tank, the liquid supernatant is discharged through the outlet. Quiescent hydraulic flows are required, as the designed rates of settling, thickening and flotation will not occur with turbulent flows. Baffles can be used to help avoid turbulence at the inflow, and to separate the scum and thickened sludge layers from the supernatant (Strande et al., 2014).

Following settling-thickening, the liquid and solid fractions of FS require further treatment depending on their final fate, as the liquid and solids streams are still high in pathogens, and the sludge has not yet been stabilized or fully dewatered. Settling-thickening tanks can be used in any climate, but are especially beneficial when treating FS with a relatively low solids concentration and/or in temperate or rainy climates. This is an important consideration in urban locations where space is limited, as it can reduce the required area of subsequent treatment steps. For example, achieving solid-liquid separation in settling- thickening tanks prior to dewatering with drying beds reduces the required treatment area (footprint) for drying beds (Strande et al., 2014)

Figure 7.2: Schematic representation of Imhoff tank (Karunanithi, A. 2017) Biogas Biogas

In�luent E��luent

Sludge outlet pipe

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 94 MODULE VII

When using settling-thickening tanks there should be at least two parallel streams to allow for an entire operational cycle of loading, maintenance and sludge removal. For increased sludge compaction and ease of O&M, tanks should not be loaded during compaction (when the sludge is left to thicken at the bottom of the tank), or during the desludging period (when the supernatant is drained, and the scum and thickened sludge are removed). Tanks are usually operated with loading periods ranging from one week to one month, depending on the tank volume. When operated in parallel, each tank is loaded only 50% of the time (Strande et al., 2014). In most existing implementations in low-income countries, the sludge removal is done with backhoes, pumps if the sludge is not too thick to pump, or strong vacuum trucks. On the other hand, in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) clarifiers typically include mechanical devices to remove the settled sludge from the tank. This section presents an overview of the fundamental mechanisms, design recommendations, operational conditions and performances of settling-thickening tanks for FS treatment. It is also possible to have larger scale settling ponds, which are similar to anaerobic ponds in wastewater treatment. The main differences between ponds and tanks are that more sludge can accumulate, the sludge is more difficult to remove, and longer retention times result in anaerobic digestion. Due to a lack of actual operational settling- thickening tanks for FS, the information in this chapter is based on theoretical knowledge and operating experiences in West Africa. In Kumasi, Ghana, as shown in Figure 7.3, there are 100 m3 settling-thickening tanks that are employed prior to drying beds at a faecal sludge treatment plant (FSTP). The design guidelines presented in this section are readily adaptable to other contexts.

Settling-thickening tanks rely on three main fundamental mechanisms: settling, thickening and flotation. Anaerobic digestion also occurs in the tanks, although this is not a treatment goal of settling-thickening tanks, as anaerobic digestion results in gas production, and the resulting bubbles can hinder the solid-liquid separation through mixing and flotation of particles. A brief overview of these mechanisms follows

Figure 7.3: Schematic of the zones in a settling-thickening tank

Note: This diagram is a result of an inspiration from https://www.sswm.info/water-nutrient-cycle/wastewater-treatment/hardwares/sludge-treatment/ sedimentation/-thickening-ponds

Figure 7.4: Twin settling-thickening tanks

(Photo : SANDEC accessed from Strande et al., 2014)

95 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

• Settling: In settling-thickening tanks the suspended solid (SS) particles that are heavier than water settle at the bottom of the tank through gravitational sedimentation. The types of settling that occur are: o discrete, where particles settle independently of each other R ȠORFFXOHQWZKHUHDFFHOHUDWHGVHWWOLQJGXHWRDJJUHJDWLRQRFFXUV o hindered, where settling is reduced due to the high concentration of particles %RWK GLVFUHWH DQG ȠORFFXOHQW VHWWOLQJ WDNH SODFH UDSLGO\ LQ WKH WDQN +LQGHUHG VHWWOLQJ occurs above the layer of sludge that accumulates at the bottom of the tank, where the SS concentration is higher. These combined processes result in a reduction of the solids concentration in the supernatant, and an accumulation of solids at the bottom of the tank (Strande et al., 2014). • Thickening: Particles that accumulate at the bottom of the tank are further compressed through the process of thickening. The settled particles are compressed due to the weight of other particles pressing down on them and water is squeezed out, HȞIHFWLYHO\LQFUHDVLQJWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIWKHWRWDOVROLGV 76 $OORZLQJURRPLQWKH tank for sludge storage as it settles and accumulates is an important consideration in WKHGHVLJQRIWDQNVEHFDXVHDVVOXGJHDFFXPXODWHVLWHȞIHFWLYHO\UHGXFHVWKHGHSWKRI the tank available for settling. This is also important in designing the ongoing O&M and schedule for sludge removal (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.1.3 Floatation $VZLWKWKHVHWWOLQJDQGWKLFNHQLQJPHFKDQLVPVWKHLQȠOXHQFHRIJUDYLWDWLRQDOVWUHQJWK GXH WR GHQVLW\ GLȞIHUHQFHV H[SODLQV ȠORWDWLRQ %XR\DQF\ LV WKH XSZDUG IRUFH IURP WKH GHQVLW\RIWKHȠOXLG)RUSDUWLFOHVWKDWȠORDWWKHEXR\DQF\LVJUHDWHUWKDQWKHJUDYLWDWLRQDO force on the particle. Hydrophobic particles, such as fats, oils and greases, and particles ZLWKDORZHUGHQVLW\WKDQZDWHUDUHUDLVHGWRWKHWRSVXUIDFHRIWKHWDQNE\ȠORWDWLRQ6RPH particles are also raised to the surface by gas bubbles resulting from anaerobic digestion. This layer that accumulates at the top of the tank is referred to as the scum layer (Strande HWDO 7KHVFXPOD\HUDVVRFLDWHGZLWK)6VHWWOLQJFDQEHVLJQLȑFDQWDQGVKRXOGQRW EHRYHUORRNHGLQWKHGHVLJQSURFHVVDVLWDOVRHȞIHFWLYHO\UHGXFHVWKHYROXPHRIWKHWDQN

7.3.1.4 Anaerobic Digestion: Anaerobic digestion also occurs in settling-thickening tanks, mainly in the thickened layer. The level of digestion depends on the degree of the initial stabilization of FS, temperature and retention time inside the tank. This process degrades a part of the organic matter and generates gases (Strande et al., 2014). Operational experience has shown that fresh FS that is not stabilized (e.g. from public toilets that are emptied frequently) does not settle well. 7KLVLVEHFDXVHDQDHURELFGLJHVWLRQRIIUHVK)6FRQWULEXWHVWRDQLQFUHDVHGXSȠORZIURP gas bubbles, and FS that is not stabilized also contains more bound water. Thus, stabilized FS (e.g. from septic tanks) and FS that is a mixture of stabilized and fresh sludge are more appropriate for treatment in settling-thickening tanks (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.1.5 Solid-liquid Zones: The interactions of these fundamental mechanisms result in the separation of the FS into four layers: • A layer of thickened sludge at the bottom. The solid concentration is higher at the bottom than at the top of this layer (Strande et al., 2014). • A separation layer between the thickened layer and the supernatant, as the transition between these is not immediate. Hindered settling occurs mainly in the separation layer, where the settled sludge is not completely thickened. Particles in the separation layer can be more easily washed out with the supernatant than particles in the thickened layer (Strande et al., 2014). • A supernatant layer between the separation layer and the scum layer. This consists of WKHOLTXLGIUDFWLRQDQGWKHSDUWLFOHVWKDWGRQRWVHWWOHRUȠORDWWRWKHVXUIDFH 6WUDQGH et al., 2014). • $OD\HURIVFXPDWWKHWRSRIWKHWDQN7KLVFRQVLVWVRIWKHȠORDWLQJRUJDQLFDQGQRQ organic matter, the fats, oils and greases contained in FS, as well as particles that have EHHQUDLVHGXSE\JDVXSȠORZ 6WUDQGHHWDO Advantages 6HWWOLQJWKLFNHQLQJWDQNVDUHHȞȑFLHQWDVDȑUVWWUHDWPHQWVWHSEHFDXVHRIWKHIROORZLQJ reasons:

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 96 MODULE VII

• They rapidly achieve solid-liquid separation. • They are relatively robust and resilient. • They reduce the volume of sludge for subsequent treatment steps. Constraints • They lack experience in operating with FS, and hence empirical data and results on which to base designs are inadequate. • Settled sludge still has relatively high water content and requires further dewatering. • The liquid fraction remains highly concentrated in SS and organics. • 3DWKRJHQUHPRYDOLVQRWVLJQLȑFDQWDQGWKHHQGSURGXFWVRIVHWWOLQJWDQNVWKHUHIRUH cannot be discharged into waterbodies or directly used in agriculture.

7.3.2 Dewatering

7.3.2.1 Mechanical dewatering Mechanical dewatering or thickening can be carried out prior to, or following other treatment steps. Dewatering and thickening are important for reducing the volume of VOXGJHWKDWQHHGVWREHIXUWKHUWUHDWHGRUPDQDJHG$ȻWHUWKHVOXGJHWKLFNHQLQJSURFHVV DGGLWLRQDOUHGXFWLRQRIWKHZDWHUFRQWHQWLVRȻWHQQHFHVVDU\DQGWKLVFDQEHGRQHHLWKHU naturally or by machine processes such as centrifugation or pressing (Strande et al., 2014). )RXUWHFKQRORJLHVWKDWDUHZLGHO\XVHGIRUGHZDWHULQJ::73VOXGJHDUHWKHEHOWȑOWHU FHQWULIXJHIUDPHȑOWHUSUHVVDQGVFUHZSUHVV2QO\DIHZH[DPSOHVDUHDYDLODEOHLQWKH literature for the implementation of these technologies for FS, but theoretically the WHFKQRORJ\LVWUDQVIHUDEOH,Q0DOD\VLDFHQWULIXJDWLRQLVXVHGWRGHZDWHU)6DȻWHUVFUHHQLQJ DQG DGGLWLRQ RI ȠORFFXODQWV ZKHUH WKHUH LV QR VSDFH DYDLODEOH IRU PRUH ODQGLQWHQVLYH technologies (Strande et al., 2014).

The following technologies are well recognized for wastewater management, and SUHOLPLQDU\ DGGLWLRQ RI ȠORFFXOHQW LV UHFRPPHQGHG IRU DOO RI WKHP WR IDFLOLWDWH WKH separation of liquid from the solid particles. Although they are widely used for treating wastewater sludge, further experiments are required before recommendations can be made on design and operation of such systems for FS treatment (Strande et al., 2014). • Belt Filter Press: This allows the water to be squeezed out of the sludge as it is FRPSUHVVHGEHWZHHQWZREHOWV7KHPDLQGLVDGYDQWDJHVRIDEHOWȑOWHUSUHVVFRPSDUHG to other mechanical dewatering techniques are the need for skilled maintenance and WKHGLȞȑFXOW\LQFRQWUROOLQJRGRXUV7KHV\VWHPFRQVLVWVRI R DJUDYLW\GUDLQDJH]RQHZKHUHWKHȠORFFXODWHGVOXGJHLVGHSRVLWHGDQGFRQYH\HG on a porous and mobile belt o a compression zone where a second belt is applied on the upper layer of the sludge and compresses it to a pressure that can reach seven bars o a zone where the belts are separated and the dewatered sludge is released • Centrifuge: This technology dries the FS as it is squeezed outwards on the surface of a cylinder rotating around its horizontal axis, due to the centrifugal force. The ȠORFFXODWHGVOXGJHLVLQMHFWHGLQWRWKHPLGGOHRIWKLVF\OLQGHUDQGWKHSDUWLFOHVDUH pushed outward against the surface. An Archimedean screw transports the released liquid to the side where the sludge entered, while another transports the sludge to the other end. The main disadvantage of the centrifuge is the high energy requirement (Strande et al., 2014). • Frame Filter Press:7KLVV\VWHPFRQVLVWVRISRURXVYHUWLFDOIUDPHVȑ[HGLQWZRZDOOV that are positioned one in front of the other to create a chamber. This is a batch process LQZKLFKWKHVOXGJHLVȑOOHGLQWRWKHFKDPEHUDWKLJKSUHVVXUHǓXSWREDUVUHVXOWLQJ in the leachate being released through the porous frames and the dewatered sludge being released through the opening of the lower wall. • Screw Press: A screw press consists of a rotational screw placed in a perforated cylinder. The sludge is loaded at one end, it is pressurized due to a diminishing distance between the screw and the cylinder, and the liquid that is squeezed out is removed through the pores in the cylinder. The dewatered sludge is discharged at the other end. Screw presses provide dewatering at relatively low equipment and operational costs, and minimal maintenance skills are required. However, the

97 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

dewatering achieved is comparatively lower than in other mechanical dewatering technologies (Strande et al., 2014). • Potential Advantages and Constraints of Mechanical Sludge Treatment The main constraints of these technologies in comparison to non-mechanical options DUHWKHLQYHVWPHQWFRVWV2 0UHTXLUHPHQWQHHGWRDGGȠORFFXODQWVDQGGHSHQGHQF\ on electricity. The general advantages are the compactness and the speed of the process. To transfer these types of technologies to treat FS, information from manufacturers, laboratories and pilot-scale tests is necessary (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.2.2 Unplanted drying bed 8QSODQWHG VOXGJHGU\LQJ EHGV DUH VKDOORZ ȑOWHUV ȑOOHG ZLWK VDQG DQG JUDYHO ZLWK DQ under-drain at the bottom to collect leachate. Sludge is discharged onto the surface for dewatering (Figure 7.5). The drying process in a drying bed is based on drainage of liquid through the sand and gravel to the bottom of the bed, and evaporation of water from the surface of the sludge to the air. The design as well as the operation of the drying bed is fairly straightforward, provided the sludge loading rate is well selected and the inlet points for depositing the sludge onto the bed are properly designed. Depending on the FS characteristics, a variable fraction of approximately 50-80% of the sludge volume drains RȞIDVDOLTXLG RUOHDFKDWH ZKLFKQHHGVWREHFROOHFWHGDQGWUHDWHGSULRUWRGLVFKDUJH (Strande et al., 2014).

$ȻWHU UHDFKLQJ WKH GHVLUHG GU\QHVV WKH VOXGJH LV UHPRYHG IURP WKH EHG PDQXDOO\ RU mechanically. Further processing for stabilization and pathogen reduction may be required depending on the intended end use option. When considering the installation of a drying bed, the ease of operation and low cost needs to be considered against the relatively large footprint and odour potential.

An FSTP consists of several drying beds in one location. Sludge is deposited on each of these drying beds where it remains until the desired moisture content is achieved. It is subsequently mechanically or manually removed for disposal or further treatment and reuse. The drying process is based on two principles: percolation of the leachate through VDQG DQG JUDYHO D SURFHVV WKDW LV VLJQLȑFDQW ZKHQ WKH VOXGJH FRQWDLQV ODUJH YROXPHV of free water, and is relatively fast, ranging from hours to days; and evaporation, which removes the bound water fraction and typically takes place over a period of days to weeks. Removal of 50-80% by volume due to drainage and 20-50% due to evaporation in drying EHGVZLWK)6DUHW\SLFDOIRUVOXGJHZLWKDVLJQLȑFDQWDPRXQWRIIUHHZDWHU%XWWKHUHLVPRUH evaporation and less percolation with sludge that has more bound water. For example, no leachate was observed in a study with preliminary thickened sludge. In planted sludge- drying beds evapotranspiration also contributes to water loss (Strande et al., 2014).

Figure 7.5: Schematic overview of an unplanted sludge-drying bed

Note: This diagram is a result of an inspiration from https://www.sswm.info/water-nutrient-cycle/wastewater-treatment/hardwares/ sludge-treatment/unplanted-drying-beds

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 98 MODULE VII

7.3.3 Stabilization/Further Treatment

7.3.3.1 Co-composting Composting is a biological process that involves microorganisms that decompose organic matter under controlled predominantly aerobic conditions. The resulting end product is stabilized organic matter that can be used as a soil conditioner. It also contains nutrients ZKLFKFDQKDYHEHQHȑWVDVDORQJWHUPRUJDQLFIHUWLOL]HU 6WUDQGHHWDO 7KHUHDUH two types of composting systems, open and closed. Open systems are lower in capital and operating costs but typically require more space. In an open composting system, raw RUJDQLFPDWWHULVSLOHGXSLQWRKHDSV FDOOHGZLQGURZV DQGOHȻWIRUDHURELFGHFRPSRVLWLRQ 7RLQFUHDVHVSDFHHȞȑFLHQF\WKHKHDSVRIZDVWHFDQDOVRSXWLQWRZDOOHGHQFORVXUHVZKLFK is called box composting. If untreated waste feedstock is placed in a closed container, this is called in-vessel or closed drum composting and falls into the category of closed systems (Strande et al., 2014).

To ensure an optimal composting process, the following parameters need to be controlled (Strande et al., 2014). • A carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) in the range of 20-30:1 to ensure biological availability, as the organisms degrading organic matter need carbon as a source of energy and nitrogen for building cell structure. High nitrogen enhances ammonia loss due to volatilization. Higher C:N ratio hinders optimal growth of the microbial populations GXH WR LQVXȞȑFLHQW QLWURJHQ 7KH FRPSRVW KHDS ZLOO UHPDLQ FRRO DQG GHJUDGDWLRQ ZLOOSURFHHGVORZO\+LJKFDUERQLQWKHȑQDOFRPSRVWSURGXFWFDQFUHDWHSUREOHPV as microbial activity in the soil may use any available soil nitrogen to make use of still available carbon, thereby ‘robbing’ the soil of nitrogen and hindering its availability for plants. During composting, carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and the C:N ratio decreases to a ratio of around 10:1 when the compost is stabilized. • An oxygen concentration of 5-10% to ensure aerobic microbiological decomposition and oxidation. Aeration can be ensured by providing passive ventilation structures (air tunnels) or enhanced by blowing or sucking air through the waste heap (called active or forced aeration). With forced aeration, external energy is required. In open systems, mechanically or manually turning the heaps can also contribute to better aeration, although the main objective of this turning is to ensure that material on the outside of the heap is moved to the centre where it will be subject to high temperatures. • A moisture content of 40-60% by weight to ensure adequate moisture for biodegradation and that piles are not saturated creating anaerobic conditions. Turning removes water vapour and thus the turning frequency depends primarily on the moisture content of the material, as high moisture content reduces the availability of air in the pore space. If compost heaps become too dry, water must be added to ensure continuous biological activity. • A particle diameter of less than 5cm for static piles. Smaller particles degrade more rapidly as they provide more surface area for microbial decomposition. On the other hand, with smaller sized particles, aeration through the pile is hindered if structural VWUHQJWK FDQQRW EH PDLQWDLQHG 7KXV SDUWLFOH VL]H LQȠOXHQFHV SRUH VWUXFWXUH DQG aeration, as well as surface area for degradation.

In a properly operated composting heap, the temperature rises rapidly to 60-70°C as heat is released when carbon bonds are broken down in an exothermic process. Pathogen GLHRȞILVKLJKHVWGXULQJWKLVWLPHRIKLJKWHPSHUDWXUH$ȻWHUDSSUR[LPDWHO\GD\VWKH temperature drops down to 50°C. During the maturation phase the temperature is around 40°C, and the process ends once ambient temperature is reached. The whole composting process (including maturation) takes a minimum of six to eight weeks (Strande et al., 2014).

Optimal composting conditions with appropriate C: N ratio and moisture content can EHDFKLHYHGE\PL[LQJGLȞIHUHQWZDVWHVWUHDPVWRJHWKHU)RUH[DPSOHPL[LQJRI)6DQG MSW for co-composting can be advantageous as excreta and urine are relatively high in nitrogen (see module 2) and moisture, whereas municipal waste can be relatively high in carbon and low in moisture. Concentrations of high lignin materials should be limited as they are resistant to biological degradation. Corn stalks and straw made of a tough form of

99 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE cellulose are also more resistant to degradation. Although all these materials can be used, a higher initial C: N ratio to compensate for lower bioavailability must be considered. A moisture content of 40-60%, which corresponds to the feel of a damp sponge, is considered ideal. Higher moisture content limits air supply, creates anaerobic conditions and results in odour emissions (Strande et al., 2014).

Co-composting of FS with MSW is best implemented with sludge that has undergone dewatering (e.g. settling-thickening tanks or drying beds). Although untreated FS can also be used and sprayed over the compost heaps, its high water content means that the compost heap becomes too wet very quickly; it is therefore not practical. Organic MSW usually already has a moisture content of 40-60% so typically not much additional moisture can be added before the system gets too wet. In the case of dewatered sludge, FS with a TS content higher than 20% is mixed together with MSW in compost piles (Strande et al., 2014).

The main advantage of co-composting is the thermophilic conditions and the resulting pathogen inactivation. The output of co-composting is a good soil conditioner which provides potential for income generation depending on the demand for compost. However, operating a co-composting plant and generating a safe product with value requires technical and managerial skills, which can be limiting if not unavailable.

7.3.3.2 Deep row entrenchment Deep row entrenchment is a technology that can be considered both a treatment and end use option. It was implemented for wastewater sludge in the US in the 1980s and has been adapted for FS in Durban, South Africa (Strande et al., 2014). Deep row entrenchment FRQVLVWVRIGLJJLQJGHHSWUHQFKHVȑOOLQJWKHPZLWKVOXGJHDQGFRYHULQJWKHPZLWKVRLO 7UHHVDUHWKHQSODQWHGRQWRSZKLFKEHQHȑWIURPWKHRUJDQLFPDWWHUDQGQXWULHQWVWKDW are slowly released from the FS. In areas where there is adequate land available, deep row entrenchment can present a solution that is simple, low-cost, has limited O&M issues, and SURGXFHVQRYLVLEOHRUROIDFWRU\QXLVDQFHV%HQHȑWVDUHDOVRJDLQHGIURPWKHLQFUHDVHG production of trees. However, the availability of land is a major constraint with deep row entrenchment, as is the distance from/depth of clean groundwater bodies. In the application in Durban, limited nitrate leaching was found in the soil and tests conducted in the area showed that surrounding groundwater bodies remained free from pollution. It also appeared that fast-growing trees took up the additional nutrients (Strande et al., 2014).

Deep row entrenchment is considered most feasible in areas where the water supply is QRWGLUHFWO\REWDLQHGIURPWKHJURXQGZDWHUVRXUFHDQGZKHUHVXȞȑFLHQWODQGLVDYDLODEOH which means the sludge would have to be transportable to rural and peri-urban areas. In many countries legislation is still lacking for this option. In South Africa for example, environmental regulations will only allow deep row entrenchment for pit sludge disposal at the pilot scale in the foreseeable future (Strande et al., 2014).

The main advantage of deep row entrenchment is that very little is needed for it. There is no requirement of expensive infrastructure or pumps that are susceptible to poor PDLQWHQDQFH,QDGGLWLRQJURZLQJWUHHVKDVPDQ\EHQHȑWVVXFKDVH[WUDFDUERQGLR[LGH ȑ[DWLRQ HURVLRQ SURWHFWLRQ RU SRWHQWLDO HFRQRPLF EHQHȑWV 7KH FRQVWUDLQWV DUH WKDW VXȞȑFLHQW ODQG KDV WR EH DYDLODEOH LQ DQ DUHD ZLWK D ORZ HQRXJK JURXQGZDWHU WDEOH moreover, legislation still needs to catch up in many countries to allow for this technology (Strande et al., 2014)

$WDVHFRQGWHVWLQJVLWHQHDU'XUEDQLWZDVREVHUYHGWKDWWKHUHODWLYHGLȞIHUHQFHLQJURZWK EHWZHHQWUHHVJURZQZLWKVOXGJHDQGFRQWUROVZDVUHGXFHGRYHUWLPH$ȻWHURQH\HDUD 300% increase was observed for the trees growing with FS while at the end of the nine- year growth cycle, only 30-40% more biomass was obtained, which is still a substantial increase. In addition to nutrients, Ascaris were also monitored. The South African UHVHDUFKHUVIRXQGWKDWZKLOHDVLJQLȑFDQWQXPEHURIKHOPLQWKRYDZHUHIRXQGLQIUHVKO\ H[KXPHGSLWODWULQHVOXGJHDȻWHU\HDUVRIHQWUHQFKPHQWOHVVWKDQZHUHIRXQGWR be still viable (Strande et al., 2014).

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 100 MODULE VII

7.3.3.3 Lime addition Lime is used for wastewater sludge treatment for the reduction of pathogens, odours and degradable organic matter, and also as a sludge conditioner to precipitate metals and phosphorus. It has been implemented in the Philippines for FS treatment. The process of pathogen reduction during alkaline stabilization is based on an increase of pH, temperature (through exothermic oxidation reactions), and ammonia concentration 6WUDQGHHWDO ,WVHȞIHFWLVHQKDQFHGE\DORQJHUFRQWDFWWLPHDQGKLJKHUGRVLQJ amount. All chemical compounds which have highly alkaline properties are generally termed lime. Its most common forms are quick lime (CaO) and slaked lime Ca(OH)2. Quicklime is derived from limestone by a high temperature calcination process; quicklime is then hydrated to get slaked lime, also known as hydrated lime, or calcium hydroxide.

It is important to consider a number of design parameters, such as sludge characteristics, lime dose, contact time and pH, in order to achieve optimum results from lime stabilization LQWKHPRVWHFRQRPLFDOZD\SRVVLEOH$QDGGHGEHQHȑWRIOLPHLVWKDWKHDY\PHWDOVFDQ SUHFLSLWDWHZLWKLW+RZHYHUWKHSDWKRJHQUHPRYLQJHȞIHFWRIOLPHDOVRDȞIHFWVGHVLUHG microbial processes such as composting and other soil processes (Strande et al., 2014). The main disadvantages of this technique are the requirement of consumables (lime) and a dry storage area. Pathogen regrowth is also a concern. Moreover, safety is very important, as lime is an alkaline material which reacts strongly with moisture and high risks of hazard WRWKHH\HVVNLQDQGUHVSLUDWRU\V\VWHPDUHREVHUYHG)XUWKHUSURWHFWLRQIURPȑUHDQG PRLVWXUHPXVWEHHQVXUHG7KHUHIRUHDQLPSRUWDQWUHTXLUHPHQWLVVNLOOHGVWDȞIZKRPXVW follow health and safety procedures, and make use of good protective equipment (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.3.4 Ammonia treatment Ammonia treatment can be applied for pathogen reduction. Pathogen inactivation by uncharged ammonia (NH3) has been reported for several types of microorganisms, bacteria, viruses and parasites. The principle of pathogen reduction with ammonia is based on the fact that ammonia (NH3) enters cells, takes up intracellular protons for the formation of ammonium (NH4+), and as a charged ion disturbs the functioning of organisms (Park and Diez-Gonzalez, 2003). Ammonia addition has been applied for wastewater sludge, where it is commonly referred to as alkaline stabilization (Strande et al., 2014).

More recently, investigations have been conducted on using the ammonia from excreta for pathogen reduction in FS. This can be done by collecting urine separately, and then mixing it with FS, as urine has a high ammonia concentration. For sludge with low ammonia concentration, additional ammonia in the form of synthetic urea can be added to enhance the treatment.

In comparison to lime treatment, ammonia requires less stringent storage conditions. It seems particularly applicable in areas with urine diverting dehydrating toilets (UDDTs). In the cases where synthetic urea needs to be applied, the costs become higher, which may limit the economic feasibility and sustainability of the technology. Another constraint is WKHVWDELOLW\RIQLWURJHQLQWUHDWPHQWHQGSURGXFWVDQGZKHWKHUWKHIXOOQXWULHQWEHQHȑW can be achieved (Strande et al., 2014)

7.3.3.5 Sludge incineration Incineration of sludge is a form of disposal which involves the burning of sludge at temperatures of 850-900°C. It does not typically take advantage of the potential for resource recovery; however, energy can be captured from the incineration of sludge, for example in cement kilns. The ash that is produced from incineration could potentially be used, for example as a cover material for UDDTs or in construction, or it can be disposed of in ODQGȑOOVLWHV'HSHQGLQJRQWKHVRXUFHRIVOXGJHWKHDVKPD\FRQWDLQKLJKFRQFHQWUDWLRQV of heavy metals (Strande et al., 2014)

Sludge needs to be dewatered prior to combustion, but stabilization treatment is not necessary as it decreases the volatile content of the sludge. Commonly used incineration V\VWHPVDUHPXOWLSOHKHDUWKLQFLQHUDWLRQȠOXLGL]HGEHGLQFLQHUDWLRQDQGFRLQFLQHUDWLRQ with MSW (Strande et al., 2014).

101 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

Disadvantages include the potential emission of pollutants, the need for highly skilled 2 0VWDȞIKLJKFDSLWDODQG2 0FRVWVDQGUHVLGXDODVKHV$GYDQWDJHVDUHWKDWWKHVOXGJH volume is substantially reduced and all pathogens are removed (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.3.6 Anaerobic digestion During anaerobic digestion, organic matter is converted into biogas and the remaining sludge is referred to as slurry or digestate. Biogas is a mixture of mainly methane and carbon dioxide; the digestate is relatively biologically stable and can be used as a soil conditioner. Anaerobic digestion treats organic waste in airtight chambers to ensure anaerobic conditions. It has been widely applied in centralized wastewater treatment facilities for the digestion of primary sludge and waste activated sludge, typically with SOXJȠORZUHDFWRUV 3)5V RUFRQWLQXRXVO\VWLUUHGUHDFWRUV &675V $QDHURELFWUHDWPHQW WHFKQRORJLHVDOVRLQFOXGHXSȠORZDQDHURELFVOXGJHEODQNHW 8$6% UHDFWRUVDQDHURELF EDȞȠOHGUHDFWRUV $%5V DQGDQDHURELFȑOWHUV$QDHURELFWUHDWPHQWLVDOVRZHOONQRZQDQG developed for industrial wastes and highly loaded WWTPs (e.g. agro-industries) (Strande et al., 2014).

Throughout Asia, the on-site anaerobic digestion of animal manure with or without the addition of FS is widely practised. However, the potential for semi-centralized to centralized treatment of FS in urban areas still remains untapped. There is great potential for the future development of anaerobic digestion of FS (Strande et al., 2014).

Anaerobic digestion has the potential to produce biogas while stabilizing FS, and reducing sludge volume and odours. However, O&M of anaerobic digesters requires a relatively high level of skills. Inhibition of digestion needs to be considered due to the inconsistent nature of FS, and detergents and heavy metals should be addressed at the household level. A constraint of anaerobic digestion as a technology for FS treatment is that despite the vast amount of knowledge about anaerobic digestion, it is not yet a proven technology for semi- centralized to centralized treatment of FS alone in urban areas. Hence, further research is needed, and pilot-scale facilities need to be installed prior to full-scale implementation in order to learn more about the safe and sustainable application of this technology (Strande et al., 2014).

The main design parameters for anaerobic digesters are the hydraulic retention time (HRT), temperature and loading pattern. Operating conditions that play an important role in the design and operation of anaerobic digesters include: • solids retention time (SRT) • HRT • temperature • alkalinity • pH • toxic/inhibiting substances • bioavailability of nutrients and trace elements

When designing an anaerobic reactor, it is important to know the organic load that can be expected, in order to allow for a long enough HRT for degradation to occur. For systems without recycling, the SRT is equal to the HRT (e.g. PFRs). The anaerobic reaction steps are directly related to the length of the HRT: an increase or decrease in the HRT leads WR DQ LQFUHDVH RU GHFUHDVH LQ WKH GHJUHH RI K\GURO\VLV DFLGLȑFDWLRQ IHUPHQWDWLRQ DQG methanogenesis. It is therefore important to keep track of the HRT to prevent reactor failures. Temperature also plays an important role, especially on the degree and rate of K\GURO\VLVDQGPHWKDQHIRUPDWLRQ$WWKHVDPHWLPHWHPSHUDWXUHDOVRDȞIHFWVSK\VLFDO and chemical parameters in reactors, such as gas exchange and solubility of salts, and inactivation of pathogens (Strande et al., 2014).

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Figure 7.6: Black Soldier fly prepupae 7.3.3.7 Black soldier flies The Black Soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) originated in America, but is commonly found in temperate and warm climates. The fly larvae feed on decaying organic material, such as vegetables and fruits, or manure. The Black Soldier fly (BSF) larvae have been investigated for the degradation of organic wastes such as MSW, animal manure and FS (Strande et al., 2014). This process relies on the natural growing cycle of BSF which needs to feed only during the larval stage, then migrate for pupation and do not feed any more, even during the adult stage. Therefore, the risks of the BSF being a vector for disease transmission is very low, as it is not attracted by decaying organic matter when it can fly. During their larval stage, BSF larvae achieve a rapid reduction of organic waste volumes of up to 75%, together with the removal of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. This growth stage can vary from two weeks to four months depending on the availability of food, and thus allows for the treatment of wastes even when waste is not produced continuously. (Photo: Stefan Diener accessed from Strande et al., 2014) BSF larvae have been shown to grow well solely on FS; however, it is observed that a mixture of FS and MSW can achieve higher and faster larvae mass production. This can be advantageous for the selling of the larvae as animal feed to farmers. The FS residue remaining after the BSF larvae feed need to be further composted or anaerobically digested to produce a soil conditioner (Strande et al., 2014).

Most of the work so far has been at a laboratory scale. Yet, the market seems to be developing. For example, the Biocycle company is working on upscaling a profitable business model by collecting human waste, treating it at their facilities, harvesting the larvae and preparing the product for sale (www.biocycle.com). Low operation costs of this technology and the market potential (crushed dried larvae as protein source) make it a promising technology. Some technical as well as entrepreneurial questions, however, are still to be answered (Strande et al., 2014).

The advantage of using BSF for treatment of FS is that it can be achieved with or without mixing with other organic wastes and on a small scale. It allows revenue generation for small entrepreneurs with minimal investment. However, information on upscaling experience in low- and middle-income countries is not yet available, and therefore precise recommendations on the design and operation of this technology for FS treatment cannot be given (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.3.8 Vermicomposting Earthworms belong to the oligochaetes sub-class and they appear to be very effective in organic waste reduction. An example is the ‘vermi-filter’, which treats diluted domestic wastewater sludge in a system inoculated with earthworms. Interestingly, the earthworms seemed to function in synergy with bacterial communities within the filter. Worms cannot survive in fresh faeces and need some kind of support in the form of layers of soil and vermi-compost. Vermicomposting is not a reliable method to ensure adequate pathogen removal. However, when carried out under proper conditions the technology of vermicomposting can lead to a complete removal of coliforms and Helminth eggs. Permissible levels for reuse in agriculture were achieved after 60 days, starting from the initial earthworm inoculation, with faecal coliforms, Salmonella spp. and helminth ova reduced to <1,000 MPN/g, <3 MPN/g and <1 viable ova/g on a dry weight basis, respectively (Strande et al., 2014).

In general, the advantages and constraints for vermicomposting are similar to the points for co-composting. However, vermicomposting cannot be carried out at the thermophilic temperatures of co-composting. Therefore, if adequate pathogen reduction is not achieved during treatment, further treatment steps are required. Constraints are that the technology is still in development and the worms can be quite susceptible to toxic components (or higher concentrations in general). The time span until matured compost is reached in the case of vermicomposting may be longer than for thermal composting. The production of worms can be beneficial provided there is a market for them (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.3.9 Thermal drying and pelletization Thermal drying allows the removal of all types of liquids from FS. It has been applied in the management of wastewater sludge for many years, and the technology has been taken up

103 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE and improved from its original application in other industries (e.g. paper industry). Several types of technologies exist, all based on the principle of water evaporating with heat. The end products are stable and in a granular form, allowing easier storage or transport.

Direct and indirect thermal dryers are also referred to as convection and contact dryers, respectively. These systems require preliminary dewatering if used for sludge that is high in water content. In direct thermal driers, the hot air or gases are mixed with the dewatered sludge as they pass through it or are transported with it. In indirect thermal driers, a heat exchanger is used, which allows the heat convection to the sludge. In this case, the heat- carrying media is often steam or oil, and does not come in direct contact with the sludge, which reduces the operational need to separate the sludge from the heat carrier. In both cases, the vapour produced by the evaporated water needs to be collected and transported out of the dryer. Gas treatment can be an issue depending on environmental requirements and the odours produced. Indirect thermal dryers produce less contaminated vapour (Strande et al., 2014).

Thermal drying results in a significant reduction in volume as well as pathogen content. Dried sludge is easy to handle and market, and can be used in agriculture. The main constraints are the high capital investment, high energy requirements, potential risks of fire or explosion due to the gas and dust in the system, and high maintenance requirements. Pelletizing combines mechanical dewatering and thermal-drying technologies. The dried pellets can then be used as an energy source or as a soil conditioner, and are relatively easy to transport and market.

An example of combining drying and pelletizing is the LaDePa (Latrine Dehydration and Pasteurization) system developed by eThekwini Water and Sanitation (EWS), Durban South Africa in conjunction with their technology partner Particle Separation Systems. Here, a technology has been developed that can treat FS from pit latrines over a number of subsequent thermal and mechanical treatment steps. It separates detritus from dewatered sludge via screws which deposit pellets on a moving belt. These pellets are dried with air at 100°C (the so-called ‘Parsep dryer’), and pathogen reduction is achieved by means of medium-wave infrared radiators. Although this is energy-intensive, the energy consumption per person equivalent is approximately half of that of a conventional activated sludge WWTP. After several modifications and redesigns the LaDePa is now available in modular form (in one container) to treat any sludge with 20-35% solids and pasteurize it to an 80-90% solid product. The pellets can be sold for use as fuel or as a soil amendment (Strande et al., 2014).

Figure 7.7: Schematic representation of the LaDePa machine

Image Courtesy : Wilson & Harrison, n.d. Towards a sustainable pit latrine management strategy through LaDePa technology

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$VLJQLȑFDQWDGYDQWDJHRIWKH/D'H3DPDFKLQHLVWKDWLWLVGHVLJQHGWRWUHDWSLWODWULQH sludge without any (manual) pre-sorting. Commonly, pit latrine sludge contains quite a high amount of non-organic MSW, which complicates treatment and the rendering of a useful product, but the LaDePa is able to remove the detritus (Strande et al., 2014).

The main advantages of these technologies are that they are compact, mobile and robust. Moreover, depending on the processes used, the pellets are free from pathogens and therefore safe for agricultural use. Pellets can also be used as a dry fuel in industrial combustion, regardless of the pathogen content. However, in case of a breakdown of the system, costs and skilled knowledge requirements may be high. Moreover, the main constraint of mechanical drying and pelletizing is the dependence on electrical power. The energy use, capital costs and specialized knowledge required for maintenance are other drawbacks of the process (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.3.10 Solar sludge drying A special form of drying is applied in solar sludge driers. They have been used on a large scale since the nineteenth century in Europe and the US for the treatment of wastewater sludge. This technology is generally constructed in greenhouse structures with transparent covers, concrete basins and walls. Sludge is disposed in these basins and processed for about 10 to 20 days. Options exist for batch or continuous operation, with devices to control the conditions in the greenhouses (e.g. ventilation, air mixing, temperature, etc.). The main IDFWRUVLQȠOXHQFLQJWKHHYDSRUDWLRQHȞȑFLHQF\LQWKHVHV\VWHPVDUHWKHVRODUYDULDWLRQDLU temperature and ventilation rate, with the initial dry solid content of the sludge and air PL[LQJDOVRDȞIHFWLQJWKHSURFHVV6KRUWZDYHOHQJWKVRIOLJKWVXFKDV89DUHEORFNHGE\WKH FRYHU7KHUHIRUHWKHSDWKRJHQUHGXFWLRQHȞȑFLHQF\LVVOLJKWO\UHGXFHGHVSHFLDOO\IRUIDHFDO FROLIRUPVWKDWDUHYHU\VHQVLWLYHWR89)LQDOGULHGVROLGFRQWHQWRIDERXW DȻWHUGD\V RIGU\LQJ XSWRDERXW DȻWHUGD\VGU\LQJ ZHUHIRXQGXQGHUGLȞIHUHQWFRQGLWLRQV (Strande et al., 2014).

The main advantages of this option are the low energy requirements, limited complexity RI WKH WHFKQRORJ\ ORZ LQYHVWPHQW FRVWV DQG KLJK SRWHQWLDO GHZDWHULQJ HȞȑFLHQF\ 7KH main constraints are the space requirements and need for mechanical means to turn the sludge, as well as to ventilate the greenhouses. Although pilot tests are being carried out, for the moment no information is available on the use of this technology for the treatment of FS in low-income countries or on design and operating parameters that need to be considered for this purpose (Strande et al., 2014).

7.3.3.11 Planted Drying Beds Planted drying beds (PDBs), also sometimes referred to as planted dewatering beds, YHUWLFDOȠORZFRQVWUXFWHGZHWODQGVDQGVOXGJHGU\LQJUHHGEHGVDUHEHGVRISRURXVPHGLD (e.g. sand and gravel) that are planted with emergent macrophytes. PDBs are loaded with layers of sludge that are subsequently dewatered and stabilized through multiple physical and biological mechanisms. PDBs were initially developed to stabilize and dewater sludge from small activated sludge treatment plants in Europe and the US.

This technology has also been successfully adapted in other parts of the world for use with various types of sludge, including FS from on-site sanitation technologies. In northern climates, PDBs have been shown to achieve higher rates of water removal, solids reduction and increased oxidation in the summer compared to winter, thus making them ideal for tropical countries where there is less climatic variation and more constant solar radiation. Since 1996, SANDEC/EAWAG (Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology) and their UHVHDUFK SDUWQHUV KDYH MRLQWO\ XQGHUWDNHQ ȑHOG H[SHULPHQWV WR GHWHUPLQH WUHDWPHQW HȞȑFLHQFLHVDQGWRHVWDEOLVKWKHGHVLJQDQGRSHUDWLRQDOJXLGHOLQHVRISLORWEHGVWUHDWLQJ)6 from on-site sanitation technologies. A pilot-scale facility has been operating successfully in Thailand for nearly a decade, while in Africa, trials at yard scale have been conducted at the University of Yaoundé I and at full scale at the Cambérène Treatment Plant in Dakar, Senegal (Strande et al., 2014)

Although there are limited examples of full-scale PDBs treating FS in operation, current research has produced promising results and it is expected that PDBs will be adopted more extensively around the world, especially in tropical regions of low-income countries. FS is repeatedly loaded onto PDBs, with up to 20cm of FS per loading (Strande et al., 2014)

105 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE where it accumulates for several years depending on the loading rate, capacity of the system, and mineralization rates. Due to the limited number of existing operational beds DQGWKHYDULHW\RIRSHUDWLRQDOFRQGLWLRQVLWLVFXUUHQWO\GLȞȑFXOWLIQRWLPSRVVLEOHWRJLYH a single value or precise range for the duration of sludge accumulation. Long-term bed permeability is maintained by the dynamic system of percolation canals created by the continuously growing root system of the plants (Strande et al., 2014).

The volume of sludge on the PDB reduces continuously (through moisture loss and GHJUDGDWLRQ DQGWKHSODQWVPDLQWDLQSRURVLW\LQWKHVOXGJHOD\HUWKHUHE\VLJQLȑFDQWO\ reducing the need for sludge removal compared to unplanted drying beds (which require sludge removal every two to three weeks). Emergent macrophytes are therefore essential for improved stabilization, pathogen reduction. The dewatering, organic stabilization and mineralization performance of the PDB depends on a variety of factors such as the media type and size, type of plants, maturity of the beds, climatic factors and sludge characteristics, as well as operational factors such as the hydraulic loading rate (HLR), solids loading rate (SLR) and loading frequency. As the bed matures, microbial communities become more established and stable. The following sections discuss in detail the operational conditions DQGGHVLJQSDUDPHWHUVZKLFKFXUUHQWO\GHȑQHWKHEHVWSUDFWLFHIRU3'%VXVHGIRU)6 • Macrophyte Macrophytes are plants found in wetlands, marshes and swamps, and are distinguished by their ability to grow when partially or fully submerged in water. There are four W\SHV RI PDFURSK\WHV IUHHO\ ȠORDWLQJ VXEPHUJHG ȠORDWLQJ OHDYHG DQG HPHUJHQW )UHHO\ȠORDWLQJPDFURSK\WHVKDYHOHDYHVWKDWȠORDWRQWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHZDWHUXVXDOO\ with submerged roots. Submerged macrophytes are usually rooted in the bottom soil with the vegetative parts predominantly submerged. Floating leaved macrophytes DUHWKRVHWKDWDUHURRWHGEXWKDYHȠORDWLQJOHDYHVZKLOHHPHUJHQWPDFURSK\WHVDUH rooted in soil below shallow water with the leaves and stems emerging above the surface of the water.

While macrophytes produce many seeds, reproduction by germination does not generally take place due to the hindering aquatic conditions. Successful reproduction usually occurs by way of cuttings, stolons or rhizomes. Rhizomes are dense underground stems from which vertical shoots grow upward, and from which roots grow out and down. On the stem, new buds form at nodes and the space between the nodes is termed the internode. Rhizomes are important as they provide a large surface area for bacteria to grow on; in PDBs bacteria are responsible for the degradation of organics and mineralization of sludge (Strande et al., 2014). The rhizosphere is the area surrounding the rhizomes which has a higher concentration of oxygen due to release by the roots.

Emergent macrophytes are generally the best suited for PDBs because they are the most productive of all aquatic macrophytes. In other words, their rate of multiplication and generation of new biomass is very high. They can establish and extend their roots and rhizomes through the sludge layers while the stem continues to grow up through the accumulating sludge layer. Leaves growing above the sludge layer are able to make use of solar radiation for photosynthesis and transpiration (Strande et al., 2014).

Although a variety of macrophytes exist in nature, there are a limited number of emergent macrophytes that grow well under PDB conditions, which vary between aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic (depending on the loading), with the added burden of variable pH, salinity and high nutrients. The high and extremely variable nutrient levels in sludge means that any plant used in a drying bed must be able to tolerate a wide range of growing conditions, and also be able to withstand the shocks associated with sludge loading and drying. Sludge from public toilets, for example, is high in salts (conductivity up to 15 mS/cm) and ammonia (2,000-5,000 mg/l), which are toxic WRPRVWSODQWV7RRȞIVHWWKHVHSRWHQWLDOO\OHWKDOFRQGLWLRQVSXEOLFWRLOHWVOXGJHPXVW be diluted with sludge that has lower concentrations of salt and ammonia (e.g. from VHSWLFWDQNV LQRUGHUWRSURYLGHFRQGLWLRQVWKDWDUHVXLWDEOHIRUWKHVSHFLȑFW\SHRI macrophytes growing in the drying beds. In European applications, reeds (Phragmites sp.) and cattails (Typha sp.) are the most common types of emergent macrophytes used in PDBs.

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Phragmites australis is an invasive species and its use is restricted in the US and New Zealand. Other indigenous options such as antelope grass (Echinochloa sp.) and papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) are currently being explored. Based on preliminary testing, both of these show promising results for use in PDBs. A macrophyte to be used in PDBs should have the following characteristics: o fast growing under diverse conditions o high transpiration capacity R WROHUDQFHWRGLȞIHUHQWZDWHUOHYHOVDQGGURXJKWFRQGLWLRQV o tolerance to extremes of pH and salinity o deep-growing rhizome and root system o ability to build new roots on the nodes when they become encased in sludge o readily available o indigenous and non-invasive

Although Phragmites australis (reeds) is the most frequently used species in PDBs there are potentially many other local, untested species with these characteristics that are capable of achieving similar, if not improved levels of treatment. A summary of the most commonly used macrophytes for FS treatment is presented in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Most commonly used macrophytes for FS treatment Plant Species Common Name Water Type Habitat Water Regime Phragmites sp. Reeds Fresh to brackish Marshes; swamps Seasonal to permanent inundation, up to 60 cm Typha sp. Cattail Fresh to marshes Pond margins Seasonal to permanent inundation, up to 30 cm Cyperus papyrus Papyrus Fresh to marshes Pond margins; lakes Seasonal to permanent inundation, up to 30 cm Enchinochoa sp. Antelope grass Fresh to brackish Marshes; swamps Seasonal to permanent inundation, up to 40 cm

The treatment of sludge in PDBs is achieved through a combination of physical and biochemical processes. In wet, rainy climates, macrophytes play an essential role in almost all processes, and are responsible for the higher levels of treatment in terms of stabilization and pathogen removal in PDBs compared to unplanted drying beds. Macrophytes therefore play an essential role in the following: • stabilizing the beds to prevent media erosion and clogging, and improving the drainage • increasing moisture loss (through evapotranspiration, in contrast to only evaporation in unplanted drying beds) • providing a surface area for microbial growth within the sludge layer • transferring oxygen to the sludge layer (i.e. within the rhizosphere) • absorbing heavy metals and nutrients

However, while the ability of PDBs to wick away moisture via transpiration makes them an applicable technology in humid or rainy climates, the macrophytes of a PDB could wilt DQGGLHRȞILQDFOLPDWHWKDWLVWRRKRWDQGGU\HVSHFLDOO\LIWKHVOXGJHGRHVQRWSURYLGH VXȞȑFLHQWPRLVWXUH+RZHYHULIWKH3'%FDQEHRSHUDWHGWRLQGXFHǕSRQGLQJǖLHNHHSLQJD FHUWDLQDPRXQWRIZDWHULQWKHEHGVE\WXUQLQJRȞIWKHGUDLQDJHRXWOHWYDOYHRIWKHSRQGV RUE\DGMXVWLQJWKHOHYHORIWKHRXWOHWYDOYHWKHQ3'%VFDQEHRSHUDWHGHȞȑFLHQWO\HYHQLQ a very dry climate (Strande et al., 2014).

The following sections explain the key treatment mechanisms that occur in PDBs and the ways in which macrophytes assist in these processes. This information should be weighed against the other technology options presented in this book, and the appropriate WHFKQRORJ\VROXWLRQVKRXOGEHVHOHFWHGEDVHGRQVLWHVSHFLȑFFRQGLWLRQV 6WUDQGHHWDO 2014).

107 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

• ,QȑOWUDWLRQ 3HUFRODWLRQ :KHQVOXGJHLVDSSOLHGRQWKHEHGVVROLGVDUHUHWDLQHGRQWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHȑOWHULQJ matrix (either the porous substrate or the existing sludge layer), while the liquid drains vertically through the media where it is collected for further treatment. One of the main operational concerns with unplanted drying beds is the formation of erosion channels which can lead to short-circuiting and uneven treatment. However, in PDBs, the dense macrophyte root system impedes erosion and helps to stabilize the sludge layers. The growth of roots and the natural movement of the plants due to wind encourage water to drain around the stems and the tubular spaces created around them, leading to improved drainage. As macrophytes grow, they break up and ORRVHQWKHDFFXPXODWLQJVOXGJHZKLFKDOVRPDLQWDLQVJRRGFRQGLWLRQVIRUȑOWUDWLRQ When macrophytes die, the decaying roots and rhizomes leave behind small pores DQGFKDQQHOVZKLFKDOORZLQȑOWUDWLRQDQGFLUFXODWLRQRIDLUDQGHQFRXUDJHDHURELF conditions (Strande et al., 2014). • Evapotranspiration: Transpiration is the process by which water is lost into the atmosphere from the leaf and stem surfaces of the plant. The presence of macrophytes aids in sludge drying by absorbing and then releasing moisture via transpiration. In temperate climates, evapotranspiration (the sum of evaporation and transpiration) rates of up to 2.5 cm/ day can be achieved in reed stands on very hot days. The rate could be even higher in tropical regions depending on climatic conditions such as wind speed and relative humidity. Evapotranspiration from macrophytes results in increased moisture loss and volume reduction, compared to unplanted drying beds. In one study, a comparison was made between PDBs and unplanted drying beds using sludge from a biological WWTP. The PDBs achieved over 95% volume reduction over a year (six months loading, six months resting) with a total sludge-loading depth of up to 493 centimetres, while the unplanted drying beds achieved less than 90% reduction in volume. Dry matter content for the same beds reached up to 69% for the PDBs while the unplanted beds achieved only 31%. This increased performance in PDBs is thought to be due to evapotranspiration and percolation of the macrophytes. • Stabilization/Mineralization: 6WDELOL]DWLRQ DOVRUHIHUUHGWRDVKXPLȑFDWLRQ LVWKHFRQYHUVLRQRIRUJDQLFPDWWHULQWR more stable, organic components. Mineralization is the process by which biologically available inorganic nutrients are released during the degradation of organic material (e.g. the degradation of amino acids results in the release of ammonia). The process of stabilization and mineralization leads to the release of inorganic nutrients, which are essential plant and microbial nutrients, thereby contributing to the improved fertility of the macrophytes. Even FS that has undergone bacterial decomposition for years (e.g. in a septic tank) may require further stabilization if it still has a high Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Stabilization also reduces the odour of the sludge and destroys the pathogenic organisms. For instance, storage time has been found to contribute to weakening the external membranes of helminth eggs, which may be degraded by bacteria and fungi present in the sludge layer (Strande et al., 2014).

The surface of rhizomes provides attachment areas for bacteria and other microorganisms, and the resulting microbial density and activity can lead to enhanced sludge mineralization as well as improved water and nutrient uptake. Metrics of mineralization are not universally agreed upon. However, indicators of the degree to which sludge on a PDB has been mineralized are the reduction in total volatile solids (TVS) and the ratio of TVS to TS content, which indicate the change in readily degradable material (Strande et al., 2014).

Mineralization primarily takes place during resting periods between sludge loadings as it occurs more rapidly in aerobic conditions. When sludge is applied to the beds, oxygen is less available due to the water saturated conditions and high concentrations of biodegradable organic matter (Strande et al., 2014). • Oxygen Transfer: Untreated FS contains little, if any, dissolved oxygen and is therefore generally anoxic or anaerobic. However, oxygen can be transferred into the sludge through various

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 108 MODULE VII

physical and biological mechanisms and create anoxic and aerobic zones. These YDU\LQJFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIR[\JHQDOORZIRUFRPSOH[SURFHVVHV HJQLWULȑFDWLRQDQG GHQLWULȑFDWLRQ WRRFFXULQWKH3'%OHDGLQJWRLPSURYHGOHYHOVRIWUHDWPHQWFRPSDUHG to unplanted beds (Strande et al., 2014).

Rooted macrophytes have adapted to growing in water-saturated soil, where the SRUHVSDFHVDUHȑOOHGZLWKZDWHUDQGWKHFRQGLWLRQVDUHDQDHURELF0DFURSK\WHURRWV obtain oxygen through an internal transfer system that moves oxygen from the leaves and stems down into the roots and rhizomes. The internal lacunar (circulatory) system may occupy up to 60% of the total tissue volume, depending on the species. Some of the oxygen that arrives at the root is leaked into the rhizosphere. This leaked oxygen then creates aerobic conditions in the immediately surrounding area, which supports a variety of aerobic bacteria, and helps promote aerobic degradation and QLWULȑFDWLRQ/HDNDJHRFFXUVSULPDULO\DWWKHURRWWLSDQGWKHUDWHRIR[\JHQUHOHDVH depends on the permeability of the root walls and the internal oxygen concentration, DPRQJRWKHUIDFWRUV7KLVUDWHLVGLȞȑFXOWWRTXDQWLI\EXWR[\JHQUHOHDVHUDWHVIURP roots of Phragmites have been calculated between 0.02 and 12g/m2/day (Strande et al., 2014). As the top layer of sludge dries, it cracks, creating gaps through which oxygen can further penetrate the sludge layer. These cracks are more pronounced in hot, arid climates, and are predominant in areas of the beds containing few rhizomes DVWKHUKL]RPHVKROGWKHVOXGJHWRJHWKHU+RWGU\FRQGLWLRQVDUHWKHUHIRUHEHQHȑFLDO for crack-induced oxygen transfer, yet extreme conditions could cause the plants to wilt and die. This emphasizes that the technology choice of planted or unplanted drying beds needs to be carefully made given the local conditions (Strande et al., 2014).

PDBs have long been known as a reliable technology for sludge treatment, but are a relatively new technology for treating FS from septic tanks and other on-site sanitation technologies in low- and middle-income countries. Extensive experience in Europe and the US has produced robust results, but the data are not entirely applicable to FS due to the sludge type and strength, and the climatic conditions. Currently, many experimental and pilot-scale beds are being investigated in various parts of the world, especially tropical climates where solar radiation and evapotranspiration are high. PDBs have become increasingly attractive for FSM in rapidly growing cities in low- to middle-income countries as they are less expensive to build than conventional wastewater sludge treatment technologies, can be constructed using local materials and labour, and require little maintenance, few to no chemicals, and minimal energy to operate successfully. Although the macrophytes require some time to acclimatize to the nutrient-rich sludge, the PDB can then operate for up to 10 years without GHVOXGJLQJDQGWKHPDFURSK\WHVFDQEHKDUYHVWHGIRUEHQHȑFLDOXVH7KHVWDELOL]HG sludge layer can also be used as a soil amendment and organic fertilizer.

+RZHYHU 3'%V UHTXLUH D VLJQLȑFDQW DPRXQW RI VSDFH WR PFDSLWD DQG therefore, the technology is not well-suited to dense urban areas. Further, the bed must be accessible by trucks that transport sludge, and should therefore be built on or near roads that are easily traversed by large vehicles. Although resilient, macrophytes may be prone to insect attacks and parasitism. Therefore, although maintenance need not be constant, it must be diligent. In recent years, much research has been carried out in order to determine optimum parameters for the design and operation of the most robust PDBs possible. There are, however, still questions that remain unanswered, such as: R WKHHȞIHFWVRIIHHGLQJIUHTXHQF\RQEHGSHUIRUPDQFH o the vulnerability and resilience of macrophytes to insect attacks R WKHHȞIHFWVRIKLJKFRQGXFWLYLW\DQGDPPRQLD R WKHPRVWHȞIHFWLYHWUHDWPHQWPHWKRGVIRUOHDFKDWH o the long-term (10+ year) performance of the beds R WKHFRVWEHQHȑWDQDO\VLVRIWKHV\VWHP

(DFKRIWKHVHDVSHFWVVKRXOGEHUHVHDUFKHGXQGHUGLȞIHUHQWORDGLQJUDWHVZLWKGLȞIHUHQW W\SHVRI)6DQGXQGHUGLȞIHUHQWFOLPDWLFFRQGLWLRQV$OWKRXJKUHVHDUFKUHPDLQVLPSRUWDQW priority should be given to upscaling and promoting PDBs whenever possible and appropriate. Time must not be spent on perfecting this technology, but rather building on current knowledge and disseminating evidence as it is gathered (Strande et al., 2014).

109 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

7.3.3.12 Co-treatment at wastewater treatment plants One possibility for FS treatment is co-treatment with sewer-based wastewater treatment technologies. However, it is common knowledge that the majority of WWTPs in low- income countries have failed, and improper co-treatment with FS has even been the cause of some failures. This section describes the co-treatment of FS with activated sludge processes, and then with anaerobic technologies (Strande et al., 2014). • Co-treatment of faecal sludge in activated sludge system: The co-treatment of FS in activated sludge WWTPs can lead to severe operational SUREOHPVDW)6LQȠOXHQWYROXPHVDVORZDVRIWKHWRWDOLQȠOXHQWZDVWHZDWHUȠORZ rate (which is equivalent to only one tanker of 5 m3 per day). Thus, if co-treatment of FS is to be employed, a very careful evaluation of the WWTP capacity is required to determine which unit operation (aeration, secondary settling tanks or sludge treatment) is the plant's bottleneck and if the plant is likely to fail. This will require a careful assessment and the LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIGHȑQHGPHDVXUHVWRDYRLGDQ\SURFHVVGLVUXSWLRQDQGGHWHULRUDWLRQRI the plant (Strande et al., 2014). Considerations that need to be taken into account include: R HȞȠOXHQWVWDQGDUGVWRHVWLPDWHWKHPLQLPXPHȞȠOXHQW&KHPLFDO2[\JHQ'HPDQG (COD) and Total Nitrogen (TN) concentrations and verify the compliance with WKHUHTXLUHGHȞȠOXHQWVWDQGDUGV o total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations in aeration tanks: to calculate the maximum expected TSS and evaluate if the aeration tanks would be overloaded o sludge production: to evaluate if the sludge handling and disposal facilities have the capacity to deal with the increase in sludge waste generation o installed aeration capacity: to estimate the aeration requirements based on WKHLQFUHDVHLQR[\JHQGHPDQGDQGGHFUHDVHLQR[\JHQWUDQVIHUHȞȑFLHQF\IRU existing plants, the Dissolved oxygen concentration to be carefully monitored to maintain a concentration of at least 2 mg/l of o2 o secondary settling tanks: to determine the minimum surface area required for the operation of the settling tanks for the observed sludge settleability (in terms of the sludge volume index – SVI – or any other similar parameter). o existence and performance of equalization tanks: to allow an even discharge of FS to the sewage plant for the longest period possible (e.g. over 24 hours)

For new WWTPs that expect to receive certain volumes of FS or that have been designed to co-treat FS, the above aspects can be used and applied to adapt the design depending upon the discharge volumes, type and strength of the FS. However, the design will probably lead to larger tank volumes, larger settling tanks and higher installed capacity for aeration and sludge handling, treatment and disposal. For instance, compared to municipal wastewater treatment alone, for 1% FS co-treatment (regardless of the strength), the tank volumes will need to be 300% larger, the aeration capacity at least 200% higher, the secondary VHWWOLQJWDQNVȑYHWLPHVELJJHUDQGWKHVOXGJHIDFLOLWLHVIRXUWLPHVODUJHU7KHVHDVSHFWV will undoubtedly considerably increase the capital and operational costs of the plant, along with the operational capacity. These considerations should be weighed carefully alongside other less expensive and more robust options presented in this module. • Co-treatment of faecal sludge in anaerobic system: For any anaerobic treatment process, probably the most important operational aspect is the feeding. It needs to be supplied gradually and if possible continuously to avoid overloading and shocks. For FS co-treatment in UASB reactors, the maximum OLR of design (including both wastewater and FS) must not be exceeded in order to avoid the overloading of the system. In particular, high strength FS needs to be carefully handled since the high organic content can easily overload the system. In this study, 0.25% high strength fresh FS (approximately 10 tankers of 5 m3 per day) had an organic load equivalent to around 139,000 p.e. that led to the overloading of a 100,000 p.e. UASB plant (Strande et al., 2014).

Anaerobic digesters appear to be more robust for the anaerobic co-treatment of FS. 3HUPLVVLEOH ORDGLQJ UDWHV IRU PHVRSKLOLF GLJHVWHUV RSHUDWHG DW ŧ& GHSHQG RQ WKH operational conditions but can reach up to 1.6-2.0 kgVSS/m3/d. Also, the feeding, including FS, needs to be limited to the maximum daily feed rate of design which depends on the applied SRT.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 110 MODULE VII

7KHUPRSKLOLF DQDHURELF GLJHVWHUV �& DUH DQ DOWHUQDWLYH WKDW FDQ OHDG WR IDVWHU hydrolysis rates in anaerobic digestion of wastewater and FS, resulting in higher biogas yields (Strande et al., 2014). However, they are susceptible to small temperature variations; also, O&M costs are higher compared to mesophilic digesters, which make them unattractive for low-income countries (Strande et al., 2014). Ponds appear to be FRVWHȞIHFWLYHWHFKQRORJLHVIRU)6FRWUHDWPHQWZKHQRSHUDWHGDVORZORDGHGV\VWHPV kgBOD5/m3/d). However, their implementation needs to be carefully evaluated because the initial investment and operational costs could be high since they have substantial land requirements and high operational costs as a consequence of the frequent desludging needed. Moreover, they can involve important environmental issues if methane is lost into the atmosphere.

The discharge of FS for its co-treatment in WWTPs can lead to severe operational problems when even low volumes of high-strength fresh FS are discharged (e.g. 0.25% of the total LQȠOXHQW 7KLVLVPDLQO\FDXVHGE\WKHUHODWLYHO\KLJKHUVWUHQJWKRI)6FRPSDUHGWRWKDWRI municipal wastewater, which can easily lead to higher loads exceeding the plant capacity. The most common problem is the overloading of solids, COD or nitrogen compounds. This can lead to serious operational problems ranging from incomplete removal of organics to FHVVDWLRQRIQLWULȑFDWLRQZKLFKFDQLQYROYHVHYHUDOZHHNVRIUHFRYHU\

Also, the excessive solids accumulation may cause unexpectedly high sludge generation that can compromise the operation of the plant and increase the operational costs. Moreover, aerobic treatment systems may experience a lack of aeration capacity and severe overloading of secondary settling tanks leading to solids loss. Meanwhile, anaerobic systems are prone to inhibition by the presence of inhibitory compounds such as ammonia and pH variations. In addition, the high concentrations of soluble un-biodegradable RUJDQLFVDQGQLWURJHQFRPSRXQGVFDQKDYHDVHULRXVHȞIHFWRQWKHWUHDWHGHȞȠOXHQWTXDOLW\ ZKLFKPD\KLQGHUFRPSOLDQFHZLWKWKHUHTXLUHGHȞȠOXHQWVWDQGDUGV

,ILQVSLWHRIWKHDSSDUHQWOLPLWHGEHQHȑWV)6FRWUHDWPHQWLVWREHSUDFWLVHGLQPXQLFLSDO WWTPs, the allowable FS volumes will probably need to be restricted to low volumes so that WWTPs do not get overloaded with total suspended solids, high COD and nitrogen loadings, or high concentrations of toxic or inhibitory compounds. Moreover, FS loadings need to be added gradually and as slowly as possible to avoid overloads and shocks. All WKHSUHYLRXVDVSHFWVQHHGWREHFDUHIXOO\DGGUHVVHGEXWRYHUDOOWKHEHQHȑWVGRQRWVHHP to be attractive enough to support the co-treatment of FS with wastewater in municipal WWTPs; this is particularly so when dealing with digested FS from septic tanks which contains low concentrations of biodegradable compounds but high concentrations of solids that will tend to overload the treatment systems. It is possible that anaerobic co- WUHDWPHQWRIIUHVK)6RȞIHUVFHUWDLQRSSRUWXQLWLHVZKHQFRQVLGHULQJWKHSRWHQWLDOUHFRYHU\ of resources, but further research is still needed for the development of reliable and cost- HȞIHFWLYHWHFKQRORJLHV 6WUDQGHHWDO

7.4 Decision Matrix 7DEOHVXPPDUL]HVWKHIDYRXUDELOLW\RIWKHGLȞIHUHQWVOXGJHWUHDWPHQWWHFKQRORJLHVZLWK UHVSHFWWRGLȞIHUHQWUHVRXUFHUHTXLUHPHQWVDQGGLVFKDUJHVWDQGDUGV7KHPDWUL[DVFHUWDLQV WKH IDYRXUDELOLW\ RI D WHFKQRORJ\ LQ FRPSDULVRQ ZLWK RWKHU LGHQWLȑHG WHFKQRORJLHV Green colour symbolizes low favourability, yellow moderate favourability and red high favourability (CSTEP, 2016).

7.5 End Use of Treatment Products The previous sections covered how stabilization, drying and pathogen reduction of FS FDQEHDFKLHYHGZLWKGLȞIHUHQWWUHDWPHQWWHFKQRORJLHVDQGFRPELQDWLRQVRIWKHVHYDULRXV technologies. Each treatment technology results in end products which need to be further treated, disposed or harnessed for some type of resource recovery. End products, for example dried or partially dried sludge, compost, leachate and biogas, each have an intrinsic value, which can turn treatment from merely a method for environmental and public health protection to resource recovery and value creation.

Historically, the most common resource recovery from sludge has been as a soil conditioner and organic fertilizer, as excreta contains essential plant nutrients and organic matter that increases the water-retaining capacity of soils. There are, however, several other treatment options that allow for resource recovery. For example, biogas can be produced during

111 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE anaerobic digestion of FS, with the remaining sludge also being used as a soil conditioner. Novel developments are underway to recover end products as a biofuel, for example S\URO\VLVJDVLȑFDWLRQLQFLQHUDWLRQDQGFRFRPEXVWLRQRUDVUHVRXUFHUHFRYHU\RIRUJDQLF PDWWHUWKURXJKWKHJURZWKRI%ODFN6ROGLHUȠOLHVIRUSURWHLQSURGXFWLRQ 6WUDQGHHWDO A summary of resource recovery options covered in this chapter is provided in Table 7.3.

The potential use of end products should be considered from the initial design phase of any complete FS management system, as the treatment technologies used are intrinsically linked to the quality of end products generated. This section addresses resource recovery RSWLRQVIURPGLȞIHUHQW)6WHFKQRORJLHVERWKIURPDELRORJLFDODQGDQHQHUJ\SRLQWRIYLHZ and presents established processes as well as promising innovations (Strande et al.., 2014

Table 7.2: Decision-making matric for FS treatment Sludge Vermi- Drying Bed + Lime Shallow Solar Sludge Parameter Composting Solar Drying Deep Wetland Composting Co- Stabilization Trenches Over composting Land Requirement Energy Requirement Ground water Level Capex

Opex

Skill

Discharge Standards

Legends

Low Medium High Deep water level Shallow Water level

Table 7.3: Potential resource recovery from faecal sludge (Strande et al., 2014) Produced Product Treatment or Processing Technology Untreated FS Sludge from drying beds Compost Soil Conditioner Pelletizing process Digestate from anaerobic digestion 5HVLGXDOIURP%ODFN6ROGLHUȠO\ Untreated liquid FS Reclaimed water 7UHDWPHQWSODQWHȞȠOXHQW Protein %ODFN6ROGLHUȠO\SURFHVV Fodder and Plants Planted drying bed Fish and Plants 6WDELOL]DWLRQSRQGVRUHȞȠOXHQWIRUDTXDFXOWXUH Building materials Incorporation of dried sludge Biogas from anaerobic digestion Incineration /co-combustion of dried sludge Biofuels Pyrolysis of FS Biodiesel from FS

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 112 MODULE VII

7.5.1 General Concerns With the implementation of resource recovery, it is important to evaluate constituents that may impact both humans and the environment. These include the presence of pathogens and heavy metals. Social factors such as acceptance in using products from FS treatment and market demand also need to be taken into account in order to ensure uptake of the intended end use (Strande et al., 2014).

7.5.1.1 Pathogens FS contains large amounts of microorganisms, mainly originating from faeces. The PLFURRUJDQLVPVFDQEHSDWKRJHQLFDQGH[SRVXUHWRXQWUHDWHG)6FRQVWLWXWHVDVLJQLȑFDQW health risk to humans, through either direct contact or indirect exposure. Pathogens are WUDQVPLWWHG DQG VSUHDG WKURXJK DQ LQIHFWLRQ F\FOH ZKLFK LQFOXGHV GLȞIHUHQW VWDJHV DQG hosts. The transmission cycle of pathogens can be interrupted by putting barriers in place to block transmission paths and prevent cycle completion. FS needs to be treated to an adequate hygienic level depending on the end use or disposal option. For example, exposure SDWKZD\VDUHYHU\GLȞIHUHQWIRUWUHDWHGVOXGJHGLVFKDUJHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQWFRPSDUHGWR sludge used in agriculture or incinerated. The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines IRUVDIHDJULFXOWXUDOSUDFWLFHSXEOLVKHGLQVSHFLȑHGRQHRUOHVVKHOPLQWKHVHJJSHUJUDP of TS for unrestricted irrigation. However, the more recent 2006 WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater in Agriculture and Aquaculture places less emphasis on treatment thresholds and instead highlights a multi-barrier approach where lower levels of treatment may be acceptable when combined with other post-treatment barriers along the sanitation chain.

7KHȑUVWEDUULHUIRUEHQHȑFLDOXVHLVSURYLGHGE\WKHOHYHORISDWKRJHQUHGXFWLRQDFKLHYHG through treatment of FS. A selection of further post-treatment barriers may include restriction of use on crops that are eaten raw, withholding periods between application and KDUYHVWWRDOORZSDWKRJHQGLHRȞIGULSRUVXEVXUIDFHLUULJDWLRQPHWKRGVUHVWULFWLQJZRUNHU and public access during application, use of personal protective equipment, and safe food preparation methods such as thorough cooking, washing or peeling. When considering risk of infection, all potential exposure groups should be accounted for, which can be broadly categorized as workers and their families, surrounding communities and product consumers (Strande et al., 2014).

7.5.1.2 Heavy metals +HDY\PHWDOVDUHDFRQFHUQGXHWRWKHLUWR[LFLW\DQGORQJWHUPQHJDWLYHHȞIHFWVRQVRLOV Heavy metals should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, but are only a major concern LI)6LVPL[HGZLWKLQGXVWULDOHȞȠOXHQWVWKDWDUHQRWDGHTXDWHO\SUHWUHDWHG+HDY\PHWDOV can also enter the system at the household level through the relatively common practice of improper disposal of wastes containing heavy metals (e.g. batteries, solvents, paints) LQWRWKHV\VWHP7KHWRWDOPHWDOVFRQFHQWUDWLRQLQWKHVOXGJHGLȞIHUVIURPWKHELRDYDLODEOH metals concentration, as the organic matter in sludge can bind metals in a form that is not ELRORJLFDOO\DYDLODEOH%HFDXVHRIWKLVHȞIHFWVOXGJHLVDOVRXVHGIRUWKHUHPHGLDWLRQRIPHWDO contaminated sites.

The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has set limits for heavy metal concentrations for the land application of wastewater sludge based on what is considered DZRUVWFDVHVFHQDULRRIPHWDODFFXPXODWLRQDȻWHU\HDUVRIDSSOLFDWLRQ&RQVHUYDWLYH threshold metal concentrations have been set for the protection of human and environmental health; however, these limits are less conservative than regulations that exist in Europe. An overview of regulatory limits is provided in Table 7.4.

7.5.1.3 Social Factors 'LȞIHUHQWVRFLHWLHVDQGFXOWXUHVKDYHGLȞIHUHQWUHDFWLRQVDQGDSSURDFKHVWRWKHPDQDJHPHQW of human excreta that have to be taken into consideration when evaluating the best end use for FS. Some cultures reject the use of excreta altogether, whereas others have a long history of excreta use in agriculture. The use of treated FS is, however, typically perceived GLȞIHUHQWO\IURPH[FUHWDDQGKDVDKLJKHUDFFHSWDQFHEDVHGRQLWVDSSHDUDQFHVPHOODQG health impacts. In a society where the use of FS is strictly taboo, other solutions such as co- treatment with other waste streams, use in building materials, or as a fuel might be more appropriate and accepted technologies. This highlights the need for evaluating the market demand of potential end products prior to deciding on a treatment and end use scheme (Strande et al., 2014).

113 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

7.5.2 Use of Faecal Sludge as Soil Conditioner The use of FS as a soil conditioner can range from deep row entrenchment of untreated FS to bagged compost that is sold as a commercial product for household level use in horticulture. 8VLQJ )6 DV D VRLO DPHQGPHQW KDV PDQ\ EHQHȑWV RYHU XVLQJ FKHPLFDO IHUWLOL]HUV DORQH Organic matter in FS can increase the water-holding capacity of soil, build structure, reduce erosion and provide a source of slowly released nutrients. As mentioned above, when using FS as a soil conditioner, the fate of and exposure to pathogens and heavy metals needs to be taken into consideration, and social acceptance can be closely linked to potential commercial value. Other factors that need to be considered include nutrients, which may or may not be available in the ratio required by soil and crop systems.

Table 7.4:Standard for trace element concentrations in wastewater sludge (Strande et al., 2014)

Concentration Limits (mg/kg) Parameters Exceptional Quality (EQ) Eco Label Compost Use of Biosolids Biosolids As 41 - - Hg 17 - - Fe Nm - - Pb 300 100 750 Ni 420 50 300 Cr 1,200 100 1,000 Cd 39 1 20 Cu 1,500 100 1,000 Zn 2,800 50 2,500 Se 36 - -

Table 7.5: Nutrient content of urine, faeces and mass of nutrients needed to grow 250 kg cereals (Drangert, 1998)

Urine (kg) Faeces (kg) Nutrients Needed for Nutrients Total (kg) (500 L/capita/ year) (50 L/capita/year) 250 kg Cereals Nitrogen (N) 4 0.5 4.5 5.6 Phosphorous (P) 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.7 Potassium (K) 0.9 0.3 1.2 1.2 Total amount of N + P + K 5.3 1.0 6.3 7.5

7.5.2.1 Nutrient Content Theoretically, the quantity of FS produced yearly by a human contains nearly enough plant macro and micro nutrients to grow the quantity of food one person requires in a year (taken as 250 kg of cereals), as shown in Table 7.5. It is important to determine the appropriate DJURQRPLF UDWH IRU WKH ODQG DSSOLFDWLRQ RI WUHDWHG VOXGJH WR PD[LPL]H EHQHȑWV DQG WR prevent environmental contamination from excessive application of nutrients. Nutrients in sludge are present in both organic and inorganic forms. Inorganic forms are more readily available than organic nutrients for plants and microbes to assimilate. Nutrients bound to organic matter are slowly released over time through mineralization to become biologically available. If nitrogen is applied in excess of plant and soil microbial demand, ammonia can EHORVWGXHWRYRODWLOL]DWLRQDQGQLWUDWLRQE\OHDFKLQJWKURXJKWKHVRLOSURȑOH/HDFKLQJFDQ lead to the eutrophication of surface waters and nitrate contamination of drinking water (e.g. resulting in methemoglobinemia) (Strande et al., 2014).

Many countries have set limits for the land application of FS (e.g. South Africa and China). However, these are typically the maximum allowed rates (i.e. the volume of FS allowed per land area). Estimates for rates of land application can be based on experience. For example, it is estimated that 56 m3 of FS are required to fertilize one hectare of land when cultivating cereal crops such as maize, millet and sorghum in tropical climates. However, there are also

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 114 MODULE VII

methods for calculating application rates based on plant nutrient demand, for example the Nitrogen Balance method. First, the amount of nitrogen taken up by plants is calculated by HVWLPDWLQJWKHDPRXQWRIQLWURJHQSUHVHQWLQWKHȑQDOKDUYHVWHGSURGXFWV7KHDPRXQWRI QLWURJHQDOUHDG\SUHVHQWLQWKHVRLOIURPQDWXUDOVRXUFHVLVWKHQTXDQWLȑHG7KHQLWURJHQ UHTXLUHGLQWKHODQGDSSOLFDWLRQLVWKHGLȞIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHDPRXQWRIQLWURJHQWDNHQXS by plants, and the amount supplied by the local natural environment (Strande et al., 2014).

2WKHU UHVHDUFK KDV VKRZQ GLȞIHUHQW UHDFWLRQV RI FURSV WR QLWURJHQ DSSOLFDWLRQ UDWHV ZLWK compost and co-compost depending on the growth phase of the crops. During the YHJHWDWLYHSKDVH ȑUVWVL[ZHHNV WKHWUDQVSLUDWLRQHȞȑFLHQF\RIDPDL]HFURSLQFUHDVHGWR rates of 150 kgN/ha but then decreased when the nitrogen concentration was increased to NJ1KD2QWKHRWKHUKDQGGXULQJWKHUHSURGXFWLYHSKDVH DȻWHUWKHHLJKWKZHHN WKH SODQW VWUDQVSLUDWLRQHȞȑFLHQF\LQFUHDVHGZLWKLQFUHDVLQJQLWURJHQDSSOLFDWLRQUDWHV7KHVH observations did not apply to soils treated with inorganic fertilizers (Strande et al., 2014).

7.5.2.2 Untreated faecal sludge Although it is recommended that FS is treated prior to use, some alternatives do exist for the safe disposal and use of FS directly from on-site systems. These options are dependent on the availability of adequate land area and are therefore not generally appropriate for urban areas. Adequate barriers to pathogen exposure to protect human health are also required (Strande et al., 2014). • Deep Row Entrenchment: One possibility for the direct use of raw FS is deep row entrenchments in forestry applications. By burying sludge in deep ditches, odours are eliminated and the risk of exposure to pathogens is reduced. Trees with a high nitrogen demand are then planted on top of the buried sludge. Deep row entrenchment, therefore, increases the volume of sludge that can be applied at one time compared to more conventional methods such as spraying on trees or spreading on the soil surface. As with other forms of land application, the appropriate loading of nutrients needs to be considered to prevent environmental contamination. Research on deep row entrenchment of FS is being conducted in forestry trials in South Africa. The research has found that tree growth was improved by it, and there was no evidence of groundwater contamination.

+RZHYHUWKHHȞIHFWRQJURXQGZDWHUQHHGVWREHIXUWKHUVWXGLHG DQGFRQVLGHUHGRQ a case-by-case basis to ensure environmental protection when using this method. Important factors to consider are soil type and porosity, groundwater depth, proximity to drinking water sources, and background nutrient concentrations. There is long- term experience with deep row entrenchment of wastewater sludge in the US, and this method has been used for the remediation of gravel mining sites for use as tree farms (Strande et al., 2014). • Land Application: The direct use of FS has been a long-term practice in parts of China, South East Asia and Africa. This type of application has the highest level of risk for human health and is therefore generally not recommended. This practice is best applied in arid to semi- arid regions. It must be ensured that adequate barriers are in place and that there is VXȞȑFLHQWODQGDUHDDYDLODEOH5DZVOXGJHLVVSUHDGRXWRQIDUPȑHOGVGXULQJWKHGU\ VHDVRQ DQG WKHQ LQFRUSRUDWHG LQWR ȑHOGV ZKHQ FURSV DUH SODQWHG GXULQJ WKH UDLQ\ VHDVRQ$SLWPHWKRGLVDOVRXVHGZKHUH)6LVEXULHGZLWKRWKHUFURSUHVLGXHDQGOHȻW to mature for a few months prior to use. In areas where this is practised, there is a large demand for FS. For example, in Northern Ghana, 90% of FS is used as a fertilizer and farmers perceive the competition for FS as one of the main constraints in using it for their crops.

7.5.2.3 Treated faecal sludge in land application Treatment and processing technologies such as drying beds, composting and pelletizing processes produce treated FS end products that can be used as soil conditioners. The level of remaining pathogens will depend on the selected treatment technology or combination of technologies (Strande et al., 2014). • Sludge from Drying Beds: The kinds of sludge resulting from treatment with planted and unplanted drying beds KDYH YHU\ GLȞIHUHQW FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DQG WKHUHIRUH JHQHUDWH GLȞIHUHQW FRQFHUQV ZLWK

115 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

regard to land application. The majority of helminth eggs are retained in the sludge. The short retention time of sludge on unplanted drying beds (i.e. weeks) means that further sludge treatment or storage is required if pathogen reduction is to be achieved. 7KH ORQJHU UHWHQWLRQ WLPH RI SODQWHG GU\LQJ EHGV LH \HDUV PHDQV WKDW VLJQLȑFDQW pathogen reduction can be achieved, but this needs to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. In a study evaluating helminth eggs in planted drying bed sludge, it was found WKDWRIHJJVJ76HJJVJ76ZHUHVWLOOYLDEOHDȻWHUVHYHQ\HDUV+RZHYHULQDQRWKHU VWXG\WKHWRWDOHJJVGHFUHDVHGIURPWRHJJVJ76DȻWHUVL[PRQWKVDQGYLDEOH Ascaris eggs decreased from 38.5 to 4 eggs /g TS. In addition, due to the long retention time, the treated sludge has properties and nutrient content similar to mature compost (Strande et al., 2014).

The amount of sludge that accumulates depends on factors such as the solids content of FS, loading frequency and organic loading of the drying bed. With unplanted drying beds, sludge application rates of 100-200 kg TS/m2/year resulted in a sludge accumulation of 25-30 cm with a 15-day retention time. With planted drying beds, sludge application rates of 100, 200 and 300 kg TS /m2/year resulted in 30-40, 50–70 and 80–113 cm/year sludge accumulation, respectively. Higher loading rates are not recommended, as loadings above 500 kg TS/m2/year reduce the treatment performance and result in plant wilting. There is, however, room for innovation with mixing regimes, application depth and loading rates, and solar/thermal processes (Strande et al., 2014). • Co-composting: Co-composting refers to composting of FS together with other waste streams such as MSW. FS with low solids content should be dewatered prior to composting, for example with settling tanks or drying beds. Pathogen reduction is achieved during the composting process through high temperatures, and/or length of time. The properly treated end product is a stabilized organic product that may be safely handled, stored and applied to land according to the above guidelines for use, without associated concerns of pathogen transmission. Although composting is a proven technology to produce a safe way to use soil amendment, the local market demand for compost SURGXFWV VKRXOG EH HYDOXDWHG DV FRPSRVW IUHTXHQWO\ GRHV QRW KDYH D VLJQLȑFDQWO\ KLJKPDUNHWYDOXH+RZHYHURWKHUEHQHȑWVDUHUHDOL]HGWKURXJKUHVRXUFHUHFRYHU\DQG RȞIVHWWLQJGLVSRVDOFRVWV 6WUDQGHHWDO • Vermicomposting: With vermicomposting, worms break down larger organic particles, stimulate microbial activity and increase the rate of mineralization, thereby converting FS into humic VXEVWDQFHV ZLWK D ȑQHU VWUXFWXUH WKDQ QRUPDO FRPSRVW 9HUPLFRPSRVWLQJ VKRXOG EHRSHUDWHGDWDPD[LPXPWHPSHUDWXUHRIŧ&LQRUGHUWRPDLQWDLQWKHYLDELOLW\RI worms. This temperature is not high enough to ensure pathogen inactivation, so if this is necessary, vermicomposting should be combined with another approach such as storage; or a combination of thermophilic composting and vermicomposting should be used to achieve pathogen reduction (Strande et al., 2014). • Pellets: Dried pellets can be an attractive option for FS processing, producing an end product that is easy to transport, has reliable characteristics for end use, and depending on the level of treatment, is safe for handling. Resource recovery options include use as a soil amendment or for combustion as a biofuel. One example is the LaDePa (latrine dehydration and pasteurization) process that has been developed in South Africa and is currently operating in a pilot-scale implementation. The LaDePa process can be used for drier sludges (e.g. dry pit latrines, dewatered sludge), and can also be combined with wastewater sludge that has not had polymers added. The process involves removal of detritus, followed by drying and infrared radiation, to produce small pellets that can be sold to consumers as a soil amendment. Another pellet process being developed in Ghana produces dried pellets which are enriched with urea, so the end product has similar fertilizing properties of poultry manure. The process involves drying, composting or irradiation for hygienization, enrichment with urea and then pelletization with a binder. One possible concern with the use of dried pellets as a soil amendment is the availability of organic matter and nutrients when applied to soils.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 116 MODULE VII

7.5.3 Use of Liquid Stream Liquid streams from treatment processes can be used for agricultural and horticultural irrigation, or other forms of water reclamation (e.g. non-recreational water features, industrial processes), depending on the quantity produced and the level of treatment. :DWHUUHFODPDWLRQFDQEHEHQHȑFLDOLQDUHDVZKHUHZDWHUUHVRXUFHVDUHOLPLWHGDQGDOVRIRU nutrient recovery. The main consideration with reclamation of liquid streams is to ensure that the treatment quality is appropriate for its intended use, since the same concerns apply as for the use of FS discussed above. This involves undertaking a human health and environmental risk assessment, followed by a multi-barrier approach to end use to ensure DGHTXDWHULVNPDQDJHPHQW7KHFRQFHUQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKOLTXLG)6DUHVOLJKWO\GLȞIHUHQW IURPWKRVHUHODWLQJWRZDVWHZDWHUDVFRQVWLWXHQWVLQ)6HȞȠOXHQWVDUHWLPHVPRUH concentrated than wastewater.

With water reclamation, major distinctions are made between planned, unplanned, direct and indirect usage. Indirect usage implies a diluted waste stream, for example if wastewater or FS has been discharged to a river that is used for irrigation. Direct usage implies it is being obtained directly from the waste source, for example discharging a vacuum truck WRDQDJULFXOWXUDOȑHOG3ODQQHGXVDJHUHIHUVWRWKHLQWHQGHGDQGFRQVFLRXVXVHZKHUHDV unplanned refers to unknowing or unintentional usage.

7KLV VHFWLRQ IRFXVHV RQ WKH HQG XVH RI XQWUHDWHG OLTXLG )6 DV ZHOO DV HȞȠOXHQWV IURP )6 treatment processes.

7.5.3.1 Untreated liquid faecal sludge in irrigation Untreated liquid FS and wastewater are commonly used directly for irrigation in many regions in the world (Figure 41). ‘Untreated’ liquid FS means liquid streams that are being used GLUHFWO\ HJYDFXXPWUXFNGLVFKDUJHVHSWLFWDQNHȞȠOXHQW RULQGLUHFWO\ZKHUH)6FDQQRWEH separated from wastewater (e.g. urban areas where excreta and wastewater are discharged directly to water conveyance networks). This practice can provide an essential source of water and nutrients, and is reasonably safe if carried out under controlled conditions. However, the possibility for pathogen exposure is high, especially in cases of unplanned, direct use (Strande et al., 2014).

Research has been conducted in Ghana on farm-based measures for reducing microbiological health risks. Currently, irrigation is being carried out by using untreated water that is polluted with wastewater, as well as by direct use of black water, resulting in pathogen contamination of uncooked food crops. The size of agricultural applications ranges from small backyard-scale to medium- to larger-scale vegetable production. Examples of types of on-farm treatment technologies include channels, ponds, wetlands DQGȑOWUDWLRQ ȑOWUDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVUDQJHIURPVDQGȑOWUDWLRQWRSDVVDJHWKURXJKFORWK media). Appropriate treatment solutions will obviously vary depending on the source and pollution level of water, available land area, climate, tenure of property and intended use of water (e.g. type of crop, irrigation method). Drip irrigation provides an example of the VLJQLȑFDQWLPSDFWWKDWIRUPDOLUULJDWLRQPHWKRGVFDQKDYH%HQHȑWVLQFOXGHUHGXFHGZDWHU usage, increased yield and human health protection. However, drip irrigation is also one of the more expensive irrigation methods. Areas for future research into the use of liquid FS LQFOXGHXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHUHPRYDORISDWKRJHQVDQGUHF\FOLQJRIQXWULHQWVZLWKGLȞIHUHQW on-site treatment technologies so that treatment outcomes can be reliably predicted and appropriate solutions implemented (Strande et al., 2014).

7UHDWHG(ȚȜOXHQW(QG8VHDQG'LVSRVDO 7KHHȞȠOXHQWVIURP)6WUHDWPHQWSURFHVVHVPD\VWLOOFRQWDLQPDQ\FRQVWLWXHQWVRIFRQFHUQ and therefore require further treatment prior to discharge in the environment, or careful HYDOXDWLRQ DQG FRQVLGHUDWLRQ SULRU WR GLUHFW XVH (ȞȠOXHQWV DUH W\SLFDOO\ KLJK LQ QLWURJHQ ZKLFKLVEHQHȑFLDOIRUWKHUHFRYHU\RIQXWULHQWVEXWZKLFKFDQDOVRSRVHDQHQYLURQPHQWDO hazard. Other concerns include pathogens, heavy metals and salinity (Strande et al., 2014).

7.5.4 Additional Forms of Resource Recovery In addition to using end products from FS management as soil amendments and for water reclamation, there are many other opportunities for resource recovery depending on the type of treatment and processing technologies. Possibilities include food and agricultural XVHV HJSURWHLQIRGGHUȑVK RUHQHUJ\UHFODPDWLRQ HJELRIXHOV

117 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

7.5.4.1 Protein The BSF larvae (Hermetia illucens) can be used as a conventional protein and fat source for SRXOWU\DQGȑVKIHHGDQGFRXOGUHDGLO\UHSODFHȑVKPHDODVDNH\FRPSRQHQWRIDQLPDOIHHG The larvae grow while feeding on organic matter, such as FS and organic wastes. The last larval stage, the prepupa, has a high protein and fat content. The risks of the BSF being a vector IRUGLVHDVHWUDQVPLVVLRQDUHYHU\ORZDVWKHȠO\GRHVQRWIHHGGXULQJWKHDGXOWVWDJHZKHQ LWFDQȠO\7KHXVHRI)6DVDIHHGVRXUFHIRUȠO\ODUYDHKDVEHHQVXFFHVVIXOO\GHPRQVWUDWHG However, a mixture of FS and organic municipal waste can achieve higher and faster larvae biomass production. BSF larvae have the potential of reducing the volume of organic waste E\DERXWDQGWKHUHVLGXHUHPDLQLQJDȻWHUGLJHVWLRQFDQEHFRPSRVWHGRUDQDHURELFDOO\ digested to produce a soil conditioner. It will, however, be lower in nitrogen and phosphorus than raw organic wastes. BSF larvae grown only on FS with a dry matter content of 40%, and can convert one ton of FS into 20 kg of dried prepupa with a protein content of 35-44%. This research is still in the developmental stage, and needs to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to determine if the treatment option would be appropriate, there is a market for end products, and other factors such as climate and availability of organic matter are conducive to the growth of BSF (Strande et al., 2014).

7.5.4.2 Fodder and Plants The plants used in drying beds should be harvested regularly to aid in sludge removal, but can also be harvested more frequently because they have a commercial value that can generate additional revenue. Uses of plants from drying beds include ornamental arrangements, compost and livestock fodder. The choice of plants to be grown on the beds depends on the local conditions and market. The plants grown on drying beds have also been shown to have increased productivity compared to traditional growing methods. For example, more than 900 shoots/m2 of Echinochloa pyramidalis have been reported with IXOOVFDOHSODQWHGGHZDWHULQJEHGVLQ'DNDUDȻWHUZHHNVRIJURZWKDQGXSWRGU\WRQV ha/year (approximately 750 fresh tons/ha/year) of E. pyramidalis was reported in Cameroon (Strande et al., 2014).

7.5.4.3 Fish and Plants 7KH QXWULHQWV LQ )6 FDQ EH KDUQHVVHG IRU XVH LQ DTXDFXOWXUH ZKHQ EUHHGLQJ ȑVK LQ VWDELOL]DWLRQSRQGVZLWKWKHHȞȠOXHQWIURP)6WUHDWPHQWSODQWV7KHQXWULHQWVFDQLQFUHDVH the growth of plankton or aquatic plants such as duckweed, water spinach or water mimosa. 3ODQNWRQFDQEHKDUYHVWHGIRUXVHDVȑVKIHHGLQDTXDFXOWXUHDQGDTXDWLFSODQWVFDQEH harvested for animal feed or human consumption. Fish bred in ponds with FS can be used as animal feed and are also sometimes used for direct human consumption. In the case of direct consumption, certain precautions have to be taken to prevent pathogen transmission DQGDGYHUVHKHDOWKHȞIHFWV 6WUDQGHHWDO

$OWKRXJKȑVKDUHQRWVXVFHSWLEOHWRKXPDQSDWKRJHQVWKH\FDQDFWDVSDWKRJHQFDUULHUV )DHFDOEDFWHULDFDQDFFXPXODWHLQWKHLQWHUQDORUJDQVDQGJLOOVRIȑVK3URWHFWLYHEDUULHUV WR SUHYHQW WUDQVIHU WR KXPDQV LQFOXGH FRRNLQJ ȑVK WKRURXJKO\ EHIRUH FRQVXPSWLRQ WUDQVIHUULQJWKHȑVKLQWRFOHDQZDWHUSRQGVIRUWZRWRWKUHHZHHNVEHIRUHFRQVXPSWLRQ and maintaining a faecal coliform count of less than 1,000 MPN/100mL. Fish can also act as intermediate hosts to helminths, which is a concern with FS. In areas where schistosomiasis LV HQGHPLF ȑVKHU\ ZRUNHUV PD\ EH H[SRVHG WR VQDLOV ZKLFK DUH YHFWRUV RI WKH GLVHDVH Preventive measures include using treated FS, wearing protective clothing such as boots, and removing vegetation on the banks of the ponds to reduce snail growth (Strande et al., 2014). Another concern is that there is inadequate knowledge of the technical aspects of using FS or wastewater in aquaculture, thereby making control of operating parameters more of an art than a science, and leading to potential problems such as the rapid eutrophication of ponds due to excess nutrients (Strande et al., 2014).

7.5.4.4 Clay-based Products Dried FS can be used in the manufacture of cement and bricks, and in the production of clay-based products. This resource recovery option captures the material and chemical SURSHUWLHV RI )6 DW D WUDGHRȞI RI WKHLU QXWULHQW YDOXH QRW EHLQJ XWLOL]HG 6WUDQGH HW DO 2014). The presence of pathogens is less of a concern as human contact is reduced and high PDQXIDFWXULQJWHPSHUDWXUHVUHVXOWLQWKHNLOOLQJRȞIRISDWKRJHQV

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 118 MODULE VII

Dried wastewater sludge and FS have been shown to have qualities similar to those of traditional raw building materials such as limestone and clay materials. FS is commonly used in cement production in Japan as an alternative fuel in the kiln, and/or by incorpsectiomnorating the ash resulting from FS incineration into the cement (Strande et al., 2014).

Another possible method of integrating FS into cement manufacturing is to stabilize and dry the sludge through treatment with lime. Rodriguez et al. (2011) describe a process where 20- 30% lime (CaO) is added to wastewater sludge, which triggers degradation of organic matter and hydration of the CaO. The reaction between lime and the sludge is exothermic and WKHUHIRUHIDYRXUVVOXGJHGU\LQJ WKHWHPSHUDWXUHLQFUHDVHVIURP�&WR�& 7KHSURGXFW REWDLQHGDȻWHUOLPHWUHDWPHQWKDVDSRZGHUOLNHWH[WXUHZLWKDSDUWLFOHVL]HVPDOOHUWKDQ ŰPDQGFDQEHXVHGDVDUDZPDWHULDOLQVWHDGRIOLPHVWRQHLQFHPHQWPDQXIDFWXULQJ 7KLVIRUPRIVOXGJHGHZDWHULQJLVPRUHHQHUJ\HȞȑFLHQWWKDQRWKHUSURFHVVHVGXHWRWKH exothermic reaction of lime and sludge generating enough heat to promote evaporation without requiring the use of fossil fuels. FS can also be used in the manufacture of ceramics.

7.5.4.5 Biofuels There are several biological and thermal options for the production of energy from FS. These technologies have been receiving increased interest due to the considerable demand for sustainable biofuels. Possible technologies include anaerobic digestion, which yields biogas, KHDWDQGGLJHVWDWH VOXGJH S\URO\VLVRUJDVLȑFDWLRQZKLFK\LHOGVELRFKDURLOVDQGJDVHV biodiesel, which can be produced through fermentation or successive chemical reactions; and incineration or co-combustion of dried FS. Energy recovery harnesses the energy SRWHQWLDORIRUJDQLFPDWWHULQ)6EXWIUHTXHQWO\DWDWUDGHRȞIRIQXWULHQWUHFRYHU\

7.6 Site Selection for Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant A well-thought-out selection of treatment sites is crucial. There are examples, such as Bamako, where a FSTP was constructed but never used because the site was inappropriate. 7KHVHOHFWLRQRIVLWHVVKRXOGEHFDUULHGRXWDFFRUGLQJWRFLW\VL]HFLW\FRQȑJXUDWLRQQXPEHU of available sites, and the spatial distribution of the emptying companies, and several treatment sites should be considered. The optimum plant size has to be determined on a case-by-case basis as it depends on the local context (e.g. labour cost, land price, treatment plant scale, haulage distance and site conditions) (Strande et al., 2014).

([LVWLQJGLVSRVDOVLWHVDQGSRWHQWLDOWUHDWPHQWVLWHVVKRXOGEHLGHQWLȑHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJ RIWKHSODQQLQJSURFHVVZLWKLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRIWKHLQWHUYLHZVDQGȑHOGYLVLWVGXULQJWKH GHWDLOHGDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHLQLWLDOVLWXDWLRQ7KHHYDOXDWLRQRIWKHLGHQWLȑHGVLWHVVKRXOGEH FDUULHGRXWEHIRUHWKHVHOHFWLRQRIWHFKQLFDORSWLRQVDVWKHLUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVPD\LQȠOXHQFH the selection (Strande et al., 2014).

It is fundamental to involve the private collection and transport service providers in the VHOHFWLRQSURFHVVDVWKH\DUHPRVWDȞIHFWHG7KHLUSUDFWLFHVFRQVWUDLQWVDQGQHHGVVKRXOG be understood, especially: • their routes and disposal sites • WKHSUREOHPVWKH\IDFHRQWKHVWUHHWV WUDȞȑFSROLFHIHHV • the average distance and duration of the trips • WKHPRQH\WKH\JDLQSHUWULSLQWRWDODQGDȻWHUGHGXFWLQJWKHIXHOFRVWDQGPDLQWHQDQFH costs of the trucks

7KH\ZLOOEHDEOHWRVD\ZKHWKHULWLVSUDFWLFDOO\DQGȑQDQFLDOO\SRVVLEOHIRUWKHPWRGULYHDQG deliver to sites listed (Strande et al., 2014).

,GHQWLȍFDWLRQRI7UHDWPHQW6LWHV 7KHLGHQWLȑFDWLRQRIH[LVWLQJVLWHVIRUPHUVLWHVDQGSRWHQWLDOVLWHVLVFDUULHGRXWWKURXJK discussions with the key stakeholders. The following stakeholders may be particularly helpful: • Manual and mechanical FS operators: They have knowledge of the discharge sites. It is also important to ask about former sites, or direct delivering to farming areas. It should be borne in mind that they may be reluctant to talk about the sites that are illegal (Strande et al., 2014).

119 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

• (QGXVHUV)LUVWDUHDVZKHUHVOXGJHLVXVHGVKRXOGEHLGHQWLȑHG7KHQIRUH[DPSOHLILWLV DJULFXOWXUHIDUPHUVFDQSURYLGHLQIRUPDWLRQRQKRZWKH\ȑQGWKHVOXGJH7KH\FDQDOVR give information about former dumping sites or temporary sites. It is interesting to cross- check this with the information from emptying service providers. This could also provide indications on how the end use market could be structured. • Municipal authorities: The state may own available land. This would be a good option, as the municipality would then immediately be more involved (Strande et al., 2014). • 7UDGLWLRQDODXWKRULWLHV9HU\RȻWHQODQGLVVWLOOLQWKHKDQGVRIWUDGLWLRQDOFXOWXUDOOHDGHUV They may be willing to provide land for public interest (Strande et al., 2014). • Politicians, landowners, town planners, residents, operators and users: They are all likely WR KDYH GLȞIHULQJ SULRULWLHV DQG UHTXLUHPHQWV DV WR ZKHUH WKH LQIUDVWUXFWXUH LV ORFDWHG Decisions may be heavily biased. Political pressures or available space may override what is considered appropriate for the user and host community. Sitting infrastructure in the wrong location is likely to adversely impact the long-term sustainability of the service (Strande et al., 2014).

It is common for cities not to have an updated land registry. Particular emphasis should be SODFHGRQȑQGLQJRXWZKRRZQVWKHLGHQWLȑHGVLWHV*36DQG*RRJOH(DUWKFDQEHYDOXDEOH tools to reference and assess the areas surrounding the sites and they can replace missing or outdated maps (Strande et al., 2014).

7.6.2 Characterization and Evaluation Criteria Nine criteria are proposed in Table 7.6 to characterize and evaluate potential sites, providing a good basis for decision-making. Some circumstances can lead to the immediate exclusion of a site. These are expressed as sine qua non conditions; if any of them is not valid, the site is considered inappropriate (Strande et al., 2014).

Table 7.6: Criteria for site evaluation with sine qua non conditions (Strande et al., 2014)

S. No Criteria Sine Qua Non Conditions 1 Average transport distance for mechanical service $FFHSWDELOLW\DQGDȞIRUGDELOLW\IRUVHUYLFHSURYLGHUVDVGHȑQHG providers during interviews 2 Accessibility Ease of access

3 Surface area Surface area >0.3 ha

4 Land ownership and price Guarantee to be able to buy, at a reasonable price

5 Neighbourhood/potential for urbanization Risk for future access due to urbanization

6 Topography 1RULVNRIȠORRGLQJ

7 Soil type Free soil (unconsolidated)

8 Groundwater table >2m deep

9 2SSRUWXQLWLHVIRUGLVSRVDORIWUHDWHGHȞȠOXHQWDQG Must have disposal and endues possibilities sludge

Additionally, the following information should be collected for each existing site: • when the site is used (seasonality) • frequency of use • city neighbourhoods served by the site CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 120 MODULE VII

Distance from emptying to delivering and accessibility of the site are major issues. A site that is too far away or has poor accessibility may also result in FS operators reverting to the former unsafe disposal sites. Collection service providers and vacuum truck drivers are always conscious of haulage time and cost. The haulage of relatively small FS volumes (5- 10 cbm per truck) on congested roads over long distances in large urban agglomerations is ȑQDQFLDOO\XQIHDVLEOH$VLWHWKDWLVWRRIDUDZD\LPSOLHVIHZHUWULSVSHUGD\OHVVUHYHQXHDQG PRUHIXHOFRVWVIRUWKH)6RSHUDWRUV9HU\RȻWHQWKH\ZLOODGGWKHVHFRVWVWRWKHHPSW\LQJIHHV in order to ultimately reach the same revenue. A price hike may then discourage households from using this service and cause them to turn to informal, unhygienic practices (Strande et al., 2014).

The surface area needed for an FSTP is determined by its technical design. However, if there is no single site that is big enough and, instead, there are several mid-sized sites, splitting the treatment units should be considered (Strande et al., 2014).

It is important that the site be bought by the institution in charge of the FSM system. Renting a site for treatment units is not a good option, as it will always be under threat from closure ZLWKRXWQRWLFH/DQGSULFHLVRȻWHQDQRWKHUELJLVVXH7KLVVKRXOGEHNHSWLQPLQGZKHQ preparing the budget for the FSTP (Strande et al., 2014).

The immediate environment of the site (ground and surroundings) is also of importance and the following should be taken into consideration: • Neighbourhood nuisance: An FSTP can generate nuisance, especially bad odours. For this reason, it should be located at an appropriate distance from residential areas. It is also important to consider how the city will develop in the future (Strande et al., 2014). • 1HLJKERXUKRRGV\QHUJ\,IWKHVLWHLVVXUURXQGHGE\IDUPLQJDUHDVWKHWUHDWHGHȞȠOXHQW may be directly used for irrigation, with the additional value of nutrient recycling. This would greatly facilitate the end uses of sludge, if farmers are interested (Strande et al., 2014). • 7RSRJUDSK\7KH)673VKRXOGQHLWKHUEHWKUHDWHQHGE\ȠORRGLQJQRUE\HURVLRQ 6WUDQGH et al., 2014). • 6RLOW\SH7KLVSDUWLFXODUO\DȞIHFWVWKHFRVWVRIH[FDYDWLRQ,QDUHDVZKHUHPHFKDQLFDO means are scarce and most work is done manually, lateritic and other soils should be DYRLGHG,WLVUDUHWRȑQGSHGDJRJLFDOPDSVWKHVRLOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVVKRXOGEHDVVHVVHG on-site, with the help of local residents (Strande et al., 2014). • Groundwater table: A high groundwater table may jeopardize the lifetime of the concrete and infrastructure. To assess the groundwater table, it is advisable to look in any nearby wells or to ask neighbours (Strande et al., 2014). 'LVSRVDORIWKHWUHDWHGHȞȠOXHQWDOVRKDVWREHSODQQHG(YHQLIWUHDWHGWKHHȞȠOXHQWVKRXOG not be disposed directly into water. As mentioned above, it can be used for irrigation or, if not SRVVLEOHLQȑOWUDWHGLQDOHDFKLQJȑHOG,IZHOOVDUHSUHVHQWZLWKLQPHWUHVGRZQVWUHDPRI the FSTP, signs should make it clear that the water is not of drinking water quality (i.e. non- potable).

7.6.3 Number of Sites The average haulage distance from the houses where FS is collected to the FSTP and the DFWXDOVL]HRIWKHSODQWDUHYHU\VLJQLȑFDQWYDULDEOHVIRUWKHWRWDOFRVWRIWKHGLVSRVDOV\VWHP DVZHOODVIRULWVHȞȑFLHQF\DQGVXVWDLQDELOLW\*LYHQWKHGLȞȑFXOW\RIFROOHFWLQJ)6DQGKDXOLQJ it across cities to designated disposal and treatment sites, medium-scale FSTP in easily DFFHVVLEOHORFDWLRQVPD\VLJQLȑFDQWO\UHGXFHFROOHFWLRQDQGKDXODJHFRVWV&DSLWDODQG2 0 costs decrease with increasing plant size. However, since larger treatment plants require longer haulage distances between pits and disposal sites, costs escalate for a collection company, which in turn increases the risks of indiscriminate and illegal disposal (Strande et al., 2014). FS treatment can be optimized through levels of decentralization, as most FSTPS are made up of relatively low-cost and modular treatment technologies. The selection of several sites could be a better match for the logistics of collection and for transport companies, and could lead to lower prices for emptying services (Strande et al., 2014).

121 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

Implementation of several FSTPs implies a more detailed analysis of FS basins (all the points in the city from where the FS is brought to the same area by the FS operators; in analogy with hydrological basins) and the quantities that would arrive in each of the plants, in order to reduce the risk of over or under-design. It would be problematic if, in the case of two FSTPs of the same size, most trucks went to one and not to the other because an important parameter was missed during the assessment of the initial situation (Strande et al., 2014).

7.6.4 Sludge from Manual Emptying The issues discussed above are mainly related to mechanical emptying. Manual emptying represents additional challenges as manual service providers cannot transport the sludge far from the pits. Manual operators mainly work in areas where mechanical emptying is FRQVLGHUHGWRRH[SHQVLYHRUZKHUHSXPSLQJWUXFNVFDQQRWDFFHVVWKHSLWV,WLVYHU\RȻWHQ not possible for them to dispose of the sludge safely in the neighbourhood where they work, and it is thus important to link them with mechanical service providers (Strande et al., 2014). A solution is to build transfer stations which are accessible to pumping trucks and which are close to where manual service providers work. Light transport gear should be provided so that they can easily bring the sludge to these collecting points. These holding tanks would then be managed as any on-site facility by mechanical operators. Emptying collection points OLNHWKHVHDUHEHVWȑQDQFHGE\WKHFRPPXQLW\RUPXQLFLSDODXWKRULWLHV 6WUDQGHHWDO

Case Study: Land Alienation in Angul, Odisha, for FSTP

The land alienation process in Angul for building an FSTP took almost one and half years due to roadblocks at various levels. The given case illustrates processes undertaken, challenges faced and resolution of issues with active support from the district administration and 8UEDQ/RFDO%RG\ 8/% RȞȑFLDOV

Project Nirmal began in January 2015 with the aim of demonstrating the feasibility of citywide, low-cost and decentralized sanitation systems for small and medium cities/towns (Angul and Dhenkanal), strongly incorporating FSM techniques for OSSs. The project partners are Housing and Urban Development Department (Government of Odisha) and the district administration and ULBs of Angul and Dhenkanal. The project implementing agencies are Practical Action, Bhubaneswar, and Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi. The project is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Arghyam. The Project Steering Committee (PSC) under the chairmanship of the Commissioner-cum-Secretary, Housing and Urban Development Department (HUDD), Government of Odisha, has been constituted as an apex level.

$VSHUWKHGHFLVLRQRIWKHȑUVW36&PHHWLQJKHOGLQ$XJXVWWKH'LVWULFW&RRUGLQDWLRQ Committees (DCCs) at both cities were constituted at the district level under the chairmanship of the District Collectors of both cities, to guide, monitor and assist the sanitation programme to be undertaken by municipalities under Project Nirmal. Other than providing direction and guidance in the implementation of the project, one of the important functions of the DCC has been to facilitate procurement and allotment of land for the project.

The implementing organization placed a request before the Chairperson and Executive 2ȞȑFHU (2 RI$QJXO0XQLFLSDOLW\LQ0DUFKIRUDOLHQDWLRQRIODQGIRUDQ)673$ȻWHU several rounds of discussions and meetings with the DC, Additional District magistrate (ADM) and Sub-Collector, the Tahsildar of Angul submitted details of the 8 acres of land DFUHV IRU 6ROLG :DVWH 0DQDJHPHQW 6:0 DQG DFUHV IRU )673 LGHQWLȑHG DW *KDVD )DUPXQGHU1XDPRX]D NPIURPWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\RȞȑFH 6LQFHWKHFLW\GLGQRWKDYHD designated location for disposal of solid waste and there was tremendous pressure from the National Green Tribunal for proper disposal of the solid waste generated by the city. The GLVWULFWDGPLQLVWUDWLRQLGHQWLȑHGWKHDERYHSDWFKRIODQGIRUERWKWKHVROLGDQGOLTXLGZDVWH management. However, the above land could not be selected due to the following reasons: • The local people protested against the decision apprehending environmental pollution and health hazards • It did not meet the environmental norms due to the presence of a pond near the site. • The Animal Husbandary Department, the lease holder of the land (Ghasa Farm), did not give its consent for the use of a portion of the land for the above purpose.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 122 MODULE VII

$V UHVXOW WKH GLVWULFW OHYHO RȞȑFLDOV GHFLGHG WR VHDUFK IRU DQRWKHU VLWH LQ -XQH IRU PDQDJHPHQWRIERWKVROLGDQGOLTXLGZDVWHRIWKHFLW\$WHDPRIRȞȑFLDOVXQGHUWKHOHDGHUVKLS of the DC inspected a plot of land at Talamula Sasan under Banarpal Tahsil in Angul, 17 km DZD\IURPWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\RȞȑFH$VDVWDXWRU\UHTXLUHPHQWWKH7DKVLOGDU%DQDUSDOVHUYHG DǕJHQHUDOQRWLFHǖWRWKHSXEOLFLQYLWLQJREMHFWLRQRQWKHODQG7KH6DUSDQFK7DODPXODȑOHG his objections before the Tahsildar, Banarpal, against the general notice, highlighting the impact of the proposed dumping yard on the environmental conditions of the locality and health of the local people, as also the loss of pastureland for the domestic animals.

7KH+8''DGYLVHGWKHLPSOHPHQWLQJDJHQF\WRFDUU\RXWGXHGLOLJHQFHIRULGHQWLȑFDWLRQRI land for an FSTP. During the proess of alienation, it was realized by all the stakeholders that WKHFULWHULDIRULGHQWLȑFDWLRQRIODQGIRUDQ)673GLGQRWH[LVW

The proposal was resubmitted by the EO, Angul Municipality, to the Tahasildar, Banarpal, for alienation of land in its favour. Meanwhile, the Talamula panchayat submitted its grievances to the Tahsidar, Banarpal, against de-reservation of pastureland for development activities. $ȻWHUDRQHPRQWKQRWLFHSHULRGWKH6XE&ROOHFWRU$QJXOFRQGXFWHGWKHSXEOLFKHDULQJ DQGLQWKHDEVHQFHRIDGHTXDWHMXVWLȑFDWLRQVDQGUHDVRQDEOHJURXQGVKHȑQDOL]HGWKHODQG and initiated the process for its alienation. With the prior approval of the DC, the Angul ADM submitted the proposal to the Revenue Divisional Commissioner (RDC), Sambalpur, for alienation of non-forest government land in Mouza Talamula Sasan under the Banarpal Tehsil in favour of HUDD. Accordingly, sanction on alienation of land was issued from RDC to the DC. However, the local population protested against the establishment of the dumping yard on the alienated land and did not allow the municipality to take physical possession of WKHODQG7KH\GHWDLQHGWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\DQG3URMHFW,PSOHPHQWLQJ2ȞȑFLDOVGXULQJWKHLU YLVLWWRWKHVLWHDQGUHOHDVHGWKHPRQO\DȻWHULQWHUYHQWLRQRIWKHGLVWULFWDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ,Q YLHZRIWKHSURWHVWDQGGHOD\LQDOORWPHQWRIODQGIRUDQ)673WKHSURMHFWRȞȑFLDOVDSSURDFKHG both the municipal authority and the DC for allotment of a separate patch of land closer to the municipal limit for the establishment of an FSTP.

'XULQJ D GLVFXVVLRQ WKH PXQLFLSDOLW\ RȞȑFLDOV GLVFORVHG WKDW D DFUH SORW ZDV DYDLODEOH DW .XVKDVLQJKD XQGHU WKH %DQDUSDO 7DKDVLO $ȻWHU D ORQJ GLVFXVVLRQ WKH PXQLFLSDOLW\ authorities agreed to hand over 3 acres for the FSTP and passed a Council resolution in favour of this. This was subsequently taken up with the DC who instructed the Sub-Collector to discuss the resolution with the project team. Accordingly, discussions were held with the Sub-Collector and Project Director, District Urban Development Agency (DUDA). $ MRLQW LQVSHFWLRQ WHDP LQFOXGLQJ GLVWULFW PXQLFLSDOLW\ DQG SURMHFW RȞȑFLDOV YLVLWHG WKH ORFDWLRQ$ȻWHUWKHYLVLWIXUWKHUGLVFXVVLRQVZHUHKHOGLQWKH'8'$RȞȑFHLQWKHSUHVHQFH of the Sub-Collector along with Revenue Inspectors of Dhenkanal and Banarpal Tahasils, and it was decided that the land was suitable for an FSTP. Accordingly, the Project Director, DUDA, issued a letter to the municipality for demarcation and handing over of the land to the project. Apprehending public outcry, the municipality insisted upon police protection from the district administration to carry out the demarcation. Accordingly the municipality ȑ[HGWKHGDWHIRUGHPDUFDWLRQRIODQGZLWKVXSSRUWIURPWKHGLVWULFWSROLFH+RZHYHUGXULQJ the demarcation, the land was found ineligible due to the presence of a pond close to the boundary of the selected land.

The Talamula land was still being considered in the absence of any alternative. The land could QRWEHGHPDUNHWHGGXULQJD'&&PHHWLQJȑ[HGIRUWKHSXUSRVHGXHWRHQVXLQJSDQFKD\DW HOHFWLRQV DQG ZULW SHWLWLRQ ȑOHG E\ WKH ORFDO SHRSOH DJDLQVW WKH GHFLVLRQ RI WKH GLVWULFW DGPLQLVWUDWLRQGHPDUFDWLRQRIODQGZDVSRVWSRQHGDQGDQHZSORWRIODQGZDVLGHQWLȑHG by the district administraton near the Adarsha Engineering College, Panchamahal, under Nua Mouza, Angul, for an FSTP. As per the direction of the Project Director, DUDA, the plot number, Khata number and Kisam of the land where the road passed was collected from the Revenue Inspector, Panchmanhal, and shared with him (Project Director) in January 2017. The EO, Angul Municipality, was directed to submit an application to the Tahsildar, Angul, for alienation of land at Panchmahal. Meanwhile, the DC asked the Sub-Collector, Angul 7DKVLOGDU 5HJLRQDO 2ȞȑFHU RI WKH 2GLVKD 3ROOXWLRQ &RQWURO %RDUG 23&% DQG (2 $QJXO Municipality, for a joint inspection report on the suitability of the site for the establishment of an FSTP.

The Joint Inspection Committee headed by the Sub-collector, Angul, inspected the site in April 2017 and submitted its report to the DC, Angul. In the meantime, the Revenue Inspector,

123 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION TREATMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE

Panhamahal, was asked by the Tahasildar, Angul, to submit a detailed report on the proposal of the Angul Municipality for alienation of land for the establishment of an FSTP. Since the proposed site was to be accessed through a private road constructed by the owner of a private engineering college, a meeting was convened by the DC to discuss the matter with WKHPXQLFLSDOLW\RȞȑFLDOVDQGWKHRZQHURIWKHFROOHJHLQRUGHUWRFOLQFKDQDJUHHPHQWIRU the use of the road by the municipality to access the site till a permanent solution was found. Meanwhile, the Site Selection Committee under the chairmanship of the Sub-Collector selected the site at Panhamahal and submitted it to the DC for his approval. Subsequently, the Project Steering Committee meeting held in May 2017 under the chairmanship of the Commissioner-cum-Secretary, HUDD, advised the DC, Angul, to issue the advance possession for the selected land within a week's time. Accordingly, the DC asked the Tahsildar, Angul, to develop a case record for issuance of advance possession to Angul Muncipality on WKHVHOHFWHGODQGIRUHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDQ)6737KHUHDȻWHUDJHQHUDOQRWLFHZDVVHUYHGIURP WKH7DKVLORȞȑFH$QJXOWRWKHSXEOLFIRULQYLWLQJREMHFWLRQLIDQ\RQWKHVHOHFWHGODQG$W the same time a copy of the notice was also marked to the Sarpanch, Nua Mouza, Secretary, Talcher Angul Meramundali Development Authority (TAMDA), EO, Angul, and Revenue Inspector, Panchmahal, for information and necessary action, on 2 June 2017.

$ȻWHUVFUXWLQL]LQJWKHDGYDQFHSRVVHVVLRQSURSRVDOWKHRȞȑFHRIWKH5'&UHFRPPHQGHG that the DC opt for the regular alienation proposal since the procedure followed for both the purposes was same. It was also observed that most of the the advance possession cases were not being regularized which had been causing a large volume of pending cases to accumulate, leading to loss and leakage of revenue to the government. In the same month, DQREMHFWLRQFLWLQJKD]DUGRXVZDVWHFORVHWRDSOD\JURXQGZDVȑOHGE\WKH6DUSDQFK1XD 0RX]DDQGWKHYLOODJHUVDJDLQVWWKHDOLHQDWLRQFDVHDW7DKVLORȞȑFH$ȻWHUDQLQTXLU\LQWRWKH REMHFWLRQDQRWLFHZDVLVVXHGE\WKH7DKVLORȞȑFHIRUKHDULQJWKHREMHFWLRQV,WWRRNSODFH in the court of the Tahsildar, Angul, in the presence of the local Sarpanch and villagers of 1XD0DX]D(2DQGWKHLPSOHPHQWLQJDJHQF\7KHLPSOHPHQWLQJDJHQF\VKRZHGDȑOPRQ Devnahalli FSTP model to dispel doubts on safe collection, disposal and treatment of FS. As SHUWKHUHTXHVWRIWKH6DUSDQFKWKH7DKVLOGDU$QJXOȑ[HGDPHHWLQJZLWKWKHYLOODJHUVRI 3DQFKPDKDODDQGWKHVDPHȑOPZDVVKRZQWRWKHYLOODJHUVZKLFKWRDODUJHH[WHQWDOOD\HG WKHLUFRQFHUQV6RRQDȻWHUWKLVDODQGXWLOL]DWLRQSODQRI)673ZDVVXEPLWWHGWRWKH7DKVLO RȞȑFHDVSHUWKHUHTXLUHPHQWRIWKHDOLHQDWLRQSURFHVV7KH7DKVLOGDU$QJXOVXEPLWWHGWKH ODQGDOLHQDWLRQȑOHDQGFDVHUHFRUGWRWKH$QJXO6XE&ROOHFWRUIRURQZDUGWUDQVPLVVLRQWR the DC for approval. The approval of the District Collector was received and order issued by WKHGLVWULFWRȞȑFHIRUWKHDOLHQDWLRQFDVH

,15ZDVGHSRVLWHGE\WKH$QJXO0XQLFLSDOLW\DWWKH7DKVLORȞȑFH$QJXOWRZDUGVWKH demarcation fees of the proposed FSTP land. INR 55 was deposited by Angul Municipality DWWKH7DKVLORȞȑFH$QJXOWRZDUGVLVVXHRI3DWWDWRWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\7KH7DKVLOGDU$QJXO issued the Patta in favour of HUDD, for establishment of FSTP. Angul Municipality was authorized by the HUDD for the work. It requested the Tahsildar, Angul, to demarcate the alienated land proposed for FSTP. In turn, the Angul Tahsildar asked the Revenue Inspector, Panchmahala, to demarcate the alienated land in the presence of the Angul Municipality RȞȑFLDOV7KHSURSRVHG)673ODQGZDVGHPDUFDWHGE\WKH5HYHQXH,QVSHFWRU3DQFKPDKDOD LQWKHSUHVHQFHRISROLFHSHUVRQQHORȞȑFLDOVRI$QJXO0XQLFLSDOLW\DQGWHDPPHPEHUVRIWKH implementing agency.

The Revenue Inspector submitted the land demarcation report to the Tahsildar, Angul. Physical possession of the land was handed over to the Angul Municipality, and permission was issued to the implementing agency for the establishment of FSTP on the assigned land in August 2018.

7.7 Summary FS collected from OSSs (septic tanks, aqua privies, latrines, un-sewered public toilets, etc.) in PDQ\XUEDQDUHDVRIGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVDUHRȻWHQGLVSRVHGRIZLWKRXWWUHDWPHQW7KLVLV mainly due to the lack of sustainable sludge management strategies and sludge treatment options. This module emphasized the importance of faecal sludge treatment and explained GLȞIHUHQW WUHDWPHQW REMHFWLYHV LQFOXGLQJ SDWKRJHQ LQDFWLYDWLRQ GHZDWHULQJ QXWULHQW management and stabilization. It also gave an overview of emerging and established technologies available to treat FS.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 124

MODULE VIII: OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS

Learning Objectives

ʝ To understand the importance and role of operations and maintenance for faecal sludge treatment plants ʝ To understand critical operations and maintenance factors, starting with the design and planning phases ʝ 7REHDEOHWRGHVLJQDQHȞIHFWLYHPRQLWRULQJDQGRSHUDWLRQVDQGPDLQWHQDQFHSODQWRHQVXUHWUHDWPHQWSHUIRUPDQFH ʝ To understand the role of administrative management in the long-term operation of faecal sludge treatment plants 7.4 Decision Matrix 111 7.5 End Use of Treatment Product 111 7.6 Site Selection for Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant 119 7.7 Summary 124

MODULE IX: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Financial Models 144 9.3 Summary 154

REFERENCES 173

8.1 Introduction Proper operations and maintenance (O&M) of faecal sludge treatment plants (FSTPs) require a number of crucial tasks to be carried out regardless of the size of the plant and complexity of the technological set-up. Having skilled workers perform these tasks in a timely manner and in accordance with best practices will maximize the value of an FSTP and ensure its long- term performance (Strande et al., 2014).

Many FSTPs fail following construction, irrespective of the choice of technology or the quality and robustness of the infrastructure. The reasons for failure are not always investigated, but WKHPRVWIUHTXHQWH[SODQDWLRQVJLYHQDUHORZRSHUDWLRQDOFDSDFLW\DQGWKHODFNRIȑQDQFLDO means to accomplish O&M tasks. Lessons learned from these failures are that O&M must be considered an integral component of the full life cycle costs of a facility, and that ongoing training and capacity building is essential for the operators. In addition, the O&M plan must be incorporated into the design process along with the engineering plans, and receive appropriate review and approvals. This helps to ensure that O&M is fully integrated into the facility once construction is complete and operation has begun (Strande et al., 2014).

Financial, technical and managerial inputs are needed to ensure the continuous operation of even the simplest of FSTP systems. The procedures for the utilization of the treatment facility and equipment are documented in several O&M plans, monitoring programmes, reports and logbooks, and health and safety plans, which outline the step-by-step tasks employees are required to carry out to ensure the long-term functioning of the FSTP. While PDQ\2 0DFWLYLWLHVDUHSURFHVVVSHFLȑFRWKHUVDUHFRPPRQWRDOOIDFLOLWLHV$OO2 0SODQV should therefore include information on: • SURFHGXUHVIRUUHFHLYLQJDQGRȞȠORDGLQJRIIDHFDOVOXGJH )6 DWWKH)673 • RSHUDWLRQRIVSHFLȑFWHFKQRORJLHVVXFKWKDWWKH\IXQFWLRQDVGHVLJQHG • maintenance programmes for plant assets to ensure long-term operation and minimize breakdowns • monitoring and reporting procedures for the FSTP O&M activities as well as the management of end products • management of health and safety aspects for protection of the workers and the environment • organizational structure, and the distribution and management of administrative aspects • SURFHGXUHVIRUWKHRQVLWHVWRUDJHRI)6DQGRȞIVLWHWUDQVSRUWDWLRQ

The level of organization required at any given FSTP is a function of its size and treatment capacity. Small systems that receive a few loads of FS a week may need only one operator and therefore have relatively simple O&M plans, while large municipal systems that receive )6ORDGVDURXQGWKHFORFNDUHPRUHFRPSOH[DQGUHTXLUHPRUHVWDȞIZLWKGLȞIHUHQWOHYHOVRI operators and maintenance personnel. This module discusses the O&M planning process DVZHOODVWKHVSHFLȑFFRPSRQHQWVRIDQ2 0SODQ,WUHIHUHQFHVWKHSURFHGXUHVDQGWDVNV WKDWDUHFRPPRQWRDOO)673IDFLOLWLHVDVZHOODVFRQVLGHUDWLRQVIRUWHFKQRORJ\VSHFLȑFWDVNV (Strande et al.,2014).

8.2 Integrating O&M into the Planning Process of FSTPs When planning FSTPs, there are several important factors that need to be considered which will have a direct impact on O&M and monitoring. They encompass classical engineering aspects of technology integration, as well as other issues concerning the institutional PDQDJHPHQWWKDWGHȑQHVWKHIDHFDOVOXGJHPDQDJHPHQW )60 SURJUDPPH6LQFH2 0 aspects are important for the overall long-term success of the programme, O&M planning, LQFOXGLQJWKHȑQDQFLDOSURYLVLRQRIIXQGVVKRXOGEHLQFOXGHGLQWKHWHUPVRIUHIHUHQFHVIRU the design of each FSTP (Strande et al., 2014). Further, the O&M plan should be reviewed DQGDSSURYHGDORQJZLWKHQJLQHHULQJGHVLJQVDQGVSHFLȑFDWLRQVLQFOXGLQJWKHIROORZLQJ considerations: • location of the FSTP and its proximity to residential areas • volumes and schedules of FS collection • availability of local resources

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 126 MODULE VIII

• degree of mechanization of technologies • ȑQDOHQGXVHRUGLVSRVDORIHQGSURGXFWV

8.2.1 Location of an FSTP The location of an FSTP is a crucial aspect to consider when designing an O&M plan. FSTPs DUHRȻWHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKQXLVDQFHVVXFKDVRGRXUVȠOLHVDQGPRVTXLWRHVDQGQRLVH)DFLOLWLHV located close to residential areas must therefore install preventative controls, all of which have O&M implications. Examples include FSTPs that utilize waste stabilization ponds located near to residential areas, where mosquito control is an important requirement. For FSTPs located such that access roads cross residential areas, the noise and dust produced by WKHWUXFNVQHHGVWREHUHGXFHG 6WUDQGHHWDO 2WKHUVLWHVSHFLȑFIDFWRUVWKDWPLJKW LQȠOXHQFH2 0DFWLYLWLHVDQGFRVWVLQFOXGH • soil conditions, such as soil depth and bearing capacity, that might impact equipment selection and installation • groundwater level and proximity of the FSTP that could result in pollution of water UHVRXUFHVRULQȑOWUDWLRQRIJURXQGZDWHULQWRWUHDWPHQWWDQNVGLUHFWO\LPSDFWLQJWKH pumping and solids handling equipment • VXUIDFHZDWHUVDQGȠORRGLQJULVNVZKLFKPLJKWLQKLELWVLWHDFFHVVGXULQJUDLQ\VHDVRQV DQGDGYHUVHO\DȞIHFWRUXQGHUPLQHHTXLSPHQWGXHWRVFRXULQJRUHURVLRQ

8.2.2 Volume and Schedule of Faecal Sludge Delivery The volume of FS that is collected and delivered to the treatment plant, as well as the RSHUDWLRQDO WLPHV RI WKH )673 ZLOO KDYH D VLJQLȑFDQW LQȠOXHQFH RQ WKH 2 0 FRVWV DQG UHTXLUHPHQWV&XOWXUDOKDELWVRUHYHQWVFDQLQȠOXHQFHWKHYROXPHVWKDWDUHGLVFKDUJHGDW WKH)673DWGLȞIHUHQWWLPHVRIWKH\HDU6LPLODUO\VHDVRQDOYDULDELOLW\RIZDVWHYROXPHVZLOO LPSDFW2 0VWDȞȑQJUHTXLUHPHQWV/DUJHUV\VWHPVWKDWRSHUDWHRQDGDLO\EDVLVKDYHYHU\ GLȞIHUHQWVWDȞȑQJUHTXLUHPHQWVIURPWKRVHWKDWRSHUDWHLQWHUPLWWHQWO\ 6WUDQGHHWDO The distribution of the FS volume received at the plant throughout the day is critically LPSRUWDQW LQ WKH SODQQLQJ SURFHVV DV ORZ RU KLJK ȠORZV WKDW H[FHHG WKH GHVLJQ RI WKH WUHDWPHQWV\VWHPFDQKDYHDVLJQLȑFDQWLPSDFWRQWKHRSHUDWLRQDOHȞȑFLHQF\7KHLQLWLDO planning phase must therefore ensure that the chosen technology is appropriate for local conditions, and that the plant is correctly sized to accommodate the expected volumes and UHODWHGȠOXFWXDWLRQV,QVWLWXWLRQDODUUDQJHPHQWVWKDWFORVHO\FRRUGLQDWHDFWLYLWLHVEHWZHHQ facility owners and those responsible for FS collection and transportation can help to address these issues (Strande et al.,2014).

8.2.3 Availability of Local Resources The availability of local resources impacts not only those aspects that determine the cost of construction, such as technology selection and building materials, but also the costs of O&M requirements. Local resource issues that must be considered from the O&M perspective include: • availability of spare parts and tools • DYDLODELOLW\RIFRQVXPDEOHV HJFKHPLFDOVIRUȠORFFXODWLRQ • availability and reliability of local utilities including water and power • availability of trained human resources to properly operate the facility • availability of local laboratory resources that may be required for monitoring programmes • WKHDYDLODELOLW\RIORFDOFRQWUDFWLQJȑUPVWRDVVLVWZLWKSHULRGLFWDVNVWKDWPD\EHODERXU LQWHQVLYHRUUHTXLUHYHU\VSHFLȑFVNLOOV

Ideally, equipment that can be maintained and repaired within the country should be used. If no local supplier is available, fast delivery and repair services need to be ensured, or adequate replacement components must be stocked at the plant. For example, the powerful vacuum WUXFNVWKDWDUHQHHGHGWRHPSW\VHWWOLQJWKLFNHQLQJWDQNVUHTXLUHVSHFLȑFPDLQWHQDQFHVNLOOV ZKLFKDUHRȻWHQQRWORFDOO\DYDLODEOHLQPHFKDQLFDOZRUNVKRSV,WLVWKHUHIRUHUHFRPPHQGHG that contracts be prepared during the equipment acquisition process whereby conditions IRUWKHUHSDLUVHUYLFHVIRUH[DPSOHWKHDQQXDOPDLQWHQDQFHRIYDFXXPWUXFNVLVGHȑQHG When designing FSTPs that require the addition of consumables for the treatment process

127 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS

(e.g. lime or chlorine), the costs and availability of these needs to be assessed, as well as the requirements for safe storage. Other aspects that impact O&M costs include emergency operation procedures during power or water outages, and any shipping or transportation charges for delivery of samples requiring laboratory analysis. The choice of technology should therefore not only be made based on installation costs, but also O&M costs (Strande et al.,2014).

8.2.4 Degree of Mechanization of Technologies The degree of mechanization of the FSTP depends on the availability of spare parts, electrical power and trained operators. Where this is limited, passive technologies such as drying beds and stabilization ponds might be better technology choices. If power availability is intermittent, technologies that utilize manual systems should be chosen over mechanical ones whenever possible. For example, screenings can be removed manually or by a mechanical rake, dried sludge can be transported with a mechanical shovel or wheelbarrow, and small composting piles can be mechanically aerated, while compost heaps need to be turned manually (Strande et al.,2014).

8.2.5 Final End Use or Disposal of Treatment Products 7KHHQGXVHRUGLVSRVDORIWKHWUHDWPHQWHQGSURGXFWVKDVDQLQȠOXHQFHRQWKHWHFKQRORJLHV DQGSURFHVVHVQHHGHGWRDFKLHYHWKHUHTXLUHGOHYHORIWUHDWPHQW7KLVLQWXUQKDVDVLJQLȑFDQW impact on the costs and skill levels required to operate and maintain equipment. In a simple )673ZKHUHVOXGJHLVGULHGIRUGLVSRVDOLQDODQGȑOORUIRUHQGXVHVVXFKDVFRPEXVWLRQERWK of which do not require high pathogen reduction, less rigorous treatment and lower O&M costs are involved compared to a system that produces end products for use on food crops that are directly ingested without cooking (e.g. salad greens) (Strande et al.,2014). Determining if the value associated with the end use activities is outweighed by the technology and O&M costs needed to achieve the required levels of treatment is a key GULYHU IRU )673 WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH FRVWV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH VSHFLȑF 2 0DQGPRQLWRULQJWDVNVIRULGHQWLȑHGHQGXVHDFWLYLWLHVDVVLVWVLQWKHSODQQLQJRIDQ)60 programme (Strande et al.,2014).

8.3 Receiving Faecal Sludge at the Treatment Plant ,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRWDNHWKHWUDȞȑFSDWWHUQVDQGWKHPDQDJHPHQWRIWUXFNWUDȞȑFLQDQGRXWRI )673VLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQLQRUGHUWRPD[LPL]HWKHHȞȑFLHQF\RIWKHUHFHLYLQJDQGRȞȠORDGLQJ processes. Receiving FS loads at the FTSP involves: • WUDȞȑFFRQWURO • approving the FS for discharge into the facility

These aspects are discussed in the following sections.

7UDȚȍF&RQWURO $WIDFLOLWLHVZKLFKDUHXVHGLQIUHTXHQWO\WUDȞȑFFRQWUROLVUDUHO\DQLVVXH,QVXFKFDVHVWKH employees at these facilities are mainly required for discharge approval and direction of trucks in the FSTP. On the other hand, at busy facilities, where vacuum or sludge delivery trucks and other vehicles may be competing to discharge their loads, operations employees can help facilitate rapid unloading by providing direction and assistance to drivers, thereby avoiding accidents.

7UDȞȑFFRQWUROLVVLPSOLȑHGWKURXJKDZHOOGHVLJQHGIDFLOLW\OD\RXW$FFHVVURDGVWKDWDOORZ YHKLFOHVWRGULYHWKURXJKDȻWHUGLVFKDUJHUDWKHUWKDQWXUQDURXQGDUHQRWRQO\PRUHHȞȑFLHQW EXW DOVR VDIHU 0HFKDQL]HG XQORDGLQJ VWDWLRQV WKDW UHFRUG WKH GULYHUVǖ LGHQWLȑFDWLRQ DQG discharge volume can also reduce O&M costs at busy facilities. The turning radius and weight of the largest trucks that will utilize the facility should be considered when planning URDGVDQGGULYHZD\V,QDGGLWLRQRȞȠORDGLQJDQGWUXFNSDUNLQJDUHDVVKRXOGEHOHYHODQG access roads should not have more than a 3% gradient (Strande et al.,2014).

8.3.2 Approving the Faecal Sludge for Discharge at the Facility :DVWHIURPGLȞIHUHQWVRXUFHVFDQKDYHZLGHO\GLȞIHULQJFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZKLFKPD\LPSDFWWKH RSHUDWLRQRIWKH)6735HVLGHQWLDO)6 HJIURPSLWODWULQHVRUVHSWLFWDQNV LVRȻWHQUHODWLYHO\ IUHHRIWR[LFFKHPLFDOV5HVWDXUDQW)6KRZHYHUPD\KDYHVLJQLȑFDQWTXDQWLWLHVRIIDWVRLO and grease, especially if grease traps or interceptors are absent or not functioning properly. Similarly, FS from auto repair shops, dry-cleaning establishments, hospitals or other

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 128 MODULE VIII

commercial or institutional settings may contain toxic materials that are detrimental to the treatment process. In areas with a large number of commercial facilities, it is recommended that FSTP have parallel treatment trains, one that can accommodate residential sludge and another for commercial waste (Strande et al.,2014).

Depending on the institutional framework as well as the arrangement between the stakeholders in charge of the collection, transport and treatment, a manifest system can be utilized to record the origin, volume and special characteristics of FS. A form can be completed at the origin of the FS and signed by the owner (Figure 8.1). Where the trucks frequently contain FS from several on-site technologies, the form should include this information. The manifest is then carried by the driver and presented at the FSTP for review by operations HPSOR\HHVSULRUWRRȞȠORDGLQJ2QFHWKHORDGLVDSSURYHGWKHPDQLIHVWLVWKHQVLJQHGE\ the operator and returned to the driver as proof that the waste load was discharged into the facility (Strande et al.,2014).

Figure 8.1: Manifest form for Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation (BMC, 2016) GENERATOR(S) 1.Name ______Address ______Contact Number ______City, State ______Quantity of waste Zip ______pumped ______MLD Source Residential ____ Commercial ____ Restaurant ____ Portable Toilet____Others 2. Name ______Address ______Contact Number ______City, State ______Quantity of waste Zip ______pumped ______MLD Source Residential ____ Commercial ____ Restaurant ____ Portable Toilet____Others 3.Name ______Address ______Contact Number ______City, State ______Quantity of waste Zip pumped ______MLD Source Residential ____ Commercial ____ Restaurant ____ Portable Toilet____Others ______TRANSPORTER Company ______Address ______Contact Number ______City, State ______Registration Number ______Zip ______Vehicle Registration Number ______

Total Volume MLD

TRANSPORTER CERTIFICATION: I hereby acknowledge receipt of the above listed waste and will transport and dispose of it in accordance with all applicable laws ______Name Signature Date / Time

%0&XVHRQO\ RECEIVER / DISPOSAL

CERTIFICATION OF RECEIPT: The above waste was received by this facility and will be processed, disposed of or recycled in accordance with applicable laws.

Litres/ cum Received ______

______Name Signature Date / Time

Operators of FSTPs should be trained in the physical inspection of sludge samples. If there is any doubt as to the origin of the load, samples should be drawn and inspected for colour, odour and the presence of grease or oil. FS from residential sources has a distinctive visual appearance, as do loads contaminated with excessive oil and grease. Loads that do not conform to standards that have been established for the treatment process should be rejected if segregation is not possible (Strande et al.,2014).

8.4 Operations and Maintenance Plan The O&M plan provides details of the tasks, materials, equipment, tools, sampling, monitoring and safety procedures necessary to keep the plant running properly, all of which have cost implications that must be carefully considered (Strande et al.,2014).

129 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS

8.4.1 Operational Procedures FSTPs require clear operational procedures. Therefore, the O&M plans should include an operation manual containing the following information: • HQJLQHHULQJGUDZLQJVDQG)673VSHFLȑFDWLRQV • manufacturer's literature and equipment operation guidelines • responsible person for each task • frequency of each activity • operation procedures and tools required to perform the task • safety measures required • information that is to be monitored and recorded

,IFKHPLFDOVRURWKHUFRQVXPDEOHVDUHUHTXLUHGIRUWKHRSHUDWLRQRIDVSHFLȑFFRPSRQHQWWKH\ should also be listed together with the name of the supplier and information on how they are to be used and stored. If some operational activities require the use of external companies, or if a transport company is needed to discharge the end products, their contact and description should also be given in the operation manual. The operation manual must also have a special section for emergency or non-routine operations requirements. Procedures should EHSODQQHGIRUVSHFLȑFFDVHVVXFKDVH[WUHPHFOLPDWLFHYHQWVSRZHUVKRUWDJHVRYHUORDG degradation of a pump, basin or canal, and other accidents. All procedures provided in the operation manual must be prepared in order to ensure conformity with the local laws and standards (Strande et al.,2014).

The treatment technologies described in module 5 to 9 all require the control of the following aspects: • screenings removal • load (quantity, quality and frequency) • processing (e.g. mixing compost pile, chemical addition for mechanical drying) • residence time • extraction, further treatment or disposal of end products • collection and further treatment or disposal of liquid end products • storage and sale of end products The operational procedures should take climate and other context-dependent variables into account. The drying time or retention time may vary greatly during intensive rain periods or droughts. Rain may also increase FS volumes delivered to the FSTP if the on-site sanitation V\VWHPV 266V ZHUHQRWEXLOWVDWLVIDFWRULO\GXHWRUXQRȞIRUDULVHLQWKHJURXQGZDWHUWDEOH The operational activities at the FSTP can then be planned to take these aspects into account. For example, macrophytes of planted drying beds can be weeded during a dry season, when there is potentially less FS to treat and the drying time is shorter (Strande et al.,2014).

The operational procedure also needs to take the FS characteristics (e.g. viscosity, amount of waste, fresh or partly stabilized sludge) and the required level of treatment into account. Further, the information collected though the monitoring system needs to be considered in order to improve operational procedure and planning. For example, the frequency of sludge extraction from a settling-thickening tank or waste stabilization pond can be adjusted based on the observed quantity of sludge accumulated over time (Strande et al.,2014).

8.4.2 Maintenance Procedures There are two main types of maintenance activities: preventative maintenance and reactive PDLQWHQDQFH :HOOSODQQHG SUHYHQWDWLYH PDLQWHQDQFH SURJUDPPHV FDQ RȻWHQ PLQLPL]H reactive interventions to emergency situations, which are frequently costlier and more complex. Component breakdowns at FSTPs can result in wider system failure or non- FRPSOLDQFH7KHUHIRUHHDFKFRPSRQHQWDWWKH)673KDVVSHFLȑFSUHYHQWDWLYHPDLQWHQDQFH requirements that need to be described in detail in the maintenance plan including the tasks, frequency of actions and step-by-step procedures for accomplishing the tasks, including inspections. Physical inspections conducted at scheduled intervals are important, where RSHUDWRUVORRNIRUVSHFLȑFLQGLFDWRUVVXFKDVFUDFNHGZLUHVEURNHQFRQFUHWHDQGGLVFRORXUHG and brittle pipes in order to identify preventative maintenance needs (Strande et al., 2014).

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 130 MODULE VIII

7KH PDLQWHQDQFH SODQ VKRXOG EH JXLGHG E\ WKH ORFDO FRQWH[W FOLPDWH DQG DVVHWVSHFLȑF monitoring information. Coastal FSTPs, for example, may require more frequent painting and corrosion control due to the salt air compared to the same plant located inland. The task details include the equipment, tools and supplies needed to accomplish the task and the amount of time it should take to complete. Once completed, the task details should be HQWHUHGLQWRWKHHTXLSPHQWPDLQWHQDQFHORJERRNRUGDWDEDVHDORQJZLWKDQ\GLȞȑFXOWLHV encountered (Strande et al., 2014).

Frequent maintenance tasks include: • corrosion control – scraping rust, painting metal surfaces and repairing corroded concrete • sludge and coarse solids extraction from the basins and canals • repacking and exercising valves (i.e. locating and maintaining fully operational valves) • oiling and greasing mechanical equipment such as pumps, centrifuges or emptying trucks • housekeeping activities including picking up of refuse and vegetation control

8.5 Asset Management Asset management is a holistic approach to FSTP maintenance in order to maximize long- WHUPHȞIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKHIDFLOLW\DWWKHORZHVWSRVVLEOHFRVW&RVWLWHPVWKDWDUHLQFOXGHGLQ the full life cycle costs of an asset include: • capital cost of purchasing and installation • labour required for operation and maintenance • spare parts for repairs • essential consumables, such as grease or chemicals • replacement costs once the component has reached the end of its useful life

Integral to the full life cycle costs are the stocks of tools and supplies that are required for long-term operational needs. These should ideally be available at each FSTP site. If several FSTP rely on the same technology or equipment, centralized stocks can be organized (Strande et al., 2014).

Asset management is crucial for large FSTPs and the following aspects should be included in the maintenance plan: • the current state of the assets • the required ‘sustainable’ level of service • the assets which are critical to sustained performance • the minimum life cycle costs • the long-term funding strategy

Without an asset inventory, no comparison can be made regarding the cost of equipment or the importance of the asset. Components that are crucial for the operation of the FSTP should be highlighted, and once used, replenished immediately. In these cases, it is therefore LPSRUWDQWWRKDYHDUHSXWDEOHSURYLGHUDQGDJUHHPHQWVGUDZQXSWRHQVXUHVZLȻWVHUYLFH Case Study 1 provides an example of an FSTP failure due to the lack of permanent employees and the pump not being listed as a key component.

Case Study 1: Example of Treatment Plant Failure (text box) An FSTP was constructed with one screening channel, two parallel settling-thickening tanks, nine unplanted drying beds, and a pipe conveying the liquid fraction to the waste stabilization ponds of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) located nearby (Strande et al., 2014)

,QDȻWHUOHVVWKDQȑYH\HDUVRIRSHUDWLRQWKH)673ZDVRXWRIRUGHUIRUVRPHPRQWKV despite the selection of robust technologies. This was partly due to the design process that had resulted in the selection of pumps that were not powerful enough to extract the thickened

131 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS

VOXGJHIURPWKHWDQNVEXWDOVRGXHWRLQVXȞȑFLHQWVOXGJHH[WUDFWLRQE\WKHYDFXXPWUXFNV As a result, the settling-thickening tanks were not emptied for several months, the sludge was not dried on the beds, and the waste stabilization ponds were saturated with high loads RIVXVSHQGHGVROLGV$GGLWLRQDOO\QRPDLQWHQDQFHZDVFDUULHGRXWRQWKHEHGVDQGWKHȑOWHU media, resulting in degradation of the walls and the valves (Strande et al., 2014).

&RQVHTXHQWO\VLJQLȑFDQWUHVRXUFHVZHUHQHHGHGWRUHPRYHWKHZHHGVDQGRQFHDJDLQHQVXUH good treatment performance. This situation was the result of a weak human resource (HR) strategy, lack of precise procedures for O&M, and a rigid administrative system. There were QRSHUPDQHQWHPSOR\HHVDWWKHWUHDWPHQWVLWHDQGGDLO\ZRUNHUVZHUHRȻWHQKLUHGZLWKRXW any training. This mode of recruitment does not encourage accountability which is necessary for careful maintenance, nor does it allow for continuous operational activities. Additionally, no skilled mechanical technician was hired to repair the pump. Once this information was FRPPXQLFDWHGWRWKHKHDGRȞȑFHWKHUHTXLUHGUHSDLUDQGPDLQWHQDQFHZRUNZDVFDUULHG RXWDQGWKH)673ZDVDJDLQDEOHWRRSHUDWHHȞȑFLHQWO\ 6WUDQGHHWDO

This example demonstrates the extent to which the priority level given to HR operating DQ)673FDQLQȠOXHQFHLWVSHUIRUPDQFHDQGWKHORQJWHUPYLDELOLW\,WLVWKHUHIRUHHVVHQWLDO to have an adequate budget in order to hire skilled and permanent employees at an FSTP. 7KH H[DPSOH DOVR KLJKOLJKWV WKDW WKH RSHUDWLRQ RI DQ )673 UHTXLUHV D ȠOH[LEOH LQWHUQDO management process. If the hierarchical procedure is overly time consuming and complex, repairs or improvements are not possible at short notice and may result in the deterioration of the FSTP (Strande et al., 2014).

8.6 Monitoring The maintenance of an FSTP involves a detailed understanding of the treatment processes and performance requirements. This understanding should not only be based on the theoretical information concerning the treatment mechanisms and the design of the WHFKQRORJ\EXWDOVRRQDPRQLWRULQJSURFHGXUHWKDWUHTXLUHVVSHFLȑFSODQQLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUH HJODERUDWRU\ HPSOR\HHVDQGȑQDQFH 6WUDQGHHWDO

The monitoring programme should be structured to provide the operations employees with adequate information to continuously optimize the plant performance and to ensure control RYHUWKHHȞȠOXHQWTXDOLW\0RQLWRULQJPD\LQFOXGHDUDQJHRIGLȞIHUHQWPHWKRGVVXFKDV • visual or sensory inputs: this includes visual observations of plant conditions, such as scum on a treatment lagoon and the colour of the sludge, or the odours emanating from a pump tank • analysis or measurement at source: this includes test strips or kits that can be utilized in WKHȑHOGIRUPHDVXULQJS+GLVVROYHGR[\JHQRUWHPSHUDWXUH • ODERUDWRU\WHVWLQJRIVDPSOHV HLWKHURQVLWHRURȞIVLWH

Monitoring is expensive and time consuming. A written monitoring plan is essential and will assist operators in collecting and organizing the data that is required, relevant and accurate. This plan is based on the following aspects: • why the information is required • what information will be obtained • KRZDQGZKHQWKHLQIRUPDWLRQRUVDPSOHVZLOOEHFROOHFWHGLQWKHȑHOG • who will collect them

8.6.1 Monitoring of Physico-Chemical and Microbiological Parameters $QHȞȑFLHQWODERUDWRU\DQDO\VLVSURJUDPPHSURYLGHVGDWDQHFHVVDU\IRUPDNLQJRSHUDWLRQDO GHFLVLRQVDQGUHSRUWLQJȑQGLQJV7KHPRUHDFFXUDWHDQGWLPHO\WKHLQIRUPDWLRQLVWKHEHWWHU the operational decisions that can be made. For example, the load and residence time in a waste stabilization pond or an anaerobic digester can be adjusted based on the results of the laboratory analysis. If the laboratory analyses reveal BOD and suspended solids values above the discharge standards, the residence time in the basins can be increased and the treatment performance improved.

The ‘Chain of Custody’ form is the mechanism by which the sampler at the FSTP communicates with the laboratory about the samples taken and analytical tests requested.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 132 MODULE VIII

It provides a written record of field sampling conditions, special instructions and a list of who was responsible for the samples at all times. Specific information includes: • sample identification • data related to the site conditions at the time of sampling • instructions to the laboratory as to which analytical tests to perform on each sample • the date, time and signature of each person with custody of the sample

The parameters that are most often analysed include: • the solid and suspended matter content: these analyses assist in the evaluation of the settling and solid/liquid separation performances (Figure 8.2) • the moisture content of the end products: this parameter provides an estimation of the drying performances • the BOD and COD in the liquid fraction: these parameters monitor the available oxygen which has a direct impact on aquatic life • the nutrient content (i.e. nitrogen and phosphorus) which influences the potential for resource recovery in agriculture as well as the risk of eutrophication of waterbodies • the pathogen content: this involves an evaluation of the presence and number of E. coli, faecal coliforms or helminthes eggs, which enables control of the risks related to waterborne diseases

Figure 8.2: Settleability tests performed on-site at the Manila Water South Septage treatment facility in the Philippines

(Photo : David M. Robbins, accessed from Strande et al., 2014) These monitoring parameters can be adjusted depending on the technologies used, local effluent discharge standards, and end use objectives. For example, assessment of the pathogen content may not be necessary if the end products are to be used as fuel in a cement kiln, but pH may be a very important factor for loading an anaerobic digester. Laboratory monitoring requires strict procedures and skilled employees, as well as significant funds to operate and maintain the analytical equipment and infrastructure, and to purchase the required consumables. A specific laboratory budget is therefore required. Some technologies involve more complex laboratory monitoring to ensure an efficient process (e.g. composting, activated sludge, lime treatment), while others only require laboratory analyses to evaluate the treatment performances (Strande et al., 2014).

Laboratories also require quality assurance and quality control (QA and QC) procedures. Where specific analyses are required, external laboratories can be contracted to undertake these procedures. Contract laboratories are an important source of information and support for FSTP operation. If external laboratories are to be used for the monitoring programme, a clear definition of sampling techniques, preservation methods for maintaining sample integrity, and procedures for sample analysis are required. FSTPs which make use of contract

133 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS laboratories may request copies of the QA and/or QC plan in order to review procedures and verify that they will meet the required needs (Strande et al., 2014).

8.6.2 Analysis Manual If laboratory analysis is required for a specific FSTP, an analysis manual shall be provided, encompassing the following information: • the sampling frequency, site and procedure (e.g. grab or composite), and the conditions under which these samples should be transported • the storage of the samples and chemicals (e.g. the type of container, chemicals required and temperature) • the analyses protocol for each parameter; this should be based on standardized methods if possible • QA/QC plan for sampling and any on-site analytical activities to ensure the accuracy of the analytical data • requirements for split or duplicate samples, or travel blanks • information on the calibration and maintenance of the laboratory and on-site equipment (e.g. probe for oxygen content and pH evaluation)

8.7 Record-keeping Effective O&M programmes for FSTPs require that accurate records be kept of all O&M activities, monitoring and any malfunctions. Operators frequently refer to records in order to identify previous fluctuations in the operation of the facility and operational problems that may recur periodically, review the effectiveness of mitigation measures that may have been used to correct past operating problems, and optimize the O&M procedures. These records should therefore be easily accessible to FSTP operators (Strande et al., 2014).

Some examples of record-keeping that are useful for FSTPs include: • information on the operation of the FSTP including daily operating records, the operators logbook, manifest reports (an example is provided in Figure 8.3), the treatment unit operating data sheet, and other records related to FS deliveries to the plant • disaster response and emergency recovery records • preventative and corrective maintenance records including the equipment maintenance logbooks and storeroom supply reports • compliance reports including field and analytical data, and correspondence from regulatory officials • employee records, such as employee schedules, time sheets and injury reports

Figure 8.3: Record-keeping to track the loads delivered, time, date and driver’s details

(Photo : David Robbins, accessed from Strande et al., 2014)

The type of records and the length of time for which they will be retained for a particular facility are determined by the size of the FSTP, regulatory requirements and technologies that are used. Since these records are tools that can be used by employees to assist in the day- to-day operations of the facility, a summary of the information should be used to optimize

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 134 MODULE VIII

the O&M plan, as well as in the planning of any expansion to an FSTP or in the design of new FSTPs. Explanations of some key record-keeping aspects are provided in the following sections (Strande et al., 2014).

8.7.1 Operator's Logbook The operators logbook is perhaps the most important record for an FSTP. This logbook provides a means of communication between operators of the plant and a written record of important events. Typical entries include the names of people on duty, weather conditions, any equipment malfunctions, operating problems, important phone messages, security information and actions taken in response to unusual circumstances. Case Study 2 provides an excerpt from a typical operator's logbook from the New Jersey US Administrative Code on Wastewater Management (Strande et al., 2014).

Case Study 2: Excerpt from the New Jersey US Administrative Code on Wastewater Management (Operator's Logbook)

The results of all mechanical equipment and related accessories inspections essential to the proper O&M of the system shall either be recorded in ink and maintained in bound LQVSHFWLRQ ORJERRNV RU EH PDLQWDLQHG LQ VHFXUHGDFFHVV FRPSXWHU GDWDEDVHV RU ȑOHV RU RWKHUHTXLYDOHQWPHWKRGRIUHFRUGNHHSLQJ7KHORJERRNVRUFRPSXWHUGDWDEDVHVRUȑOHRU equivalent shall also include: • time, date and subject of all system inspections • a report of all breaks, breakdowns, problems, bypasses, pump failures, occurrences, emergencies, complaints and/or intervening factors within the system that result in or necessitate deviation from the routine O&M procedures; and any situations that KDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOWRDȞIHFWSXEOLFKHDOWKVDIHW\ZHOIDUHWKHHQYLURQPHQWRUKDYHWKH potential to violate any permits, regulations or laws • a record of the remedial or follow up action and protocol taken to correct all of the above issues; and • the date and time of each entry, and by whom it was entered

8.7.2 Reception Monitoring Reports Reception monitoring reports record the amount of FS received at the plant each day, the discharge fees collected, and any issues reported by drivers or employees. Maintenance of accurate reception monitoring reports is critical as it minimizes fraud and assists in guaranteeing that the collected FS is delivered to the FSTP and not discharged elsewhere (Strande et al., 2014).

8.7.3 Treatment Unit Operation Sheets Treatment unit operation sheets are used to record the quantity of FS loaded into each treatment unit, the operational activities performed (e.g. load of FS or extraction of end products), the operational variable applied (e.g. mixing ratio of fresh to stabilized sludge, addition of lime), the quantity of end products and wastes extracted, and the consumables required. The number of employees required and the relevant skills needed to perform all the DFWLYLWLHVVKRXOGDOVREHUHFRUGHGWRJHWKHUZLWKDQ\GLȞȑFXOWLHVHQFRXQWHUHGDQGSRWHQWLDO solutions. These sheets therefore provide historical records of the maintenance carried out on each piece of equipment, the failures experienced and the solutions implemented, together with the budget and HR involved. Distinction should be made between preventative and reactive maintenance, and recommendations made for optimizing the planning process (Strande et al., 2014).

8.7.4 Interpretation and Communication of Technical Data The data collected in the laboratory and from on-site monitoring (i.e. logbooks, reports and operation sheets) are used in conjunction with one another in order to optimize treatment performances through the adjustment of O&M procedures. For example, the volumetric load of FS on planted drying beds can be adjusted through a comparison of the laboratory results and with observations on the pollution load and residence time. The optimal operating FRQGLWLRQVFDQWKHQEHLGHQWLȑHGDQGWKHWUHDWPHQWSHUIRUPDQFHVLPSURYHG 6WUDQGHHW al., 2014). All information collected through the monitoring programme and record-keeping should EHDQDO\VHGDQGUHSRUWVSUHSDUHGIRULQWHUQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ$QHȞIHFWLYHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ

135 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS system is crucial for the optimization of the administrative and operational management procedures, and also ensures that all the employees have comprehensive information on the operation of the FSTP. This communication system should therefore also define the frequency of delivering reports and the decision-making process to be followed (Strande et al., 2014).

To ensure that the monitoring data and reports are used, the correct conclusions are made, and follow-up action is taken, the laboratory analysis reports should be made available to the operating employees, and the operational reports to the management. In order that the significance of the laboratory results is understood, both the laboratory technician and the FSTP operating employees need to be suitably trained. If the laboratory analysis data provides results which lie outside of the expected range, the laboratory technician and operating employees need to meet to discuss the necessary adjustments to the operational activities. All data recorded in the O&M monitoring sheets and laboratory analysis reports is then captured in a summary report or a database which provides an overview of the FSTP performance and difficulties over the previous months and years. For example, it is important to know how often a pump fails over a period of one year in order to adjust the maintenance planning programme, and decide whether to install a better pre-screening process or an improved pumping unit. O&M activities are also affected by the seasons and need to be considered in the O&M plan in order to optimize the operational activities under these different conditions (Strande et al., 2014).

8.8 Plant Safety and Security FSTPs are critical infrastructures and must therefore be secured from unauthorized entry and vandalism by fencing off of facilities and engaging security employees. Managers of FSTPs can also create a culture of security by following these guidelines: • including security as a topic in employees’ meetings and discussions • appointing a Plant Security Officer or assigning the duties to a responsible employee • enforcing security policies and procedures consistently and equitably • providing security training for all employees

8.8.1 Health and Safety There are many health and safety hazards associated with the typical tasks required to operate and maintain FSTPs. Health and safety aspects should therefore form an integral part of the O&M plan but are quite often not given adequate attention.

Figure 8.4: Safety Instructions on a notice

(Photo : David M. Robbins, accessed from Strande et al., 2014)

The health and safety plan specifies the procedures, practices and equipment that should be used by employees in order to conduct activities in a safe manner. Health and safety plans are prepared specific to each FSTP but also contain aspects that are common to all FSTPs. Health and safety procedures are strictly enforced by management through the preparation of the safety plan, and also through posters and signs located in areas of risks (e.g. ponds and tanks, electrical device, confined spaces). An example of a safety notice is provided in Figure

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8.4. Based on the authors’ experience, the following topics should be included in the health and safety plans: • personal protective equipment (PPE) and safety measures for O&M activities • infection control and hygiene measures • emergency contact procedures • protection against falling and drowning hazards • FRQȑQHGVSDFHHQWU\SURWHFWLRQ • electrical safety and the use of the ‘lockout tag-out’ procedure

Further details and recommendations can be found on the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) website (http://www.osha.gov/) of the US government; the following sections explain each of these aspects in more detail. 8.8.2 Personal Protective Equipment PPE is equipment worn in order to minimize exposure to hazardous conditions, and includes: • hardhats to provide head protection from falling items • eye protection such as safety glasses, goggles or face shields to protect against chemical or dust exposure • gloves for hand protection from chemicals or abrasion, made from rubber latex or other PDWHULDOVGHSHQGHQWXSRQWKHVSHFLȑFKD]DUG • breathing safety devices such as respirators, dust masks or self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), should certain tasks require them • other protective clothing including foot protection and coveralls • RWKHUHTXLSPHQWUHTXLUHGIRUWDVNVSHFLȑFVDIHW\

:KLOH WKH KHDOWK DQG VDIHW\ SODQ VSHFLȑHV WKH 33( UHTXLUHG IRU HDFK WDVN LW LV WKH management's responsibility to ensure that appropriate PPE is provided, employees receive training in the proper use of PPE, and employees comply with the requirements regarding PPE usage (Strande et al., 2014).

Clear safety procedures are also required for all O&M and monitoring activities at the FSTP, including the receiving and movement of trucks, the discharge of FS, the O&M of equipment, the use, storage and disposal of chemicals, the sampling of various processes, and the processing and removal of end products. For example, safety requirements for the receiving RIWUXFNVDQG)6GLVFKDUJHLQFOXGHWKHXVHRIFKRFNLQJZKHHOVGXULQJRȞȠORDGLQJRUZKHQ trucks are parked, wearing personal protective clothing, and the prohibition of smoking (Strande et al., 2014).

8.8.3 Infection Control )6E\LWVQDWXUHLVLQIHFWLRXVPDWHULDO,WRȻWHQFDUULHVGLVHDVHFDXVLQJEDFWHULDYLUXVHVRU other pathogens. Workers should have proper immunizations (e.g. hepatitis A, tetanus) and follow hygienic procedures at all times when handling equipment that might have come into contact with faecal materials. Showers and areas to wash hands should be available for workers, as well as a locker room where workers can store clothes. Infection control procedures include: • use of appropriate PPE to protect skin from contact with faecal material • ZDVKLQJKDQGVSULRUWRHDWLQJRUDȻWHUFRPLQJLQFRQWDFWZLWKIDHFDOPDWHULDO • no eating or drinking in areas where FS or chemicals are stored or processed • reporting illness to plant supervisors immediately • prohibition against smoking, an activity that can transmit pathogens via the faecal-oral route of entry

8.8.4 Emergency Contact Procedures Emergency contact procedures provide current telephone numbers and contact information that can be used by employees in the case of an emergency. The contact list should be posted in a common area that is accessible to all employees and which has access to an operational

137 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS

WHOHSKRQH)RUDOO)673VEXWHVSHFLDOO\WKRVHLQUHPRWHDUHDVȑUVWDLGPDWHULDOVVXSSOLHV and equipment must be provided. A typical emergency procedure consists of the following actions: • contacting the appropriate emergency personnel • GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH VLWXDWLRQ HJ H[SORVLRQ ȑUH RU FKHPLFDO VSLOO HYDFXDWLQJ WKH employees • contacting the plant manager if not already on site • SURYLGLQJ VXSSRUW WR DȞIHFWHG SHUVRQQHO XQWLO HPHUJHQF\ SHUVRQQHO DUULYH DQG WDNH control of the emergency situation

Emergencies must be documented on an emergency report form that is then sent to management for investigation. All emergencies must also be fully detailed in the operator's logbook (Strande et al., 2014). 8.8.5 Protection Against Falling and Drowning Hazards FSTPs that utilize lagoons or waste stabilization ponds, or even large reactor tanks, need to have a drowning prevention programme in place that provides safety equipment, signage DQGWUDLQLQJ3ODQWVZLWKODUJHODJRRQFHOOVRȻWHQKDYHERDWVIURPZKLFK2 0WDVNVDUH DFFRPSOLVKHG ,Q WKHVH VLWXDWLRQV ZRUNHUV PXVW PDNH XVH RI ȠORDWDWLRQ GHYLFHV ZRUN LQ pairs and be trained in proper procedures to minimize the risk of drowning. At all FSTPs, measures should be taken to avoid slip hazards such as preventing the spilling of FS, as well as ensuring that manholes are closed in order to avoid falls (Strande et al., 2014).

&RQȍQHG6SDFHV $FRQȑQHGVSDFHLVGHȑQHGDVDQ\SODFHLQDQ)673WKDWLVHQFORVHGDQGKDVOLPLWHGDFFHVV such as tanks and dry wells. They are potentially hazardous as the breathable atmosphere may become compromised, either by a depletion of oxygen or the presence of chemical JDVVHVVXFKDVFKORULQHRUK\GURJHQVXOSKLGH,QRUGHUWRSUHYHQWFRQȑQHGVSDFHDFFLGHQWVD FRQȑQHGVSDFHHQWU\SHUPLWǖSURJUDPPHLVXWLOL]HGLQ)673V7KHȑUVWVWHSLQWKLVSURJUDPPH LVIRUVHQLRUPDQDJHPHQWWRLGHQWLI\DOOFRQȑQHGVSDFHVLQWKHSODQW:KHQPDLQWHQDQFHLV UHTXLUHGLQVLGHWKHVHDUHDVFHUWDLQSURFHGXUHVFDQEHGHȑQHGLQRUGHUWRSURWHFWWKHZRUNHU (Strande et al., 2014). These typically include the following: • $FRQȑQHGVSDFHHQWU\SHUPLWLVSUHSDUHGE\WKHZRUNHUDQGVLJQHGE\WKHVXSHUYLVRU • Prior to entry, the atmosphere is tested with an oxygen meter or, in the case of manholes, with a hydrogen sulphide meter. • 7KHZRUNLVFRQGXFWHGXVLQJWKHEXGG\V\VWHPZLWKRQHSHUVRQHQWHULQJWKHFRQȑQHG space secured with a harness attached to a safety rope, and one person located outside RIWKHFRQȑQHGVSDFHUHDG\WRSURYLGHDVVLVWDQFHLIQHHGHG • When the work is completed, the permit is returned to the supervisor for signature indicating the completion of the task.

8.8.7 Electrical Safety )673VZLWKHOHFWULFDOHTXLSPHQWPXVWHQDFWVSHFLȑFSURFHGXUHVWRNHHSZRUNHUVVDIHZKHQ performing O&M activities on powered devices. An example of such a safety procedure is the lockout tag-out procedure which ensures that the breaker to the power source for the HTXLSPHQWWKDWLVWREHUHSDLUHGLVWXUQHGRȞIDQGORFNHGLQWKHRȞISRVLWLRQ$WDJZKLFK VSHFLȑHVWKHZRUNWREHFDUULHGRXWWKHSHUVRQGRLQJWKHZRUNDQGWKHGDWHDQGWLPHWKH work will be conducted, is attached to the locked-out breaker. This tag must be signed by the SODQWRUVKLȻWVXSHUYLVRUDQGWKHHOHFWULFLDQGRLQJWKHZRUN:KHQWKHWDVNLVFRPSOHWHGWKH tag is removed by the supervisor and electrician, and the lock removed. Only then can the equipment be powered up (Strande et al.,2014).

8.9 Administrative Management (ȞIHFWLYHPDQDJHPHQWRIDQ)673UHTXLUHVDZHOOGHȑQHGPDQDJHPHQWVWUDWHJ\VSHFLȑFWR each FSTP. If aspects such as employees’ coordination, supervision and capacity strengthening are not incorporated in the management strategy, it can result in reduced treatment performances. This can be due to poor operational skills of the employees, misunderstanding of the technical priorities by the administrative employees, poor communication or poor ȑQDQFLDOPDQDJHPHQW VHH&DVH6WXG\ 7KHSURFHGXUHVIRUWKH2 0DQGPRQLWRULQJRI WKHSODQWDVZHOODVWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQUHTXLUHPHQWVVKRXOGEHVWUDWHJLFDOO\GHȑQHGE\

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 138 MODULE VIII

WKHGHFLVLRQPDNHUVDQGWLHXSZLWKWKHȑQDQFLDODQG+5GHSDUWPHQWVRIWKHFRPSDQ\ (Strande, et al., 2014). These aspects are described in more detail in the following sections.

8.9.1 Financial Procedures ,W LV UHFRPPHQGHG WKDW ȑQDQFLDO SURFHGXUHV DUH GHȑQHG EDVHG RQ RSHUDWLRQDO QHHGV Therefore, the operating costs should be monitored and the budget adjusted based on the actual expenses. Special provision and administrative mechanisms should be in place in case of breakdown of equipment that is crucial for the operation of the FSTP as well as for the replacement of old equipment. The procedures for the acquisition of tools, other stock items and safety equipment must be rapid, and special funds should be available for small repair work in order to ensure continuous operation (e.g. repairs to a screening grid or a valve). For example, if a valve or a pump is broken, the funds need to be available immediately for the UHSDLUQRWDȻWHUWKUHHRUVL[PRQWKVRIWKHEXGJHWDSSURYDOSURFHVV 6WUDQGHHWDO

8.9.2 Human Resource Management HR management refers to the way in which employees are managed and trained, including WKH GHȑQLWLRQ RI MRE GHVFULSWLRQV FKDLQ RI DXWKRULW\ DQG SROLFLHV DQG SURFHGXUHV IRU workplace activities. While HR management can be considered a key aspect for the successful RSHUDWLRQRIDQ\WUHDWPHQWSODQWYHU\RȻWHQQRȑQDQFLDOPHFKDQLVPVDUHGHȑQHGLQRUGHUWR HQVXUHWKDWVXȞȑFLHQWDQGDSSURSULDWH+5LVDYDLODEOHWRRSHUDWHWKH)673+5UHTXLUHPHQWV FDQEHGHȑQHGEDVHGRQWKHVSHFLȑFDWLRQVRIWKHGHVLJQFRQVXOWDQWVDQGWKHRSHUDWLRQDO requirements observed during the start-up period. In some cases, where O&M activities may LQYROYHYHU\VSHFLȑFVNLOOVRUUHVRXUFHV HJPHFKDQLFDOVNLOOVWRUHSDLUFHQWULIXJHRUYDFXXP WUXFNV ZKLFKDUHQRWDYDLODEOHLQKRXVHH[WHUQDOVHUYLFHVFDQEHKLUHG6SHFLȑFSURYLVLRQV are then needed to ensure that the required level of service is provided (see Case Study 3). In WKLVFDVHWKHVHUYLFHDQGIUHTXHQF\PXVWEHZHOOGHȑQHGWRDOORZFRQWLQXRXVRSHUDWLRQRI the FSTP (Strande et al., 2014).

,UUHVSHFWLYHRIWKHVL]HRIWKH)673HPSOR\HHVVKRXOGKDYHGHȑQHGUROHVDQGUHVSRQVLELOLWLHV LQRUGHUWRHQVXUHFRPSOHWHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIVSHFLȑFMREUHTXLUHPHQWV+5DVSHFWVRI)673V therefore include: • description of the lines of communication indicating who the employee reports to • outline of the level of authority required for making operational decisions • appropriate and ongoing training to ensure that employees can carry out their responsibilities

Case Study 3: Outsourcing of Maintenance Services for Treatment Plants The National Operator for Water and Sanitation (ONEP) in Morocco has the responsibility of managing the operation of several WWTPs countrywide. Due to the wide territory FRYHUHG 21(3 FDQQRW DȞIRUG WKH HTXLSPHQW DQG HPSOR\HHV IRU VSHFLȑF PDLQWHQDQFH activities for all the treatment plants (e.g. mechanical repair of pumps). Private companies DUHWKHUHIRUHKLUHGRQDȑYH\HDUFRQWUDFWEDVLVWRSURYLGHPDLQWHQDQFHRIWKHWUHDWPHQW HTXLSPHQW(DFKFRPSDQ\FRYHUVRQHUHJLRQDQGDQVZHUVWRTXDOLW\VWDQGDUGVGHȑQHGE\ ONEP; the employees are trained at the ONEP training centre. This type of organizational structure results in optimization of the equipment and operational costs as well as ensuring a maintenance plan for the treatment plants. Such dependency on external services must be well managed. Long-term collaboration should be encouraged and quality standards well GHȑQHG,IWKLVH[WHUQDOVHUYLFHLQFOXGHVWKHPDLQWHQDQFHRINH\HTXLSPHQWDQGFDQQRWEH planned precisely, the service must be available at short notice at any treatment site (Strande et al., 2014).

6WDȚȍQJ5ROHVDQG5HVSRQVLELOLWLHV )673VFDQKDYHDEURDGUDQJHRIVWDȞȑQJUHTXLUHPHQWVGHSHQGLQJRQWKHVL]HRIWKHSODQW WUHDWPHQWYROXPHDQGUHTXLUHGOHYHORIVNLOO$QRUJDQL]DWLRQDOFKDUWWKDWFOHDUO\VSHFLȑHV the roles and responsibilities of each employee as well as the lines of communications is DXVHIXOPDQDJHPHQWDQGWUDLQLQJWRROZKLFKVKRXOGEHGHȑQHGGXULQJWKHGHVLJQDQG planning phase. Employees are recruited through HR management systems as described DERYHFRPSOHWHZLWKMREGHVFULSWLRQVIRUHDFKHPSOR\HHFODVVLȑFDWLRQ 6WUDQGHHWDO 6PDOOHU)673VPD\FRPELQHYDULRXVMREWLWOHVVXFKDVSODQWVXSHULQWHQGHQWVDIHW\RȞȑFHU and maintenance technician into one job description. The following sections outline the key

139 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS employees’ requirements and the respective responsibilities which are crucial for the long- term operation of FSTPs (Strande et al., 2014).

8.9.3.1 Plant superintendent The FSTP superintendent forms part of the management team and is responsible for the day- WRGD\PDQDJHPHQWRIWKH)6737KHVXSHULQWHQGHQWGHȑQHVWKHJRDOVREMHFWLYHVSROLFLHV and priorities concerning the O&M, and is responsible for: • all paperwork and correspondence, grounds and equipment maintenance, and supervision of personnel • participating in the development and implementation of goals, objectives, policies and priorities • FRRUGLQDWLQJZLWKVWDȞIVDQGPDQDJLQJRSHUDWLRQDODFWLYLWLHVLQFOXGLQJUHVSRQVLELOLWLHV for critical decisions regarding operational changes, process control, maintenance priorities, scheduling and compliance • identifying opportunities for improving O&M, monitoring, and safety methods and procedures • directing, coordinating and reviewing the work plan for O&M functions • directing the testing of various treatment phases, and interpreting tests to determine necessary changes in treatment parameters • directing the adjustment and repair of equipment such as pumps, chlorinators, metering devices, electrical control panels and treated or digested sludge dewatering • serving as a team member on construction project teams with construction management companies and contractors • selecting, training, motivating and evaluating assigned personnel • overseeing safety programmes for assigned sections and work groups, and assisting with action planning for safety programmes • participating in the development and administration of the assigned programme budget

8.9.3.2 Plant engineer The FSTP engineer serves as the chief technical employee member. Typical roles and responsibilities include: • HQVXULQJWKHRYHUDOOHȞȑFLHQF\RIWKHSODQWDQGRSWLPL]DWLRQRIWKHWUHDWPHQWSURFHVV • controlling operating expenses • organizing and coordinating the work carried out by subordinate teams (e.g. sludge removal from drying beds) • recommending technical solutions to problems that may be encountered • contributing to the monitoring and reporting on the performance of equipment and processes • managing technical subcontractors and suppliers

8.9.3.3 Plant operator The FSTP operator is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day technical aspects of plant operations in order to ensure that equipment is operating properly and in compliance with all requirements (Strande et al., 2014). Typical duties include: • performing equipment inspections, monitoring operations and collecting samples in order to verify system performance in collaboration with laboratory employees • operating trucks, pumps, blowers, generators, compressors and other machinery/ equipment • testing, calibrating, repairing, and operating control and instrumentation systems under general supervision • keeping records of operational activities, degradations and failures

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 140 MODULE VIII

• SUHSDULQJ ȑHOG DQG RȞȑFH UHSRUWV VXPPDUL]LQJ WKH UHFRUGV DQG SURYLGLQJ recommendations for optimizing the system • DVVLVWLQJLQVLWHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQVȑHOGVXUYH\VDQGFOHDQXSVDVUHTXLUHG

8.9.3.4 Plant maintenance technician The FSTP maintenance technician performs routine and emergency maintenance and UHSDLUVRQSODQWIDFLOLWLHVSXPSVHQJLQHVPRWRUVȑOWHUVEDUVFUHHQVYDOYHVSLSHVDQGRWKHU equipment at the FSTP (Strande et al., 2014). Typical responsibilities include: • checking, adjusting and maintaining mechanical equipment including greasing of moving parts, changing oil and performing other routine maintenance activities • maintaining buildings, roads and grounds • performing janitorial work • replacing worn parts and performing routine and emergency service and repairs LQFOXGLQJUHSODFLQJPRWRUVEHDULQJVȠODQJHVVHDOVDQGRWKHUHTXLSPHQWFRPSRQHQWV • inspecting mechanical and hydraulic equipment being installed under contracts to ensure compliance with contract requirements • monitoring facilities and equipment in order to identify and repair leaks or other malfunctions • keeping records through the logging of maintenance activities and repairs, and preparing reports summarizing the main activities, malfunctions and recommendations

8.10 Coordination Communication should be encouraged between the O&M and monitoring employees of GLȞIHUHQW)673VLQWKHVDPHMXULVGLFWLRQDVZHOODVZLWKWKHGHFLVLRQPDNHUV$QHȞIHFWLYH vertical communication ensures that the administrative employees understand the constraints and needs of the O&M employees, and results in rapid acquisition of parts or repairs in order to ensure continuous operation of the FSTP. Horizontal communication EHWZHHQ WKH GLȞIHUHQW )673V DOORZV WKH H[FKDQJH RI H[SHULHQFHV DQG WKHUHIRUH DVVLVWV LQ the optimization of the procedures. Frequent (weekly or monthly) meetings should be held in order to facilitate discussions between the operating, monitoring and administrative HPSOR\HHVRQWKHGLȞȑFXOWLHVH[SHULHQFHGDQGSRVVLEOHVROXWLRQV,IWKHRSHUDWLQJFRPSDQ\ is in charge of several FSTPs, one person can be designated to ensure quality control and harmonization of the O&M procedures over all the facilities. This would result in the adjustment of procedures and guidelines based on experiences, the standardization of these for all similar FSTPs, and the uniform implementation of safety rules and O&M procedures (Strande et al., 2014).

8.10.1 Start-up Period For newly built FSTPs, a transition period is necessary at the beginning of operations in RUGHU WR HYDOXDWH WKH SUHOLPLQDU\ SURFHGXUHV 7KLV DOORZV GHȑQLWLRQ RI WKH IUHTXHQF\ safety measures and communication lines for the operation, maintenance and monitoring activities. During this start-up period, there should be frequent communication between WKH RSHUDWLQJ DQG DGPLQLVWUDWLYH HPSOR\HHV LQ RUGHU WR GLVFXVV DQ\ SUREOHPV 7KH ȑQDO procedures and documents (i.e. operation manual, information sheets, monitoring sheets, logbooks, etc.) will be prepared based on the information collected during this start-up period.

)RUVRPHWUHDWPHQWWHFKQRORJLHVWKHVWDUWXSSHULRGPD\LQYROYHVSHFLȑFSURFHGXUHV)RU example, biogas digesters need to be started up slowly to allow for the development of the appropriate anaerobic microorganism community, and planted drying beds need to be progressively loaded to allow the acclimatization of plants. Even though the infrastructure and equipment may be operational within a relatively short time period (e.g. unplanted drying beds, settling-thickening tanks), the following operational aspects should be assessed and optimized during the start-up period: • quantities of FS discharged in the FSTP • truck circulation in and around the FSTP • removal frequency and quantities of screened waste

141 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING OF FAECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS

• loading of the treatment unit(s) • organization of the activities required for the treatment process (e.g. turning the heaps in co-composting plants or in solar sludge driers) • removal frequency, and quantity of the end products from the treatment unit(s) • time and conditions required for efficient stabilization and pathogen removal depending on the end use goals • frequency and type of routine maintenance activities • frequency and interpretation of the monitoring analysis and observations

The time required for the start-up period may Figure 8.5: Starting-up period of faecal sludge lagoon system, San Fernando City, Philippines differ depending on the technology used. For example, the acclimatization of macrophytes on planted drying beds or lagoons (Figure 8.5) may require between three and six months to reach the nominal treatment efficiency. In this case, lagoon basins were seeded with activated sludge from a nearby WWTP. For some technologies, it is also important to plan the start-up period given the seasonal climatic variations, as these influence the operational activities and performance. For example, the time needed for FS to dry at the surface of unplanted drying beds may differ greatly between dry and rainy seasons in arid climates. The quantities of FS produced may also vary based on the rainfall patterns. Therefore, an assessment of the ideal loads and retention times during dry and rainy seasons, or warm and cold seasons, is useful, and it is recommended that the start-up period covers at least two seasons (Strande et al., 2014). (Photo : David M. Robbins, accessed from Strande et al., 2014) To ensure a successful start-up period, all the employees should be trained to ensure that they understand all the necessary procedures before the commissioning of the FSTP. Therefore, site visits to similar treatment plants should be organized and basic information on the treatment mechanisms provided. During the start-up period, the operator may need technical and managerial assistance from experts in the field (Strande et al., 2014).

The operating hours of the FSTP and the procedures for FS discharge (e.g. FS characteristics and discharge fees) should be monitored over several months, and discussed with the collection and transport stakeholders. Similarly, the treatment efficiency of the plant as well as the quantity and quality of end products need to be assessed, and the end use or disposal procedures defined and agreed upon with the relevant stakeholders. At the end of the start- up period, every administrative, operational, maintenance, monitoring and communication procedure should be defined and well understood by all the employees. Final versions of tools such the O&M plans and manuals, laboratory reports, monitoring sheets, and health and safety plans should be developed, validated and enforced (Strande et al., 2014).

8.11 Summary FSTPs require ongoing and appropriate O&M activities in order to ensure long-term functionality. O&M activities are at the interface of the technical, administrative and institutional frameworks that enable sustained FSTP function. ‘Operations’ refers to all the activities that are required to ensure that an FSTP delivers treatment services as designed, and ‘maintenance’ refers to all the activities that ensure long-term operation of equipment and infrastructure. This module provided a detailed description of the operations and maintenance of FSTPs.

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MODULE IX: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives

ʝ 7RXQGHUVWDQGKRZWKHGLȞIHUHQWVWDNHKROGHUVLQDVHUYLFHFKDLQUHODWHWRHDFKRWKHUIURPDȑQDQFLQJSRLQWRIYLHZ ʝ 7RNQRZZKLFKW\SHVRIȑQDQFLDOWUDQVIHUVSOD\DUROHLQIDHFDOVOXGJHPDQDJHPHQW ʝ 7REHDEOHWRGHVFULEHGLȞIHUHQWȑQDQFLDOȠORZPRGHOVIRUIDHFDOVOXGJHPDQDJHPHQW ʝ To understand the complexities involved in designing, implementing, monitoring and optimizing an entire faecal sludge PDQDJHPHQWV\VWHPWKDWLQFOXGHVDOOVWDNHKROGHUDQGȑQDQFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQV 7.4 Decision Matrix 111 7.5 End Use of Treatment Product 111 7.6 Site Selection for Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant 119 7.7 Summary 124

MODULE IX: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Financial Models 144 9.3 Summary 154

REFERENCES 173

9.1 Introduction Census 2011 reports that almost 38% of urban Indian households have septic tanks. While there is an emerging recognition of faecal sludge management (FSM) in India, FSM systems DUHQRW\HWZLGHO\LPSOHPHQWHG7KHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQLVȑQDQFLDOO\DQGSROLWLFDOO\FRPSOH[ 7KLVLVQRWRQO\EHFDXVHRIWKHQXPEHURIVWDNHKROGHUVZKRKDYHDȑQDQFLDOLQWHUHVWLQWKH system, but also due to the diversity of the interests of each stakeholder (Strande et al., 2014). Unlike other types of infrastructure, a faecal sludge (FS) system involves separate stakeholders responsible individually for design and construction, collection and conveyance, treatment, reuse and disposal, leading to intricacy in its management. Also, payments must be made each time responsibility is transferred from one stakeholder to another. Only a special set RISROLWLFDODQGȑQDQFLDOFRQGLWLRQVFDQIRVWHUDQHQYLURQPHQWWKDWDOORZVHDFKHVVHQWLDO stakeholder to perform their task and permit a complete treatment chain to take form (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2 Financial Models 7KH IXQGDPHQWDOV RI DQ\ EXVLQHVV PRGHO LQFOXGH SURȑW ULVN DQG ȑQDQFH LQ WHUPV RI investment with a programming objective of sustainability and scalability (Pedi et al., xxxx). 7KHȑQDQFLDOPRGHOIRU)60GHSHQGVRQUHVRXUFHUHFRYHU\IURPWKHWUHDWPHQWRI)67KUHH major end products – organic matter (bio-gas, biofuel, liquid fuel, etc.), nutrients (fertilizers, OLYHVWRFNIRGGHUHWF DQGZDWHUIRULUULJDWLRQDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOȠORZǓDUHGHULYHGRUXVHG as end products (Rao et al., 2016). An FSM business model consists of all or a few of the components from Figure 9.1. Any business model is based on a value proposition which implies the objective of the business model; based on that, the other components are decided for the business model. For example, if the value proposition of a model is providing

Figure 9.1: Generic FSM business model (Rao et al., 2016)

Key partners Key activities Value propositions Customer relationships Customer segments

* Municipal corporation & local * Toilet provision * VP1: Access to toilet and increased * Direct sale of toilet * Community authorities revenue from reuse * Waste collection * One-on-one service provision * Businesses * Technology suppliers * VP2: Timely emptying and * FS collection transportation of FS * Contract from municipality * Households * Financial institutions * FS treatment * VP3: FS treatment for healthy and * Direct or through contracts * Businesses * Community-based organizations * Organic waste and FS collection safe environment * Direct compost sales * Municipality * R&D institutions (e.g., local * Compost production * VP4: High-quality compost (soil * Distributors * Farmers university) ameliorant) * Compost – Sales & marketing * Direct energy sale * Municipal park department * VP5: Reliable and renewable energy * Biogas production service * Power purchase agreement * Agriculture department * Biogas sale * Agroforestry * Customer relationship management * Fertilizer industry * Households Key resources Channels * Community

* Appropriate technology and * Direct * Small businesses equipment * Municipality * Public sector (e.g., municipality, * Labor ministry, etc.) * Word-of-mouth * Finance * Institutions * Brochures and other media * License and contracts for collecting communications waste * Distributors and extension agents

Cost structure Revenue streams

* Fixed investment cost (construction, trucks, equipment, etc.) * Sale of toilet and reuse products * FS disposal fees, sanitation tax and O&M budget support * Operation and maintenance cost (labor, raw material input, utilities, sales and marketing, license, etc.) * Emptying fees and, in some instances, FS delivery fees * Sale of compost * Interest payments * Sale of energy

Social and environmental costs

* Potential health risk for those in direct contact with FS (can be mitigated with the use of protective * Reduced pollution of water bodies and soils * Improved soil and agricultural productivity equipment) * Reduced human exposure to untreated fecal * Improved energy security * Improper FS treatment and disposal causing environmental and health risks for citizens sludge * Job creation

Note: The components in beige colour are applicable to all the value propositions (VPs) and research DQGGHYHORSPHQW 5 ' ZKLOHIRUWKHVSHFLȑFYDOXHSURSRVLWLRQWKHFRPSRQHQWVDUHPDUNHGLQWKH same colour as the VPs

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 144 MODULE IX

communities access to toilets, the key activities would be providing toilet and waste collection, customer relationship would consist of direct sale of toilets to the households and communities, and the revenue would be generated through the sale of toilets. Ideally, a business model would consist of components from each of the segments mentioned in Figure 47; however, the model could be customized depending on the local conditions for RSWLPXP XWLOL]DWLRQ RI UHVRXUFHV DQG EHQHȑWV RI VWDNHKROGHUV LQYROYHG LQ WKH EXVLQHVV Fundamentally, there are no ideal FSM business models. Various business models and their main components, such as key partners/stakeholders with their vested interests, resources IRUHȞIHFWLYHUXQQLQJRIWKHEXVLQHVVDQGRWKHUVDUHGLVFXVVHGVXEVHTXHQWO\LQWKHPRGXOH

9.2.1 Stakeholders Involved in Financial Transfers Stakeholders are those people, institutions or enterprises that send or receive payments in exchange for shouldering of responsibility for one or more processes in the FS treatment chain (Strande et al., 2014). As discussed above, every stakeholder in an FS system is involved LQVRPHNLQGRIȑQDQFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQ7KHVWDNHKROGHUVDQGWKHLUȑQDQFLDOUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDUH summarized below.

9.2.1.1 Government authorities 7KH JRYHUQPHQW DXWKRULWLHV DW GLȞIHUHQW OHYHOV DUH UHVSRQVLEOH IRU IRUPXODWLQJ DQG implementing rules and regulations to which all stakeholders must adhere. They may engage in budget allocations to utilities and outsource work to private enterprises, if needed. ,QFDVHRIDYDLODELOLW\RIVXȞȑFLHQWLQWHUQDOUHVRXUFHVWKH\PD\DOVRSODQDQGPDQDJHWKHLU own FS programmes. The authorities are also responsible for designing a revenue-generating system through tax collection in order to cover, or partly cover, their budgets. Authorities may also be recipients of foreign aid, which may be allocated to the construction, operation or maintenance of public infrastructure (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.1.2 Public utilities Public utilities (PUs) are charged with the responsibility of operating and maintain public infrastructure. Their function is supplementary to that of the government authorities, and DVVXFKWKH\DUHIXQGHGE\JRYHUQPHQWEXGJHWV7KHSURȑWDELOLW\RID38GHSHQGVRQKRZ it is designed to function, including the user charges levied. Public utilities provide a useful service, which may not otherwise exist in a free market (e.g. sludge treatment), but have typically operated as monopolies. Increasingly, however, private enterprises have recognized WKHȑQDQFLDOSRWHQWLDORIRSHUDWLQJZLWKLQWKH38PDUNHWSODFHDQGDVDUHVXOW38VDUHQR longer free from competition (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.1.3 Private Enterprises 3ULYDWHHQWHUSULVHVRȞIHUJRRGVRUVHUYLFHVLQH[FKDQJHIRUSD\PHQWRSHUDWLQJRQDIRUSURȑW basis. They fall under the purview of state laws and may accept contracts to work for the state. However, they are not wholly or in part associated with the government at any level. They do not receive guaranteed government funding (although they may apply for subsidies, loans, etc.) (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.1.4 End use industries Until recently, there was not much focus on this part of the FS process chain. The end use industries constitute a new and growing sector. The end use(s) of FS should be considered when designing the entire FSM service chain to ensure the appropriate design of treatment WHFKQRORJLHVVRWKDWWKHEHVWTXDOLW\HQGSURGXFWFDQEHJHQHUDWHGIRULWVVSHFLȑFȑQDOXVH 6WUDQGHHWDO 7KHȑQDOXVHPD\LQFOXGHPDNLQJXVHRIWKHLQKHUHQWQXWULHQWVHQHUJ\ potential and bulking properties of treated FS.

Given the uses, the agricultural industry is likely to emerge as an important end use VWDNHKROGHU7KHHQGXVHSURGXFWRȞIHUVDORZFRVWVXVWDLQDEOHQXWULHQWVRXUFHSUHVXPDEO\ locally available, that the agricultural industry is in dire need of. FS is also a promising VXVWDLQDEOHHQHUJ\VRXUFH,QWKHIXWXUHWKHȑQDQFLDOEHQHȑWVDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOQHFHVVLW\ RIHQGXVHPD\EHFRPHGULYHUVIRULPSURYHG)60DQGLQȠOXHQFHWKHGHVLJQRI)6V\VWHPV The demand for sludge, as well as the legal framework for its application, will have an increasingly powerful impact on how FS is managed through the entire process chain (Strande et al., 2014).

145 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

1RQ*RYHUQPHQWDO2UJDQL]DWLRQV 1*2V 7KH\DUHHQWHUSULVHVWKDWRSHUDWHRQDQRWIRUSURȑWEDVLVDQGDUHQRWIXQGHGRUVXSSRUWHG GLUHFWO\E\WKHJRYHUQPHQWDOWKRXJKWKH\DUHRȻWHQVXEFRQWUDFWHGE\WKHJRYHUQPHQWIRU VSHFLȑFWDVNV7KH\DFWDVDFRQQHFWLQJOLQNEHWZHHQWKHJRYHUQPHQWDQGWKHFRPPXQLW\DW the grassroots level.

9.2.1.6 Household-level Toilet Users Household-level toilet users have a system that requires periodic emptying, including of VHSWLFWDQNVSLWODWULQHVDQDHURELFEDȞȠOHGUHDFWRUV $%5V IRUFOXVWHUVRIKRXVHV RURWKHU similar water-based technologies (Strande et al., 2014). This category of stakeholders is responsible for maintaining these on-site facilities within their premises. They are in charge of ensuring the timely and periodic removal of FS from the property they own or rent. The household-level toilet users can inform the relevant stakeholder to facilitate emptying. This could be the PUs providing the service or a private enterprises operating for them.

9.2.2 Financial Transfers For all services (emptying, collection and conveyance, treatment, etc.) under the FSM system, payments are to be made. The size of payments varies across activities. The fee may be small for collection while a much bigger investment needs to be made for construction. $GGLWLRQDOO\WKHVHFRVWVIRUGLȞIHUHQWVHUYLFHVRIWKH)6V\VWHPRFFXUDWGLȞIHUHQWIUHTXHQFLHV (e.g. one-time construction costs, periodic collection cost, annual taxes, etc.). To achieve a ȑQDQFLDOO\VXVWDLQDEOHEXVLQHVVPRGHODSUXGHQWVHOHFWLRQRIWKHWUDQVIHUW\SHVPXVWEH LPSOHPHQWHG$EULHIRYHUYLHZRIWKHPRVWFRPPRQȑQDQFLDOWUDQVIHUVDSSOLFDEOHWR)60 is presented below.

9.2.2.1 Budget support Cash transfers occur between stakeholders to partly or fully cover the operating budget. Typically, a government authority would provide budget support for a PU, but foreign governments or agencies (e.g. USAID, Asian Development Bank and other donor agencies) DOVR SURYLGH EXGJHW VXSSRUW WR GLȞIHUHQW PLQLVWULHV DQGRU VHFWRUV 7KH GXUDWLRQ RI WKH budget support is usually long term and non-conditional. In other words, it is not related to DVSHFLȑFWDVNRURXWSXWEXWLVPDGHWRVXSSRUWGDLO\EXGJHWDU\UHTXLUHPHQWV&RQGLWLRQDO cash transfers have become increasingly promising since they reward outcomes and encourage transparency.

7DEOH'LVFKDUJHIHHVDQGUDWHVDWRȚȍFLDOGLVFKDUJHVLWHVLQ 6WUDQGHHWDO Cost Per Total Discharges Per Destination City Discharge Discharges Year Type (in Euro) Cotonou, Benin 8.6 75% 26,667 Treatment Kampala, 5.6 42% 7,000 Treatment Uganda Dar Es Salaam, 3.1 7% 100,000 Treatment Tanzania Kumasi, Ghana 2.0 95% - Treatment Dakar, Senegal 1.2 74% 67,525 Discharge only

9.2.2.2 Capital Investment Costs These are costs that are paid once, at the beginning of the project, to cover all materials, labour and associated expenses needed to build the facilities and associated infrastructure. Examples of capital investments include the purchase of land for the construction of FS drying beds, the design and building of a treatment plant, the purchase of a vacuum truck for collection and transport, and the installation of a septic tank at the household level. Capital investments can be paid by any of the stakeholders listed in the previous section.

9.2.2.3 Discharge Fee A discharge fee is charged for the service of discharging FS at some type of facility. The idea is that the facility receiving the discharge will take the responsibility of safely processing and/or transferring the FS to another responsible stakeholder. The stakeholder should have the legal clearances and technical ability to do so. Any stakeholder who owns such a facility could charge a discharge fee and allow FS to be safely dumped. This leads to the necessity of

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 146 MODULE IX

structuring of such discharge fees so as not to create an incentive for individuals to charge XQUHJXODWHGDQGXQDȞIRUGDEOHIHHV

It has been argued, however, that discharge fees do not correlate with illegal discharge, i.e. higher discharge fees do not result in reduced use of authorized facilities as shown in Table 9.1.

7KHPRVWHTXLWDEOHDQGȑQDQFLDOO\EHQHȑFLDOZD\WRIRUPXODWHDGLVFKDUJHIHHLVQRWFOHDU ,WPD\EHFKDUJHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHYROXPHRIVOXGJHGLVFKDUJHG ZKLFKPD\EHGLȞȑFXOWWR measure and does not take into account the density of the sludge), or per discharge event UHJDUGOHVVRIWKHYROXPH DOWKRXJKWKHHQWLUHYROXPHRIWKHWUXFNPD\EHGLȞȑFXOWWRHPSW\ Both models have consequences for the collection and treatment (C&T) business and the )673LQWHUPVRIKRZWKH\RSWLPL]HWKHLUȑQDQFHV3D\PHQWVEDVHGRQGLVFKDUJHHYHQWVIRU example, may encourage C&T enterprises to maximize the volume of FS in each truck more HȞȑFLHQWO\UHVXOWLQJLQWKH)673EHLQJIDFHGZLWKPRUHLQIUHTXHQWKLJKO\ORDGHGGLVFKDUJH events (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.2.4 Discharge incentive A discharge incentive is the opposite of a discharge fee. This incentive is designed to reward the C&T business in order to encourage them to discharge FS in designated locations. FSTP may require addition revenue, other than collecting fees, to meet their costs. One way to do that could be a well-designed sanitation tax. A discharge incentive of 5 USD per load of sludge was proposed for Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, to prevent illegal discharge, although the long-term results of this programme have not been published. Incentives are essentially payments made to people as rewards for performing tasks that they may not otherwise do but that are socially desirable. Incentives are controversial because, as some argue, people should not be paid for doing what is ‘right’, but to date programmes that use more of the ǕFDUURWǖWKDQWKHǕVWLFNǖDSSURDFKKDYHEHHQKLJKO\HȞIHFWLYHDWDFKLHYLQJWKHLUREMHFWLYHVDQG achieving higher returns on public investment, than comparable public announcements, social pressure or education campaigns (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.2.5 Discharge license Discharge licenses are used to regulate C&T enterprises. Such licenses help in controlling the number and quality of enterprises that are allowed to discharge FS at the FSTP. The license should be given out on the basis of the proven quality of service that the stakeholder is able WRSURYLGH,QSUDFWLFHKRZHYHUJLYLQJRXWRIOLFHQVHVLVRȻWHQDZD\IRUWKHOLFHQVHLVVXHUWR generate revenue, and few license applicants are therefore denied. Since 1998, operators in Nairobi have been paying between 260 and 780 USD (for trucks less than 3 m3 and greater than 7 m3, respectively) for annual licenses. The license allows C&T enterprises to discharge FS into the city's sewerage network, thereby reducing their travel time and indiscriminate discharge (Strande et al., 2014). However, the licensing system may prevent smaller, less FDSLWDOULFKVWDNHKROGHUVIURPRSHUDWLQJ7KLVFRXOGKDYHWKHXQZDQWHGHȞIHFWRIFUHDWLQJD parallel, black market system devoid of permits or licenses (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.2.6 Emptying Fee This fee is charged to the households when they avail the service of removing FS from their on-site sanitation technology. Mostly, the stakeholder providing emptying services is also responsible for transporting the sludge away for further processing in the FS system. In a few cases, where the independent operators manually empty tanks/pits, they are not able to transport the FS and leave this task to the household. Household members may also assist the C&T company by providing the emptying services to reduce the fee. The emptying fee can be paid once the service is provided, but this type of payment model does not encourage the household to arrange for the emptying until it is absolutely necessary or long overdue. This type of emptying schedule, which may be completely unpredictable, or correlated with the seasons, causes a great deal of uncertainty for both the C&T companies and the FSTP RSHUDWRUV6RPHSRRUHUKRXVHKROGVWKDWFDQQRWDȞIRUGWRSD\WKHIHHIRUHPSW\LQJWKHHQWLUH quantity of FS may opt instead to have a small portion removed (e.g. the top metre of sludge in a pit). Emptying fees vary depending on country, region, currency, market, volume, road condition and a host of other criteria. For example, within one informal area of Nairobi, known as Kibera, it costs 8 USD to have 0.2 m3 of sludge emptied manually, or 196 USD for a vacuum truck that removes 3 m3 of sludge (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.2.7 Fines

147 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

Fines are disincentives used by the government or other legal authorities to regulate and discourage undesirable behaviour. Fines are levied to prevent illegal discharge of sludge and provide an incentive for the less-expensive behaviour of paying for a discharge license RUWKHGLVFKDUJHIHH+RZHYHUWRSUHVHQWDJHQXLQHWKUHDWWRLOOHJDOSUDFWLFHVȑQHVQHHGWR be designed carefully. They need to be high and thoroughly implemented. This also calls IRUDUREXVWPRQLWRULQJV\VWHP,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGKRZHYHUWKDWȑQHVDUHRQO\HTXLWDEOH when there is an alternative option available at a reasonable cost (e.g. access to an FSTP with UHJXODUKRXUVDQGDȞIRUGDEOHGLVFKDUJHIHHV 6WUDQGHHWDO

9.2.3 Operations and Maintenance Costs O&M costs are those that ensure the smooth functioning of the infrastructure services laid out. These expenses must be paid regularly until the service life of the infrastructure/ equipment has been reached. Equipment like pumps, trucks, hoses, etc. will wear down with use and the frequency of replacement will depend on the operating conditions and how well WKHSDUWVDUHPDLQWDLQHG$OWKRXJKWKHVHUYLFHOLIHRIWKHHTXLSPHQWZLOOEHVLJQLȑFDQWO\ VKRUWHQHGLQWKHDEVHQFHRI2 0SD\PHQWVPRUHLPPHGLDWHQHHGV HJIXHO RȻWHQWDNH precedence. Owners of vacuum or pump trucks used for FS management face high O&M costs because of the wear that foreign material (e.g. sand, garbage) puts on the equipment (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.4 Purchase Price It is the price paid by one stakeholder to another in exchange for becoming the sole owner of a commodity. A purchase fee can be paid at any point or with any frequency, as opposed to capital costs which are only paid at the beginning of a project. The purchase price is dependent on supply, demand and any subsidies that may be available. The agricultural industry, for example, may pay a public utility purchase price for treated FS to set up a greenhouse, in which case it would be categorized as a capital cost, or a brick-making industry may buy FS weekly to use as a fuel source, in which case it would be deemed an O&M cost (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.5 Sanitation Tax Sanitation tax is a fee collected either once or at regular intervals, for environmental services such as a water connection, a sewer connection/removal of FS, or any combination of these VHUYLFHV7KHEHQHȑWRIDVDQLWDWLRQWD[IRUWKHJRYHUQPHQWDJHQF\LVWKDWLWSURYLGHVDVWHDG\ source of income, allowing treatment and upgrade activities to be more easily planned.

However, the sanitation tax may be applied to households with no sewer connection, so although it may cover the water connection (or not), the household could still be responsible for paying an additional emptying fee (if they have an on-site technology). In this case, the household may be billed twice for sanitation services, i.e. paying the sanitation tax for a non- existent sewer connection as well as an emptying fee to desludge using on-site sanitation WHFKQRORJ\7KLVW\SHRIPRGHOPD\KDYHWKHHȞIHFWRIFKDUJLQJWKHSRRUPRUHIRUORZHU quality service, but it may also help to cross-subsidize sanitation services.

7KHVDQLWDWLRQWD[FDQKRZHYHUEHGHVLJQHGLQVXFKDZD\WKDWLWEHQHȑWVWKHSRRUDQG GLUHFWO\SD\VIRUVHUYLFHLPSURYHPHQW)RUH[DPSOHȠODWUDWHWD[HVEDVHGRQDXQLIRUPSHU capita FS generation rate (applied to the whole city), or as a function of water consumption, would force those using more water to subsidize those using less water (and probably requiring pit emptying).

Fees as low as 1 USD per person per year have been calculated to completely support a sustainable FSM system. Although monthly payments may be preferable for some low- LQFRPHFXVWRPHUVZKRFDQQRWDȞIRUGWKHKLJKRQHWLPHHPSW\LQJIHHWKLVW\SHRIPRQWKO\ payment model requires a high degree of transparency and organization to issue, track and receive payments. Both O&M and capital costs are paid to a large and diverse group of stakeholders (e.g. mechanics, suppliers, banks), all of whom are not, nor could be, listed here (Strande et al., 2014).

9.2.6 Financial Flow Models

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 148 MODULE IX

Figure 9.2: Model 1: Discrete collection and treatment model (Strande et al., 2014)

Faecal Household Use/ Sludge Sanitation Emptying Transport Treatment application Flow Technology

Financial Enduse Household Private Enterprise Public utility Flow Industry Purchase Emptying fee Discharge fee price

7KHUHLVQRVLQJOH)60PRGHOWKDWKDVSURYHQWREHHȞIHFWLYHLQDOOVLWXDWLRQVLQGHHGVHUYLFH GHOLYHU\PRGHOVDUHFRQVWDQWO\PRGLȑHGDQGUHVWUXFWXUHGGHSHQGLQJRQWKHHFRQRPLFOHJDO and environmental conditions. Further, the responsibilities within the system are constantly FKDQJLQJDQGDVVXFKWKHȑQDQFLDOWUDQVIHUVEHWZHHQVWDNHKROGHUVFDQWDNHVHYHUDOIRUPV (Strande et al., 2014).

9DULRXVȑQDQFLDOPRGHOVIRUWKHPDQDJHPHQWRI)6KDYHEHHQSURSRVHG 6WUDQGHHWDO 7KLVVHFWLRQSUHVHQWVDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVHOHFWLRQRIȑYHGLȞIHUHQWPRGHOVEDVHGRQH[LVWLQJ FDVH VWXGLHV DQG WKHRUHWLFDO H[DPSOHV 7KH PRGHOV GLȞIHU LQ WHUPV RI WKH VWDNHKROGHUV VWDNHKROGHUVǖUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDQGW\SHVRIȑQDQFLDOWUDQVIHUVWKDWWDNHSODFH,QWKHPRGHOV dicussed, the direction of the arrow between the stakeholders indicates the direction of the payment. A dashed line indicates that the transfer is optional and may or may not occur.

)LJXUH LOOXVWUDWHV D VLPSOH PRGHO RI ȑQDQFLDO WUDQVIHUV ,Q WKLV H[DPSOH HDFK RI WKH stakeholders is responsible for a single technology in the FSM chain, and consequently, money is exchanged each time responsibility is handed over (emptying and transport DUHLGHQWLȑHGKHUHDVDVLQJOHWHFKQRORJ\ 7KHKRXVHKROGOHYHOWRLOHWXVHUSD\VDSULYDWH enterprise (PE) an emptying fee to remove the sludge and the PE is responsible for the emptying and transportation of the sludge. The PE is then charged a discharge fee by the PU for accepting, and treating the sludge. The utility is also paid a purchase price by an end use industry in exchange for treated FS or sludge-grown products (e.g. fodder). In this model, the utility operates independently from the government authority and must cover all costs by FROOHFWLQJVXȞȑFLHQWGLVFKDUJHDQGSXUFKDVHIHHV 6WUDQGHHWDO

This type of model has two potentially negative consequences: either PEs are forced to pass the high discharge fee costs on to their customers, and thus exclude the poorest, or the PEs avoid paying the high discharge fee by illegally discharging sludge, free of charge, on land WKDWLVQRWGHVLJQDWHGIRU)6GLVFKDUJHRUWUHDWPHQW,QDQHȞIRUWWRFXWFRVWVDQGPDLQWDLQD competitive advantage in the local market, the PE may also attempt to save money on O&M costs (e.g. regular maintenance of truck and pump), and as a result, limit the useful service OLIHRIWKHHTXLSPHQWHȞIHFWLYHO\SXWWLQJWKHFRPSDQ\RXWRIEXVLQHVV,QDGGLWLRQEHFDXVH WKHXWLOLW\LVRSHUDWLQJZLWKRXWGLUHFWȑQDQFLDOVXSSRUWIURPWKHJRYHUQPHQWDXWKRULW\LWLV less likely to be subjected to administrative supervision, and the quality of treatment and DGKHUHQFHWRUHJXODWLRQVPD\VXȞIHUDVDUHVXOW 6WUDQGHHWDO This model could, however, serve as an entry point for the government authority to initiate

Figure 9.3: Model 2: Integrated collection, transport and treatment model (Strande et al., 2014)

Faecal Household Use/ Sludge Sanitation Emptying Transport Treatment application Flow Technology

Financial Enduse Household NGO/ Private Enterprise Flow Industry Purchase Emptying fee price

149 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT budget support to not only strengthen the quality of service, but also eliminate the need for discharge fees to cover operating costs and thus reduce the amount of illegal discharge. Figure 9.2 presents a variation of this model, in which the operator responsible for treatment is not subject to the sludge or payment irregularities of the PE responsible for emptying (Strande et al., 2014).

7KH PRGHO GHSLFWHG LQ )LJXUH DSSHDUV VLPLODU WR )LJXUH EXW WKH ȑQDQFLDO LPSOLFDWLRQV DUH VLJQLȑFDQWO\ GLȞIHUHQW ,Q )LJXUH D VLQJOH SULYDWH HQWHUSULVH RU QRQ governmental organization (NGO) is responsible for the emptying, transport and treatment, thus eliminating the need for a discharge fee between the stakeholder responsible for & 7DQGWKHVWDNHKROGHUUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWUHDWPHQW7KHUHDUHVHYHUDOLPSRUWDQWȑQDQFLDO DQGRSHUDWLRQDOLPSOLFDWLRQVDVDUHVXOWRIWKLVGLȞIHUHQFH 6WUDQGHHWDO 7KH3(LV responsible for collecting fees directly from the household-level toilet users. The enterprise receives no income from a discharge fee, but because the PE itself is not being charged a discharge fee, there is no need for cost recovery in the form of extra charges to the toilet user, DQGWKHWRLOHWXVHUPD\EHQHȑWIURPUHGXFHGHPSW\LQJIHHV 6WUDQGHHWDO

7KHPDUNHWFRXOGUHVSRQGLQRQHRIWZRZD\V L ZLWKDQHȞȑFLHQWȑQDQFLDOPRGHOLQFOXGLQJ cross-subsidies between business activities, or by other independent C&T operators being GULYHQRXWRIEXVLQHVVRUWRWKHPDUJLQVRIWKHPDUNHW HJLQGLȞȑFXOWRUKDUGWRUHDFKDUHDV ZKLFKDUHOHVVSURȑWDEOH RU LL DQRQRSWLPL]HGȑQDQFLDOPRGHOFRXOGVHHWKHHPHUJHQFHRI new, more competitive C&T operators who are able to undercut the multitasking enterprise, especially if the competing business saves costs by discharge without a permit, and if the OHJDOIUDPHZRUNGRHVQRWHQIRUFHWKHSURSHUSD\PHQWDQGRUȑQHV 6WUDQGHHWDO

A variation of this model was documented in Bamako, Mali. There, an NGO, IE Sema Saniya, owned and operated two vacuum trucks and an FSTP. With no discharge fee being charged, there was no incentive for illegal discharge, but the sustainability of the model has been called into question. The emptying fees required to cover the cost of transport and treatment were too high for many households, and more cost recovery strategies were needed to ensure WKHȑQDQFLDOVXVWDLQDELOLW\RIWKHV\VWHP 6WUDQGHHWDO In the model presented in Figure 9.5, a sanitation tax is paid directly to the government

Figure 9.4: Model 3: Parallel tax and discharge fee model (Strande et al., 2014)

Faecal Household Use/ Sludge Sanitation Emptying Transport Treatment application Flow Technology

Financial Enduse Household Private Enterprise Public utility Flow Industry

Purchase Emptying fee Discharge fee price Budget support

Government Authority sanitation tax

authority by the toilet user, either through water, sewer or property taxes. The PU is given budget support from the government authority that collects the sanitation tax. The PU therefore does not need to rely entirely on the discharge fee, and could lower it (in comparison to Model 1), thus reducing the total costs of the PE. The discharge fee must therefore be high enough, such that operator can hold the PEs accountable for what they dump, but not so KLJKWKDWWKHWRLOHWXVHUVDUHXQDEOHWRDȞIRUGWKHKLJKHPSW\LQJIHHVSDVVHGRQWRWKHPE\ the C&T operators, or that the sludge is dumped illegally (Strande et al., 2014).

This system is prone to corruption and under-servicing if the government authority is not FRPSHWHQWRUWUDQVSDUHQWLQKRZLWDOORFDWHVLWPRQH\)XUWKHUWKHȑQDQFLDOEDODQFHLVYHU\ much dependent on the consistent collection of the sanitation tax. Unstable land tenure,

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 150 MODULE IX

poor record-keeping, corruption, transient populations and other features of fast-growing urban centers threaten the collection of a steady stream of user-based revenue. Fee collection LVQRWRULRXVO\ORZLQPDQ\JRYHUQPHQWDXWKRULWLHVDQGȠOXFWXDWLRQVLQWKHVDQLWDWLRQIHHV FDQVLJQLȑFDQWO\DȞIHFWWKHDELOLW\RIWKH38WRPDNHORQJWHUP2 0GHFLVLRQVLIWKHUHDUHQR UHVHUYHVDYDLODEOHIURPWKHDXWKRULW\WREXȞIHUWKHYDULDWLRQ 6WUDQGHHWDO In the dual licensing and sanitation tax model, as shown in Figure 9.6, the private entrepreneur

Figure 9.5: Model 4 Dual licensing and sanitation tax model (Strande, L., 2014)

Faecal Household Use/ Sludge Sanitation Emptying Transport Treatment application Flow Technology

Financial Enduse Household Private Enterprise Public utility Flow Industry

Purchase Emptying fee price Budget Discharge support license Government Authority sanitation tax

who is responsible for C&T is not penalized with a discharge fee for each discharge at the FSTP, but instead is granted unlimited (or semi-limited) access to dump through a discharge OLFHQVH7KLVUHGXFHVLOOHJDOGLVFKDUJHE\WKRVH& 7RSHUDWRUVZKRPD\QRWEHDEOHWRDȞIRUG the discharge fee (Strande et al., 2014)

The need to pay a discharge license, no matter how nominal, ensures that the government has more administrative control over the industry. Data on the number of operators, the revenue that is generated, the distances travelled, etc. can be collected and used to advise policy. Further, the discharge license means that the PE is recognized by the government, DQGWKHRUHWLFDOO\VKRXOGKDYHWRSD\IHZHUEULEHVIHHVRUȑQHVGXULQJWKHFRXUVHRIZRUN This model has been enacted in Kumasi, Ghana, where the C&T businesses must obtain a discharge license which can be revoked if the emptier is found discharging anywhere but LQWKHRȞȑFLDOIDFLOLW\ 6WUDQGHHWDO 'LVFKDUJHOLFHQVHVKDYHDOVREHHQLPSOHPHQWHG in Nairobi's Kibera slum, where they were sold yearly, and in Da Nang, Vietnam, where they were sold monthly.

The FS C&T industry has remained largely unrecognized. Its employees are ostracized and DUH RȻWHQ IRUFHG WR ZRUN FODQGHVWLQHO\ RU DW QLJKW XQGHU WKUHDW RI SHUVHFXWLRQ RU SROLFH scrutiny. Its informal nature means that it is beyond the realm of labour and health laws, VR ZRUNHUV HQGXUH XQVDIH DQG KXPLOLDWLQJ FRQGLWLRQV ZLWKRXW WKH EDVLF ULJKWV DȞIRUGHG to other industries. Therefore, although obtaining discharge licenses may be costly and SURQHWRFRUUXSWLRQOLFHQVLQJLVRQHRIWKHȑUVWVWHSVWRZDUGVIRUPDOL]LQJWKHLQGXVWU\DQG SRWHQWLDOO\RSHQLQJLWWRPRUHWUDQVSDUHQWDQGHȞIHFWLYHSROLF\LQWHUYHQWLRQV/LFHQVLQJLVD PHFKDQLVPWKDWGRHVQRWH[FOXGHWKHVPDOOHVWRSHUDWRUV SURYLGHGWKH\FDQDȞIRUGWKHRQH time fee, they are not penalized for frequent use of the FSTP); it may help improve industry standards, while also improving working conditions for the labourers and service delivery for the toilet users (Strande et al., 2014).

$Q LPSRUWDQW IHDWXUH RI WKH PRGHO VKRZQ LQ )LJXUH LV WKH GLUHFWLRQ RI WKH ȑQDQFLDO transfer from the PU to the PE. In this model, the FSTP operator pays a discharge incentive WRWKHVWDNHKROGHUUHVSRQVLEOHIRU& 7WRGXPSVOXGJHDWWKH)673$ȑQDQFLDOPRGHOWKDW includes discharge incentives could take a variety of forms. For this reason, the discharge OLFHQVHDQGVDQLWDWLRQWD[ȠORZVLQ)LJXUHDUHOHȻWDVGRWWHGOLQHVWRLQGLFDWHWKDWWKH\PD\ or may not exist in this model, depending on the context (Strande et al., 2014). $V GLVFXVVHG SUHYLRXVO\ ȑQDQFLDO LQFHQWLYHV FDQ EH XVHG WR HQFRXUDJH VRFLDOO\ GHVLUDEOH

151 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

Figure 9.6: Model 5: Incentivized discharge model (Strande et al., 2014)

Faecal Household Use/ Sludge Sanitation Emptying Transport Treatment application Flow Technology

Financial Enduse Household Private Enterprise Public utility Flow Industry

Purchase Emptying fee Discharge fee price Budget Discharge support license Government Authority sanitation tax

behaviour. In the case of discharge incentives, the payment is used to encourage sludge collection and reduce illegal discharge. These types of conditional cash transfers are still relatively new, and although results are promising in health and education schemes, there is little data to support their use in sanitation programmes (Strande et al., 2014).

7KLVPRGHOLVEXLOWRQWKHWKHRU\WKDW& 7VWDNHKROGHUVFDQQRWDȞIRUGWKHGLVFKDUJHIHHV charged by FSTP operators and so dump indiscriminately, causing damage to public and environmental health. Working under this scheme, the C&T operator would only have to recover a portion of the total operating costs from the emptying fee (the other portion would be made up by the discharge incentive). As a result, the collection service would be more DȞIRUGDEOHIRUSRRUHUKRXVHKROGVPRUHVOXGJHZRXOGEHFROOHFWHGOHVVVOXGJHZRXOGEH GLVFKDUJHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQWDQGWKHFRPPXQLW\DVDZKROHZRXOGEHQHȑW 6WUDQGHHW al., 2014).

Unfortunately, this scheme means that the FSTP operator would not receive revenue from discharge fees and yet would also be responsible for paying the discharge incentives. This model could only function with substantial government or donor support, which can be variable and inconsistent, leaving the FSTP operator with budget gaps. To prevent such shortcomings, sanitation taxes would likely have to be raised to cover the increased operating expenses of the treatment plant. The emptying fee could, however, be reduced, tightly regulated or done away with altogether. The toilet user would still be responsible IRUWKHVDQLWDWLRQWD[EXWZRXOGEHUHOLHYHGRIWKHȑQDQFLDOEXUGHQRISD\LQJIRUDFFHVVWR sanitation twice (i.e. sanitation tax and collection fee).

One concern with this model is the opportunity for C&T stakeholders to take advantage RIWKHȑQDQFLDOLQFHQWLYHDQGUDWKHUWKDQVSHQGLQJWLPHDQGIXHOWRDFWXDOO\HPSW\RQ site systems, operators may attempt to receive the incentive for watered-down sludge or DOWHUQDWLYHOLTXLGVZKLFKFRXOGGDPDJHWKHWUHDWPHQWSURFHVVDQGLWVȑQDQFLDOYLDELOLW\7R control the type and quality of the sludge emptied at the FSTP, some type of quality assurance or quality control must be in place, such as a manifest programme. A possible variation of the model presented in Figure 9.6 would be to include incentives for toilet owners who have WKHLUVOXGJHUHPRYHGE\DFHUWLȑHGVHUYLFHSURYLGHU7KLVPRGHOZRXOGSUHYHQWKRPHRZQHUV IURPZDLWLQJXQWLOWKHRQVLWHVWRUDJHWHFKQRORJ\LVRYHUȠORZLQJGHDOLQJZLWKDQXQOLFHQVHG C&T business, or emptying it directly to the environment during the rainy season (Strande et al., 2014).

No known examples of this variation have been put into practice. The logistics of administering such a programme are complex as it would need to ensure the delivery and acceptance of UHYHUVHSD\PHQWVWRKRXVHKROGVDQGWKHVXEVHTXHQWIXOȑOPHQWRIWKHHPSW\LQJVHUYLFH promised would require widespread education and policy enforcement. A concise summary of the pros and cons for each of the models is presented in Table 9.2.

9.2.7 Future Perspective

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 152 MODULE IX

7DEOH6XPPDU\RISURVDQGFRQVIRUHDFKRIWKHȍQDQFLDOPRGHOV Model Pros Cons • Households are free to choose the PRVWFRPSHWLWLYHSULFHRQRȞIHUIRU emptying The utility's operating expenses must be Model 1: Discrete C&T Model • 7LPLQJRIHPSW\LQJLVȠOH[LEOHDQGFDQ covered by the discharge fee EHGRQHZKHQȑQDQFLDOO\IHDVLEOH • The household is not committed to a ȑ[HGVDQLWDWLRQWD[ • A single operator is able to optimize the business model and improve HȞȑFLHQF\ High fees may be passed on to the Model 2: Integrated C&T Model • Less potential for illegal discharge as household the single entity will discharge at the self-run treatment works • Low-income households that are not connected to the sewer may have lower Model 3: Parallel Tax and Discharge Fee C&T costs from cross-subsidies C&T businesses may avoid discharge fees Model • & 7RSHUDWRUVPD\EHQHȑWIURPORZHU by illegal discharge discharge fees • Collection and coverage increases • Industry regulation and legitimization through licensing The management of too many aspects of Model 4: Dual Licensing and Sanitation Tax • Improvement in health and safety the service chain by one entity could prove Model conditions GLȞȑFXOWIRUDQHZEXVLQHVVRU1*2 • Unlimited discharges minimizes risk of illegal dumping • Emptying fees for households may be • Incentives must be corruption proof reduced; (e.g. not given for diluted sludge, seawater, etc.) Model 5: Incentivized Discharge Model • +RXVHKROGVWKDWDUHGLȞȑFXOWWRDFFHVV or located far from the treatment • )673RSHUDWRUUHTXLUHVVLJQLȑFDQW plant, may become attractive to C&T budget support to function budget operators because of incentives support to function

0XFKRIWKHȑQDQFLDOVXVWDLQDELOLW\RID& 7EXVLQHVVGHSHQGVRQJRYHUQPHQWSROLF\DQG VXSSRUW6XSSRUWLQJOHJDOVWUXFWXUHVDUHHVVHQWLDOIRUDQ\ȑQDQFLDOSROLF\GHVLJQHGWRDVVLVW small business operators and household-level users.

Short-term discharge incentives appear to be one of the most promising ways to strengthen the private sector, help clear the backlog of full pits and septic tanks, and generate steady- VWDWHFRQGLWLRQVWKDWFDQEHIXUWKHUUHȑQHGRUPDQLSXODWHGWKURXJKSROLF\DQGRUȑQDQFLDO PHFKDQLVPV%XVLQHVVHVQHHGWRGHYHORSDFOLHQWEDVHRSWLPL]HWKHLUURXWHVDQGSD\RȞI WKHLUFDSLWDOFRVWV,PSOHPHQWLQJGLVFKDUJHLQFHQWLYHVIRUDVKRUWWLPH HJȑYH\HDUV FRXOG help to sustain small businesses and improve sanitation conditions drastically within a short period of time. Once businesses are established, incentives could be slowly reduced and eventually, discharge fees introduced. Donor-funded incentives could be a short-term, KLJKO\HȞIHFWLYHZD\RIVXSSRUWLQJVPDOOEXVLQHVVJHQHUDWLRQZKLOHVWUDWHJLFDOO\DGGUHVVLQJ VDQLWDWLRQGHȑFLHQFLHV

Sanitation taxes, applied most equitably as a function of water usage, can help cover the cost of FSM. The money collected should be used to support the FSTP O&M, assist in regularly VFKHGXOLQJ FROOHFWLRQ RU PDLQWHQDQFH RI KRXVHKROG VDQLWDWLRQ WHFKQRORJLHV RȞIVHW WKH discharge fee, or generate a fund for discharge incentives.

/LFHQVLQJLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWKJHQXLQHULJKWVJUDQWHGWROLFHQVHHVDQGHQIRUFHPHQWRIȑQHV when rights are abused (i.e. the withdrawal of the permit if the C&T operator is found to discharge illegally) would help to reduce corruption and illegal discharge. Licensing is also WKHȑUVWVWHSWRZDUGVIRUPDOL]DWLRQRIWKHVHFWRU,WZRXOGRSHQWKHEXVLQHVVHVXSWRRWKHU

153 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT policies and subsidies designed to support small businesses – perks which have historically been denied to informal workers.

0RUH HȞȑFLHQW WUXFNV LH QHZHU IXHOHȞȑFLHQW YHKLFOHV PDGH DYDLODEOH WKURXJK ORZHU LPSRUWWDULȞIVZRXOGVLJQLȑFDQWO\LPSURYHIXHOFRQVXPSWLRQDQGKHOSORZHURYHUDOOFRVWV More strategically located discharge/treatment facilities would reduce the travel distance, DQGLPSRUWDQWO\IRUWKHFLW\UHGXFHWLPHDQGIXHOZDVWHGLGOLQJLQFLW\WUDȞȑF'LVFKDUJLQJ into transfer or relay stations, which are then emptied by larger vehicles, would allow small emptying businesses to spend more time emptying and less time transporting (and in turn, earning more money).

If appropriate treatment and transport infrastructure exists, license holders could be permitted to dump into the sewerage system in order to reduce their travel time, and focus instead on emptying on-site technologies. This option is, however, dependent on the proper design of the treatment technology to prevent overloading and blockages. Licensing revenues should be used to formalize sewer discharge stations and transfer stations (Strande et al., 2014).

A range of policies to support larger, multi-truck operators who can serve higher-paying, easier to reach clients, as well as smaller operators who can serve lower-paying, harder to reach clients, must be developed. About two-thirds of the population do not have access to sanitation system. In order to cover them under the network, it is necessary to develop a PRGHOZKLFKLVFRVWHȞIHFWLYHDQGDOVRDȞIRUGDEOHWRWKHSRSXODWLRQZKRKDYHVXEVLVWHQFH OLYLQJ7KH:RUOG%XVLQHVV&RXQFLOIRU6XVWDLQDEOH'HYHORSPHQWKDVLGHQWLȑHGDEXVLQHVV model wherein the sanitation services can be linked with the source of livelihood to cater to the market where both providing sanitation services and livelihood are major challenges (WBCSD, 2004).

$VGLVFXVVHGLQWKLVPRGXOHWKHUHLVQRVLQJOHPRGHOIRUHȞȑFLHQW)60DQGH[SHULPHQWDWLRQ DQGȠOH[LELOLW\ZLWKQRYHOȑQDQFLDOPHFKDQLVPVPXVWEHHQFRXUDJHG 6WUDQGHHWDO $UHDVIRUIXUWKHUUHVHDUFKLQFOXGHXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHȑQDQFLDOȠORZVDQGEXVLQHVVPRGHOV for existing and successful FSM enterprises. Since the sector is mostly informal, there is very little known in this area. There are currently very few examples of functioning FSM systems. 'LȞIHUHQWEXVLQHVVPRGHOVPXVWEHWHVWHGDQGVWXGLHGXQGHUGLȞIHUHQWRSHUDWLQJFRQGLWLRQV WRȑQGWKHPRVWUREXVWDQGVXVWDLQDEOHRQHV

Finally, and perhaps most importantly, political will (i.e. public support and acknowledgement RIWKH)6LQGXVWU\ PXVWEHFRPPXQLFDWHGIURPWKHKLJKHVWOHYHOVGRZQWRWUDȞȑFFRQWUROOHUV This will assist in reducing corruption and embarrassment.

9.3 Summary $Q)60RSHUDWLRQFRXOGDQGVKRXOGEHVHOIVXVWDLQLQJ$ȑQDQFLDOO\YLDEOH)60RSHUDWLRQ PXVWEHDEOHWRUHFRYHUDOOFRVWVDQGPHHWLWVȑQDQFLDOREOLJDWLRQV7KLVPRGXOHH[DPLQHG WKHȑQDQFLDOȠORZVZLWKLQYDULRXV)60V\VWHPVDQGLOOXVWUDWHGDQGGLVFXVVHGWKHFULWLFDO ȑQDQFLDO DQG UHVSRQVLELOLW\ WUDQVIHU SRLQWV 7R XQGHUVWDQG WKH FRPSOHWH )6 V\VWHP WKLV PRGXOHDOVRLGHQWLȑHGDQGGHȑQHGWKHYDULRXVVWDNHKROGHUVDQGWKHLUUROHVZLWKLQWKH)60 V\VWHP)LYHGLȞIHUHQW)60PRGHOVLHGLȞIHUHQWFRPELQDWLRQVRIVWDNHKROGHUVZLWKYDULRXV UHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDQGȑQDQFLDOWUDQVIHUVZHUHSUHVHQWHGDQGH[DPLQHG

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 154

MODULE X: COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives

ʝ To understand the relevance, rationale and role of community engagement in urban development programmes including sanitation (FSM) ʝ To learn from the experience of engaging communities in Project Nirmal in Angul and Dhenkanal, Odisha ʝ To operationalize community engagement structures in other towns and cities of Odisha 7.4 Decision Matrix 111 7.5 End Use of Treatment Product 111 7.6 Site Selection for Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant 119 7.7 Summary 124

MODULE IX: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Financial Models 144 9.3 Summary 154

REFERENCES 173

10.1 Introduction Community engagement in undertaking sanitation work including faecal sludge management (FSM) is vital for the success of the programme. Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban) – SBM (U) – is envisaged as a people's movement (Jana Andolan) for ensuring hygiene, waste management and sanitation across the country. It is therefore essential that in its implementation, the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) elicit the active participation of ward committees, area sabhas, Resident Welfare Associations, NGOs and Civil Society Groups. In the sanitation value chain, the community can play a very active role right from containment to faecal sludge (FS) desludging, safe transportation and safe disposal. The rationale and relevance of community engagement in development projects is important for the following reasons: • promoting a people-centred approach: to address the needs and priorities of people • SURPRWLQJVRFLDOHTXLW\DQGMXVWLFHWRHQVXUHEHQHȑWVUHDFKWKHPRVWPDUJLQDOL]HG (women, poor and other socially vulnerable groups) • promoting partnerships: to make the community a partner in the process of GHYHORSPHQWDQGQRWPHUHO\WUHDWWKHPDVEHQHȑFLDULHV • promoting transparency and accountability: to promote community action and demand actions from the government • building human resource capital: to recognize local resources and expertise, and harness people's capacities • deepening democracy: to bring sustainability to the projects/development programmes

10.2 Evolution of Community Participation in Urban Programmes in India Some of the key programmes involving community participation launched by the government over the years include: • Urban Community Development (UCD), 1958: launched in Delhi with the support of the Ford Foundation, with the aim of improving extremely poor living conditions of and infrastructure services in low-income urban communities through Self Help Groups (SHGs) • Urban Basic Services (UBS), 1986: introduced in 1986, with the primary objective of enhancing the survival and development of women and children of urban low-income families • Urban Basic Services Programme (UBSP), 1990: focused on improving the quality of life of the urban poor through mobilization of community organizations • Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY), 1997: focused on the poverty alleviation programme channelled through Community Based Organizations (CBOs) • Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) (2005-14): housing for poor advocated using slum committees and structures formed under SJSRY and NULM • National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM) 2013: promotes SHGs, area-level federations and city-level federations to enable poor to access gainful self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities, resulting in an appreciable improvement in their livelihoods

Various development programmes delivered through NGOs and the government adopted these structures more actively from the 1990s. The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA) enabled ‘legitimate’ spaces of participation by providing spaces for citizens’ engagement in ward committees. Many civil society interventions – slum networking programmes (Saath and multi-stakeholder partners), livelihood promotion and housing (Mahila Housing Trust), community-managed toilets by the Society for Promotion of Area Resource Centres (SPARC), SHGs promoting housing and livelihood (Dhan Foundation) – have strengthened community-based groups and this in turn has added great value to the programmes on the ground.

States like Andhra Pradesh and Kerala have institutionalized the community structures in their state programmes to address issues of urban poverty through the Mission for Elimination of Poverty in Municipal Areas (MEPMA) and Kudumbashree.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 156 MODULE X

10.3 Informal and Formal Spaces of Participation in Urban Programmes In addition to formal spaces of engaging with the community provided under various development programmes and policies and through municipal Acts and legislations, there are many informal spaces which encourage people to engage and negotiate.

Figure 10.1: Schematic showing formal and informal spaces

Formal Space

City Government

Ward Committee

Slum Committee/ Housing residence

Informal Space

Formal spaces of community participation include ward committees with elected members ZKLFK DUH IRUPHG XQGHU WKH PXQLFLSDO $FWV RI VWDWHV VXFK $FWV RI GLȞIHUHQW VWDWHV KDYH GLȞIHUHQWSURYLVLRQV

Community participation law under JNNURM facilitated the formation of area sabhas (mohalla samitis) since the formal space was too large to engage with local/slum neighbourhood issues. The informal space includes women's groups, collectives of youth and health workers who can be mobilized to engage in project interventions on a long-term basis.

10.4 Community Engagement Structures in Angul and Dhenkanal under Project Nirmal In Project Nirmal, to engage community at each stage of the project, the following model has been worked out.

10.4.1 Slum Sanitation Committee (SSC) A Slum Sanitation Committee has been constituted in every slum of Angul and Dhenkanal. At least 50% of the members of the committee are women. In fact, in some places there are more than 50% women. The size of the committee varies between 9 and 15 members depending upon the total number of households. The President and the Secretary of the committee are selected by the committee members. The committee consists of the following members: • slum leader • representatives from SHGs • representative from the Youth Group • Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) • Anganwadi worker

The broad functions of the SSC are as follows: • to facilitate community-centric mobilization processes to ensure improved sanitation practices in the slum • to initiate and monitor community-level actions for quality sanitation service in the slum • to facilitate demand generation related to sanitation services at the slum level • to participate in the planning and decision-making process in the ward and city levels

157 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

Figure 10.2: Model for community engagement under Project Nirmal

10.4.2 Ward Sanitation Committee (WSC) A Ward Sanitation Committee exists in every ward of the respective ULBs of Dhenkanal and Angul. The Councillor of every ward is the President of the committee. The Secretary of the committee is selected by the committee members. At least 30-40 % of the members of the committee are women. The size of the committee varies between 15 to 17 members. The committee consists of the following members: • ward Councillor/President • representative (s) from SSC • senior citizens (retired employee, retired engineer) from the ward • Youth Group/association leader of the ward • SHGs and SHG federations leader of the ward • representative(s) from ASHA, Anganwadi worker • teacher • municipality personnel (Sanitary Inspector, Community Organizer, etc)

The broad functions of the WSC are as follows: • to identify the issues related to sanitation at the ward level, prepare the action for municipal resolutions, and supervise and monitor the implementation of programmes in the ward • to monitor quality sanitation service delivery services in the ward • to facilitate demand generation related to sanitation services at the ward level • to participate in the planning and decision-making process in the ward and city levels

10.5 Summary Community participation is vital to any development programme to make the process sustainable. The government programmes have institutionalized such structures in their programmes in various states of India; many NGOs too have impacted the development outcomes by engaging communities in development programmes. This module deliberated upon the relevance, rationale and importance of community engagement in sanitation by learning from examples of community engagement processes undertaken in Dhenkanal and Angul, Odisha, under Project Nirmal.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 158

MODULE XI: PLANNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives

ʝ To understand the importance of an integrated approach to faecal sludge management ʝ 7REHDEOHWROLQNWKHGLȞIHUHQWDVSHFWVGHYHORSHGLQWKHWUDLQLQJPDQXDO HJPDQDJHPHQWȑQDQFHVWDNHKROGHUVǖLQWHUHVW DQGWHFKQRORJ\ DQGXQGHUVWDQGKRZWKH\DUHFRQQHFWHGZLWKDQGLQȠOXHQFHHDFKRWKHU 7.4 Decision Matrix 111 7.5 End Use of Treatment Product 111 7.6 Site Selection for Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant 119 7.7 Summary 124

MODULE IX: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Financial Models 144 9.3 Summary 154

REFERENCES 173

11.1 Planning

11.1.1 Process of Planning The planning process should follow logical stages for the need to plan has to be established among the stakeholders. The situation has to then be analysed thoroughly to allow WKH LGHQWLȑFDWLRQ RI DOO H[LVWLQJ SUREOHPV DQG WR GHȑQH WKH REMHFWLYHV RI LPSURYHPHQW measures (Klingel et al., 2002). The core piece of the planning process is to develop a IXWXUHPDQDJHPHQWFRQFHSW)LQDOO\WKHGLȞIHUHQWFRPSRQHQWVRIWKLVFRQFHSWDUHWREH implemented (Klingel et al., 2002).

It is very important not to regard the planning process as a one-way exercise. It does not end with the plan's implementation. Experiences during planning and from implementation and operation should always be considered, and plans revised if necessary. Figure 11.1 YLVXDOL]HVWKHGLȞIHUHQWSODQQLQJVWDJHV7KHIHHGEDFNORRSVLOOXVWUDWHWKHIDFWWKDWSODQVDUH amended in the light of experience. During the elaboration of solutions, the need for further LQIRUPDWLRQZLOOEHLGHQWLȑHGDQGWKLVLQIRUPDWLRQWKHQFROOHFWHGLQDWDUJHWHGZD\7KH implemented components will be monitored and achievement of set objectives evaluated. More precise information about adequacy of proposed solutions and about formerly XQLGHQWLȑHGSUREOHPVZLOOKHOSLQGHYHORSLQJEHWWHUVROXWLRQV

Figure 11.1: Stages in the planning process (IRCWASH, 2017)

Stage 1 PREPARE TO PLAN

Stage 2 UNDERSTAND CURRENT PROBELM

Stage 3 DEVELOP SOLUTIONS

Stage 4 PLAN CITY-WIDE

Stage 5 IMPLEMENT PLAN

11.1.2 Establishing the Need for the Plan 7KHȑUVWVWHSPXVWEHWRGHYHORSDFRQVHQVXVRQWKHQHHGWRSODQ)601RSODQZLOOZRUNLI those responsible for its implementation are not convinced of the need to plan. It is necessary WRWDONWRWKHYDULRXVVWDNHKROGHUVDQGLIQHFHVVDU\FRQYLQFHWKHPRIWKHEHQHȑWVRI)60 The main initiative for improvements in FSM is more likely to come from the authorities than IURPLQGLYLGXDOFLWL]HQV7KLVLVEHFDXVHWKHODWWHUZLOOQRWEHQHȑWGLUHFWO\IURPLPSURYHG FSM; they will gain in an indirect way, through a general environmental betterment. Therefore, support from authorities and decision-makers is decisive for the success of better FSM. However, it is essential that the other stakeholders can agree upon the need to plan too (Klingel et al., 2002).

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 160 MODULE XI

11.2 Exploring the Situation

11.2.1 Introduction A thorough understanding of the existing situation is essential to tackle the right problems DQGFRQVLGHUWKHULJKWFRQVWUDLQWVZKLOHGHYHORSLQJVROXWLRQV7KHȑUVWVWHSVKRXOGEHWR gather a broad understanding of the situation and know about all relevant issues and the relations between them (Klingel et al., 2002). Collection of too much technical data may not be helpful; focus should be on relevance and use of data. The requirements for technical data ZLOOEHFRPHDSSDUHQWODWHUZKHQVSHFLȑFVROXWLRQVDUHHQYLVDJHG%HVLGHVWKHEDVLFJRDORI understanding the situation is to identify the main problems with FS management and their causes (Klingel et al., 2002).

11.2.2 Exploring the Local Context 7KRURXJKNQRZOHGJHRIWKHJHQHUDOFRQWH[WDURXQGWKHVSHFLȑFSUREOHPLVYHU\LPSRUWDQW This is especially so if you are a representative of an external agency and not yet familiar with the local context (Klingel et al., 2002). The general conditions of the local situation set the frame within which potential solutions are possible. Basically, the planner should achieve enough knowledge of the situation to develop a good feeling for what is possible in the local context and what might be problematic.

Useful and easily available sources for information might be reports of projects located in the studied area and country reports issued by governmental or external agencies. Political, legal and institutional issues are best explored through various interviews with representatives RIWKHGLȞIHUHQWSROLWLFDOOHYHOVDQGGLVFXVVLRQVZLWKSHUVRQVRXWVLGHWKHVHLQVWLWXWLRQV,WLV RȻWHQQHFHVVDU\WREHFDUHIXOZLWKRȞȑFLDOGHVFULSWLRQVRIWKHVHLVVXHVDVWKHUHDOLW\PD\EH GLȞIHUHQW(QYLURQPHQWDOUHJXODWLRQVIRULQVWDQFHRȻWHQKDYHOLWWOHHȞIHFWRQSUDFWLFHGXHWR lack of awareness and enforcement (Klingel et al., 2002).

11.2.2.1 Geography Geographical factors such as the topographical situation, geology or climatic conditions may KDYHFRQVLGHUDEOHLQȠOXHQFHRQVDQLWDWLRQSUREOHPV7KH\DUHPDMRUFRQVWUDLQWVLQȠOXHQFLQJ the feasibility of technological and organizational solutions.

11.2.2.2 Socioeconomic situation, health and cultural aspects Socioeconomic and cultural aspects reveal the ability and willingness of populations to contribute or accept proposed measures. It is very useful to assess the situation and potential of private entrepreneurship in the provision of public services. Health data may indicate problems related to sanitation and how urgent it is to solve them.

11.2.2.3 Political and legal framework Good knowledge of the political system, administrative system, planning procedures, etc. is essential for a planner. Legislation concerning environmental and construction issues, including discharge standards and construction policies, need to be taken into account when planning treatment and disposal facilities.

11.2.2.4 Sanitation infrastructure and services Wastewater management, solid waste management, urban drainage and other environmental and sanitary services are closely related to FSM, or they could be in future. Public utilities or private enterprises are responsible for the provision of those services. It is LPSRUWDQWWRNQRZWKHDFWLYLWLHVRIGLȞIHUHQWHQWHUSULVHVKRZWKHHQWHUSULVHVDUHRUJDQL]HG DQGHTXLSSHGDQGWKHDYDLODEOHKXPDQDQGȑQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHV&RVWUHFRYHU\RIVHUYLFHVRU the percentage of subsidizing is another important issue to explore. It is essential to know KRZUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVIRUWKHGLȞIHUHQWVHUYLFHVDUHVKDUHGDPRQJWKHGLȞIHUHQWHQWHUSULVHV which enterprises are involved in FSM, and which are their weak points in management. A good overview of the existing infrastructure, such as toilet facilities, sewers and drains, WUHDWPHQWIDFLOLWLHVDQGGLVSRVDORUGXPSLQJVLWHVLVFUXFLDO,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRȑQGRXWWKH most critical sanitation problems currently, and how are they connected to issues related to FSM.

11.2.2.5 Existing plans 7KHGLȞIHUHQWPXQLFLSDORUVWDWHGHSDUWPHQWVDQGSXEOLFXWLOLWLHVPD\DOUHDG\KDYHWKHLU own plans dealing with sanitation and FSM. These plans should be taken into account when SUHSDULQJDQHZSODQ6WUHQJWKVDQGZHDNQHVVHV2 0DQGȑQDQFHRIH[LVWLQJSODQVDUH

161 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION PLANNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT important to analyse and understand. It is very useful to explore how earlier plans have been implemented or why they have not been implemented.

11.2.2.6 Land availability The construction of facilities for FSM (e.g. for sludge treatment or storage) requires land. It would be useful to have, at early planning stages, an overview of the general availability of land for this purpose, and the cost or constraints of the land-acquiring processes. Try to ȑQGRXWLIWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\DOUHDG\SRVVHVVHVODQGVXLWDEOHIRUVOXGJHWUHDWPHQWDQGZKDW are the local constraints at these sites regarding accessibility, possible odour emissions or wastewater discharge.

11.2.3 Exploring the Faecal Sludge Management Situation The next step is to unearth more details of the current and the expected future situation of )60DQGDOODVSHFWVWKDWDUHUHODWHGWRLWRUPD\LQȠOXHQFHLW .OLQJHOHWDO

11.2.3.1 Toilet facilities Knowing the distribution of the various types of toilet facilities helps in estimating the kind RI)6WREHGHDOWZLWK,WVKRXOGQRWEHDVVXPHGWKDWWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIGLȞIHUHQWVDQLWDWLRQ systems is stable; the situation may be quite dynamic, with some systems replacing others. ,W PLJKW EH UDWKHU GLȞȑFXOW WR REWDLQ H[DFW ȑJXUHV RI WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI GLȞIHUHQW WRLOHW facilities and ongoing developments. The best sources of information are usually household surveys where a statistically representative number of households are questioned about their situation regarding sanitation infrastructure, habits and awareness. Conducting such DVXUYH\LVKRZHYHUDPDMRUH[HUFLVHZKLFKFDQUDUHO\EHMXVWLȑHGIRUWKHSXUSRVHRI)60 only. If no data from earlier surveys is available, a smaller, ‘qualitative’ survey will need to be conducted through key interviews. It is not of primary importance to have at hand statistically VLJQLȑFDQWGDWD5DWKHUWKHSODQQHUVKRXOGWU\WRREWDLQZLWKDUHDVRQDEOHLQSXWRIWLPH and resources, a realistic picture of the current situation and the main tendencies.

A large household survey is usually conducted when a citywide sanitation plan comprising overall sanitation, and not just FSM management, is going to be developed. In that case, the huge amount of information that can be collected from the household questionings usually MXVWLȑHVWKHKLJKH[SHQVHVIRUDODUJHVXUYH\LQWKHLQFHSWLRQSKDVH

11.2.3.2 FS collection The removal of sludge from toilet facilities and transport to the site of treatment or disposal FRQVWLWXWHWKHȑUVWLPSRUWDQWVWDJHRI)607KHFXUUHQWSUDFWLFHDQGWKHSUREOHPVZLWKLW need to be thoroughly understood.

Who is collecting the FS: a municipal agency, private companies, individual entrepreneurs, farmers or others? Why are the facilities emptied: on the demand of the owners or on the initiative of the authorities? How are they emptied: manually or by vacuum tanker? How IUHTXHQWO\DUHWKH\HPSWLHG"+RZLVWKHFROOHFWLRQȑQDQFHGE\IHHVIRUWKHKRXVHKROGVRUE\ municipal subsidies? How much is the fee? How much is the actual cost of collection? What DUHWKHSUREOHPVZLWK)6FROOHFWLRQDUHWKHIDFLOLWLHVGLȞȑFXOWWRDFFHVVDUHWKHIHHVWRRKLJK" Are transport distances a problem? These and more questions need to be answered to get a clear picture of the situation.

The best way to get a complete sense of how FS collection is working is to talk to the relevant SHUVRQV7KHLQWHUYLHZVVKRXOGQRWEHOLPLWHGWRPXQLFLSDORȞȑFLDOVLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRVSHDN to the workers of municipal agencies, householders, private FS collectors and so on. It is very useful to visit several households and to accompany the workers on a few collection tours.

11.2.3.3 FS treatment, disposal or reuse 7KHVHFRQGPDLQFRPSRQHQWRI)60LVZKDWLVEHLQJGRQHZLWKWKHVOXGJHDȻWHUFROOHFWLRQ from the facilities. The sludge may be disposed of or used in agriculture, either untreated or DȻWHUKDYLQJUHFHLYHGWUHDWPHQW

How the sludge is treated, disposed of or used is best found out through interviews with the agencies or individuals carrying out the collection. Observation of the disposal, treatment or reuse and visiting corresponding sites is essential. Be aware that the sludge may be treated, GLVSRVHGRUXVHGLQGLȞIHUHQWZD\VGHSHQGLQJRQWKHVOXGJHW\SHDQGZKRFROOHFWVLW)RU example, if a municipal agency and individual entrepreneurs are both active in emptying

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 162 MODULE XI

WRLOHWVWKHIRUPHUPD\XVHDVSHFLȑFGXPSLQJVLWHZKHUHDVWKHODWWHUPD\GXPSVOXGJHLQWR the drainage channels or sell it to farmers.

It is important to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of the existing treatment, disposal or reuse system. Where are the main problems? Which components work well and should EHSUHVHUYHG"7U\WRXQGHUVWDQGWKHPRQH\ȠORZ+RZLVWUHDWPHQWRUODQGȑOOLQJLVȑQDQFHG" Are farmers paying for FS?

Finding out what actually happens with the sludge is a crucial point, because that is where most of the environmental pollution and health risks are generated.

11.2.3.4 Lessons from neighbouring cities It may be very helpful to visit a few neighbouring cities for an understanding of the FSM VLWXDWLRQLQVLPLODUSODFHV

$VROXWLRQWKDWVDWLVȑHVDVIDUDVSRVVLEOHWKHLQWHUHVWVRIDOOVWDNHKROGHUVǓZKHQHYHU\ERG\ LQYROYHGEHQHȑWVWKURXJKLPSURYHPHQWRIWKHLULQGLYLGXDOVLWXDWLRQRUWKURXJKLQFHQWLYHV provided – works best. Proposed measures are most successful if they are able to solve the actual problems of all involved.

Clearly, it is indispensable to consider the perceptions, needs, interests and personal situation of all involved stakeholders. The planner has to identify the stakeholders, all persons, groups or institutions directly or indirectly involved in FSM, and talk to them.

Exploring of the stakeholders’ perceptions should not be a stand-alone activity but be combined with exploring the general situation and the practices of FSM. The most valuable sources of information about the FSM situation are the stakeholders concerned. Therefore, DORQJ ZLWK ȑQGLQJ RXW WKHLU SHUVRQDO SRLQW RI YLHZ VLWXDWLRQ DQG LQWHUHVWV WKH SODQQHU should talk to them to learn about the facts.

7KHPRVWHȞIHFWLYHZD\WRJHWUHSUHVHQWDWLYHLQIRUPDWLRQLVWRFKRRVHDQXPEHURISHUVRQV ZKRDOOEHORQJWRWKHVDPHJURXSRIVWDNHKROGHUVEXWKDYHGLȞIHUHQWSRVLWLRQVZLWKLQWKLV group. For example, if you want to know about the situation of a municipal service agency, talk to the director, administrators and several workers. If you want to know the problems of WRLOHWXVHUVDVNSHRSOHIURPGLȞIHUHQWFLW\QHLJKERXUKRRGVDQGSHRSOHXVLQJGLȞIHUHQWWRLOHW W\SHV7U\WRȑQGWKRVHZKRNQRZWKHPRVWDQGZKRDUHPRVWOLNHO\WRWDONDERXWZKDWWKH\ know. Be always aware that such statements are very subjective and may be incomplete for one reason or the other. The following passages discuss the possible stakeholders and their UROHVLQ)607KHOLVWRIVWDNHKROGHUVPD\QRWEHFRPSOHWHWKHUHDUHGLȞIHUHQWVWDNHKROGHUV depending on the situation.

11.2.3.5 Householders Householders use the toilet facilities in which sludge accumulates. It is usually they who decide the type of toilet facility to build and the time to empty the toilet, and it is they who pay for the emptying. Householders know best who actually empties their toilet, how much that costs, and the technical problems involved with the emptying. If shared or public toilets are used, the householders, as their users, are able to provide the required information.

Always keep in mind that the improvement measures need to be supported or at least WROHUDWHG E\ WKH LQGLYLGXDO FLWL]HQV

2WKHULPSRUWDQWLVVXHVWREHFODULȑHGWKURXJKWDONVZLWKLQGLYLGXDOFLWL]HQVDUHWKHFXOWXUDO attitude towards the handling of human waste and acceptance of the use of human waste

163 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION PLANNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT for fertilizing of food crops.

&RPPXQLW\EDVHG2UJDQL]DWLRQVDQG1RQ*RYHUQPHQWDO2UJDQL]DWLRQV There are likely to be several groups active in the sanitation and health sector of the project area. These groups can be a valuable source of information representing the community in which they are active; they are well informed about the needs and concerns of the community. Further, these groups may facilitate access to the community, for example, for awareness raising campaigns or household surveys.

11.2.3.7 Authorities ,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR ȑUVW LGHQWLI\ DOO DJHQFLHV SRWHQWLDOO\ LQYROYHG LQ WKH SODQQLQJ RI )60 These might be the local government or specialist governmental agencies at the municipal, provincial or state level responsible for planning, public services, construction, health, environment, etc. Understand which agency is responsible for which issue, and how UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV PD\ FODVK RU ZKHUH WKH\ DUH QRW FOHDUO\ GHȑQHG &ROOHFW LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ the habitual procedures for decision-making. In the particular case of FSM, the initiative for citywide planning has to come from the authorities. Therefore, you have to explore the extent to which the authorities are aware of the existing problems, and if necessary, make them understand the need for action. Try to ensure you have their continuous support for the planning, and keep them informed about your work.

11.2.3.8 Public utilities The opinion of the people carrying out the daily business of FSM is very valuable and cannot be discounted while exploring improvements. Talk to representatives from all utility enterprises currently active in FSM or those that could be involved in future. It is important, DJDLQWRWDONWRSHUVRQVIURPGLȞIHUHQWKLHUDUFKLFOHYHOVIURPWKHGLUHFWRUWRWKHZRUNHUV 'RHVWKHGLUHFWRUWKLQNKLVHQWHUSULVHKDVVXȞȑFLHQWVXSSRUWIURPWKHPXQLFLSDOJRYHUQPHQW" What do the employees of the utility enterprises think are the main issues relating to their work and the provision of an adequate service? Try to get a feeling for the real interests of the people. For example, how do the workers earn their main income – through the salary paid by the enterprise or by emptying toilets on their own account and/or selling the sludge? $OZD\VWU\WRȑQGRXWE\ZKDWPHDQVWKHZRUNHUVFRXOGEHPRWLYDWHGWRDFWLQWKHGHVLUHG way. For example, is it necessary to provide incentives to make sure the driver of a vacuum tanker will take his load to the treatment plant rather than sell it to a farmer or to dump it in the next possible spot?

11.2.3.9 Private sector The private sector active in FSM can be represented by companies operating vacuum trucks or similar equipment, or by individual workers who usually empty the toilets with shovels. You should ask them similar questions as put to the public utility enterprises. Learn how they HDUQPRQH\E\SD\PHQWIRUWKHHPSW\LQJRUE\VHOOLQJWKHVOXGJH"7U\WRȑQGRXWZKDWNLQG of motivation or incentives would be required to make them act in the desired way. :KLOH FRQWDFWLQJ FRPSDQLHV VKRXOG SUHVHQW QR SUREOHPV LW PD\ EH GLȞȑFXOW WR ORFDWH LQGLYLGXDOHQWUHSUHQHXUV

11.2.3.10 Farmers Farmers are potential users of the treated FS. Exploring the current reuse practice will explain a lot about the general and cultural attitude towards the use of human waste in agriculture, the current health risks, and the potential for the use of treated sludge. One main point to examine is the acceptance by the farmers of a product from sludge treatment. A tentative market analysis should be conducted. The main objective behind interviews with farmers is to get an idea whether treated FS, and how much of it, could be used in agriculture, how much the farmers would be willing to pay for it, and in what form they would prefer to receive the product. Agriculture services and state agencies can also be a valuable source of information on this topic.

11.2.4 Data Collection It will be necessary to collect detailed data for the (pre-) design of components of the future management concept. This requires that the planner is already familiar with the situation, NQRZVDERXWWKHSUREOHPVKDVGHȑQHGWKHPDLQREMHFWLYHVDQGKDVSUHVHOHFWHGVHYHUDO

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 164 MODULE XI

potential solutions. It should be kept in mind that the planning process cannot be treated as a one-way process (see 11.1), that the information collected in the initial stages should be used to identify further detailed information requirements.

7KHGDWDUHTXLUHGFDQEHRIGLȞIHUHQWW\SHVDQGREWDLQHGWKURXJKYDULRXVPHDQVDPRUH GHWDLOHGVXUYH\WRNQRZWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIGLȞIHUHQWWRLOHWW\SHVDWKRURXJKPDUNHWDQDO\VLV IRUDIHUWLOL]HUIURPWUHDWHG)6DGHWDLOHGDQDO\VLVRIDVSHFLȑFVDQLWDWLRQVHUYLFHDPHDQLQJIXO sludge analysis for the design of treatment facilities; etc.

A reasonable balance should always be maintained between the expenses for the data FROOHFWLRQDQGWKHEHQHȑWVIURPLW'HWDLOHGIUHVKGDWDPD\QRWDOZD\VEHIDUPRUHXVHIXO than already available data from similar locations or even data from standard literature.

11.2.5 Understanding the Problems At this stage, you should have achieved a good understanding of the current situation so far as FSM and related sectors are concerned, as well as an awareness of the local constraints and GLȞIHUHQWSHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHLPSOLFDWHGSDUWLHV

11.3 Developing the Management Concept

11.3.1 Planning Principles

11.3.1.1 Involving stakeholders The development of solutions should occur in close collaboration with all stakeholders. You VKRXOGFRQWLQXRXVO\VHHNIHHGEDFNIURPWKHLQYROYHGSDUWLHVWRȑQGRXWLI\RXULGHDVDQG SURSRVLWLRQVDUHDFFHSWDEOHDQGXQGHUVWDQGDEOHWRWKHPDQGWRFRQȑUPLI\RXUSURSRVLWLRQV satisfy the real needs.

Stakeholder involvement during the planning process may be of variable intensity. You can limit yourself to working out components of the plan and consulting the stakeholders from time to time. Planning workshops can be organized at several stages of the planning process, where all representatives come together and work collectively on decisive parts of the plan. $ZRUNVKRSPD\EHRUJDQL]HGIRUSUREOHPDQDO\VLVDQGGHȑQLWLRQRIREMHFWLYHVZKHUH\RX present the results of your situation analysis, and seek consensus on problems, objectives and priorities. Another possible workshop could be organized for evaluation of options, where you present several previously developed scenarios which are then discussed together. The most intensive form of stakeholder involvement would be the formation of a planning FRPPLWWHHZKHUHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVRIWKHGLȞIHUHQWSDUWLHVUHJXODUO\FRPHWRJHWKHUWRZRUN out solutions. The way chosen depends on the project size, the stakeholders’ willingness to participate, and other aspects. More intensive involvement of stakeholders may considerably slow down the planning process; however, the chance that widely accepted solutions result are correspondingly higher.

11.3.1.2 A global vision Developing the management concept means evolving a vision of how FSM could work citywide, and developing the individual components to be built up step by step. You need to always keep an eye on both how an idea can be part of a whole, and how the idea can be concretely implemented on a small scale.

11.3.1.3 Appropriateness of measures and technologies The paradigm of the appropriateness of measures and technologies is to be always respected while planning sanitation or FSM in the context of developing countries. The use of technologies and management concepts adapted to local conditions is of prime importance. $OOSURSRVHGPHDVXUHVPXVWPDWFKZLWKDYDLODEOHKXPDQWHFKQLFDODQGȑQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHV and be perfectly acceptable for the population and the authorities.

11.3.1.4 Making the plan sustainable To sustain improved measures over time, it is necessary to ensure that all stakeholders wish

165 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION PLANNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT to follow the plan, that they know how to do this, and that they are able to do it. Appropriate incentive systems can make sure that the stakeholders are motivated to act in the desired ZD\6RXQGȑQDQFHVDUHFUXFLDOLQWKLVUHJDUG,QIRUPDWLRQDQGWUDLQLQJHȞIRUWVDUHUHTXLUHG to increase the knowledge and skills of the involved persons.

0DNLQJWKHSODQRȚȍFLDO $QHZFRQFHSWIRU)60ZLOOEHHȞIHFWLYHRQO\LIWKHYDULRXVRUJDQL]DWLRQVWKDWDUHH[SHFWHG to implement it, recognize it as their plan. It is essential to have the concept accepted as the RȞȑFLDO)60SODQRIWKHWRZQ(YHU\WKLQJSRVVLEOHVKRXOGEHGRQHWRHQVXUHWKDWWKHDJUHHG actions can be formally included in the programmes and budgets produced by the various stakeholder organizations.

'HȍQLQJ2EMHFWLYHVDQG&ULWHULD 7KHȑUVWVWHSRIGHYHORSLQJVROXWLRQVLVWRGHȑQHWKHJRDOV

In most cases, one overall objective will be ‘to improve public health’ – the protection of the population from the health risks of the transmission of pathogenic organisms contained LQ KXPDQ IDHFHV 2QFH WKH OLVW RI VSHFLȑF REMHFWLYHV LV HVWDEOLVKHG \RX VKRXOG GHYHORS FOHDUFULWHULDRIKRZWKHVHREMHFWLYHVVKRXOGEHIXOȑOOHG7KHSURSRVHGVROXWLRQVFDQWKHQ be evaluated on their capacity to achieve the set objectives with the help of those criteria. &OHDUO\PHDVXUDEOHLQGLFDWRUVDUHKHOSIXOLQHYDOXDWLQJWKHIXOȑOOLQJRIFULWHULD

11.3.3 Developing the Time Frame 7KHHVWDEOLVKHGREMHFWLYHVQHHGWREHWUDQVODWHGLQWRDFRQFUHWHVFKHGXOHWKDWGHȑQHVWKH targets to be achieved in corresponding periods. For several reasons, it is advisable to proceed in small steps instead of attempting one big move forward: • Actions have to match with available resources. Extremely ambitious targets are unlikely to be achievable. It is more encouraging for all involved if realistic goals can be achieved within the set period. • Practical experience with proposed solutions should be collected and used in planning, before solutions are introduced citywide. • ,WLVRȻWHQYHU\GLȞȑFXOWWRPDNHSUHFLVHSURMHFWLRQVRIWKHGHPDQGIRUSHULRGVRI to 20 years, as is habitual for facility design in industrialized countries. In developing FRXQWULHVWKHGDWDEDVLVLVRȻWHQYHU\LPSUHFLVHDQGWKHVLWXDWLRQLVWRRG\QDPLFWR allow accurate predictions over long periods. Planning and implementation in small VWHSVDVVXUHVDKLJKHUȠOH[LELOLW\LQUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHUHDOGHPDQG

Small-scale or pilot projects are more easily and quickly prepared and implemented with already available resources. In this way, you can achieve immediate improvements. At the VDPHWLPHWKHH[SHULHQFHZLWKWKHȑUVWVWHSVZLOOKHOS\RXWRSODQWKHIROORZLQJVWHSVEDVHG on more precise data basis. Positive experiences will help to convince the stakeholders of the success of proposed measures, as you can directly show how it works. Try to set realistic targets for short periods, such as one to three year periods. These targets should be, however, SDUWRIDJOREDODQGPRUHORQJWHUPFRQFHSWWKDWZLOOEHIXOȑOOHGVWHSE\VWHS

11.3.4 Designing Faecal Sludge Collection The choice for selection of demand-driven sludge collection or planned sludge collection are discussed below:

In general, vault emptying and sludge collection is driven by the demand of the toilet owners, DQGLVȑQDQFHGE\GLUHFWIHHV7KLVV\VWHPXVXDOO\ZRUNVZHOODQGPRVWO\WKHUHLVQRUHDVRQWR change it. Both public utilities and the private sector can provide this service.

However, in certain cases it might be impossible to leave the initiative for sludge emptying to the householders. This is especially the case when environmental problems are caused EHFDXVH VOXGJH LV QRW UHPRYHG RȻWHQ HQRXJK )RU H[DPSOH VHSWLF WDQNV PD\ ORVH WKHLU removal capacity when too much sludge has accumulated, leading to considerable carry- over of pollutants into groundwater, drains and surface waters.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 166 MODULE XI

Introducing a planned sludge collection where the authorities take the initiative for emptying households facilities is a complex task. You will need a considerably increased management capacity of the service provider, comprising a detailed databank of the city's toilet facilities and their emptying dates, a good planning capacity, and the corresponding technical equipment. You will need to inculcate the necessary understanding and the DZDUHQHVVLQWKHKRXVHKROGHUVDERXWWKHLUGXW\WRHPSW\WKHLUIDFLOLWLHVPRUHRȻWHQ

11.3.4.1 Improving hygiene when Sludge is handled Hygiene with sludge handling is usually an important issue when manual pit or vault emptying is common. The workers – whether independent or employees of private or municipal enterprises – are seldom aware of the health risks, and may use no protection GXULQJWKHLUZRUN

11.3.4.2 Ensuring sludge is transported to the desired site One major cause of indiscriminate dumping of FS is the lack of a disposal site. The collectors may dump the sludge in other sites or sell it to farmers, even if a treatment plant or safe disposal site is available. Therefore, you will have to make sure that the collected sludge actually reaches the desired site. The most important aspect is to locate the disposal sites such that transport to the sites is neither expensive nor uncomfortable. Additionally, you may need to provide corresponding incentives to the workers, to motivate them to do their MREHȞȑFLHQWO\2ȻWHQZRUNHUVPD\HDUQPRUHIURPVHOOLQJVOXGJHWRIDUPHUVWKDQIURPWKHLU salary. Workers also may dump the sludge as close to the area of collection as possible to be able to make additional collection tours on their own account.

7KHLQGLVSHQVDEOHFRQGLWLRQIRUSURYLGLQJDQHȞIHFWLYHLQFHQWLYHV\VWHPLVWKDWWKHGHVLJQHU understands very well the actual ways in which the workers earn money and what motivates them.

11.3.4.3 Improving technical equipment Technical problems relating to the removal of sludge from sanitation facilities, such as inaccessibility of houses by truck-mounted vacuum tankers, are very common. Many types of sludge evacuation pumps and vehicles have been developed for that kind of situation. Solving these problems is mostly a matter of providing funds for investment in new equipment.

A very frequent problem in developing countries is lack of capacities for O&M of equipment. In many cases the central government or external donors provide the funds for investment in equipment and facilities, but the projects fail because O&M has been neglected. It is therefore of prime importance to make sure that revenues from the services cover the O&M FRVWV$UUDQJHPHQWVIRUDQHȞȑFLHQWDQGUHOLDEOHPDLQWHQDQFHV\VWHPDWWKHVHUYLFHSURYLGHU are critical.

Whenever new equipment is purchased or new operation maintenance procedures are LQWURGXFHGWKHSODQQHUQHHGVWRPDNHVXUHWKDWVWDȞIUHFHLYHVVXȞȑFLHQWWUDLQLQJRQWKHQHZ equipment and procedures.

11.3.5 Designing Faecal Sludge Treatment

11.3.5.1 Providing an attractive disposal point 7KHȑUVWDQGPDLQIXQFWLRQRI)6WUHDWPHQWLVWRJHWULGRIWKHVOXGJH,WLVLPSHUDWLYHWRRȞIHU a reliable disposal point, where no harm is created to the environment and public health. As already discussed, you have to think carefully as to how to make the disposal point attractive enough to ensure that all sludge reaches the facility.

167 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION PLANNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

The most important factor is the location. You must prevent transport costs for delivering sludge to the facility becoming too high. In the case of big cities with large distances and PXFKWUDȞȑF\RXVKRXOGSUREDEO\IDYRXUVHYHUDOGHFHQWUDOL]HGWUHDWPHQWIDFLOLWLHVRYHURQH central facility.

Appropriate incentive systems should make sure that all collected FS reaches the plant. For example, rather than preventing private companies from delivering sludge to the plant, you should motivate them to do that. You will have to provide incentives to the workers if the sense of responsibility within the enterprises is low, or the enforcement of corresponding UXOHVLVGLȞȑFXOW

When choosing the treatment sites, it is very important to take into account the resistance or acceptance of the population near the sites or the access roads. Possible negotiations for compensation measures should be held early in the plan. It is important to include land for SRVVLEOHH[WHQVLRQVRIWKHSODQWDQGIRUEXȞIHU]RQHVZKHQSXUFKDVLQJRUUHVHUYLQJODQGIRU sludge treatment.

11.3.5.2 Minimizing impacts from treatment and treatment products ,QJHQHUDOSURGXFWVIURPDVOXGJHWUHDWPHQWSODQWLQFOXGHRGRXUVOLTXLGHȞȠOXHQWDQGGULHG sludge.

Odours are more a problem in term of public acceptance than a real danger for health and environment. Nevertheless, this is reason enough to take the odour problem very seriously. You can reduce odour emissions by choosing adequate treatment technologies or locating the plant at an adequate distance from human settlements.

$JULFXOWXUDOUHXVHRIOLTXLGHȞȠOXHQWIURPVOXGJHWUHDWPHQWLVLQPRVWFDVHVLPSRVVLEOHGXHWR WKHKLJKVDOWFRQWHQW7KHUHIRUHWKHHȞȠOXHQWZLOOXVXDOO\EHGLVFKDUJHGLQWRWKHHQYLURQPHQW UHGXFWLRQRIWKHSROOXWDQWFRQWHQWLQWKHHȞȠOXHQWLVWKHPDLQFRQFHUQ$XWKRULWLHVJHQHUDOO\ apply wastewater discharge standards as sludge treatment objectives. However, it may be WRXJKWRIXOȑOVWULFWGLVFKDUJHVWDQGDUGVZLWKDUHDVRQDEOHWHFKQRORJLFDOLQSXWEHFDXVH)6 has 10-100 times higher and much more variable pollutant concentrations than municipal wastewater. Nevertheless, treating the sludge prior to discharge will, in itself, constitute VXEVWDQWLDO KHDOWK DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO LPSURYHPHQWV HYHQ LI VWULQJHQW HȞȠOXHQW TXDOLW\ VWDQGDUGVFDQQRWEHPHW+RZHYHUDSUDJPDWLFDSSURDFKFRQFHUQLQJHȞȠOXHQWVWDQGDUGV LVRȻWHQYHU\GLȞȑFXOW2ȞȑFLDOVPD\LQVLVWRQDSSO\LQJZDVWHZDWHUVWDQGDUGVEHFDXVHWKH\ DUHQRWIDPLOLDUZLWK)6DQGLWVVSHFLȑFLW\$SRVVLEOHFRPSURPLVHPD\EHWRVHWDUHPRYDO SHUFHQWDJH UDWKHU WKDQ DQ DEVROXWH HȞȠOXHQW FRQFHQWUDWLRQ DV WUHDWPHQW REMHFWLYH )RU example, Ghana has applied a 90% BOD and faecal coliform removal standard for a sludge treatment plant in Accra.

The solid treatment product should have adequate moisture content (<80%) to allow VDIHGLVSRVDOLQVDQLWDU\ODQGȑOOV,GHDOO\LWVKRXOGEHRIDGHTXDWHTXDOLW\IRUDJULFXOWXUDO reuse. Sludge to be used in agriculture has to be chemically safe and not contain disease- transmitting organisms beyond tolerance limits. Excluding high-tech treatments, complete pathogen destruction can only be achieved by thermophilic composting or storage over extended periods (half to one year). Additionally, sludge for agricultural use has to be delivered in acceptable form to the farmers. You have to make sure that your product corresponds to the consumers’ wish. It would be advantageous to locate the treatment plant close to the sites of reuse to reduce transport costs. However, the priority must still be to locate the plant close to the area of sludge collection.

11.3.5.3 Assuring operations and maintenance of the plant As already discussed, you have to pay very close attention to the O&M of the proposed IDFLOLWLHV&KRRVHWHFKQRORJLHVWKDWDUHDGDSWHGWRWKHWHFKQRORJLFDODQGȑQDQFLDOPHDQVRI WKHRSHUDWRU3UHSDUHIRUFRUUHVSRQGLQJWUDLQLQJRIVWDȞI

11.3.6 Designing Faecal Sludge Reuse and Disposal

11.3.6.1 Reuse versus disposal ,QJHQHUDOWKHUHXVHRIVOXGJHVKRXOGEHSUHIHUUHGRYHUGLVSRVDORQODQGȑOOIRUVHYHUDOUHDVRQV • Commercialization of treated sludge can generate revenues.

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• 7KHQHHGIRUODQGȑOOVSDFHLVUHGXFHG • FS, in contrast to sewage sludge, has little chemical contamination and can therefore be considered a valuable resource. From a long-term point of view, the recycling of waste is always the preferable option.

You should only consider disposing the treated sludge if there is no need and market for a soil conditioner, or if the additional expenses for providing a product suitable for agricultural XVHFDQQRWEHMXVWLȑHG*HQHUDOO\WKHGLVSRVDORIWUHDWHGVOXGJHLVQRWSUREOHPDWLFDVORQJ DVWKHVOXGJHLVVXȞȑFLHQWO\GHK\GUDWHGDQGDVDQLWDU\ODQGȑOOLVDYDLODEOH

11.3.6.2 Developing a market for treated sludge )RUWKHFRPPHUFLDOL]DWLRQRIWKHWUHDWHGVOXGJH\RXZLOOQHHGWRVSHQGVXȞȑFLHQWHȞIRUWRQ developing the market for your product. You will have to identify potential customers and DQDO\VHWKHLUQHHGVDQGZLVKHV

'HȍQLQJ5HVSRQVLELOLWLHV&RPPXQLFDWLRQDQG&RRUGLQDWLRQ0HFKDQLVP

'HȍQLQJ&OHDU5HVSRQVLELOLWLHV Who will do what in FSM? Each task should be very clearly assigned to one of the involved parties. It is best if you can assign the responsibilities in a logical way. For example, one single municipal enterprise could carry out the sludge collection, operate the treatment facilities, and sell the fertilizer product. In a context favourable to privatization of public services, these WDVNVFRXOGEHDVVLJQHGWRGLȞIHUHQWSULYDWHFRPSDQLHVZKLFKDUHUHVSRQVLEOHWRDUHJXODWRU\ agency. In most cases, however, you will have to consider existing structures that are not easily FKDQJHDEOH,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRDYRLGFRQȠOLFWVDERXWFRPSHWHQFLHVDQGUHVSRQVLELOLWLHV7U\DV ZHOOWRGHȑQHFOHDUO\WKHUROHVRIRWKHUJRYHUQPHQWDORUJDQL]DWLRQV1*2VDQGFRPPXQLW\ members. Everyone involved in FSM should clearly know what they are meant to be doing and with whom they need to liaise.

11.3.7.2 Developing mechanisms for coordination /DFNRIFRRUGLQDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHGLȞIHUHQWJURXSVLQYROYHGPD\EHDFULWLFDOSUREOHP,W may be advantageous to install a committee where all involved groups are represented. However, you will have to ensure that one organization is responsible for the leadership of this committee, and that the committee's decisions result in action. It is essential that the committee's authority is recognized by all, best through higher government levels.

,WVKRXOGEHNHSWȑUPO\LQPLQGWKDW)60LVQRWDQLVRODWHGLVVXHLWLVFORVHO\OLQNHGDQG interconnected to other sanitation issues. Coordination with the other sanitation services is therefore indispensable during all stages of planning and day-to-day running. The above- mentioned committee should therefore be a sanitation committee dealing with all aspects of sanitation, including FSM.

11.3.7.3 Developing Mechanisms for Communication An ongoing dialogue and consultation with service users should become part of the routine of municipal service delivery. It may be best to assign this task to a third party such as an NGO that is skilled in community liaison. Again, communication with service users should not be limited to emptying of vaults and pits, but rather comprise all sanitation issues.

11.3.7.4 Raising public awareness For people who are not well informed, the need for FSM is less obvious than the need for water supply and clean toilets. Nonetheless, you will need the support of the householders for improvement of sludge management, because they will participate in its organization DQGȑQDQFLQJ

169 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION PLANNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT are institutionalized (e.g. hygienic education in schools). In many cases, you will also need to create the necessary awareness within the authorities and service providers.

11.4 Developing Financial Arrangements

11.4.1 Ensuring Sound Finances 7KHPDQDJHPHQWRI)6FDQRQO\EHVXFFHVVIXOLQDVXVWDLQDEOHZD\ZKHQLWVȑQDQFLQJLV HQVXUHG

Depending on the situation, it may be possible to generate revenues through licensing private companies for sludge collection, or through fees for disposal at the treatment site. In other contexts, however, fees for disposal at a treatment site may be a deterrent, and entrepreneurs may rather dump the sludge elsewhere. Always make the implementation of new components of FSM dependent on available resources, both for investment and operation costs. It is better to implement small-scale components, which actually work in a sustainable way, than to start highly ambitious projects, which may fail soon due to lack of funds for day-to-day running.

11.4.2 Using Financing as Steering Instrument Financial arrangements are not only about absolute coverage of costs, but also about intelligent ways to use money to motivate workers to do their job. Some examples of how WR SURYLGH LQFHQWLYHV IRU GLȞIHUHQW FRPSRQHQWV RI )6 PDQDJHPHQW KDYH EHHQ GLVFXVVHG HDUOLHU+RZHYHU\RXZLOOQHHGWRȑQGDQDUUDQJHPHQWWKDWZRUNVIRUWKHZKROHFKDLQRI)6 management. Try to get a clear idea of where revenues are generated and where the money ȠORZV'HSHQGLQJRQWKHORFDOVLWXDWLRQ\RXVKRXOGDUUDQJHWKHPRQH\ȠORZWRDFKLHYHWKH best results. Factors such as the general sense of responsibility, the danger of corruption, the dependence of workers on additional income, etc. play an important role. For instance, you could make the workers stakeholders in the income from sludge commercialization, which can motivate them to actually deliver sludge to the treatment plant and operate the plant properly.

11.5 Choosing Technology

11.5.1 Screening Available Technologies To choose the right technologies for equipment and facilities, you should consider all DYDLODEOH DQG FRPPRQO\ XVHG WHFKQRORJLHV LQ DQ REMHFWLYH ZD\ :LWK D ȑUVW VFUHHQLQJ considering general criteria and obvious local constraints, you can shortlist a number of potentially feasible technologies without doing a detailed examination. You should try to have at hand a small number of interesting options, which would be easier to thoroughly evaluate.

11.5.2 Pre-designing Potentially Feasible Technologies 7R PDNH DQ REMHFWLYH FRPSDULVRQ EHWZHHQ GLȞIHUHQW VFHQDULRV SRVVLEOH \RX ZLOO QHHG to imagine the same situation, the same basic conditions, and the same targets for each VFHQDULR)RUH[DPSOH\RXFRXOGFRPSDUHWUHDWPHQWSODQWVXVLQJGLȞIHUHQWWHFKQRORJLHVEXW DOOIXOȑOOLQJWKHUHTXLUHPHQWVIRUDFHUWDLQSODQQLQJKRUL]RQDQGIRUDVHWWUHDWPHQWJRDO You will have to develop preliminary designs and operating schemes to allow a detailed evaluation.

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 170 MODULE XI

11.5.3Evaluating the Options 2QFH \RX KDYH DW KDQG VHYHUDO VXȞȑFLHQWO\ GHWDLOHG VFHQDULRV \RX FDQ HYDOXDWH WKHP IROORZLQJ SUHYLRXVO\ HVWDEOLVKHG FULWHULD 7U\ WR GHȑQH FOHDU FULWHULD DQG LQGLFDWRUV IRU relative performance, process reliability and cost of the examined technologies. Using the preliminary designs, you will have to establish estimations regarding expected performance, investment and O&M costs. Try as well to predict how reliable the technologies will be in the JLYHQORFDOFRQGLWLRQV7KHȑQDOHYDOXDWLRQFDQEHGRQHXVLQJDPXOWLFULWHULDPDWUL[ZKHUH you attribute a valuation to each scenario and each criterion. In this way you will achieve a very objective selection of the technologies, and you will have in your hands a good database for further discussion with stakeholders.

11.6 Implementing the Concept

11.6.1 Implementation is Part of the Planning Process! 7KHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQVKRXOGQRWEHVHHQDVWKHȑQDOVWDJHRIWKHSODQQLQJSURFHVV7KHUH are great deal of learnings from the process of implementation and implementers and stakeholders should use the lessons learned for future initiatives. This principle should EH LQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG WKURXJK ȑ[HG SURFHGXUHV IRU PRQLWRULQJ DQG HYDOXDWLRQ RI WKH implemented components, and for the use of the acquired information before implementing further components.

11.6.2 Preparing Proposals Proposals should be prepared for each component and accordingly, should be adopted for implementation. For physical facilities such as a treatment plant, you will need to prepare technical designs, drawings, estimates and contract documentation. For procurement of equipment such as vacuum tankers, a detailed tender documents, including components IRUWKHWUDLQLQJRIVWDȞIVKRXOGEHSUHSDUHG3URSRVDOVIRUFRPSRQHQWVGHSHQGLQJRQKXPDQ UHVRXUFHLQSXWVVXFKDVWUDLQLQJSURJUDPPHVRUDZDUHQHVVFDPSDLJQVVKRXOGFOHDUO\GHȑQH ZKRLVJRLQJWRGRWKHZRUNKRZLWZLOOEHȑQDQFHGDQGKRZLWZLOOEHOLQNHGWRRWKHU components. Adoption and tendering process takes time which should be considered while planning.

11.6.3 Implementing Components Responsibility for carrying out the work for treatment facilities will usually be awarded to a conventional contractor. If possible you should divide the work into relatively small packages, which can be handled by smaller local contractors. This has the advantage of EHWWHUFRPSHWLWLRQEHWZHHQFRQWUDFWRUVDQGLWDOVRKHOSVWREXLOGORFDOFDSDFLW\(ȞȑFLHQW supervision is very important to ensure contractors provide quality work. If possible, good ZRUNVKRXOGEHUHZDUGHGDQGVXSHUYLVLRQVWDȞIDQGLPSOHPHQWLQJRUJDQL]DWLRQVKHOGWR account when the quality of work is poor. One way to ensure this is to involve people from WKHEHQHȑWLQJFRPPXQLWLHVLQWKHVXSHUYLVLRQRIZRUN

11.6.4 Monitoring and Evaluation The need for using experience from the implementation stage in planning has already been HPSKDVL]HG7KLVVXJJHVWVWKHQHHGIRUHȞIHFWLYHPRQLWRULQJDQGHYDOXDWLRQRILPSOHPHQWHG components. Monitoring takes place throughout the life of the programme, with information provided on how the monitored component is performing.

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11.7 Summary FSM planning is about understanding stakeholders’ interests, needs and constraints, and DFFRUGLQJO\ GHYLVLQJ DQ DSSURSULDWH DQG DFFHSWDEOH PDQDJHPHQW VFKHPH DQG ȑQDQFLDO mechanisms. It is also about assessing current capacity and ascertaining the capacity building requirements. Such an understanding can only be acquired through a thorough assessment of the initial situation. Experience in FSM shows that every solution should be FRQWH[WVSHFLȑFDQGLQWHJUDWHG0RUHRYHUH[SHULHQFHLQ$VLDGHPRQVWUDWHVWKDWDQ\QXPEHU of approaches can be successful when implemented in conjunction with a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework, clear delineation and appropriate delegation of roles and

171 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION PLANNING FOR FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT responsibilities, and dedicated public funding. This module set out an integrated planning DSSURDFKZKLFKVRXJKWWREOHQGWKHGLȞIHUHQWDFWLYLWLHVDQGLGHDVSUHVHQWHGLQWKLVWUDLQLQJ manual in a logical and structured way, in order to facilitate the work of an FSM planner or engineer in a city.

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173 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION Friedler, E. (2001). Water reuse – an integral part of water resources management: Israel as a case study. Water Policy 3, 29-39. *HVHOOVFKDȻWI¾U,QWHUQDWLRQDOH=XVDPPHQDUEHLW ,QWURGXFLQJ&LW\6DQLWDWLRQ3ODQ 7UDLQHU V0DQXDO'HXWVFKH*HVHOOVFKDȻWI¾U,QWHUQDWLRQDOH=XVDPPHQDUEHLW *,= *PE+ Hartmann, L. (1999). Historical development of wastewater treatment processes. Biotechnology Set, Second Edition, 3-16. Heinss, U., Larmie, S. A., & Strauss, M. (1998). Solids separation and pond systems for the treatment of fecal sludges in the tropics. Rep. by the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science (EAWAG). Hophmayer-Tokich, S. (2006). Wastewater Management Strategy: centralized v. decentralized technologies for small communities. The Center for Clean Technology and Environmental Policy, University of Twente, at the Cartesius Institute: Leeuwarden, The Netherlands. Indian Environmental Portal. (2017). National Environmental Policy, 2006. Retrieved from Indian Environmental Portal: http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/265376/ national-environment-policy-2006/. Indian Water Portal. Solid waste. Retrieved from Indian Water Portal: http://www. indiawaterportal.org/topics/solid-waste. Ingallinella A.M., Sanguinetti G., Koottatep, T., Montangero, A., & Strauss, M. (2002). The challenge of faecal sludge management in urban areas: Strategies, regulations and treatment options. Water Science and Technology, 46(10), 285-294. International Centre for Environment Audit and Sustainable Development. (2017). Policy Statement for the Abatement of Pollution, 1992. Retrieved from International Center for Environmental Audit and Sustainable Development: http://iced.cag.gov.in/?page_id=1034. IRCWASH. (2017). Strategic planning for municipal sanitation: A guide. Retrieved from IRCWASH: https://www.ircwash.org/resources/strategic-planning-municipal-sanitation- guide. Jackson, H.B. (1996). Global needs and developments in urban sanitation. In: D. Mara (Ed.), Low-Cost Sewerage, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. JNNURM Primers (n.d.) Community Participation Law, State Level Reforms. Retrieved from www.mumbaidp24seven.in/reference/6_CPLaw.pdf. Katukiza, A. Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C. B., Foppen, J. W. A., Kansiime, F. P. N. L., & Lens, P. N. L. (2012). Sustainable sanitation technology options for urban slums. Biotechnology advances, 30(5), 964-978. Katukiza A.Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C., Foppen, J.W, A., Kansiime, F., & Lens, P.N.L. .HQJQH,0.HQJQH(6$NRD$%HPPR1'RGDQH3+ .RQ«' 9HUWLFDOȠORZ constructed wetlands as an emerging solution for faecal sludge dewatering in developing countries. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 1(1), 13-19. Klingel, F., Montangero, A., Koné, D., & Strauss, M. (2002). Fecal sludge management in developing countries. A planning manual. Duebendorf, Switzerland, Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology (EAWAG). Department for Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC). Koné, D., & Strauss, M. (2004, September). Low-cost options for treating faecal sludges (FS) in developing countries–Challenges and performance. In 9th International IWA Specialist Group Conference on Wetlands Systems for Water Pollution Control and to the 6th International IWA Specialist Group Conference on Waste Stabilisation Ponds, Avignon, France (Vol. 27). Koottatep, T., Surinkul, N., Polprasert, C., Kamal, A.S.M., Koné, D., Montangero, A., Heinss, U., & Strauss, M. (2005). Treatment of faecal sludge in constructed wetlands in tropical climate: lessons learnt from seven years of operation. Water Science & Technology, 51(9), 119-126. Kumar, Sunil & Bhattacharyya, J.K. & Vaidya, A.N. & Chakrabarti, Tapan & Devotta, Sukumar & Akolkar, A.B.. (2008). Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities, and class II towns in India: An insight. Waste management (New York, N.Y.). 29. 883-95. 10.1016/j.wasman.2008.04.011

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 174 Mara, D. (Ed.). (1996). Low-cost sewerage (p. 14). John Wiley. Mara, D. Duncan (David Duncan), 1944- (1996). Low-cost sewerage. John Wiley, Chichester ; New York Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (India) (n.d.). Rajiv Awas Yojana: Community Participation Guidelines, 2013-2022. Retrieved from https://smartnet.niua.org/ FRQWHQWHGIFȞIFDDE Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (India). (n.d.). National Urban Livelihood Mission: Mission Document, 2013-2022. Retrieved from https://nulm.gov.in/PDF/NULM_ Mission/NULM_mission_document.pdf. Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (India). (n.d.). Rajiv Awas Yojana: Scheme Guidelines, 2013-2022. Retrieved from https://sPDUWQHWQLXDRUJFRQWHQWFGEEȞIGI 8a48-a8afc9af6325. Ministry of Urban Development (India) (2017). Guidelines for Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban): Revised. Ministry of Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation and Ministry of Urban Development (n.d.). Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission: Overview. Retrieved from http:// PRKXDJRYLQXSORDGXSORDGȑOHVȑOHV0LVVLRQ2YHUYLHZ(QJOLVK SGI National Development Council. (2011). Report of Sub Group on Urban Poverty and Slum of Expert Committee. National Urban Renewal Mission -NURM. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://mohua.gov.in/cms/ JNNURM.php NWSC (National Water and Sewerage Corporation) (2008). Kampala Sanitation Program (KSP): Feasibility study for sanitation master in Kampala, Uganda. 2WLV5-:ULJKW$ %DNDOLDQ$ *XLGHOLQHVIRUWKHGHVLJQRIVLPSOLȑHGVHZHUV Low-cost sewerage. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. PHEO. (2017). About us. Retrieved from Public Health Engineering Organisation, Odisha: http://pheoodisha.gov.in/portal-about-us/8. Planning Commission (2017). XII Five Year Plan 2012-17-Volume II-Economic Sector. Delhi: Sage Publications. PRASAD, D. R. URBAN BASIC SERVICES PROGRAMME IN INDIA: A CRITICAL EVALUATION. Program, P. W. R. F. F.-O. (2013). Business Case and Model Contract for a Septage Management Project Under A Public Private Partnership Arrangement. Ranade, S. N. (1960). Urban Community Development: its nature and scope. Community Development Bulletin, 67-71. Rangarajan, S. Mr.S.S.Ranganathan (2010,November 8). Frequently asked questions on wastewater. Retrieved from: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/questions/frequently-asked- questions-faq-wastewater-sewage-treatment-plants-stp Rao, Krishna C.; Kvarnstrom, E.; Di Mario, L.; Drechsel, Pay. 2016. Business models for fecal sludge management. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE).. 80p. (Resource Recovery and Reuse Series 06) doi: 10.5337/2016.213 Ross, Ian; Scott, Rebecca; Mujica, Ana; White, Zach; Smith, Mike. 2016. Fecal sludge management : diagnostics for service delivery in urban areas - tools and guidelines (English). Water and sanitation program technical paper; Water and sanitation program (WSP). Washington, D.C. : World Bank Group 6FK¾EHOHU3 3DUWLFLSDWLRQDQGSDUWQHUVKLSLQXUEDQLQIUDVWUXFWXUHPDQDJHPHQW 9RO 19). World Bank Publications. Seiple, T. E., Coleman, A. M., & Skaggs, R. L. (2017). Municipal wastewater sludge as a sustainable bioresource in the United States. Journal of environmental management, 197,

175 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION 673-680. SSWM. (2017). NUSP overview. Retrieved from Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management: https://www.sswm.info/pt-pt/node/7934 Strande, L., & Brdjanovic, D. (Eds.). (2014). Faecal sludge management: Systems approach for implementation and operation. IWA publishing. SUSANA. (2016). SFD promotion initiative. Retrieved from Sustainable Sanitation Alliance: http://www.susana.org/en/sfd/sfd-promotion-initiative. UNEP. (2017). Wastewater and stormwater collection. Retrieved from United Nations Environment Programme: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/freshwater/sb_ summary/3.asp. UNEP/GPA. (2000). Strategy Options for Sewage Management to Protect the Marine (QYLURQPHQW'HOȻW,+( United Nations. (2015). Sustainable Development Goals. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (1994). Guide to Faecal Sludge Treatment and Disposal. Document EP/625/R-94/002. Washington D.C. 20460. Unz, R. (1973). Microbiology of Waste Treatment. Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation), 47(6), 1559-1566 Wash Institute (2015). Faecal Sludge Management: Landscape Study of Practices, Challenges and Opportunities. Wash Institute. WBCSD. (2004). Doing Business with the Poor: A Field Guide. WHO. (2017). Sanitation. Retrieved from World Health Organization: http://www.who.int/ topics/sanitation/en/. WHO/UNEP. (1997). Water pollution control: A guide to the use of water quality management principles. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/ watpolcontrol/en/index.html. Wicken, J. (2008). Measuring sanitation: Outcomes as well as outputs. WaterAid, London. :LOGHUHU3$ 6FKUHȞI' 'HFHQWUDOL]HGDQGFHQWUDOL]HGZDVWHZDWHUPDQDJHPHQW a challenge for technology developers. Water Science and Technology, 41(1), 1-8. Yen-Phi, V. T., Rechenburg, A., Vinneras, B., Clemens, J., & Kistemann, T. (2010). Pathogens in septage in Vietnam. Science of the total environment, 408(9), 2050-2053.

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ANNEXURES 7.4 Decision Matrix 111 7.5 End Use of Treatment Product 111 7.6 Site Selection for Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant 119 7.7 Summary 124

MODULE IX: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Financial Models 144 9.3 Summary 154

REFERENCES 173

S. No. Institutions Litre Per Head Per Day 1 Hospital (including laundry) No. of beds exceeding 100 450 (per bed) No. of beds not exceeding 100 340 (per bed) 2 Hotels 180 (per bed) 3 Hostels 135 4 Nurses’ homes and medical quarters 135 5 Boarding schools/colleges 135 6 Restaurants 70 (per seat) 7 Airports and seaports 70 Junction stations and intermediate stations where mail or express 8 70 stoppage (both railway and bus stations) is provided 9 Terminal stations 45 45 (could be reduced to 25 where bathing facilities are 10 Intermediate stations (excluding mail and express stops) not provided) 11 Day schools/colleges 45 12 2ȞȑFHV 45 45 (could be reduced to 30 where no bathrooms are 13 Factories provided) 14 Cinemas, concert halls and theatres 15

Annexure II Standards for provision of toilets as prescribed in the Manual on Water Supply and Treatment (CPHEEO, 1999) are mentioned below:

Section 3.6: Each family dwelling unit on premises abutting a sewer or with a private sewage disposal system shall have, at least, one water closet (WC) and one kitchen sink. It is desirable that a bathroom with a tap or shower should be installed to meet the basic requirements of sanitation and personal hygiene.

Section 3.7: All other structures for human occupancy or use on premises abutting a sewer or with a private sewage disposal system shall have adequate sanitary facilities, but in no case OHVVWKDQRQH:&DQGRQHRWKHUȑ[WXUHIRUFOHDQLQJSXUSRVHV

Section 5.1: There shall be at least one water tap and arrangements for drainage in the vicinity of each WC or group of WCs in all buildings.

Section 5.2.1: 'ZHOOLQJVZLWKLQGLYLGXDOFRQYHQLHQFHVVKDOOKDYHDWOHDVWWKHIROORZLQJȑWWLQJV a) One bathroom provided with a tap b) One WC F 2QHVLQNHLWKHULQWKHȠORRURUUDLVHGIURPWKHȠORRUZLWKDWDS

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 178 Section 6.4.1: The minimum sanitary convenience to be provided at any railway station, bus station or bus terminal and seaports shall be as given below:

Nature of Station WC for Males WC for Females Urinals for Males only IRUȑUVWSHUVRQVDQGIRU IRUȑUVWSHUVRQVDQG Junction stations, intermediate IRUȑUVWSHUVRQVDQGIRU every additional 1,000 persons or 1 for every additional 1,000 stations and bus stations every additional 1,000 persons part thereof persons Terminal Stations and bus IRUȑUVWSHUVRQVDQGIRU IRUȑUVWSHUVRQVDQGIRU IRUȑUVWSHUVRQVDQG terminals every subsequent 2000 persons every subsequent 1000 persons or 1 for every subsequent 1000 or part thereof part thereof persons or part thereof

Section 6.4.1: The sanitary conveniences to be provided at airports shall be as follows:

Type of Airport WC for Males WC for Females Urinals for Males only Domestic airports (minimum) 2* 4* 2 For 200 persons 5 8 6 For 400 persons 9 15 12 For 600 persons 12 20 16 For 800 persons 16 26 20 For 1,000 persons 18 29 22 International airports For 200 persons 6 10 8 For 600 persons 12 20 16 For 1,000 persons 18 29 22

Note: 6HSDUDWHSURYLVLRQVKDOOEHPDGHIRUVWDȞIDQGZRUNHUV * At least one Indian style water closet shall be provided in each toilet. Assume 60 male to 40 female in any area

Section 6.4.3: Water closet requirements

S. No. Establishments For Male Personal For Female Personal 1 Building 1 for every 25 persons or part thereof 1 for every 15 persons or part thereof 1 for 1 to 12 persons 1 for 1 to 15 persons 1 for 13 to 25 persons 2 for 16 to 35 persons 3 for 26 to 40 persons 3 for 36 to 65 persons 4 for 41 to 57 persons 2 Factories 4 for 66 to 100 persons 5 for 58 to 77 persons From 101 to 200 persons add at the rate of 3% 6 for 78 to 100 persons For over 200 persons add at the rate of 2.5% From 101 to 200 persons add at the rate of 5% For over 200 persons add at the rate of 4% 1 per 100 persons up to 400 persons 3 per 100 persons up to 200 persons For over 400 persons, add at the rate of 1 per For over 200 persons, add at the rate of 2 per Cinemas, concert halls and 250 persons or part thereof 100 persons or part thereof 3 theatres FOR MALE STAFF FOR FEMALE STAFF 1 for 1 to 15 persons 1 for 1 to 12 persons 2 for 16 to 35 persons 2 for 13 to 25 persons 1 per 200 persons up to 400 persons; and for 1 per 100 persons up to 200 persons, and for over 400 persons, add at the rate of 1 per 250 over 200 persons, add at the rate of 1 per 150 Art Galleries, Libraries and persons or part thereof persons or part thereof 4 Museums FOR MALE STAFF FOR FEMALE STAFF 1 for 1 to 15 persons 1 for 1 to 12 persons 2 for 16 to 35 persons 2 for 13 to 25 persons

179 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION In-patient ward Hospitals, indoor and outdoor 1 for every 8 beds or part thereof 5 patient wards Outpatient ward 1 for every 100 persons or part thereof 2 for every 100 persons or part thereof For administrative buildings 1 for every 25 persons or part thereof 1 for every 15 persons or part thereof Hospitals (administrative )RUPHGLFDOVWDȞITXDUWHUV KRVWHOW\SH 6 EXLOGLQJVPHGLFDOVWDȞI quarters and nurses’ homes) 1 per 4 persons 1 per 4 persons For nurses’ homes (hostel type) 1 per 4 persons or part thereof 1 per 4 persons or part thereof )RUUHVLGHQWLDOSXEOLFDQGVWDȞI 1 per 8 persons omitting occupants of the room with attached water-closets; minimum of 2 if both sexes are lodged For public rooms 1 per 100 persons up to 400 persons; and For 2 per 100 persons up to 200 persons over 400, add at the rate of 1 per 250 persons or For over 200, add at the rate of 1 per 250 7 Hotels part thereof persons or part thereof )RUQRQUHVLGHQWLDOVWDȞI 1 for 1 to 12 persons 1 for 1 to 15 persons 2 for 13 to 25 persons 2 for 16 to 35 persons 3 for 26 to 40 persons 3 for 36 to 65 persons 4 for 41 to 57 persons 4 for 66 to 100 persons 5 for 58 to 77 persons 6 for 78 to 100 persons 1 for 50 seats up to 200 seats 1 for 50 seats up to 200 seats For over 200 seats, add at the rate of 1 per 100 For over 200 seats, add at the rate of 1 per 100 seats or part thereof seats or part thereof FOR FEMALE STAFF FOR MALE STAFF 1 for 1 to 12 persons 8 Restaurants 1 for 1 to 15 persons 2 for 13 to 25 persons 2 for 16 to 35 persons 3 for 26 to 40 persons 3 for 36 to 65 persons 4 for 41 to 57 persons 4 for 66 to 100 persons 5 for 58 to 77 persons 6 for 78 to 100 persons Nursery schools 1 per 15 pupils or part thereof Schools and educational For educational institutions (non-residential) 9 institutions 1 per 40 pupils or part thereof 1 per 25 pupils or part thereof For educational institutions (residential) 1 for every 8 pupils or part thereof 1 for every 6 pupils or part thereof )RUUHVLGHQWVDQGUHVLGHQWLDOVWDȞI 1 for every 8 persons or part thereof 1 for every 6 persons or part thereof )RUQRQUHVLGHQWLDOVWDȞI 1 for 1 to 12 persons 1 for 1 to 15 persons 2 for 13 to 25 persons 2 for 16 to 35 persons 3 for 26 to 40 persons 10 Hostels 3 for 36 to 65 persons 4 for 41 to 57 persons 4 for 66 to 100 persons 5 for 58 to 77 persons 6 for 78 to 100 persons Rooms where outsiders are received 1 per 100 persons up to 400 persons 2 per 100 persons up to 200 persons For over 400 persons, add at the rate of 1 for 250 For over 200 persons, add at the rate of 1 for persons or part thereof 100 persons or part thereof 11 Fruit and vegetable markets 2 min., and an additional 1 for every 50 persons

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 180 Urinal requirements

S. No. Establishments Only For Male Personal Nil up to 6 persons 1 for 7 to 20 persons 2 for 21 to 45 persons 1 Building 3 for 46 to 70 persons 4 for 71 to 100 persons From 101 to 200 persons add at the rate of 3% For over 200 persons, add at the rate of 2.5% Nil up to 6 persons 1 for 7 to 20 persons 2 for 21 to 45 persons 2 Factories 3 for 46 to 70 persons 4 for 71 to 100 persons From 101 to 200 persons add at the rate of 3% For over 200 persons, add at the rate of 2.5% 1 for 25 persons or part thereof FOR MALE STAFF 3 Cinemas, concert halls and theatres Nil up to 6 persons 1 for 7 to 20 persons 2 for 21 to 45 persons 1 per 50 persons FOR MALE STAFF 4 Art galleries, libraries and museums Nil up to 6 persons 1 for 7 to 20 persons 2 for 21 to 45 persons OUT PATIENTS WARD 5 Hospitals, Indoor and Outdoor patient wards 1 for every 50 persons or part thereof For administrative building Nil up to 6 persons 1 for 7 to 20 persons +RVSLWDOV DGPLQLVWUDWLYHEXLOGLQJVPHGLFDOVWDȞI 2 for 21 to 45 persons 6 quarters and nurses’ homes) 3 for 46 to 70 persons 4 for 71 to 100 persons From 101 to 200 persons add at the rate of 3% For over 200 persons, add at the rate of 2.5% For public rooms 1 for every 50 persons )RUQRQUHVLGHQWLDOVWDȞI Nil up to 6 persons 7 Hotels 1 for 7 to 20 persons 2 for 21 to 45 persons 3 for 46 to 70 persons 4 for 71 to 100 persons 1 per 50 seats FOR MALE STAFF Nil up to 6 persons 8 Restaurants 1 for 7 to 20 persons 2 for 21 to 45 persons 3 for 46 to 70 persons 4 for 71 to 100 persons For educational institutions (non-residential) 1 per 20 pupils or part thereof 9 Schools and educational institutions For educational institutions (residential) 1 for every 25 pupils or part thereof

181 I TRAINING MANUAL ON NON-SEWERED URBAN SANITATION )RUUHVLGHQWVDQGUHVLGHQWLDOVWDȞI 1 for 25 persons or part thereof )RUQRQUHVLGHQWLDOVWDȞI Nil up to 6 persons 1 for 7 to 20 persons 10 Hostels 2 for 21 to 45 persons 3 for 46 to 70 persons 4 for 71 to 100 persons Rooms where outsiders are received 1 per 50 persons or part thereof 11 Fruit and vegetable markets Not less than 2 for every 50 persons

Annexure III 1RUPVDQGVSHFLȑFDWLRQVIRUFRPPXQLW\DQGSXEOLFWRLOHWVDVSHU6%0 8 JXLGHOLQHVDUH described below:

A community toilet block is a shared facility provided for a group of residents or an entire settlement. Community toilet blocks are used primarily in low-income informal settlements where space and/or land are constraints. Pour ȠOXVKRSWLRQLVJHQHUDOO\XVHGLQWKLVNLQGRI266,WLVDOVRDGYLVDEOHWRSURYLGHIDFLOLWLHVOLNHZDVKLQJEDWKLQJDQGD Description VPDOOLQFLQHUDWRULQWKHEORFNIRUWKHXVHRIWKHFRPPXQLW\3XEOLFWRLOHWVDUHSURYLGHGIRUWKHȠORDWLQJSRSXODWLRQ general public in places such as markets, train stations or other public areas, where there is a considerable number of people passing by. Recommended sizes of septic tanks for community/ public toilets (up to 300 users) is given below in Table Liquid Depth in Metre (Cleaning Interval of) No. of Users Length (metres) Breadth (metres) 2 years 3 years 50 5.0 2.00 1.0 1.24 100 7.5 2.65 1.0 1.24 Septic tanks for public / 150 10.0 3.00 1.0 1.24 community 200 12.0 3.30 1.0 1.24 Toilets 300 15.0 4.00 1.0 1.24 Note 1: A provision of 300 mm should be made for free board. Note 2: The sizes of septic tanks are based on certain assumptions on peak discharges, as estimated in IS: 2470 (Part 1) and while choosing the size of septic tank exact calculations shall be made. Note 3: For population over 100, the tank may be divided into independent parallel chambers for maintenance and cleaning Community One seat for 35 men toilet: One seat for 25 women Norms for toilet Adequate bathing facilities seats S. No. Sanitary Unit For Males For Females 1 per 100 persons up to 2 for 100 persons up to 200 400 persons persons 1 WC For over 400 persons, add For over 200 persons, add Public Toilets at the rate of one per 250 at the rate of one per 100 - Norms for persons or part thereof persons or part thereof Toilet seats 2 Ablution tap 1 in each WC One in each WC 1 for 50 persons or 3 Urinal Nil part thereof One per W. C. and urinal 4 Wash basin One per W. C. provided provided 1. Bio digester with reed bed systems/soak pits Treatment 2. Bio tank units 3. Septic tank with soak pits It must be ensured that adequate water supply arrangement shall be made for proper functioning and upkeep of Additional WRLOHWV:KHUHYHUSRVVLEOH8/%VVKRXOGHQVXUHWKDWSXEOLFDQGFRPPXQLW\WRLOHWVDUHRXWȑWWHGZLWKVRODUSDQHOVIRU Infrastructure the generation of electricity to ensure uninterrupted power supply and bring down O&M costs

CENTRE FOR POLICY RESEARCH I 182