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Using the Internet for Social Science Research Hooley, Tristram, John Marriott, and Jane Wellens. "A brief history of online research methods." What is Online Research?: Using the Internet for Social Science Research. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012. 7–24. The 'What is?' Research Methods Series. Bloomsbury Collections. Web. 28 Sep. 2021. <http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781849665544.ch-002>. Downloaded from Bloomsbury Collections, www.bloomsburycollections.com, 28 September 2021, 09:28 UTC. Copyright © Tristram Hooley, John Marriott and Jane Wellens 2012. You may share this work for non-commercial purposes only, provided you give attribution to the copyright holder and the publisher, and provide a link to the Creative Commons licence. 2 A brief history of online research methods Online research has developed rapidly. Internet technologies are them- selves relatively new, and their social impacts newer still. The theories and methodologies of online research have therefore developed in a techno- logical and social environment that has changed year-on-year. This chapter will trace the interweaving of online research methods with this changing technological environment. It will reflect upon how methodological approaches and technologies have interacted, and how these interactions have created tensions and an imperative for continual methodological innovation. All social research methods develop in relation to social, political and intellectual factors. How researchers approach their investigations is clearly intertwined with the world in which they live, and the subjects and themes that they are investigating. Various writers have traced the history of social research methods, including Platt and Alastalo (Platt 1996; Alastalo 2008). However, the latter argues that a comprehensive history of social research methods has still yet to be written because of the fragmented and multi- disciplinary nature of what is being studied. In the absence of a definitive history, writers have tended to focus on a particular method or group of methods, such as qualitative approaches (Vidich and Lyman 1994; Platt 2002; Seale 2004), quantitative approaches (de Landsheere 1997; Tonkiss 2004; Cresswell 2005) and mixed method approaches (Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998; Cresswell 2003). Historical methodological reviews tend to argue that there has been a gradual increase in the pace of method- ological development, but recognize that research methods are socially constructed and contingent on context. However, none of these historical methodological reviews contains much consideration of the development of online research methods, although many recognize that it is likely to transform research methods in the future. This chapter addresses this omission in the historical literature by examining how technological changes, and in particular those associated 7 8 What is online research? with the growth of the internet, have impacted on the development of methodological thinking and practice. It is useful to begin with a timeline setting out key developments, in both the development of the internet and online research methods. Table 2.1 Historical timeline Developments in internet Developments in online social technologies research methods 1960s Development of early forms of computer-mediated communication. 1962: Licklider sets out a vision for a ‘Galactic’ or ‘Global’ ‘Information Network’. 1970s 1973: first mobile phone demonstrated (Dr Martin Cooper of Motorola). 1979: first commercially automated cellular network (Tokyo, Japan). 1980s 1983: first commercial handheld 1986: Kiesler and Sproull undertake (not linked to a car) mobile an online survey (Kiesler and Sproull phone (the DynaTAC 8000x). 1986). 1989: demonstration of the Invention of first computer packages World Wide Web by Tim for the analysis of qualitative data. Berners-Lee. 1990– 1990: public release of the 1993: Rheingold uses the term 1994 World Wide Web. ‘cyberspace’. 1990: first search tool for the 1994: Foster conducts online web (Archie) was created. asynchronous interview using email. 1993: first web crawler 1994: first methodological discussion (Wanderer) was created. of online interviewing (Brotherson 1993: first graphical browser 1994). (Mosaic). 1995: Journal of Computer-Mediated 1994: Netscape browser Communication began publication. launched. 1994: development of first popular search engines (Alta Vista, Lycos, Excite and Yahoo). A brief history of online research methods 9 Developments in internet Developments in online social technologies research methods 1995– 1995: Internet Explorer 1995: Correll writes about ‘internet 1999 launched. ethnographies’. 1995: first public video- 1995: first online web experiment conference took place. conducted. 1996: instant messaging services 1995: first comprehensive list of online launched. psychological experiments published 1997: Google released on the web. 1997: first weblog (blog) is 1996: explosion of debate around attributed to Jorn Barger’s online research ethics with papers Robot Wisdom Web site. published by Allen, Boehlefeld, 1997: SixDegrees.com is King, Reid and Thomas (Allen 1996; launched. Often seen as the Boehlefeld 1996; King 1996; Reid first social networking site. 1996; Thomas 1996). 1997: Krantz et al. publish an online psychology experiment in an academic journal (Krantz, Ballard and Scher 1997). 1997: World Wide Web and Contemporary Cultural Theory conference took place at Drake University. 2000– 2000: 400 million people across 2000: launch of the Association of 2004 the globe use the internet. Internet Researchers. 2001: first commercial launch of 2000: publication of a number of 3G (Third Generation) mobile key texts in the field, for example, phones. Mail and Internet Surveys. The 2001: first Access Grid Tailored Design Method (Dillman developed at the University of 2000); Virtual Ethnography (Hine Manchester. 2000); Internet communication and 2003: Myspace launched. qualitative research: A handbook 2004: development of Voice for researching online (Mann and Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) Stewart 2000). telephone service. 2001: The Internet Research Handbook 2004: Mozilla Firefox web published (O’Dochartaigh 2001). browser released (the 2nd 2002: publication of Online Social most popular current browser Sciences (Batinic, Reips and Bosnjak after Internet Explorer). 2002); Internet Research Methods, 2004: O’Reilly uses the term Hewson, Yule, Laurent and Vogel ‘web 2.0’. 2003); Standards for internet-Based 2004: Facebook launched. Experimenting (Reips 2002a). 2002: publication of the Association of Internet Researchers guidelines on online research ethics (Ess 2002). 10 What is online research? Developments in internet Developments in online social technologies research methods 2005– 2006: Twitter launched. 2005: Virtual Methods (Hine 2005) 2009 2007: iPhone launched. 2006: International Journal of Internet 2008: Google Chrome browser Science begins publication. launched. 2008: The Handbook of Online Research Methods (Fielding, Lee and Blank 2008). 2009– 2010: iPad launched. 2009: publication of Netnography: 2011 2011: number of internet users Doing Ethnographic Research estimated as 2 billion world Online (Kozinets 2009) and Online wide. Research Essentials (Russell and Purcell 2009). The growth of the internet Computers have been used to facilitate communication and information sharing since the early 1960s. For example, instant messaging services such as Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) and Multics (Multi-plexed Information and Computing Service) were introduced, making computer- mediated communication a reality. The concept of a network of comput- ers allowing people to communicate with each other was established in the US for Cold War military use by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962, who described it as a ‘Galactic’ or ‘Global’ ‘Information Network’ (Leiner, Cerf, Clark, Kahn, Kleinrock, Lynch, Postel, Roberts and Wolff 2009). Licklider envisaged a global network of computers allowing researchers to share information and ideas. The internet was therefore developed as a research tool, although not in the first instance as a tool for social data collection. The period from the 1960s until 1990 was a time of slow and steady growth (Lee, Fielding and Blank 2008), with the internet increasingly taking on an international, and heavily academic, character. The trans- formation of this network of computers into a mass medium only really happened when Tim Berners-Lee developed, and then demonstrated, the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1989 and then released it to the public in 1990, based on a text formatting system called Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML). HTML was important because it allowed documents to be displayed almost identically on any computer world wide (Odih 2004). A brief history of online research methods 11 From 1990, the pace of change around internet technologies acceler- ated with the development of browsers (tools for reading and accessing the web) such as Mosaic and then Netscape, and search tools like Archie, WebCrawler and Alta Vista. With the launch of Internet Explorer (1995) and Google (1997), the elements were in place to enable the web to expand rapidly and to become a central part of people’s social, cultural and working lives. Browsers enabled people to use the web as an information and enter- tainment source, while search engines allowed people to find and recall resources. However, alongside these developments was a range of others which expanded the internet’s potential as a mode of communication. In 1995 the first public video-conference
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