Notes

1 EU–Latin American Interregionalism

1. Hettne (2000) explains that presence is an expression of the impact of the region on the external world and does not depend on a purposive policy to influence, whereas actorness is a variable based on conscious organized efforts to shape the external world in accordance with the values, interests, and identity of the actor.

2 EU Policies towards

1. ‘Coherence can be defined as a principle that guides foreign policy. In the case of the EU, coherence indicates, on the one hand, the degree of congru- ence between the external policies of the Member States and that of the EU (vertical direction) while, on the other hand, it refers to the level of internal coordination of EU policies (horizontal direction)’ (Koehler 2010: 58). 2. Smith means by hybrid ‘a political, institutional and legal structure derived from heterogeneous sources, or composed of elements of different or incon- gruous kinds’ (Smith 2012: 700). 3. According to the 2013 ECHO Annual Report, ECHO signed humanitarian agreements for implementation with 115 NGOs (48 per cent of the total), 16 UN agencies (42 per cent), three international organizations (9 per cent), and two partners of ECHO flight (1 per cent). 4. The GSP covers three separate regimes: The standard arrangement (GSP) pro- vides for duty reductions; the specific incentive arrangement (GSP+) offers deep tariff cuts for vulnerable countries that ratified and implemented inter- national conventions relating to human and labour rights, environment, and good governance; and the Everything but Arms arrangement (EBA) offers full duty-free, quota free access for all products except arms and ammunition for 49 Less Developed Countries (LDCs) on 99 per cent of all tariff lines. 5. The long-term aim of the Action Plan is sustainable forest management. Taken as a single market, the is one of the largest consumers of timber products in the world. Increasing demand for legally sourced timber in EU and other markets will be essential to help drive reductions in illegal logging and wider improvements in forest governance in South America.

3 The Summits

1. The Contadora Group was an initiative launched in the early 1980s by the foreign ministers of , , , and to con- tribute to the pacification the military conflicts in , , and , which were threatening to destabilize the entire Central American region.

180 Notes 181

2. The EPC was launched informally in 1970 before being formally enshrined in the Single European Act (SEA) in 1987. The main feature of EPC was consultation among the Member States on foreign policy issues.

4 Association Agreements

1. A combination of democratic and authoritarian practices that guaranteed stable, effective government with minimal oppression. 2. Morris argues that ‘limited support linking democracy to lower levels of cor- ruption and success at combating corruption ...the defeat of the PRI at the state level and the rise of opposition-controlled state executives did seem to play a role in lowering the overall levels of corruption and perception, but the impact seemed to diminish somewhat over time’ (191). 3. ‘Third generation’ agreement aimed at stepping up and diversifying trade and providing for very extensive cooperation (including investment promo- tion) covering not only economic and industrial aspects but also culture, environment, training, drug abuse control, tourism, etc. 4. The institutional framework of SICA includes Guatemala, El Salvador, , Nicaragua, and Panama. Belize joined in 2000 as a full member, while the Dominican Republic became a full member in 2013. It also includes 21 observers: ten regional (Mexico, Chile, , and , among others) and eleven extra-regional (European Union, Spain, Holy See, Taiwan, among others).

5 Alternative Strategies

1. Many Peruvians looked kindly on the government of Alberto Fujimori, which overcame both hyperinflation and the Maoist terrorists of the Shining Path in the 1990s. However, the legitimacy of the Fujimori Administration eroded gradually after he sent troops to close down Congress in 1992 and later in the 1990s several scandals of corruption involved high official of his administration. 2. ECHO has invested 65.5 million, more than one-third of all funds allocated to South America, to disaster preparedness activities in the region.

6 Regional Partners

1. emerged only after the first democratic elections held in in 1983, Brazil and in 1985 and Paraguay in 1989. As opposed to the period between 1946 and 1991, where the region experienced 23 coups and coups attempts, since Mercosur came into force the possibility of a radical deviation from democracy is less likely as it happened in the 2006 crisis in Paraguay. 2. During the accession process, Paraguay refused to grant Venezuela full mem- bership and it was only in June 2012, when Paraguay was suspended from the bloc, that Venezuela became a full member of Mercosur. 3. They receive tariff reductions, but are not required to impose the common external tariff that applies to full MERCOSUR members. 182 Notes

4. The CARIFORUM members are the following: Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Suriname, Saint Lucia, St. Christopher and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. The Group also allows observer status for other Caribbean territories such as the British and Dutch Overseas Territories and Countries (OCTs) as well as the French Overseas Departments in the Caribbean (DOMs).

7 Tense Relationships

1. The Helms-Burton Law was created by some of the most conservative ele- ments of the North American establishment: the Republican Senator for North Carolina Jesse Helms and the Democratic representative from Illinois, Dan Burton. 2. The law, and its third article, allowed for compensation to be paid to people whose property had been expropriated by the Revolution and was now being used by companies from the European Union. Article 4 denied entry to the United States of foreign citizens involved in the trafficking of expropriated property, with this violating the usual international laws, which prohibited such extraterritorial methods. 3. The country’s population and culture were heavily shaped by immigrants from throughout Europe, with Italy and Spain providing the largest percent- age of newcomers from 1860 to 1930. 4. A fund that buys securities in distressed investments, such as high-yield bonds in or near default, or equities that are in or near bankruptcy. 5. In 2013, residents of the Falkland Islands voted overwhelmingly to remain a British Overseas Territory. Argentina has argued that it inherited the islands from the Spanish crown in 1767 and the islands were seized by Britain in 1833, but the UK says it had long previously established a settlement there and never relinquished sovereignty. 6. The investigation revealed that Argentine and Indonesian biodiesel producers were dumping their products on the EU market. The dumped exports had a significant adverse effect on the financial and operational performance of European manufacturers. The EU also imposed an additional duty of 18.9 per cent for Indonesia. 7. ICSID, the Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce (SCC). 8. These dialogues were in the following areas: society and information technol- ogy, satellite navigation (GALILEO), economic and financial affairs, coopera- tion on human rights, energy, and education and culture. Index

ACP, 132–5, 149 CACM, 83 Africa, 20, 35, 38, 40, 53, 98, 100, 103, CAFTA-DR, 86 132, 133, 140 CAN, 5, 6 agriculture, 58, 103, 145 Capriles, Henrique, 153 ALBA, 16 Caracas Declaration, 17 Alban, 38, 42 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 58–9, 98 Al-Invest, 44, 151 CARICOM, 131,149 ALFA, 46 CARIFORUM Alfonsin, Raul, 161 overview, 130–2 ALTHEA, 79 EU relations, 132–6 Aylwin, Patricio, 78 Castro,Fidel,60 Amsterdam (Treaty of), 30 Castro, Raul, 145–6 , 61–3, 106, CELAC, 17, 45–7, 64–5, 156 136–40, 156 , 35–9, 54–5, 64–5, Argentina, 53–5, 127–30 83–92 civil society, 166 association agreement, 69, 71, 72–5, economic overview, 159–1 79–1 investment, 159, 162–5 Northern Triangle, 38 political overview, 161–2 SICA, 84–5 relationship with EU, 162–6 Chavez, Hugo, 59, 61, 63, 145, 152–7 Ashton, Catherine, 30, 35, 148, Chile, 36, 41, 44, 76–7, 81, 86, 172 155 association agreement, 5, 20, 59, 69, Asia, 10, 15, 19 77–83, 88, 176 civil society, 78, 81–3 asymmetry, 20–2, 109,117 EU relations, 34–5, 65, 79–80, 155, @LIS, 47–8 175 Aznar, José Maria, 56, 59, 146,149 human rights, 81– 83 inequality, 77, 82 Bachelet, Michelle, 77 investment, 76, 79, 89 Barroso, José Manuel, 34–6, 60–1 regional organizations, 17, 56, 64, Basseterre, Treaty of, 131 127 BBVA Bancomer, 74 China, 20, 41, 74, 77, 80, 89, 102, 106, Belgium, 23, 74, 111 111, 139, 145, 149 Bertens Report, 56 Chirac, Jacques, 58 Brazil, 20, 34–5, 41, 45, 53–4, 57, civil society, 3, 40, 62, 88, 117–19, 63, 73 130, 134 civil Society, 104, 126 European Parliament, 83 human rights, 99, 103 Latin America, 56, 65 inequality, 98–9 Mexico, 73, 75–6 investment, 98 climate change, 18, 42, 44–46, 48, strategic partnership, 97, 99, 100, 62–3, 76, 90, 101, 135, 150–1 101, 103–5 Cold War, 9, 15, 32, 53, 55–6, 71, 84, Brittan, Leon, 146 144–6, 152

183 184 Index

Colombia, 39, 62–5, 105, 137–0, 158 Erasmus, 41–2 Civil society, 109 European Defence Agency, 33 Economic Overview, 105–7 European External Action Service, 13, European Parliament, 109 23, 29 Reconciliation, 39, 105, 177 European Investment Bank. See EIB Relationship with EU, 106–9 European Parliament, 4, 23, 34, 54 competitiveness, 55, 75, 81, 106–7 agreements, 78, 84, 101, 105, 135 Global Competitiveness Index, civil society (see civil society) 110 countries (see individual countries) Correa, Rafael, 119–20 external relations, 35–7, 56 Council of the EU, 40–2 history, 30–1 corruption, CPI, 145, 153, 161 Latin America, 174 Cotonou Agreement, 21, 132 trade, 62, 106 COPOLAD, 46–7 European Political Cooperation, Cuba, 92, 99, 105, 144 29, 54 Civil society, 148 EUROsociAL, 42–3 Democracy, 147–9 EUROSOLAR, 38 Economic reform, 145–7, 149–50 Eurozone, 11, 14 European Parliament, 147 Investment, 150 Falkland/Malvinas, 55 Czech Republic, 14, 147, 155 FARC, 63, 105, 109, 154 Farinas, Guillermo, 148 De Gucht, Karel, 36, 106 Fernandez (de Kirchner), Cristina, 64, De la Rua, Fernando, 160, 161 160–1 democracy clause, 72, 75–6 Ferrero-Waldner, Benita, 35 diversification of the economy, 158 Fiscal Pact, 14 Doha Development Agenda, 133 Fischer, Joschka, 72 drug trafficking, 47, 59, 71 FLEGT, 45–6 EU involvement, 114, 138, 140 Froman, Michael, 86 Duran, Franklin, 160 Frontex, 73 Fox, Vicente, 73 EBA, 39, 133 Fujimori, Alberto, 110, 181 ECHO, 37–9, 91, 109, 113 EDF, 40, 135 GATT, 31, 134 Ecuador, 5, 44, 62, 108, 113, 119, 154, Garcia, Alan, 114 172 Georgieva, Kristalina, 36 agreements, 97, 111, 137 globalization, 9–10, 84, 133 EU, relationship with, 46, 120, GSP, 39, 89, 109 140 Guadalajara GSP, 39, 138–9, 178 Declaration, 60 EIB, 40, 82, 104 summit, 43, 59–60, 176 energy, 62–4, 82–5, 104, 138, 157 Guatemala, 84, 86–91 Brazil, 104 Guzman Laugier, Pablo, 136 Venezuela, 151, 157 enlargement, 8, 13, 15, 37, 57–60 Haiti, 36–41, 133–5 EUROCLIMA, 44–6 Havel, Vaclav, 147 EU EOM, 40 Helms-Burton Act, 63, 146,148 EURO-SOLAR, 40, 42–4, 91 High Representative, 29, 30, 35 EPA, 130–6 Human Development Index, 22 Index 185 humanitarian aid. See ECHO Lome, 132 Humala, Ollanta, 110, 114 Lula da Silva, Luiz Inacio, 98

Ibero-America, 43, 154 Maastricht (Treaty of), 30, 32 IDP, 39, 108, 177 Macedonia, 30, 33 IMF, 14 Madrid inequality, 60, 62 Declaration, 63 countries (see individual countries) summit, 43, 59, 63–4 institutionalization, 1, 3, 11, 56, 140, Maduro, Nicolas, 151, 153–4 172–3, 176 manufacturing, 74, 86, 107, 118, 150 Brazil, 104–5 Mercosur, 5–6 history, 8, 29 Merkel, Angela, 63, 148, 154 integration, 1, 4, 56 Menem, Carlos, 58, 159–62 Central America, 85–6, 91 Mexico, 80, 148, 175 definitions, 11–12 association agreement, 5, 20, 24, 37, Europe, 13–15, 17, 22, 29, 31, 40, 64 83, 107, 176 history, 8, 10, 53–5 European insitutions, 36, 38, 44, 53, instrumental, 18, 46, 58, 61, 90 101, 69, 75–6, 91, 97, 112, 172 125 history, 70–3 Latin America, 5, 6, 83–4 human Rights, 40, 113 interdependence, 20, 126, 174 inequality, 70 interregionalism, 1, 8, 12–13 investment, 72, 74–6 definitions, 17–18 summits, 60, 62–3, 65 hybrid, 4, 19, 173–4 trade, 16, 74, 86, 88–9 pure, 18 Michel, Louis, 113 transregionalism, 19 Middle East, 30, 38 investment, 10, 22, 116, 119, 131, migration, 46–7, 63, 114, 128, 146 178 Millennium Development Goals, countries (see individual countries) 47, 76 economic programs, 44, 47–8, 65, mining 104, 108, 135, 176 Brazil, 102 European institutions, 20, 24, 33, Caribbean, 135 36, 40, 64, 82, 102, 105, 129, Chile, 80 175 Colombia, 107, 118 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), 2, Peru, 110, 113–14 21, 89–90, 115 MINUSTAH, 108 history, 31, 55, 61, 84 Missions for Growth, 41, 90, 107 Mogherini, Federica, 35–6 Juncker, Jean-Claude, 34, 36 Morales, Evo, 61, 63–5 Moratinos, Miguel Angel, 148–9 Kirchner, Nestor, 160–2 NAFTA, 10–11, 71–2 Lagos, Ricardo, 59 NATO, 30, 162 Lambrinidis, Stavros, 40, 75 nationalization, 62, 144 Lamy, Pascal, 60 Argentina, 161–2, 164–5 Latin American Investment Facility, Bolivia, 61 47–8 Venezuela, 157 Declaration, 45, 62 natural disasters, 36, 38–9, 83 Lisbon Treaty, 13, 30–3 neoliberalism, 22 186 Index neoliberal institutionalism, 22–4 Rodriguez Zapatero, Jose Luis, 82, 148, Nice (Treaty of), 31 154 Rome Declaration, 138 oil/petroleum, 62, 160 Rousseff, Dilma, 98–9 Argentina, 164–5 Russia, 15, 20, 34, 126, 150 Brazil, 98 Caribbean, 135 Colombia, 107 Sakharov Prize, 147–8 Ecuador, 119 Salafranca, Jose Ignacio, 62 Venezuela, 61, 149, 151–3, 157, San Jose Dialogue, 85 158–9 Santander Serfin, 74 Santos, Juan Manuel, 105, 109 Patten, Chris, 60 Santiago Declaration, 65–6 Paya,Oswaldo,147 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 62 Peace Laboratories, 108 Schulz, Martin, 35, 109 Peña Nieto, Enrique, 70–1 Schengen Area, 14 Peru, 5, 42, 127, 137, 140, 172, 177 Shining Path, 111 agreements, 79, 97, 117–18, 139, Schröder, Gerhard, 58 178 Schuman Declaration, 20 civil society, 113 Schussel, Wolfgang, 61 democracy, 110 Scientific cooperation, 100, 103, 166 economic situation, 65, 109 Spain, 19, 37, 54–5, 64, 71, 82, 85, European Union programs, 39, 41, 114, 147–5, 154–7 44–6, 112–16, 138, 176 soft power, 147 inequality, 110 Solana, Javier, 30, 35, 63 investment, 110–11 Sol Meliá, 150 summits, 35–6, 62–3 strategic partnership, 3, 97, 176, 177 Piebalgs, Andris, 36, 42 Argentina, 163 Poland, 155 Brazil, 5, 98, 100, 101 Populism/Populist, 61, 77, 151–2, 159 European Union, relations with, 20, Portugal, 14, 20, 55 37, 57, 61, 105, 144 Mexico, 73, 75–6 qualified majority voting, 32

Rajoy, Mariano, 65, 154 Tajani, Antonio, 36, 41, 107, 116 RALCEA, 45–6 Toledo, Alejandro, 59 regionalism, 4, 8, 12 Tusk, Donald, 34 Europe, 13, 18, 173 Latin America, 15–17, 85, 137, 173 new, 10–11 Ukraine, 13, 30 old, 10, 11 UNASUR, 16–7 open, 16, 126 unilateralism, 2, 59 post-liberal, 16 United Nations (UN), 48, 101, 157 regulatory, 17 Brazil, 99 strategic, 17, 126 Colombia, 117, 158 Responsibility to Protect, 99 Cuba, 147 Rio Declaration, 59 European Union, 3 , 55–6, 156 United Kingdom, 14, 23, 124, 131, Rio summit, 58 150, 155, 157, 162–3 Index 187

United States, 2, 3, 5, 9, 16, 20, 35, 54, European Parliament, 155 70, 99, 153, 178, 181 EU–Venezuela, 154–9 Economy, 63 hybrid system, 153 trade, 21–2, 69, 74, 80, 86, 101, 102, inequality, 151–3 106–7, 111, 129, 133, 135, 137, investment, 151, 159 139, 146, 149, 151, 156, 162, political system, 151–3 172, 178 Vienna summit, 61–2 Uribe, Alvaro, 63, 105 Uruguay, 21, 23, 41, 54, 126, 130, 181 WATERCLIMA LAC, 46 World Bank, 70, 77, 83, 98, 106, 110, Van Rompuy, Herman, 34, 64 153, 160 Vargas Llosa, Mario, 70 WTO, 58, 74, 99, 133–4, 146 Venezuela, 41, 44, 53, 61–3, 65, 97, 99, 108, 113, 127, 129, 137, 144, 149, 151 YPF, 161–5 civil society, 155, 158 economy, 153–4 Zelaya, Manuel, 86, 99