ISSN 0258-2244 November/December 2008 Volume 7 No 6

Stop wasting our water! INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL WATER ALLOCATIONS

CALL FOR PAPERS

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL WATER ALLOCATIONS

Making it happen

23 – 26 FEBRUARY 2009 Feather Market Convention Centre, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Organised by the

WATER RESEARCH COMMISSION (WRC), South Africa and the DEPARTMENT OF WATER AFFAIRS & FORESTRY (DWAF), SouthAfrica

under the auspices of the

World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS)

and with the support and co-operation of

SA National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) Department of Agriculture, South Africa Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism, South Africa

CORRESPONDENCE AND ENQUIRIES The Secretariat (Cilla Taylor Conferences) Tel: +27 (0)12 667–3681 Fax: +27 (0)12 667–3680 P O Box 82, IRENE, 0062 South Africa E–mail: [email protected] Website: www.wrc.org.za Table of contents 3

upfront 4

Water conservation 10 Study tests the water for more efficient products

Water and the economy 14 Managing water for economic development

ISSN 0258-2244 November/December 2008 Volume 7 No 6 Water History 16 Thukela-Vaal Transfer Scheme: Feeding the hungry heartland

Hydropower 22 Harnessing the Collywobbles

Research & development 25 New research node to contribute to ‘water-sensitive’ future STOP WASTING OUR WATER! Drinking water 26 Cover: South Africans could do more Helping hand for small water treatment plants to save water (See page 10). Cover illustration by Ralf Broemer. Water kidz 28 Exploring the link between water and HIV

Last Word 30 Successful workshop on modelling & biomanipulation

THE WATER WHEEL is a two-monthly magazine on water and water research published by the South African Water Research Commission (WRC), a statutory organisation established in 1971 by Act of Parliament. Subscription is free. Material in this publication does not necessarily reflect the considered opinions of the members of the WRC, and may be copied with acknow­ledgement of source.

Editorial offices: Water Research Commission, Private Bag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of South Africa. Tel (012) 330-9031. Fax (012) 331-2565. WRC Internet address: http://www.wrc.org.za Editor: Lani van Vuuren, E-mail: [email protected]; Editorial Secretary: Rina Human, E-mail: [email protected]; Layout: Drinie van Rensburg, E-mail: [email protected]

Suuplement to The Water Wheel November/December 2008 4 Upfront Letters to the Editor

Information ‘misleading’ All the above will make attendance to the conference – in a developing Africa for per- The letter received from Mr J Barnard of formed as to the correct procedures for rem- sons trying to enlighten themselves to what is NMMU, ‘Incorrect water treatment chemistry edying corrosive water in reticulation systems. ticking in the water industry nigh impossible. also causes problems’, published in the July/ RA Rowswell, Grahamstown Must we not climb off or stop chasing the August 2008 issue of Water Wheel (Vol. 7 No money spinning conference circuit and 4) is rather concerning. Costs of attending instead concentrate on trying to give back Advocating that corrosive water can be conferences sky high to the industry and persons practicing their remedied by merely adding lime to raise the pH intellectual value and plough back expertise can cause further reticulation problems if not Working on my own, and having a lot to offer and learning at true affordable cost? properly controlled. Even when the pH is above and more to learn in the water sector, I am Thank you for a very informative magazine! 7,0 (alkaline), water can be strongly corrosive. keen to attend conferences and the like and to Hannes Buckle, specialist consultant, Keeping corrosion of a domestic water share and experience thoughts. Weltevredenpark supply under control requires the control of I have, however, come to the conclusion both pH and alkalinity. If not properly controlled, that it would be extremely difficult to do so. If Much more than you think

corrosion or excessive scale (CaCO3) build-up one should, for instance, think of attending the occurs. A number of applications of Stability pH very interesting and informative (hopefully!) The ‘Sanitation by numbers’ section on page (pHs) exist: Langelier Saturation Index, Ryznar Africa Water Congress in November 2008 that 7 of the Sanitation Supplement to the Water Stability Index and the Corrosivity Ratio. you advertised in the Water Wheel (September/ Wheel Vol 7(5) refers. I would like to draw your Control of chemical stability: Soft waters October 2008 edition) it is expected that one attention to the first point where you state that (e.g. those in the Southern and Eastern coastal pays from R5 000 for one of the two master a gram of faeces can contain 1 000 protozoan areas of the Republic) are corrosive and it is classes to R20 600 for the three-day conference cysts and 100 worm eggs. This is a gross important that the purification process should and two master classes! The conference alone underestimate – by several orders of magni- include steps for stabilizing the water chemi- will be a hefty R14 000 – all without lodging! tude. My lab often records 40 000 or more WaterWheelCPn 4/16/07 7:03 PM Page 1 cysts (we seldom even try to count them) and cally by treatment with Ca(OH)2 and CO2. If one should furthermore have to travel The letter is misleading and any students, from somewhere in AfricaC toM SouthY Africa,CM MY one’sCY CMY 100K 000 eggs (sometimes more) in a gram! trainee operators, reading it will be misin- transport will have to be added to the fee. Chris Appleton, UKZN, Durban

Composite Upfront 5

SA water still cheap despite tariff increases

espite being a water-scarce country, in pricing at 18,5% (with South Africa expe- DSouth Africa’s water is still among the riencing the fourth-largest increase). Over cheapest in the world, according to the latest the past two years, average water rates in international water report and cost survey by Australia have grown by more than 35%. the NUS Consulting Group. Australia’s significant price increase was Among the 14 countries surveyed, only mainly attributable to prolonged droughts the US’s water proved less expensive. This, being experienced in the country. despite the fact that South Africans are paying “Given these developments around the about 70% more for water than five years ago world, medium to large business consumers and about 9% more for water than a year ago. of water can no longer rely on cheap Germany claims top honours as the most and abundant supplies,” reports NUS expensive surveyed country in terms of water. Co-President Richard Soultanian. “With fleet- It is generally thought that higher prices will ing opportunities for savings and the reality make the consuming public more sensitive to of ever higher prices, consumers must take water issues thus promoting greater conser- an active role when it comes to their water vation measures. purchases.” Interestingly, 11 of the 14 countries To access an abridged version of the showed an increase in pricing. Australia survey, Visit: www.nusconsulting.com/p_sur- experienced the largest year-on-year increase veys_detail.asp?PRID=58

Valuable lessons captured from national sanitation programme

new publication, which offers valuable Affairs & Forestry, the bucket eradication systems, and the handover of projects and Ainsight into lessons learnt from the strategy had four primary elements: ensur- structures to take place as soon as possible National Bucket Replacement Programme, ing political support, strengthening national after completion. is now available from the Water Information coordination, support to municipalities and Some valuable lessons specifically for Network South Africa (WIN-SA). risk mitigation (ensuring sustainability of municipalities are also captured in the pub- The programme, launched by national replacement sanitation systems). lication. To obtain a copy of the publication, government in 2005, was aimed at replac- Lessons learnt have been categorised The National Sanitation Bucket Replacement ing all the bucket toilets in South Africa. into institutional, technical and social lessons Programme: Lessons Learnt, contact WIN-SA National Treasury allocated R1,8-billion learnt. For example, the publication empha- at Tel: (012) 330-9076; Fax: (012) 4331- over three financial years (2005 to 2008) for sises the importance of political buy-in and 2565 or E-mail: [email protected] the removal of the bucket toilets. This was participation of the relevant communities. one of the largest allocations for any single Communication between stakeholders is key. government infrastructure project yet in Political approaches and the creation of South Africa. expectations at higher levels have a major A total of 80 water services authorities impact on the sanitation replacement options (WSAs) were involved in the programme selected by the communities. “It was not and about 300 projects were undertaken to always clear whether the beneficiaries fully remove the estimated 252 254 buckets in use understood the consequences of their pre- in seven provinces. ferred choices of sanitation system to replace By the end of March 2008, more than the buckets,” the authors points out. 90% of the target number of bucket toilets Communities were generally reluctant had been eradicated through the programme. to accept a lower form of sanitation than Most of the buckets were replaced by water- flush toilets unless they were confident that borne sanitation systems and some by alter- undertakings given by the WSAs, provincial native forms of sanitation, such as ventilated or national departments to enhance the level improved pit toilets. of their services in future will be honoured. According to the publication, compiled In addition, it is important for communities

by WIN-SA and the Department of Water to take ownership of their new sanitation Eales Kathy

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 6 Upfront

International recognition for municipal Water Diary water monitoring system HYDROINFORMATICS he Department of Water Affairs & Forest- water service information is captured and JANUARY 12-16 Try’s efforts to improve municipal drinking stored on the central database. This informa- The IWA International Conference water quality have been awarded interna- tion can then be easily retrieved via the Inter- themed ‘Science & Information Tech- tionally. The department, along with the net to generate reports, tables and graphs for nologies for Sustainable Management Institute of Municipal Engineering and Emanti management review and decision-making of Aquatic Ecosystems’ will be held Management have been recognised interna- processes. in Concepcion, Chile. The conference th tionally for the development of an electronic It is reported that the use of the system combines the 7 Symposium on Eco- th water quality management system (eWQMS) has contributed significantly to an improved hydraulics and the 8 Conference on rolled out to all 166 municipal water services level of awareness of drinking water quality Hydroinformatics. Enquiries: HIC 2009 authorities in South Africa. matters, a growing improvement in effective Secretariat; Tel: +65 6356 4727; Fax: The eWQMS development team was drinking water quality management and a +65 6356 7471; E-mail: hic2009@ bestowed the International Water Associa- direct improvement in drinking water quality inmeet.com.sg; Visit: www.heic2009.org tion Global Project Innovation Award in the provision across South Africa. In one case, Operations/Management category in Vienna, for example, a municipality’s compliance to COMMUNICATION Austria earlier this year, after winning the the national drinking water standard increased FEBRUARY 18-21 nd regional awards. The Award recognise excel- from 64% to 94% four months after it started The 2 African Science Communication lence and innovation in water engineering using the eWQMS. Conference with the theme ‘Shaping Afri- projects throughout the world. In May, Emanti Management also won ca’s Future: Science Communication’s Rollout of the open source, Internet- the National Science and Technology Forum Contribution to Science, Technology based system started in 2006. Today, around Award for Category E (Innovation developed and Innovation, and the Development of 95% of WSAs provide drinking water data through a small, medium or micro enterprise) Democracy in Africa’ will be held in Gau- on a monthly basis. Water quality and other for the eWQMS. teng. Enquiries: Ms Maphefo Chauke, project officer, SAASTA, Tel: (012) 392-9300; Fax: (012) 320-7803; E-mail: Another heritage site for SA [email protected]

ne of South Africa’s few true inland lakes, The python is the god of fertility in the Venda ENVIRONMENT OLake Fundudzi, in Limpopo, is to be tradition. Venda maidens still perform the FEBRUARY 23-25 declared a national heritage site. famous Domba python dance to honour this An International Conference on Imple- Situated in the mountainous area of god. It is also believed that there are ‘zom- menting Environmental Water Allocations Tshiavha village, the lake was formed by a bies’ who live near the lake. with the theme ‘Making it Happen’ will landslide thousands of years ago, and plays a take place at the Feather Market Conven- special role in the culture and tradition of the South African water tion Centre in Port Elizabeth. Enquiries: Vhavenda people. At present, special permis- The Secretariat (Cilla Taylor Confer- sion has to be obtained to visit the sacred savers sought ences); Tel: (012) 667-3681; E-mail: lake from the Netshiavha royal family. [email protected]; Visit: http://ewa. Lake Fundudzi is believed to be protected he Department of Water Affairs & innercirclestudios.co.za/downloads.html by a python god, who has to be pacified TForestry has called for nominations for annually with gifts of traditionally brewed the 2008 Water Conservation and Water WATER & ENVIRONMENT beer. According to legend a man who was Demand Management Sector Awards. MARCH 2-4 broken hearted after the loss of his great love, Nominees are categorised and An International Conference and Exhibi- walked into the lake and turned into a python. adjudicated according to the following tion on Water in the Environment (Envi- sectors: agriculture; industry, mining and roWater) will be held at the Protea Hotel power; domestic or local government and in Stellenbosch, in the Western Cape. forestry. Judging criteria include measur- Enquiries: Dr Gunnar O. Sigge; Depart- able impact, innovation, sustainability, ment of Food Science; University of economic benefit for the organisation and Stellenbosch; Tel: (021) 808-3581; Fax: capacity building, among others. (021) 808-3510; E-mail: sigge@enviro- The closing date for nominations is water.de; Visit: www.envirowater.de 14 November. For more information, visit: www.dwaf.gov.za

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Reports 7

New from the WRC

Report No: TT 295/07 which presents a first order assessment of the Report No: 1402/1/08 Local Institutions for Water Governance – A waste discharge charge system based on the Implementation of a Research Programme for Story of the Development of a Water User available cleaner production initiatives. Investigating Endocrine Disrupting Contami- Association and Catchment Forum in the Kat nants in South African Water Systems (AEC River Valley, Eastern Cape (Jane Burt; Alistair Report No: KV 211/08 Burger) McMaster; Kate Rowntree and Robert Berold) Regional Description of the Groundwater EDCs research has become of great impor- This A5 booklet describes the development Chemistry of the Kruger National Park (RC tance worldwide. It was imperative that South of water resource management organisations Leyland and KT Witthüser) Africa become involved in this field. The EDC in the Kat River Valley from 1997 to 2006. The Kruger National Park has adopted a research programme was compiled in order the two organisations described here – the Strategic Adaptive Management programme to coordinate and extend research done by Kat River Valley Water User Association and with clear ecosystem management goals several groups of researchers in the country. the Kat River Catchment Forum – are given based on environmental indicators and their This report presents the EDC research pro- separate narratives for the thresholds of potential concern (TPC). TPCs gramme pertaining to the investigation of sake of clarity, although are a set of operational goals that together EDCs in South African water systems. they developed in close define the spatiotemporal conditions for association. Both these which the Kruger ecosystem is managed. Report No: TT 356/08 organisations were Groundwater has been recognised as one of Research into UD/VIDP (Urine Diversion nurtured and supported the environmental indicators that needs to Ventilated Improved Double Pit) Toilets: as a result of a research be monitored and for which TPCs have to be Prevalence and Die-off of Ascaris Ova in Urine process by members developed in the park. A five-month project Diversion Waste (CA Buckley; KM Foxon; DJ of the Catchment led by the University of Pretoria assisted Hawksworth; C Archer; S Pillay; C Appleton; Research Group the park to develop a strategic groundwater M Smith and N Rodda) from the Department of quality monitoring network and to set the TPC Ascaris is the largest of the common Geography at the University of Rhodes with levels correctly and for an appropriate suite of nematode parasites of man. Adult worms funding coming largely from the WRC. constituents. can survive for one to two years and female worms can generate eggs for a period of one Report No: 1673/1/08 Report No: 1431/1/08 year while some may continue as long as 20 A Pilot Study into Available Upstream Cleaner To Calibrate and Verify a Predictive Model for months. Diagnoses of helminth infection is Production Technologies for the Petroleum the Incidence of Naturally Occurring Hazard- normally through the detection of the eggs Refining Industry to Meet the Requirements ous Trace Constituents in Groundwater in the faeces. These eggs are highly infec- of the Waste Discharge Charge System (H Tarras-Wahlberg; P Wade; H Coetzee; tious, and very robust. The present minimum (HK Mazema; SH Ally; W Kamish and AM S Chaplin; P Holström; T Lundgren. N van standing period of the urine diversion (UD)

Petersen) Wyk; G Ntsume; J Venter and K Sami) toilet vault is one year. in order (Urine Diversion ResearchVentilated into Improved UD/VIDP Double Pit) Toilets: The strategic and critical oil refining industry This report presents the findings of a project to ascertain whether this time Prevalence and Die-off of Ascaris in Urine Diversion Waste Ova has undergone considerable economical initiated to calibrate and verify a predictive period is safe for removal CA Buckley, KM Foxon, DJ Hawksworth, C Archer, S Pillay, C Appleton, M Smith & N Rodda and political changes. The current trend is model for the incidence of naturally-occurring and handling of UD solid towards more stringent environmental quality hazardous trace constituents in groundwater. waste, reliable estimates of requirements for all refinery products. This The overall objectives of the project are to pro- the egg load in the waste project was initiated out of concern over the vide a basis for the South African authorities to after a one-year stand- financial impact that the Department of Water safeguard groundwater consumers from expo- ing period are needed. Affairs & Forestry’s new waste discharge sure to toxic trace elements, and to determine Therefore this study was charge system may have on industry. The whether or not leach testing on representative undertaken to investigate

TT 356/08 report is divided into two parts, the first bedrock, or reliable geochemical models can the natural viability and die- Water Research Commission which provides an assessment of the cleaner be used to predict natural groundwater contam- off of Ascaris spp. ova in the UD solid waste, production technologies available to the ination in different regions. The trace elements using the ammonium bicarbonate (AMBIC) petroleum refining industry, and the second of interest are arsenic, chromium and uranium. protocol.

To order any of these reports, contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340; fax (012) 331-2565; E-mail: [email protected] or visit: www.wrc.org.za

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 8 Company news

New book on sustainability science

Dr Burns argues that science action between philosophers, system model- has become isolated from the lers, regional and urban planners, political important aims of practically scientists, anthropologists and ecologists. advancing sustainable develop- ment in practice. “Scientists Cistern product have tended to confine them- selves to their own research saves water agendas, avoiding the difficult and value-laden issues of eveloped and manufactured in sustainable development that DWolseley, in the Western Cape, the society faces,” he says. “At the Mr Flush Saver is a device that fits into start of the new millennium, as the smallest of cisterns to save water the implications of unsustainable when flushing the toilet. he CSIR has launched a new book which development become increasingly appar- The product is said to reduce the Texplores sustainability science from a ent, the mode of science practice and, volume of water in a cistern by 1,1 ℓ. developing world perspective. therefore its policy and practical impact, Considering the average number of toilet The book is the product of research must change.” flushes per household per day is around collaboration between the CSIR and several According to Dr Weaver, the new book eight, then the savings per month is other South African and international research is transdisciplinary in the sense that new about 240 ℓ or 2 800 ℓ/year. This does institutions. Edited by principal scientist Dr insights are presented for responding to the not include the potential savings for high- Mike Burns and CSIR Research Fellow Dr challenges of sustainable development result- volume areas such as hotels, shopping Alex Weaver, the book proposes a framework ing from experimentation and the exchange centres, entertainment entities, hospital for ongoing sustainability science research of different disciplinary ideas for promoting and factories. within the region. sustainable development in southern Africa. For more information, Tel: (076) 898- Explaining how the book came about, Important in this regard has been the inter­ 0772.

New, more representative SANCOLD emerges

he South African National Committee on needed to review our whole corporate gov- TLarge Dams (SANCOLD) has adopted a ernance. During this process it was agreed new constitution as part of its present restruc- that we needed to broaden our membership turing process. base and, at the same time, be more demo- The new-look SANCOLD aims to be more cratically representative of South Africa’s inclusive, widely embracing and democrati- dam community.” cally representative of the dam community For the first time, SANCOLD is opening in South Africa. The committee, which has membership to individual members. “We represented South Africa on the International are particularly keen to include corporate Commission on Large Dams since 1965, has and individual members from the earth historically been viewed as an elite organisa- sciences, as well as the social and envi- tion, only narrowly representative of the true ronmental sciences,” notes Dr Roberts. It roleplayers in the industry. Commenting on the restructuring, is expected that the new membership will Original members have included engi- Dr Paul Roberts, who has been assisting improve SANCOLD by bringing forth new neering-orientated organisations such as the SANCOLD in the process says: “Present ideas, especially from those disciplines South African Institution of Civil Engineers, water management trends, such as the which have hitherto not been represented. the Institute of Municipal Engineers of South move towards integrated water resource Individual members will benefit from being Africa, the South African Federation of Civil management as well the 2000 World Com- able to engage directly with the commis- Engineering Contractors and Consulting Engi- mission on Dams Report has emphasised sion rather than having a more remote neers South Africa (formerly the South African the importance of a broader viewpoint on corporate representation via a representative Association of Consulting Engineers). Other issues pertaining to dams. While ICOLD and body. members include the Department of Water SANCOLD have long paid attention to social The restructuring process is expected to Affairs & Forestry, CSIR, and the South African and environmental issues related to water be complete towards the end of 2009. For Universities Vice Chancellors’ Association. projects, there has been a realisation that we more information, go to www.sancold.org.za

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Global news 9

New programme The new report, Green Jobs: Towards Decent work in a Sustainable Low-Carbon manager for global World, says changing patterns of employ- sanitation fund ment and investment resulting from effort to reduce climate change and its effects are already generating new jobs in many ell known expert in sanitation and sectors and economies and could create pro-poor financing for development, W millions more in both developed and devel- Barry Jackson, has been appointed the first oping countries. The report is a joint effort Programme Manager of the Water Supply The 700 fish now listed represent a 92% by the United Nations (UN) International and Sanitation Collaborative Council’s increase over the 364 listed as ‘imperilled’ Labour Organisation, the UN Environment (WSSCC’s) new financing mechanism, the in the previous 1989 study published by the Programme, the International Trade Union Global Sanitation Fund (GSF). American Fisheries Society. Researchers Confederation and the International Organi- Jackson joined WSSCC in September classified each of the 700 fishes listed as sation of Employers. after 19 years at the Development Bank of either vulnerable (230), threatened (190), or Though the report is generally optimistic Southern Africa where he served in several endangered (280). In addition, 61 fishes are about the creation of new jobs to address cli- capacities, most recently as a senior policy presumed extinct. mate change, it also warns that many of these analyst specialising in water supply and sani- The new report, published in Fisheries, new jobs can be ‘dirty, dangerous and dif- tation policy, municipal infrastructure finance was conducted by a US Geological Survey ficult’. Sectors of concern, especially but not and institutional development. “Barry’s long (USGS)-led team of scientists from the US, exclusively in developing countries, include experience in water and sanitation, together Canada and Mexico, who examined the agriculture and recycling where all too often with his proven track record in innovative status of continental freshwater and diaro- low pay, insecure employment contracts and and creative financing which involves public mous (those that migrate between rivers and exposure to health hazardous materials needs and private actors and serves the poor, will oceans) fish. “Freshwater fish have continued to change fast. contribute greatly to the success of the GSF,” to decline since the late 1970s, with the Green jobs reduce the environmental noted WSSCC Executive Director Jon Lane. primary causes being habitat loss, dwindling impact of enterprises and economic sectors, Launched in March, the GSF is the world’s range and introduction of non-native spe- ultimately to levels that are sustainable. The fist financing mechanism specifically for cies,” said USGS Director Mark Myers. “In report focuses on green jobs in agriculture, sanitation and hygiene. It aims to support addition, climate change may further affect industry, services and administration that national efforts to help large numbers of poor these fish.” contribute to preserving or restoring the qual- people attain sustainable access to basic The groups of fish most at risk are the ity of the environment. sanitation and good hygiene practices. The highly valuable salmon and trout of the According to the report, the global fund has started work in Madagascar, Nepal Pacific Coast and western mountain regions; market for environmental products and and Uganda, Burkina Faso, India, Pakistan minnows, suckers and catfishes throughout services is projected to double from and Senegal. the continent; darters in the Southeastern US$1 370-billion a year at present to US; and pupfish, livebearers, and goodeids, US$2 740-billion by 2020. Half of this North America a large, native fish family in Mexico and the market is in energy efficiency and the bal- losing fish at Southwestern US. Nearly half of the carp and ance in sustainable transport, water supply, minnow family and the Percidae (family of sanitation and waste management. alarming rate darters, perches and their relatives) are in Sectors that will be particularly jeopardy. important in terms of their environmental, early 40% of fish species in North For more information, visit: economic and employment impact are NAmerican streams, rivers and lakes http://fisch.er.usgs.gov/afs/ energy supply, particularly renewable are now in jeopardy, according to the most energy, buildings and construction, trans- detailed evaluation of the conservation status portation, basic industries, agriculture and of freshwater fish in the region in the last Emerging green forestry. Clean technologies are already the 20 years. economy could third-largest sector for venture capital after information and biotechnology in the US, create millions of while green venture capital in China more new jobs than doubled to 19% of total investment in recent years. illions of ‘green jobs’ could be created For more information on the green job Min the coming decades as a result of the initiative or to download the report, go to fight against global warming, according to a www.ilo.org/integration/greenjobs/index.htm new study.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 10 Water conservation All photographs courtesy of www.sxc.hu photographs All

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Water conservation 11

Living in an increasingly water-stressed country, South Africans need to become much more water efficient. This is one of the recommendations from a recently-completed study funded by the Water Research Commission (WRC).

raditionally, water consuming most comprehensive water conserva- environmental programmes, one of products, such as toilets, showers, tion bylaws in South Africa. whose components is sustainable water Twashing machines, dishwashers, use, and that there were encouraging baths and taps have been designed The WRC-commissioned study, con- examples where university hostels and with functionality, aesthetics and cost in ducted by Partners in Development other public buildings were being retro­ mind. Little attention was paid to how (PID), included four surveys in order fitted with water-saving cisterns, taps much water these items used. to gauge the status and use of water and showers. efficient devices in South Africa. Firstly, However, global concerns such as commercial and institutional settings Some of the worst offenders for high burgeoning population growth and such as hotels and hostels were investi- water usage are government build- rapid urbanisation amid increased water gated; secondly, the suppliers of plumb- ings. For example, among the 50 high- scarcity has prompted the realisation ing fittings were studied; thirdly the est water users in Pietermaritzburg, that water can no longer be used with architectural profession was surveyed; in KwaZulu-Natal, are several public reckless abandon, and sparked investi- and finally the knowledge and attitude schools which do not have boarding gations into ways of using water more of 1 428 home owners in ten towns and establishments. It is therefore felt the appropriately and efficiently. cities across South Africa were tested. State should take the lead by ensuring its buildings are as water efficient as There are many examples of water Increased awareness possible. “This would have an impact on demand management and water con- the civil service, which employs over a servation campaigns that have been According to project leader David Still million people, and the population at implemented around the world: the the study found clear evidence that large, which would see the State leading city of Seattle in the US, for example, water efficient devices are becoming by example,” said Still. has reduced its water consumption more common. “From the City of Cape by 1% each year over the last 23 years Town’s programme to replace all the Locally available despite a 23% increase in its population. automatic flushing urinals in public products In southern Africa, the city of Windhoek buildings and install Hippo Bag displace- has managed to reduce the average ment devices in all the old large capacity The increasing market share of water consumption from 320 ℓ per person/ school toilet cisterns, to the sophisti- efficient devices is apparent on the day to 220 ℓ per person/day over the cated infrared operating taps and urinals showroom floors of the major plumb- last 30 years. that are becoming standard at airports, ing suppliers. This is almost in spite there is a move towards water saving of the suppliers, who as a rule do not Closer to home, water conservation and water efficiency,” he says. push water efficiency. “The reason programmes carried out in the various aerated taps, dual flush toilets, water municipalities supplied by Rand Water efficient baths, basins and showers are have seen the annual growth rate in the “We have the legis- increasingly being sold, is that these water supply to the water board’s sup- are becoming the standard in the ply area reduce from 3,3% to virtually lation and policies in countries of manufacture in Europe zero over the last three years, despite and the East. While South Africans are a concurrent 3,3% population growth place, however, we sometime still wary of six-litre flush rate. Cape Town, which has been lack the capacity to toilets these, or even more efficient through several years of water stress designs are now the standard in in the last few years, has developed a drive the process.” parts of the US, the UK and Europe,” holistic water conservation strategy, reported Still. which includes the promulgation of the Speaking at the 10th Annual Water According to Jay Bhagwan, WRC Distribution Analysis (WDSA) Confer- Director: Water Use and Waste Man- Left: It is relatively easy and inexpensive ence, held in the Kruger National Park agement, lack of strong enforcement to swap out shower fittings with more in August, Still noted that the larger and regulation remain the greatest water efficient products. hotel groups were signing on to challenges in South Africa. “We have

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 12 Water conservation

Main recommendations from the study

Government must lead by modern water efficient good practice. example If this was done, then the suppliers and specifiers would be able to follow with- The State landlord, the Department out worrying that they are out of line of Public Works, should embark on an with standard practice. audit of water usage and the presence of water efficient devices in all build- Retrofit programmes with ings under their care. This would have rebates (where appropriate) an impact on the civil service, which should be encouraged employs over a million people, as well as the population at large, which would In South Africa there are many millions of see the State leading by example. poor people who are not required to pay for their water supply. While the official SA needs a labelling system policy guideline is that each family should for water efficient devices get a lifeline amount of water of 6 kℓ free, in some urban areas the reality is that no South Africa should emulate the water water is paid for. For people in these areas efficiency labelling system practiced level to architects and at FET colleges there is no incentive to conserve water. in other countries, of which the most to plumbers. Water saving tips should In such areas, it may pay a municipality to advanced appears to be the Australian be regularly distributed with municipal intervene with schemes to retrofit water WELS label. The label is not just a gen- accounts, and should be displayed in efficient devices, even if the full cost were eral ‘green’ label, but includes product appropriate locations. to be borne by the municipality. specific information and a graded rating from 0 to 6 stars. Municipal bylaws must Water supply pressures must include provisions relating be decreased SA needs a nationally to water efficiency and water sponsored public education conservation, and ideally Water supply pressures in South Africa campaign regarding water there should be convergence are, in general, far above international efficient devices across municipalities norms. No more than four bars of pres- sure is needed for domestic water sup- The State needs to make a case for It would help if there was more consen- ply, and municipalities would save both water saving with the public. This sus between municipalities on water themselves and their customers money campaign should appeal both to the bylaws, particularly in the case of a large if they took steps to regulate the pres- public’s sense of civic duty (it is the conurbation such as Gauteng, which sure in their systems down to this level. right thing to do), while not underes- spans several municipal jurisdictions. timating their intelligence (answer- Informative billing ing questions like “Why don’t we just Building codes and bylaws building bigger dams?” and “If I am must converge Even educated customers take little time prepared to pay for what I use why to attempt to understand or analyse can’t I use as much as I want?”). Bylaws relating to the types of showers, their utility bills, which typically combine baths and toilets installed in houses are water, electricity, refuse removal and Information on water really only enforceable for new housing sewage charges. With modern technol- efficient devices must be stock, and even then it seems unlikely ogy it would be possible to include easily obtainable that municipalities have enough building simple graphic information, such as a inspectors to do this work adequately. graph showing how water consumption The public and even the building If would be far simpler to inspect at the has varied from month to month for the industry are still relatively ill-informed source, i.e. to control what products are last 12 months. With such easy to read, about water efficient devices. Water sold by the plumbing suppliers. visual information, consumers can be conservation in the built environment A section needs to be added to the more easily alerted to leaks or wastage should be taught at undergraduate building code to bring it into line with on their properties.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Water conservation 13

the legislation and policies in place, however, we lack the capacity to drive What is a water the process.” Bhagwan believes more efficient device? drive needs to come from the broader society, since water wastage affects A water efficient device is us all. “Inefficient use of water is a bad disease which can severely impact our one which serves the same water security in future.” function as its standard

Antiquated building alternative, without any code reduction in performance,

While there is some evidence that while using less water. architects are moving towards an aware- ness of sustainable water use, the build- ing profession in general is still quite Typically, only about 20% of the respond- conservative, with a strong tendency to ents in the average town believed they stick to tried and tested products. This Many water efficient products are now might possibly use too much water, but sector is guided strongly by the build- available on the market. significantly more (nearly 50%) have con- ing code, and the view of respondents sidered reducing their water consumption. to the survey was generally that only if typically pay for themselves in water the building codes were changed would According to the study, the factors savings in a few years,” noted Still. they consider implementing more water which prevent people from installing saving devices. water efficient devices include a lack However, the economics of changing out toilet cisterns and pans is rather less “The penetration of water of knowledge about water efficient devices, the fact that they might not attractive, unless they are in a setting efficient devices into the own their own home (renting), or that where they are used by more users than would be found in the average home. South African domestic they cannot afford to make changes, among others. “Conversely the condi- “For this reason, large-scale changes to market is going to be slow tions which would persuade people to the existing housing stock are unlikely, and therefore the penetration of water and gradual, probably move to water efficient devices include an increase in the price of water, if efficient devices into the South African taking a generation or two rebates were offered for the installation domestic market is going to be slow and gradual, probably taking a generation or to become the norm.” of water savings devices, if there were water restrictions, if they had a better two to become the norm,” reported Still. Therefore one of the recommendations understanding of water efficient devices To order the report, The Status and from the study is that a section needs to and if the use of hosepipes was banned.” Use of Drinking Water Conservation be added to the building code to bring and Savings it into line with modern water efficient Whereas it makes economic sense Devices in the good practice and legislation. “If this to install water efficient The Status and Use of Drinking Water devices in new buildings, the Conservation and Savings Devices in the Domestic and was done, then suppliers and specifiers Domestic and Commercial Environments in South Africa

Savings Devices in the Domestic and Commercial Environments in South Africa Commercial would be able to follow without worry- economics of retrofitting water efficient devices to existing TT 358/08 The Status and Use of Drinking WaterDavid Conservation and Still, Su Erskine, Environments ing that they are out of line with stand- Nick Walker & Derek Hazelton in South Africa ard practice,” said Still. housing stock is very variable, depending on the device and (Report No: Financial setting in question, the project TT 358/08) considerations team found. contact Publications at Tel: (012) The 1 428 homeowners surveyed came The quickest and cheapest water 330-0340 from a range of socio-economic back- efficiency retrofit measure for or E-mail: grounds in ten South African cities and the domestic market is the aer- ated shower head. “It is relatively http://www.waterefficiencysa.co.za/ orders@wrc. towns. A total of 29% of these homeown- TT 358/08 easy and inexpensive to swap out org.za ers indicated that they already had at least Water Research Commission one water efficient device in the home. shower fittings and these will

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 14 Water and the economy SA Tourism SA

The recent completion of a strategic investment framework has provided new impetus to the Water Research Commission (WRC)’s research area focusing on the interaction between water and the economy.

overnment’s strides in grow- industrial pollutants such as inorganic Consultant De Wit Sustainable Options ing the South African economy materials, metals and organic com- was contracted to compile the strategic Ghave resulted in an increase in pounds. document. Based on an evaluation of the demand for water and underscored national research needs, existing WRC- the role of natural resources in building Salinisation and eutrophication are two funded research, a literature survey and national wealth. However, the country’s of the major water quality problems the an expert opinion survey, three over- potential water yield (i.e. water supply) country faces. Another is bacteriological arching thrusts for the period 2007-2010 is finite and options to develop feasible contamination as a result of poor main- have been identified: the role of water in new water schemes are limited. tenance of sanitation facilities, which not economic development, the use of eco- only impedes economic development, nomic instruments in the management The implementation of the National but also risks human health and well- of water, and research on the complex Water Act (NWA) in 1998 has to date being. inter-relationships of water-economy not been able to significantly reverse systems. the water use efficiency trend, hence, The WRC has funded valuable management of the existing supply and research on the economics of water Water and economic demand for water is a major obstacle management in South Africa. A stage development of water policies in South Africa and in had been reached to review what had need of supporting research. been done and to evaluate it within The ever-mounting scarcity of freshwa- the context of national needs and pri- ter in South Africa within the context Existing scarce resources are further orities. The outcome of such an evalu- of an expanding economy and, thus, reduced by poor water quality as a result ation would provide the WRC with increasing demand will need informed of industrial, agricultural and domestic strategic guidance concerning the choices on water allocation between pollution. Many of the country’s river investment strategy it should adopt competing needs. There are two general systems have become waste sinks for up to 2010 for water and economy- choices to address this problem: either dissolved salts, nutrients, bacteria and related research. increase supply or reduce demand.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Water and the economy 15

With a renewed focus on public infra- for development; research on the damage integrated economic model account- structure development in South Africa the costs and unit control costs for key pollut- ing for supply and demand for water in question needs to be answered through ants and key polluting sectors is needed. stressed catchments. research what the best possible eco- nomic allocation of scarce resources to, or Further research is also required on the The proposed investment framework costs and benefits of alternative shorter prerequisites for efficient water alloca- was further compared to existing and longer term water management tion, specifically the accurate and cost- research in the WRC’s water and eco- options are, including enhancing supply effective measurement of water use as nomic domain. A clear fit was found and managing demand. A second and well as the institutional economics of between existing work and planned related question is whether South Africa’s water rights and licenses. In addition, future work, minimising disruptions to water resources are sufficient to support the framework identified a need an existing programmes. The WRC runs a planned economic developments and economic evaluation of water policies diverse water and economy research what the sensitivity of such economic and the application of economic policy portfolio. Present research includes development plans are to changing assur- instruments to water management. determining the value of estuary ances of supply, changing water prices services, producing an econometric and implementation of water conserva- “Economic appraisal, the model to predict the effect that various tion regulations and technologies. water resource management scenarios economics of demand-side would have on South Africa’s economic A third and fourth question relate to the management and the use of development, development of a model role of water in the alleviation of poverty to assess the costs associated with (such as the evaluation of the economic economic instruments for eutrophication, examining financial viability of emerging and small business water management should sustainability of sanitation services, and in the water sector) and to evaluate the investigations into productive use of economics of water service delivery, receive higher priority then in domestic water for sustainable liveli- including water supply and sanitation. the past.” hoods, among others. Managing water with Existing work has been reorganised economics instruments Lastly, a regulatory impact assessment on into the investment framework for the NWA is proposed, as well as practi- 2007-2010, providing a clearer focus on The next key element of the strategic cally focused research on the feasibility of practical outcomes that will support the framework is the question of how to water markets and (waste) water charges. further implementation of the NWA and apply economic instruments in the associated initiatives (e.g. the water real- management of water. The first research Water-economy systems location process). question is at what (volumetric) levels water tariffs should be set to influence It has been recognised that the causal It was also found that no earlier eco- use and how sensitive water demand relationship within complex water- nomic research has been done on com- is to changes in water tariffs, moving economy systems needs to be explicitly plex water-economy systems and that beyond single-point estimates on water recognised and their sensitivity to bio- economic appraisal, the economics of valuation (elasticity). physical and socio-economic change demand-side management and the use tested. Water needs to be managed for of economic instruments for water man- Also, through research, non-market multiple uses in a sustainable manner. agement should receive higher priority valuation techniques need to be applied Integrated assessment and multidiscipli- then in the past. The critical scarcity of to estimate the demand for those water- nary modelling approaches are needed water resource economists South Africa related ecosystem goods and services to provide a systems-wide perspective is experiencing at present, which limits not traded in markets. Estimating the on the management of water resources. existing research capacity, has also been benefits of healthy water-related ecosys- emphasised. tems and applying these to estimate the Proposed research topics include inves- economics of the Reserve are two topics tigating sensitivity of socio-economic It is hoped that this strategic investment in need for further research. activities to extreme events and/or framework will provide the context for gradual changes on water resource research on water and the economy that A third question is what the economic availability and quality (e.g. climate is sufficiently practical to inform the deci- benefits of clean water and the cost of change and changes in assurance of sions on South Africa’s chosen road of addressing polluted water are. To achieve supply, droughts, floods, longer term water reform, while employing the theo- levels of water pollution that do not cause salinity build-up, impacts of invasive retical principles and applied techniques long-term damage while leaving space species) and to develop a prototype in the subject field of economics.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 16 Water History

The 51 m-high Thukela-Vaal Woodstock Dam has a gross storage capacity of 381 Transfer scheme: million m3. Lani van Vuuren van Lani Feeding the hungry heartland

Thirty years on, the Thukela-Vaal Transfer Scheme, which pumps millions of litres of water from the resource-rich Thukela catchment up and over the Drakensberg escarpment to the water-stressed Vaal, is still regarded as one of South Africa’s engineering marvels. Compiled by Lani van Vuuren.

he 1960s were a decade of unprecedented economic Drought conditions experienced between 1960 and 1966 growth in South Africa. Between 1962 and 1967 the aver- caused the Minister of Water Affairs to impose water restric- Tage growth rate in the production of services and goods tions in the PWV area for the first time in decades. While satis- was 6,3%. Most of this growth was in the economic heartland factory rains allowed these restrictions to be lifted in February of the country (then known as the Pretoria-Witwatersrand- 1967, they were re-imposed from February to November 1969. Vereeniging complex). As economic growth took place the Between October 1970 and November 1971 and in 1973 the demand for water grew. The area received most of its water area also faced restrictions, contributing to the stagnation of from the Vaal River system, which was by then already a hard industrial investment in the region. working river. At that stage the storage capacity of the storage schemes Other large users of the Vaal River’s resources included Sasol, on the main stem of the Vaal River was 4 100 million m3, Iscor (known today as Arcelor Mittal South Africa), the Electricity capable of supplying 1 545 million m3/year on a depend- Supply Commission (Eskom), Orange Free State Goldfields, West- able basis. However, the demand for water from the Vaal ern Transvaal Regional Water Company (known today as the was to reach 1 600 million m3/year by 1976, and the Midvaal Water Company), the Vaal-Gamagara Government Water realisation dawned on authorities that something needed Scheme, the Vaalhartz irrigation scheme and various towns. to be done.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Water History 17

All eyes on other catchments

In a paper published in The Civil Engineer in South Africa in August 1982 TPC Robbroeck, then Managing Engineer (Water Resources) in the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) wrote: “Apart from the limited raising and strengthening of the Vaal Dam…raising of the other dams was found to be unsatisfac- tory and uneconomic. Most of the water that would have been gained would have been lost because of the increased surface area exposed to evaporation. Indirect re-use of water was already taking place to the fullest extent possible and the only other feasible source for augmentation was inter-basin transfer DWAF from neighbouring catchments.” Driekloof Dam features a concrete spillway slab with multiple baffles on the downstream slope. By the 1960s negotiations with Lesotho to construct the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) had already started, but was proving difficult and lengthy. In the meantime, demand kept growing. Attention subsequently became focused on the upper reaches of the Thukela River, several 100 metres below the headwaters of the Vaal and flowing in the opposite direction (towards the Indian Ocean).

Robbroeck explains that other suitable neighbouring riv- ers considered were the Usutu and Komati rivers, but these were already being developed for water supply to Eskom’s new power stations on the eastern Highveld. The remaining neighbouring rivers were tributaries of the Limpopo, the water

resources of which were already being exploited. Thus, in June DWAF 1970, the first phase of the Thukela-Vaal Transfer Scheme was Constructed during the first phase of the Thukela-Vaal Transfer approved by the then Minister of Water Affairs, Fanie Botha. Scheme, the Driel Barrage has a capacity of 18,3 million m3. First phase

The original layout of the scheme comprised a dam at Spioenkop, two pumping stations and a pipeline conveying water along an aqueduct (comprising 37 km of rising main, 28 km of canal, 5,5 km of inverted siphons and 12 km of tunnels) which would discharge to the basin of the proposed Java Dam on the Elands River, near Harrismith.

Construction of the Spioenkop Dam subsequently kicked off in 1968. However, when it was discovered that the proposed Java Dam would flood a large part of the then planned Qwa-Qwa National State, the scheme had to be completely replanned. A new site for the reserve storage dam was found at the farm Sterkfontein on the Nuwejaarspruit – a tributary of the Wilge River. “This site was so close to the watershed near Oliviershoek, and on such a minor tributary, that initially it was not believed possible that it could command the required 2 000 to 3 000 million m3 capacity; the capacity curve was recalculated several times to make sure!”, writes Robbroeck.

The basin was found to have a remarkable shape in that it had DWAF a wide bottom through which the river meandered at a flat The outlet works of the Sterkfontein Dam have a gradient and was surrounded by steep slopes. capacity of 220 m3/s.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 18 Water History

vertical-spindle, centrifugal pumps, each with a capacity of 110 000 m3/day. The 3 915 m-long rising main, which varied in diameter from 1 500 mm to 1 700 mm, took the shortest route directly up the mountain to end in an aqueduct consist- ing of 9 350 m of canals and 1 711 m of tunnels, the main one through the watershed between the Thukela and Vaal on the aptly-named farm Tzamenkomst. This aqueduct emptied into the Sterkfontein basin. The first phase was completed at a total cost of R41,7-million.

Second phase

Meanwhile, the volume of economic activity continued to grow explosively in the PWV complex and, in 1974, the DWA proposed extending the Thukela-Vaal Transfer Scheme. Initially, the second phase was planned to increase the transfer rate to 11 m3/s, corresponding to 950 000 m3/day. The canals and tunnels had already been constructed to that capacity so that only the pump stations at Driel and Jagersrust would have to be duplicated as well as the associated rising mains and the SA Tourism SA Mpandweni siphon.

Driekloof Dam, which has been constructed across an arm of In addition, a further storage dam, capable of regulating the large reservoir formed by Sterkfontein Dam. the Thukela River upstream of Driel was needed to assure a constant withdrawal at the rate required. A site for such stor- Construction of the dam started in 1971 and at the time it was age was found at Woodstock farm. This dam, in combination the largest earthfill embankment dam to be built in South with Driel, would permit a constant 504 million m3/year to be Africa. The embankment is a typical earthfill design 2 290 m drawn, more than needed for the second phase. long with an impervious core sloping upstream. The dam had an original height of 68 m and a gross storage capacity of Once completed the 51 m-high Woodstock Dam would have 1,2 million m3. a gross storage capacity of 381 million m3. For the design flood the total spillway capacity required 1 000 m3/s, of which The main challenge on the site was to make use of the fill 500 m3/s could be discharged through the tunnel. An addi- materials which were quite variable (mainly weathered mud- tional spillway with a capacity of 500 m3/s had therefore to be stone, shale and dolerite). This gave rise to the rather flat built. upstream slope. Due to its small catchment area with negligi- ble natural inflow the dam required no spillway, which made it Writing in the 1982 Civil Engineer HFW Elges, DWA Assistant Chief pretty unique. Engineer (Design) says: “This spillway was placed on the left flank and the original design comprised a straight ogee crest, a con- Evaporation losses from Sterkfontein Dam are about 35 million verging channel and a 15 m-wide chute discharging the water m3/year, which represent about 10% of the losses that would back into the river downstream of the dam. However, hydraulic be experienced from Vaal Dam for a similar volume. When model tests revealed that the waves formed in the chute were the dam was completed in 1977 it was the only dam in South unacceptable. The solution was a curved ogee spillway section, Africa to qualify for inclusion in the International Commission a transition zone with a floor elevated along the centre line and of Large Dams (ICOLD) Register of the World’s Largest Dams. an 11 m-wide chute. The energy dissipating device at the end of the chute is of the flip bucket type. An auxiliary spillway to handle Also added to the first phase of the Thukela-Vaal Transfer floods up to 2 730 m3/s at the dam wall was also provided on the Scheme was the Driel Barrage with a capacity of 18,3 million far left flank adjacent to the chute spillway.” m3 immediately below the confluence of the Mlambonja and Thukela rivers. The Spioenkop Dam would now serve to re- Construction of this embankment dam was relatively short, regulate the flow of the Thukela River for downstream users, starting in March 1979, with river diversion in April 1980 and since all the low flow was now to be abstracted at Driel. impounding starting in March 1982.

Following the completion of the first phase in 1974, up to Before the original Thukela-Vaal Transfer Scheme phase two 330 000 m3/day of water was lifted 506 m by means of four was adopted, investigations were carried out for a pumped Water History 19

storage hydroelectric scheme which would augment the water supply by allowing only a part of the pumped water to Most of the electricity generating be returned for electricity generation. As a result, this phase infrastructure of the pumped stor- was amended, and the Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme age scheme was constructed under- (PSS) constructed instead as a joint venture between the DWA ground to preserve the aesthetic and Eskom. The PSS would replace both the existing Jagersrust beauty of the surrounding area. station and its proposed extension.

Pumped storage scheme

The increased annual quantity of water created by the PSS was to be stored in Sterkfontein Dam, and in 1980 it was decided to raise the dam to its present height of 93 m with a crest length of 3 060 m and a full supply capacity of 2 656 million m3. The dam wall contains 17 million m3 of fill and at that time it was the biggest earthmoving job the DWA had ever undertaken. At full level the dam is 19 km long, 6 km wide, with an average depth of 58 m. The raising was finally completed in 1986. Eskom Facts and figures For the lower reservoir, or tail pool, of the PSS, a suitable site was found on the Mnjaneni River on the farm Kilburn situated  At the time of construction, the Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme at the foothills of the escarpment. The required gross storage had the sixth highest head in the world (473 m). 3 capacity of 36 million m was created by a dam 51 m high with  The Sterkfontein Dam was the first South African dam to be included a full supply level of . Since the water level would fluctuate over in the International Commission of Large Dams’ register of the world’s a depth of 21 m as the scheme operated, the upstream face largest dams. of the dam has a flattish slope to improve its stability and is  During the drought of 1995, when the level of the Vaal Dam was below protected by rip-rap. The downstream face is grassed to com- 15%, the transfer of water from the Thukela River to the Sterkfontein bat erosion and blend in with the surrounding countryside. The Dam and releases from this dam to the Vaal Dam were the lifeblood of dam has been operational since 1980. Gauteng.  The distance from Sterkfontein Dam to Vaal Dam is 370 km along the An extra pump station at Jagersrust, named the Kilburn pump river course. 3 station, was erected. The four 250 600 m /day pumps lift the  The bottom of Sterkfontein Dam is 158 m above the bottom of Vaal water through a 2 x 1 800 mm-diameter rising main, 1 645 m Dam. long.  Because of Sterkfontein’s low evaporation rate, it has been calculated that every litre of water pumped into the dam from the Thukela River The upper reservoir is created by the 47 m-high Driekloof system makes 3 ℓ of water available from the Vaal Dam. Dam constructed across one of the arms of the large reser-  In 1981, the scheme won the award as the Most Outstanding Civil voir formed by Sterkfontein Dam. This arrangement is rather Engineering Achievement from the South African Institution of Civil unusual compared with other schemes in the world as the full Engineering. supply level of the Sterkfontein reservoir at 1 072 m above sea level is 2 m higher than the full supply level of the Driekloof reservoir. Consequently, for about 12% of the time, the crest of Dam. Water from Kilburn Dam is then pumped underground, the Driekloof Dam spillway is submerged and the upper 2 m of over the Drakensberg, and into Driekloof Dam. At peak peri- the Sterkfontein Dam used as the upper reservoir of the PSS. ods when additional electricity is needed, water is dropped from Driekloof Dam, through the power station situated In addition, the dam design was expected to handle spill either underground, and into Kilburn Dam. In quite periods, water is way across the wall and rapid drawdown on the upstream pumped back from Kilburn Dam and into Driekloof Dam. When side. This dictated the need for a spillway across the crest. The the latter is full, water flows into Sterkfontein Dam, where it is chosen design was a rockfill dam with a central clay core and, stored. When water is needed in the Vaal River system, water is the first of its kind in South Africa, a concrete spillway slab with released from Sterkfontein Dam into the Nuwejaarspruit, which multiple baffles on the downstream slope. The dam was com- then flows into Wilge River and then into the Vaal Dam. pleted in 1979. No sooner was the Thukela-Vaal Transfer Scheme completed The scheme now operates as follows: water is pumped from than it was required to perform its water lifeline function. South Driel Barrage into canals which flow via gravity into Kilburn Africa experienced a serious drought between 1979 and 1986.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 20 Water History The Civil Engineer in South Africa Engineer Civil The

General Layout of the Thukela-Vaal Project.

The accumulative natural flow in the Vaal River during this time However, as CPR Roberts and JJ Erasmus point out in a paper was only about 30% of the long-term average flow. By using published in 1982: “The project was considered to be vital from water from the Thukela River system, serious water shortage the point of view of both power generation and water supply could be averted. From 1983 to 1987 more than 1 600 million to the industrial heart of South Africa and no other feasible m3 Thukela water was released which supplied about 43% of alternatives had been identified. For this reason, there could be the demand during this period. no question that the project be abandoned for environmental reasons.” Environmental considerations However, this is probably one of the first large infrastructure Up to the 1970s, there was still little pressure on dam engineers to projects in South Africa where concern for the environ- consider the environment when planning and designing projects. ment dictated how the scheme was planned, designed and Economic considerations, rather than concern for the environment, executed. For example, one of the decisions was to construct dictated when, where and how dams were constructed. Only since most of the electricity generating infrastructure underground 1980 has it been the policy of the DWA (now the Department to preserve the aesthetic beauty of the surrounding area. The of Water Affairs & Forestry) to include an environmental impact design and construction of the large underground cavern assessment when planning any new infrastructure project. complex in poor sedimentary rock required the services of top specialists and numerous geotechnical tests. The underground From the start of the second phase of the scheme concern machine hall, for instance, is about 195 m long, 16 m wide and was expressed over the potential environmental impact of 29 m high, thus its construction was no mean feat. the project on the pristine area in which it was to be located. Following the announcement on 28 June 1974 by Minister Another example is Kilburn Dam, where environmental con- Botha of the Drakensberg PSS a committee was appointed to siderations dictated that the haul roads and borrow areas for investigate the environmental implications of the project and the earthfill embankment and the designated tip areas for the to make recommendations to minimise adverse effects. The underground power station works be situated entirely within committee held its first meeting on 2 October, 1974. the basin. This resulted in a congested borrow-haul-tip

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Water History 21

vertical wall. The resulting pressures and hydrostatic dynam- ics of the runoff water behind the wall caused it to crack and eventually subside.

During the betterments project this vertical wall was removed and the extension of the original canal sides upwards done by about 1,8 m for its entire length.

Future expansion

The development of water infrastructure in the Thukela River for the benefit of users in another catchment might not be over. Today, the Vaal River system is under severe pressure once again. The Integrated Vaal River System Studies, initiated by the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry in 2004, indicated that water demand from Rand Water’s service area alone could reach almost 1 800 million m3/a in 2030 from the present 1 300 million m3/a. This, coupled with growing industrial demand from the power generation, petrochemical and steel production sectors, and severe illegal water use by irrigation farming along sections of the system, has placed the Vaal in a present water supply deficit. One of the largest dams in the world with no spillway, Sterkfontein Dam was the first South African dam to be At the time of writing, investigations into additional water included in the ICOLD World Register of Dams. transfer options were being finalised. Two schemes are being considered, one being further resource development in the Thukela River system (the other being a further phase of the configuration and spoon-picking was necessary in the avail- LHWP). The two proposed dams for further development of the able areas to get sufficient material. Thukela are one of the Bushman’s River (Mielietuin Dam) and the other on the main stem of the Thukela River (Jana Dam). In 1982, as the project was concluded, JF Otto, then DG of the This could provide a nominal transferable yield of 15 m3/s. Department of Environmental Affairs noted: “I am particularly pleased with the sensitive way in which the environmental Since either of these projects will take a couple of years to issues, so important in the scenic part of our country in which implement, a decision regarding which project to go ahead the Drakensberg Project is situated have been dealt with. The with is expected at latest at the beginning of 2009. creation of infrastructure brings about unavoidable distur- bance of the environment. Close cooperation at an early stage between engineers, landscape architects, botanists, zoologists, Sources and other natural scientists minimised the negative effects.” Hydropolitical History of South Africa’s International River Basins (WRC Report Thukela-Vaal Betterments No: 1220/1/04) Rand Water – A Century of Excellence, 1903-2003 (Phil Bonner & Peter From June 1988, once the first water was received from the LHWP, Lekgoathi) the Thukela-Vaal canal was shut down for two years for rehabilita- The Civil Engineer in South Africa, August 1982, Vol 24, No 8 tion and upgrade. The so-called Thukela-Vaal Betterments project Large Dams and Water Systems in South Africa, published by the South African arose when it was found that the sides of the existing canal were National Committee on Dams being undermined by hydrostatic forces, caused by build-up of Water: Meeting the Needs of the Nation 1912-1987, published by the Depart- groundwater seeping through the surrounding soil. ment of Water Affairs The Dam Builders, Supplement to SA Construction World, May 1985 The problem began when the flow in the canal was increased Concrete Trends, April 2000, Vol 3, No 2 during the second phase of the transfer scheme. To allow for Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme, published by Eskom this the height of the canal was increased through the con- Construction in Southern Africa, August 1974, Vol 19, No 5 struction of an 850-mm high, vertical wall right along the top SA Construction World, April 1982 of the existing canal wall. However, this caused surface runoff Rand Water website (www.randwater.co.za) water from the surrounding area to collect behind the new DWAF website (www.dwaf.gov.za)

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 22 Hydropower

Beneath the cover of water, deep deposits of silt have reduced the

capacity of the Collywobbles dam. Sue Matthews

Sue Matthews visited Collywobbles in the Eastern Cape and explores ways of mitigating its impact on the surrounding environment.

he Mbhashe River rises in the Gariep (360 MW) and Vanderkloof Of course, there’s a higher demand mountains of the southern (240 MW) schemes on the Orange for electricity in winter, so enough water TDrakensberg, and then snakes east- River. (This excludes the Drakensberg must be stored to see the power ward across the coastal plateau, a gentle and Palmiet pumped storage schemes, station through the dry months. But landscape of undulating grassland. where water is pumped during off-peak the Collywobbles dam was only Shortly after flowing beneath the N2, the periods to generate electricity during designed to provide an effective storage river encounters the more rugged terrain peak demand.) of 2,5 GWh – equivalent to 60 hours of of the Wild Coast, and – as if in shock or operation with all three turbines gen- confusion – it suddenly flails into a series Like many conventional hydropower erating at maximum capacity. Water is of violent contortions, before seemingly schemes, Collywobbles has a storage therefore diverted from the Ncora Dam getting a grip on itself and continuing dam and a penstock to pipe water down on the Tsomo River in the neighbouring more sedately to the Indian Ocean. to the turbines, which drive the genera- Greater Kei catchment, taking about two tors. What’s amazing about this scheme days to reach Collywobbles. This interba- This convoluted section of river course – though is that the penstock tunnels sin transfer of water has ranged between viewed on Google Earth as a squiggle of straight through the mountain spine about 115 and 150 million m3 annually loops and bends – is known as separating two bends of the river. This over the last four years. Collywobbles, and is the site of a hydro- means the water takes a direct shortcut electric power station of the same name. of a little over a kilometre to skip the “In summer we generally have enough It was commissioned in 1985 by TESCOR, 34 km ‘by the river’ meander between run-of-river yield, so most of the water is the former Transkei Electricity Corpora- the dam wall and the power plant. As transferred in winter,” explains Monique tion, and is now operated by Eskom. a result, this stretch of river barely flows Klopper, Network Optimisation Analyst With three generating units of 14 MW unless water overtops the dam wall for Eskom’s southern region, based in each providing a total maximum output during the summer months, when the East London. “The valve at Ncora Dam is of 42 MW, it ranks as Eskom’s third larg- Mbhashe catchment gets most of its controlled by the Department of Water est hydroelectric power station after the rainfall. Affairs & Forestry (DWAF), so we monitor

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Hydropower 23

the levels at Collywobbles and then put effects. That’s why we can’t scour as determined using the Rapid Simulation in requests to DWAF to release water to much as we’d like,” says Klopper. Model is 67 million m3 per year – about us. There’s an agreement that the level half the amount of water transferred of the Ncora Dam cannot drop below Yet the presence of the dam and the from Ncora Dam. 50%, and the valve can only be opened interbasin transfer of water in winter 20-35%.” completely alters the flow regime of the The relationship between freshwater river, which contributes to the siltation flows and the state of the estuary, as A complicating factor, however, is that problem and also affects the system’s well as the consequences for its habitats the Collywobbles dam has silted up to ecological functioning. According to and biota, will be examined in a desktop such an extent that only about 10% of DWAF’s Internal Strategic Perspective assessment that form part of a project to its original 9 million m3 capacity remains. of the Mzimvubu to Mbhashe ISP Area develop an estuary management plan for The soils in the Mbhashe catchment are (2005), the natural run-of-river yield the Mbhashe River. naturally prone to erosion, but overgraz- ing exacerbates the problem, with the result that more than 60% siltation had already occurred. Clearly, somebody didn’t do their homework properly in the planning stages of the scheme.

“At least once a year we’ll open the scour- ing gates at the dam to try and scour out some of the silt, but it doesn’t have much effect,” says Klopper. “Since we’ve lost so much of the dam’s holding capa­ city, we can’t get the generation out of the station that we’d like.” The upshot of this is that while the power station may run round-the-clock during summer, in winter only two of the three units run for a few hours per day over peak demand periods in the morning and evening.

“The operators at the power station check the level of the dam, and if it’s overflowing they’ll generate more, and stop if it drops too low. We monitor from East London as well to check what’s going on,” confirms Klopper. “Flow meas- urements taken by gauging weirs in the river are also fed back to us in East Lon- don so we can instantaneously see what the river level is, and generate depend- ing on the rise and fall of the river.”

Apart from reducing the dam’s capacity, the silt load in the water causes increased wear and tear to the turbine parts. It is also silting up the Mbhashe River estuary, which separates the Dwesa and Cwebe Nature Reserves and forms part of the adjoining marine protected area.

“The amount of silt going down the river Sue Matthews is a big concern for us, and we’re always The machine floor at Collywobbles hydroelectric power station, showing the three on the lookout for ways to mitigate the 14 MW generating units.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 24 Hydropower

The Eastern Cape Parks Board has com- missioned the study, under the auspices Plant operator of the CAPE (Cape Action Plan for People Lucas Ngqata and the Environment) Estuaries Manage- (seated), electri- ment Programme. Options for rehabilita- cal officer Fundile tion of the estuary are to be identified, Mgulugulu (left) and perhaps some operating rules for and mechanical the Collywobbles scheme can be sug- officer Lungile gested to reduce its impact. Because Madlolo (right) in despite all its problems, Eskom is not the Collywobbles likely to give up on the scheme in the control room. near future – especially in the current era

of countrywide power shortages and the Sue Matthews looming threat of rolling black-outs. on tribal land. In the gaily painted bun- crop irrigation is limited due to the area’s “Collywobbles is important in terms of galows scattered throughout the coun- poor soils and steep terrain. electricity supply, but more so in terms tryside, people burn paraffin, candles, of the stability of the network, as it can wood and gas – or even cow dung and A bit further north, however, the twin keep the network running during high maize cobs – for cooking, light and benefits of irrigation and hydroelectric- demand periods or temporary short- warmth, but more than 25% of villages ity are being touted as the main motiva- ages,” explains Klopper. “The return we have electric power. Indeed, accord- tion to dam the Mzimvubu River, which get on it is enormous, plus it’s a clean ing to the Mbhashe Municipality’s draft flows into the sea at Port St Johns. This source of energy.” Integrated Development Plan for 2008- is South Africa’s largest remaining unde- 2009, about 60% of all households now veloped river, but the massively ambi- Electricity generated at Collywobbles have access to electricity, and Eskom is tious Mzimvubu Basin Development is distributed remotely from East Lon- extending its reach little by little. Project is set to change this. The num- don, with most directed to Mthatha bers being bandied about are that some (formerly Umtata) and other towns and Water services are the more pressing 897 000 jobs would be created through villages in Transkei – some quite close problem, since only 0,63% of house- forestry and agricultural expansion, and to the point of origin. The Mbhashe holds have access to water inside the as much as 2 000 MW of hydroelectri­ River flows through one of the poorest home, while 67% rely on streams and city generated for the national grid and most undeveloped areas of the rivers for their water requirements. through a network of large dams. Eskom country, where 77% of the inhabitants DWAF’s ISP report indicates that rural has reportedly identified nine possible earn less than R800 per month. Census people in the upper catchments must hydropower sites on the Mzimvubu 2001 revealed that there were 253 372 deal with annual water deficits during River and its main tributaries. people (53 199 households) living in the dry season, limiting their domestic the Mbhashe municipal area, which uses and stock watering. The situation Apart from Collywobbles, Eskom inher- includes the towns of Dutywa, Gatyana is exacerbated by the 24 600 ha (246 ited three other small hydropower sta- 2 (Willowvale) and Xhora (Elliotdale), but km ) of forestry plantation here, which tions from TESCOR. The smallest is Ncora 95% of residents live in rural settlements reduces annual runoff by an estimated (2 MW), situated alongside the dam 19 million m3. Any expansion of this land of the same name. Some of the water use – as promoted through the govern- transferred to Collywobbles is routed via What’s in a name ment’s afforestation plans for 100 000 ha the Ncora plant, so it effectively gener- in the Eastern Cape – will put the system ates electricity twice. First Falls (6 MW) Collywobbles was named after Sir George and its dependent communities under and Second Falls (11 MW) lie below the Pomeroy Colley, who served as Special Magistrate severe pressure. Mthatha Dam, but they too can only in the Dutywa District for two years from 1858. operate over peak periods in winter to The story goes that on first seeing the river’s maze With all the water being transferred ensure that the city of Mthatha’s water of canyons, he exclaimed: “My, it wobbles!” from Ncora Dam, however, there’s a supply is not compromised. “Yes, sir,” responded a quick-witted aid. substantial surplus of water downstream “Collywobbles!” of Collywobbles. The ISP report suggests Hopefully, before the mighty Mzimvubu Colley was later promoted to the rank of Major- that consideration is given to making is shackled by a chain of dams, the General, and was killed during the First Boer War’s this water available for other uses that true costs and benefits of hydropower Battle of Majuba in 1881. could create economic opportunities. It schemes will be carefully considered, points out, though, that the potential for and lessons learned from past mistakes.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Research & development 25 New research node to contribute to ‘water-sensitive’ future

Lani van Vuuren attended the launch of the IWC Africa Water Research Node at Monash South Africa in Johannesburg, which hopes to contribute to the country’s key water resource manage- ment challenges through scientific research and education. Lani van Vuuren van Lani

he Water Research Node (WRN) by inspiring post-graduate students to about its intention to focus its research enjoys support from both Aus- become thought and action leaders in on issues of concern in contemporary Ttralia’s Monash University and the the water sector. Lastly, through com- Africa. Similarly, the IWC aims to align International WaterCentre, a private munity engagement, by co-learning and its research with the needs of develop- sector organisation focused on educa- co-creating solutions with appropriate ing countries and to have a measurable tion, research and consultancy to build segments of society that promote adop- impact towards better management of capacity in integrated water manage- tion of new knowledge and influence water. “We believe that local relevance ment. Headed by Director Dr Dirk Roux change towards more sustainable path- and international recognition are not the WRN hopes to contribute much- ways in water resource management. mutually exclusive but complementary needed research capacity to the critical outcomes of research,” concludes area of sustainable development, wise The WRN does not aim to compete Dr Roux. governance and effective management against existing South African water of fresh water. research centres. In fact, several organi- sations have already expressed their “National and catchment-based assess- willingness to cooperate with the node ments indicate that freshwater ecosys- and a number of collaborative projects tems are more threatened than marine are being initiated at present. and terrestrial ecosystems and that, in general, their state is declining further. “Within the global scientific enterprise, At the same time we need more water no individual or organisation can claim for a growing population, social uplift- complete ownership of any field of ment and economic development,” Dr study. In the long term, success in Roux tells the Water Wheel. “The vision research depends on effective partici- of the WRN is to be a leading research pation in the broader learning system,” and education unit for building capacity notes Dr Roux. “The new WRN represents Monash South Africa to facilitate a transition towards a ‘water- a portal to the substantial knowledge At the launch of the IWC South Africa sensitive’ future.” resources of at least two world-class Water Research Node are Dr Dirk Roux, organisations that are both keen to grow Director: Water Research Node; Mark The WRN hopes to contribute in their contributions in Africa.” Pascoe, Chief Executive: International three ways, firstly, through research, WaterCentre; Prof Dina Burger, Deputy by promoting and facilitating novel, While the funds for research originate in Pro Vice-Chancellor, Research; and Prof interdisciplinary and use-inspired Australia, the WRN is clear on its Africa Tyrone Pretorius, Pro Vice-Chancellor, research. Secondly, through education, focus. Monash South Africa is explicit Monash South Africa.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 26 Drinking water

To aid government in its quest to improve the quality of drinking water served to rural communities, the Water Research Commission (WRC) has published a new set of guidelines for small water treatment plants. Lani van Vuuren reports.

ater infrastructure in South practical and user-friendly guidelines for generally delivered the poorest quality Africa is generally well devel- intervention. water. The primary reasons for the failure Woped in urban areas. However, of these plants included inappropri- rural water treatment plants are often The study, led by Prof Maggie Momba ate technology, poor operation, lack of wrought with technical and manage- from the Tshwane University of Tech- training, municipal financial constraints, ment problems leading to the produc- nology, gathered information on the lack of motivation of operators and lack tion of drinking water of an inferior methods of disinfection applied, equip- of knowledge of basic water treatment quality with potential health conse- ment employed, performance of the operations. quences for affected communities. treatment plants, knowledge and skills of the operators as well as other techni- Control and To unravel the intricacies around the cal and management issues, among monitoring operational and management param- others. It shed significant light on the eters impinging on the disinfection effi- challenges hampering the perform- At most water treatment plants the ciency of these small water treatment ance of the country’s small water treat- characteristics of the incoming (raw) plants the WRC funded a study involv- ment systems. water will change from time to time ing 181 such plants (mostly municipal demanding adjustments in the treat- owned) across seven provinces. The Of the small water treatment plants ment process. Furthermore, there are goal was to determine the nature and surveyed, those in the Free State variations in water demand which full extent of the problems currently were found to deliver the best water may require changes in raw water being experienced so as to provide quality, while those in the Eastern Cape flow rate.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Drinking water 27

Around 50% of the operators and In addition, poor working conditions, supervisors interviewed did not display depletion of chemicals (due to inad- On-site training the knowledge of the flow rates at equate record keeping), the lack of material for operators which their plants operated and more emergency preparedness and poor On-Site Mobile Training of Operators in Small than 78% were unaware of the chemi- communication were found to be Rural Water Supplies: An Illustrative Kit TT 348/08 On-Site MobileTrainingTT of Operators in Small Rural Water Supplies: An Illustrative Kit cal doses used or how to correlate the significant contributors to the failure of MNB Momba, N Makala & M Dungeni required dose to the flow rate. This often these systems. led to either an overdose or an under- dose of coagulant and chlorine. Distribution system

The general lack of skills of plant opera- The quality of water reaching consumers tors and supervisors was found to be depends not only on operating condi- particularly concerning. In some prov- tions at the treatment plant but also on inces, up to 60% of operators had not changes occurring in the distribution undergone relevant and appropriate system. The study revealed that at many training to enable them to acquire the plants final drinking water of the highest TT 348/08 Water Research Commission necessary technical skills for the job. quality might be leaving the plant but its This is despite the fact that a number of condition deteriorated before reaching n illustrative training kit for training programmes exist in the coun- consumers. High turbidity in the finished rural water treatment plant try. “We found that many operators have water, aged pipelines, breaks in distri- A operators is now available from a low level of formal education, and bution pipelines, biofilm growth, and thus may find formal course material sludge accumulation in storage reser- the WRC. difficult to follow,” explains Prof Momba. voirs were some of the factors contribut- In rural treatment plants there “Increased on-site training offered in ing to this occurrence. is a need for most operators to local languages could improve the upgrade their training in order to situation.” The resultant guidelines describe meth- achieve the necessary improve- ods and processes for tackling some of ments in performance to produce In terms of instrumentation, only 46% these problems experienced at small water that is consistently safe to of plants surveyed had the instruments water treatment plants. Practical solu- drink. While formal training in a to measure turbidity, pH and chlorine tions are offered, with emphasis on the classroom does have its benefits, residual (in some cases swimming pool multiple barrier approach to optimising operators with a low level of formal kits were being used to measure pH disinfection. education may find the presenta- and chlorine). While 95% of the plants tion of the course material difficult reported that an external monitoring In addition, the survey results have group visited the plants regularly (about been shared with relevant stakeholders to follow. once a month), most plants complained with an emphasis on the areas where This illustrative kit is the end- about a lack of feedback. In virtually all water quality problems are being product of a series of on-site the plants studied, inadequate funding experienced. Nationwide workshops on mobile training of 26 operators for operational and implementation the emergency disinfection of drinking from seven different small water activities was mentioned as a huge water were also held earlier this year. treatment plants in the Eastern drawback for effective and efficient “Much is already being done to improve Cape. It emphasises why each step water services delivery. drinking water quality in rural areas,” in water treatment is important notes Prof Momba. “It is important that for the sustainable production and everyone in the water sector works Poor maintenance delivery of safe drinking water and practices together to assist municipalities to how to check the performance at provide the best quality water to their each stage. Lack of maintenance of equipment communities.” was noted to be a major maintenance To order On-Site Mobile Training problem in about 60% of the small water To order the Guidelines (Report No: of Operators in Small Rural Water treatment plants studied. This led to TT 355/08) or related report, Improving Supplies: An Illustrative Kit (Report periodic equipment failures. Many oper- Disinfection Efficiency in Small Drinking No: TT 348/08) contact Publica- ators interviewed felt that the culture in Water Plants (Report No: 1531/1/08) tions at Tel: (012) 330-0340; most small water treatment plants was contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330- Fax: (012) 331-2565 or E-mail: one of ‘repair or replace’ rather than one 0340; Fax: (012) 331-3565 or E-mail: [email protected] of regular maintenance. [email protected]

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 Exploring the link between water and HIV

n 1 December the world will celebrate the 20th anniver- sary of World Aids Day. The theme for this year is ‘leader- Oship’ to encourage leaders at all levels to stop the disease. HIV infection has reached epidemic proportions. According to the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognised on 1 December, 1981, making it one of the most destructive pandemics in recorded history. It is estimated that about 0,6% of the world’s population is infected with HIV. Last year about 2,7 million people were newly-infected. More than 6 000 lives are lost every day to the disease.

AIDS in South Africa HIV strikes people across lines of race, gender and social AIDS continues to be the leading cause of death in Africa standing, however, informal settlements have been shown to which is home to 67% of all people living with HIV. In Africa, have the highest incidence of HIV. 60% living with HIV are women and three out of four young people living with HIV are female. (15,2%) and Free State (12,6%) have the most people living with HIV. Among those aged between 15 and 49 the HIV South Africa has one of the highest prevalence of HIV in the prevalence is highest in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal. world. While the epidemic seems to have stabilised in South People living in informal settlements have by far the highest Africa a significant proportion of people in the country are liv- HIV prevalence. ing with the disease. At present, the country has an estimated 5,7 million people living with HIV. AIDS & water

According to the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), AIDS is not a water-related disease, and HIV is not spread via HIV prevalence by province shows that among people aged contaminated water or poor hygiene. Yet there is a more impor- two years and older KwaZulu-Natal (16,5%), Mpumalanga tant link between HIV/AIDS and water than people realise.

Easy access to safe and sufficient water and sanitation is indis- pensable for people living with HIV/AIDS. Diarrhoea and skin Online resources diseases are among the most common opportunistic infec- tions in people living with the disease. For some patients, diarrhoea can become chronic, weakening them even more. Aids Foundation South Africa (www.aids.org.za) Human Sciences Research Council (www.hsrc.ac.za/ In order for HIV-infected people to remain healthy as long as Media_Release-256.phtml) possible and for people with AIDS to reduce their chances of South African Department of Health (www.doh.gov.za) getting diarrhoea and skin diseases, adequate water supply Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV) and sanitation facilities are of the utmost importance, espe- Treatment Action Campaign (www.tac.org.za) cially if people do not have access to antiretroviral treatment. Water Research Commission HIV/AIDS DVD for council- Clean water is also needed to take medicines. lors (http://www.wrc.org.za/hiv_water_vid.htm) International Water & Sanitation Centre Good-quality water is also crucial for HIV-positive mothers (http://www2.irc.nl/page.php/114) who cannot breastfeed their babies for fear of infecting them. Unsafe water used in infants’ feed increases the risk of diarrhoeal dis­eases and infant mortality.

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 What is AIDS?

cquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is the Afinal and most serious stage of HIV disease, which causes severe damage to the immune system. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes AIDS. The virus attacks the immune system and leaves the body vulnerable to a variety of life-threatening infections. Common bacteria, yeast, parasites and viruses that ordi- narily do not cause serious disease in people with healthy immune systems can cause fatal illnesses in people with Chris Kirchhoff/Media Club SA) Kirchhoff/Media Chris AIDS. We all need to be educated about HIV/AIDS. The virus can be transmitted: through sexual con- tact, through blood (for example, through the sharing of HIV/AIDS facts and figures needles), and from mother to child (for example through breastfeeding). HIV is not spread by casual contact such  South Africa has the sixth-highest prevalence of HIV in as hugging, by touching items previously touched by the world, with 28% of the population estimated to be a person infected with the virus, during participation in infected. sports or by mosquitoes.  Women face a greater risk of HIV infection. On average There is no cure for AIDS at this time. However, a in South Africa there are three women infected with variety of treatments are available that can help keep HIV for every two men who are infected. The differ- symptoms at bay and improve the quality of life of those ence is greatest in the 15-24 age group, where three who have already developed symptoms, for example, young women for every one young man are infected. antiretroviral therapy.  HIV in children is high. Approximately 130 000 chil- Source: www.healthline.com dren aged between two and four and about 214 000 children between five and nine are HIV positive. Most In South Africa, home-based caregivers provide critical of them have had HIV since birth. support for people who are HIV infected. They require up to 200 litres of water per day for every patient. Water is needed to bath patients and for washing soiled clothing and linen. Finally, water is needed to keep the house environment and toilet clean in order to reduce the risk of opportunistic infections. Where Quality services within reach does the Red Ribbon For people weakened by disease it also becomes important that water-supply points and toilets are easily accessible and come from? close to where they are needed. This not only reduces the burden of long-distance water collection, for example, fetch- ing water on caregivers or those who are weak. Critically too, it cuts the risk of girls and women being attacked while fetch- he Red Ribbon was created in 1991 ing water or relieving themselves in remote places, and thus Tby the Visual AIDS Artists Caucus in New reduces vulnerability to infection with HIV. York, USA. It has since become the interna- tional symbol of HIV and AIDS awareness. In addition, the design of water-supply and sanitation infra- People wear the ribbon to demonstrate their structure needs to take into account, for example, those fetch- care and concern about the disease. It is also ing water are now children or older people who have particular a symbol of hope – that the search for a vac- requirements (pump handles not too high, pumping not too cine and cure to halt the suffering is success- heavy, etc). This is because water collection tasks are increas- ful and the quality of life improves for those ingly falling on children and the elderly as a consequence of AIDS. Toilet structures, on the other hand, need to be big living with the virus. enough to accommodate more than one person (for example, Source: UNAID when weakened patients require assistance to go to the toilet).

The Water Wheel November/December 2008 30 Last word

Successful workshop on modelling & biomanipulation

The North West University Potchefstroom Campus along with the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry organised a successful workshop on the Applicability of Modelling Techniques and Biomanipulation in the Aquatic Environment at the Roode Valley Country Lodge. A number of international specialists presented at the workshop, including ecological informatics expert Prof Friedrich Recknagel from Adelaide University and Prof Erik Jeppeson from the University of Aarhus, Denmark, who specialises in aquatic ecology.

Lani vanVuuren Ecological informatics expert Prof Friedrich Recknagel from Adelaide University was one of the international

speakers at the workshop. Lani van Vuuren van Lani A total of 26 people are employed on the hyacinth removal project on the Roodeplaat Dam.

Lani van Vuuren van Lani Workshops participants were

Dr Bill Harding, one of the few remaining taken by boat on to Roodeplaat Dam to view the present Lani vanVuuren limnologists in the country, delivered hyacinth clearing project. More than 37 ha of hyacinth has been removed by hand several presentations at the workshop. since February.

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