Notes the Annotation ‘F’ Is Used to Designate a Reference to a ﬁgure, and Is Preceded by the Page Number on Which the ﬁgure Is to Be Found

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10827-1 - Slavery, Memory, and Religion in Southeastern Ghana, c. 1850–Present Meera Venkatachalam Index More information

Index

Notes The annotation ‘f’ is used to designate a reference to a figure, and is preceded by the page number on which the figure is to be found. (Maps are represented as figures.) The annotation ‘ff’ when preceded by page/s number/s refers to an entry where information is contained only in a footnote and not in the main body of the text. The annotation ‘n’ is used to indicate a footnote; it is usually followed by the number of the footnote, and preceded by the page number/s on which it is to be found. Where there is a solitary footnote on a page, the number of the footnote is dropped. Single footnotes that spill over two pages are represented by both page numbers separated by a dash. The footnote takes the form of either an ‘ff’ or an ‘n’ type depending on whether the entry is represented in the main text. Examples: 118– 19ff; 118–19n34. Consecutive footnotes on same page, containing information about the same entry, are usually represented as a single entry, separated by a dash between the footnotes, and indexed against the page number in which they appear. Example: 33n11–12.

Aberewa (anti-witchcraft movement Abutia (Ewe people) 16, 148–9ff in the Akan belt), 159ff. See also autochthonous and celestial deities Abrewa 70–1, 71n39, 162ff Ablesi, 65, 134–7, 135n21, 145, duko,29 153–4, 211–12 stool fathers, 41ff Ablesikope, 48f, 75, 78, 135 Acheampong, Ignatius Kutu, 37, Ablode (freedom) movement, 149, 37n16 149n51 Acolatse, Joachim I, 121ff, 138 Ablorgamey, 126 Action Faith Ministries, 172–3 Abomey, cult of royal ancestors, 6, Ada (people), 32, 104, 115, 116–17, 109 133, 138 Abor, 124 Ada (Yewe deity), 56ff, 59ff abosom, 2n1, 82 adadada (ritual), 59, 59n26 Abrewa (deity in Gorovodu cluster), Adaﬁenu, 111 47, 53, 61, 63f, 65, 67, 76, 91, Adaklu, 29, 148–9ff, 152 97, 126, 140. See also Aberewa, adeha, 61, 72. See also Gorovodu Kunde, Brekete, Gorovodu Adele (language), 25

229

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230 Index

Adina, 103, 126–7 of Christianity, 165 Adinkra, 179ff as ‘cultic’ and ‘religious’ adze, 52, 52n, 55, 66, 76, 131. See coexistence, 204–5 also dzo and, witchcraft within EP church, 165 adzeto,52 See also Dzobo, Noah, and, Adzevodu, 66, 66f, 72–3, 163, 183–5, indigenisation 202, 204–6 Afrifa, A. A., 36, 37ff Adzima, 73, 106–7, 187. See also Afrikania Renaissance Mission troxovi shrines (ARM), 177, 179 Adzovia (Anlo clan), 40, 44, 100–1, anti–troxovi campaign, 106. (See hlo) 190 Afa (divinatory system), 19, 21, headed by Ameve, 179–80 68–70, 68n38, 72, 77, 78ff, 162, Pan-African outlook, 198 181. See also boko and ‘traditional shrines’, 180–3, afedo (patrilineage), 40 189 religious participation 41, 59, 86, split, 179 135, 161, 162ff See also Ameve, Kofi and Damuah, slave women in, 90 Kwabena slave descent and, 203 Afu (clan deity), 105 stool houses and, 41, 51 Agave, 31 varying terminologies for, 40n24 Agbelengor (Lord’s Pentecostal afedo-me (ancestral house) Church), 175ff and ancestors, 41 Agboado, Akosua, 137 residents of, 40–1 Agboado, Bismarck, 138–9 Afelavo, Stephan Kwadzo, 11 Agboado, Elias, 137 afeme, 40ff, 57, 86 Agboado, Hope, 137 Afife Agboado, Justice, 167–8 and Christianity in, 170–1, 170n21, Agbodedefu,60 173 agbota (ritual office), 64, 64n, 81, 89, Fia of, 123 182 Nyigbla shrine, 187 Agorkoli, (Togbi), 28, 152, status in Anlo, 144, 176 152n53 Aflao, 19, 31, 43 Agbosome, 130, 140, 144ff. See also Accra–Aflao road, 41, 43 Klikor, Klikor-Agbozume, Some and colonial border, 111 Agbozo, C.T., 122, 156 fofiesi in, 84 Agbozume,1,2,3,19,45,88f, 96f, treaty with British, 143 130–1, 140, 140n29, 144ff, 190. African Independent Churches See also Agbosome, (AICs), 163–4 Klikor–Agbozume, Some stance on traditional religion, agumaga, 68, 77. See also Afa 169–71, 175, 182, 204–5 Aguna, 25 comparison to ahe, 59, 59n22, 72, 160 Pentecostal–charismatic Aidam, Rose, 168–9 churches, 172–3 Aja See also Africanisation of language, 59 Christianity people, 6, 25–6, 28–9 Africanisation of Christianity Ajakoku, Quasi and Baeta,¨ 165 descendent of Abelsi, 65

Index 231

and destruction of Fofie cult, 212 All Ewe Conference (AEC), 35, head of Fofie cult, 75–6, 78, 80 148–50. See also Ewe League, Ajorlolo (slave dealer), 104 and, Togoland Congress (TC) Akan Allman, Jean Akwamu, 31 Asante nationalism, 37ff, 148ff cults and licenses, 142ff, 158, 159ff disease in colonial Akan belt, 128 diasporan chieftaincy, 195 Allman, Jean, and Parker, John enslaved women and divinities in Akan and northerners, 129 Anlo, 2, 78–9, 95–6 anti-witchcraft movements, 125 and ethnic politics, 36–8, 97 licences, 142ff ethno-cultural location in West north–south exchange system, 94, Africa, 25–6 127ff influence on the Ewe, 27, 29, 41, ritual entrepreneurs, 126ff 61, 67 and studies of indigenous religion, and memories of slavery, 2, 99, 17–18 100ff Alomevi, 138. See also amefefle ritual traffic and the forest belt, Amaka (Yewe deity), 56ff 60–1ff, 124–7, 126n3–4, 129, Amatsi 136ff, 140, 201 movement, 140 and witchcraft (bayi) 128–9, sacred water, 76 128n8 amedzodzo, 51, 51n5 aklama, 50 Amedzofe,28 akonkofo (social class in Asante), 128, amedzoto, ancestral sponsors, 51, 55, 131 58, 78, 83–4, 160, 162–3, 184, Akpafu (speakers), 25 212. See also amedzodzo Akpini, 149ff Ameeria, 90, 91f.(See Senchisro) Akuffo, F. W. K., 37, 37n16 amefefle, 135 Akurang-Parry, Kwabena alternative terminologies, 82, 138 abolitionism, 104ff and Asante Wars, 145 slave trade along Salaga axis, definition, 33 115–16, 116n26 ‘homes’ of, 133 Akwamu, 31 in relation to other categories of Akyeampong, Emmanuel dependency, 190 on Fofie, 15 Amenumey, D. E. K. reincarnation in Yewe cult, 160 Anlo Confederation, 144–5, on trans-Atlantic dialogue on 145n40 slavery, 191 on colonial divisions of Eweland, 35 on trokosi, 187–190 Ewe nationalism, 148ff Akyem Abuakwa, 159ff origins of Ewe, 26, 28 Alafia, 126, 127f, 141. See also Amen-Ra, 178 Gorovodu ametsiava (deceased ancestor), 51, 88, alaga, 59, 112, 157, 158ff 198 Alavanyo, 28 ametsiava (war captive), 190 Alegba (alegbawo) Ameve, Kofi characteristics of, 47–8, 48f,53 and anti-troxovi campaign, 189 and libation, 80 leadership of ARM, 179–80 protective gods, 44, 47 See also Afrikania Renaissance as trickster, 74 Mission (ARM)

232 Index

Amewode, Ambrose, 141 and Gbadzo, 100 Anana Guasa, 141. See also Gorovodu and hogbetsotso,152 Anexo (Little Popo) and missionaries, 104, 104n6 and Mina, 26 Nyigbla cult in, 105–8, 113, 113n, relations with Anlo, 31–2, 144 201 Yewe shrines in, 56ff relationship with Keta, 32, 34 Anfoega, 148–9ff and sea-erosion, 157 Anlo Traditional Council, monument and troxovi shrines, 187 to slavery, 194 Yewe in, 113n Anlo-Afiadenyigba Antankarana descent group Afa diviner in, 69f (Madagascar), 11 Afrikania Mission in, 181–2 Anyako Alafia shrine, 127f mission station in, 102, 113–14, Alegba in, 48f 114n22 and Anlo Proper, 143 Yewe cult in, 157 anti-witchcraft cults, in, 66f, 66–7, Apostles Revelation Society (ARS) 141 and memberships, 171, 173 and Apostles Revelation Society, origins, 164, 169–70, 170n21 170 Argenti, Nicholas Chief Amegashi, 117 fulengan performances and slavery, cultic competition in, 182–3 6 cultic cooperation in, 163 Argenti, Nicolas, and Roschenthaler,¨ dual worshipping in, 167–8 Ute, on trauma in the social as fieldwork site, 19, 20, 24, 43, psyche, 14–15 43n28, 44–6 Asafohenega,39 and Fofie, 63, 64f, 75, 78, 82, 84, Asante 89, 90, 95f, 131ff, 133, 135, Anlo–Asante relationship, 34–5, 135n21, 136–7, 212 115, 144–5 and Global Alliance, 176–7 comparison with Anlo, 131 and Gorovodu shrines, 62, 62f, 63f conversion to Christianity, mainline churches in, 171 124ff Pentecostal churches in, 173, defeat by British, 116 173n27, 176 and Dente Bosomfo, 130 and slave–women, 134, 137 ‘ethnic’ politics, 36–8, 37n15 stool house, 87f, 87n15 and Eweland, internal politics of, typical shrines in, 67–8 32, 35–6, 150 and Yewe shrines, 56–8, 56n9, 57f, and kente,95 60, 108, 161 kingdom of, 27, 31, 32 Anloga nationalism, 148ff African–American visitors to, 196 northern Eweland, 28–9, Anloga–Some rivalry, 144n39 34 as ‘capital’ of Anlo, 30–1, 39–40, Oppong in, 170ff 40n23, 44, 143–4, 202 and Sarem, 92, 125, 128–9 Apostles Revelation Society, 170 slave descent, 7, 99 Christianity in, 121–4 and slave population, 145n42 and Elias Quist, 100 and slave trade, 5, 31, 34 as fieldwork location, 43–5 social classes in, 128 and Fofie worship, 84, 167 witchcraft, 128

Index 233

Asante Wars, 102, 115, 118, 120, on competition in religious system, 137, 144, 145, 150 181–2 in the Anlo imagination, 65, 86, contribution to ethnography, 20–1 86n14, 90 on cultic cooperation, 163 Asantehene, 124ff on end of Fofie cult, 212 Asogli, 148–9ff on Fofie as ‘corrective’ mechanism, Atebubu, 116ff 23 atike (medicine), 53, 126, 130ff funeral, 24 Atikevodu (religious cult), 60, 130, and ‘insertion’ into lineage, 21 201. See also Gorovodu babalawo, 68ff. See also Afa, Ifa Atorkor, 103–4, 194 Badagry, 58, 67ff Attiave, 140, 140n29 Baeta,¨ Christain G., and EP church Attiteti, 150 leadership, 165–6. See also avadzi, 86–8, 87n15, 88f,90 Africanisation of Christianity Avatime, 148–9ff, 149n Baeta,¨ Gonzalves (slave dealer), 103 Avenor, 123, 144 Bahia, 103 Avleketi, 47, 56, 58, 60, 108, 110 Uprising (1834), 103n3 avlesi (Yewe initiate), 58 Bahoken, J., 165. See also Awadatsi, 105 Africanisation of Christianity Awoamefia,39 Bailey, Anne, 194. See also Atorkor Amedo Kpegla, 121 Barber, Karin ancestral sacrifice, 169 oriki,10 changes to office, 122 West Africa religious systems, Chieftaincy dispute, 44 206–11 and Christianity, 121 Baum, Robert, 17, 18 and conversion to Christianity, conversion, 118ff 124 fieldwork, 183 environmental degradation and on ‘traditional religion’, 49–50ff enstoolment, 123 Bayi, 52ff and Ewe nationalism, 147 and northern grasslands, 128–9 and Geraldo Da Lima, 100 socio–economic changes, 127–8 and indirect rule, 144 techniques against, 129–31 redefinition of Anlo, 202 See also adze and, witchcraft religious regulation by, 142 Benin, Republic of role and functions, 122n40 Afa, 68 Secretariat, 44 Aja, 25 Sri II, enstoolment of, 121 Anlo ritual links with, 66, 108, See also Sri II 168 Awoba, 33, 33n10. See also amefefle, BightofBeninandslavetrade,26 dogbev´ı, ndokutsu, nkekevi, kluvi, Ewe in, 25–7 pawns and pawnship, slavery Fulbe and slave memories, 7 Awudome, 3ff. See also Ewedome in Anlo myths of migration, 152ff Azasu, Kwakuvi, 180. See also Kerekou and the slave trade, 192 Afrikania Renaissance Mission Metumisi’s travels, 77 (ARM) See also Dahomey Betsimisaraka (Madagascar), ancestral Babaa communication and sacrifice, 12. as chief informant, 23 See also Cole, Jennifer

234 Index

Bible Society Prayer Fellowship See also Evangelical Presbyterian (BSPF), 175–6 Church or EP Church Blakhud Centre, 190, 190n British Togoland Bledjima, Awuku, 157. See also Ye we Ablode movement, 149, 149n51 Blekusu, 61, 81, 103 creation after World War One, 149 Blier, Susan Preston ‘discovery’ of Kunde, 126 on bocio,6 Ewe Unity, 145 on slavery, 14 See also French Togoland, German on reincarnation, 50 Togoland, Skinner, Kate, Togo Blu clan. (See hlo) Brunfo, 130 Blumesi (Fofie initiate), 211 Brutschin, Wilhelm (missionary), Blyden, Edward, 178 114–15 bo’artyii, 126ff Brydon, Lynne, 134 Bob-Milliar, George, 191ff, 195 Buem, 126, 130, 148–9ff bocio,6.See also kannumon Busia, Kofi, 37 boko, 68, 69f, 70, 72, 77, 162. See also Afa Central Togo Minorities, 149, bome,51 149n50, 151ff Bomiklo (slave trader), 104 Chatwin, Bruce, 103ff Bonduku, 116ff, 126ff Christian Action Faith Ministries, Brazilian/s 172. See also Duncan-Williams, ‘community’, 103, 103n4, 104 Nicholas crew and Atorkor incident, 194 Cole, Jennifer and Pan-Ewe sympathies, 148, modalities of the past, 9 148n46, 148n48 ancestral memory and See also returnees Betsimisaraka, 12–13 Brekete or Blekete, 61, 65, 80, 126, Commaroff Jean, and Comaroff, John 181. See also Abrewa, Gorovodu, ‘long conversation’, 200 Kunde microprocesses and Bremen Mission, 102, 102n macroprocesses, 11 in Anloga, 123 Commission for Human Rights and Anlo before the arrival of, 71 Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), and Asante War, 118 189 contribution to Ewe nationalism, Connerton, Paul 147, 150–2, 156, 202 habit memory, 11 in Keta, 118–20 Convention People’s Party (CPP), 36, involvement in slave trade, 114–15 37ff, 149ff Keta as base, 107 conversion (to Christianity) phases of Christianity in Anlo, 163, African tradition as ‘stepping stone’ 204 for, 165 mission periodical, 104n6 Afrikania Renaissance Mission mission stations, 113–14 (ARM) and view on, 179 and trading firms in Keta, 119–20 and Anlo religious history, 201 schools and, Sri II, 121 Asante compared with Anlo, 124n relationship with the British, Bremen Mission and, 104 121n38 and changing discourses of slavery, Zahn on Ewe nationalism, 146 16

Index 235

conversion to Pentecostalism (being nature of study, 16, 48, 49ff, 183 ‘born-again’), 173–5 on unhappy ancestors, 51 on difficulty of conversion in Anlo, Debrunner, Hans Werner 180 on early mission stations in Anlo, explanations and models for, 183 113–15 histories of indigenous religion and, on spread of Christianity in Anlo, 17–18 124 Keta as first nucleus in Anlo, 118 on witchcraft, 128 and pre–Christian tradition, 155 on Yewe cult, 112–13 on Slave Coast, 118–9n34 Deku, A. K., 36 role of Anlo awoamefia, 124 Dente Bosomfo (oracle), 130, See also Horton, Robin; 130n13 Ifeka-Moller, Caroline; Law, Dente shrine (in Kete Krachi), 130, Robin; Muller,¨ Louise 131. See also Krachi Dente and Crowther, Francis, 35, 144, Fofie 144n38–39 Denu, 31ff, 111 cultic competition, 107, 113, 156, Diola (people) 159, 177, 182–3, 185–6, 199, Baum on religion, 17 200, 202–3, 205–6, 209–10, 211 integration into trans-Atlantic cultic cooperation, 156, 158–9, 160, system, 183 163, 169, 203 Dogbatse, Seth, A., increase in Pentecostal membership in Anlo, Dagarti, 126ff 171, 173 Dagbani, 79 Dogbe, 194. See also Atorkor Dagomba, 90, 93, 93n19, 95, 129ff, dogbevi,82 133, 135 Dokutsu, 194. See also Atorkor Dahomey (kingdom), 26, 31, 54, 56, dome kokoe (initiation ritual), 76 56n10–12, 59, 107ff, 108–9, Donkor, Komla, 133 109n16, 145ff, 156, 202. See also Dovlo, Elom, 166ff Fon, Republic of Benin Dovlo, (Reverend) C. K., 166ff Damuah, Kwabena, 177–80. See also Dufenteny, (Father), 140, 141ff Afrikania Renaissance Mission dufia,39 dasi (Yewe initiate), 58 duko, 28–9, 29n5, 30–2, 34, 144–5, Daswani, Girish 145n40, 147, 153, 157, 202 witchcraft, 66 Duncan-Williams, Nicholas, 172 Pentecostalism as transnationalism, duto (towns in Anlo), 31–2, 34, 38–9, 172 78, 102, 110, 124, 143–5, 188 ‘ideal’ Global Christian identity, Drewal, Henry John, 56ff. See also 172n Mami Wata appeal of Pentecostalism, 175 Dzakpasi Metumisi (Fofie initiate), Davor, David, 166–7 79–85, 88–90. See also Dzogbesi de Lima, Cesar Cerquira, 100, 103ff Dzelukope, 37ff, 38, 110, 122, 156 de Lima, Geraldo, 100, 103ff, 115, Dzevi clan. See also clans and Nyigbla 118 dzidzidome (‘born betweens’), 100ff de Souza, G., 165 dzikpleadu,82.See also amefefle, de Surgy, Albert awowa, nkekevi, ndokutsu,pawns on Afa, 68 and pawnship, slavery

236 Index

Dzita, 140, 143 Ewedome, 3, 3n4, 5, 10, 15, 29, 29n, Dzo, 52, 52n, 55, 155ff. See also adze, 65, 78–80, 84, 86, 89–90, 92–3, bayi, witchcraft 95, 133, 137, 139, 149, 153, 163, Dzobo, Noah, 166–7, 166n, 175–6. 167 See also Africanisation of Eweme, 29, 36, 146ff, 211ff. (See Christianity Ewedome) Dzodze, 144, 157 Eyadema, Faure, 98ff dzogbe Eyadema, Gnassingbe,´ 98ff parts of an individual, 50–1 liminal space in shrine, 75–6, Fankyeneko, 159ff. See also Aberewa 78 Fanti (people), 26, 36, 37ff Dzogbesi, 75–9. See also Dzakpasi Fenyi, 29, 144 Metumisi fetatrotro,61 Dzoto,50 fiamanya,64,76 Dzotowo, 52, 72. See also dzo fiasidi, 107ff, 187ff, 189, 190. See also Dzotsiafe (deity), 105 trokosi Dzozutro, 55. See also dzo Field, Margaret on witchcraft, 125, 127–8 Eda (deity), 56ff as a psychiatrist, 128n Edo, 68 Kunde worshipper interview, Ellis, Alfred Burton 158 on deities, 26 Firminger (Inspector), 117 on Mawu, 54, 118–19ff Fisher, Humphrey, conversion on Nyigbla, 105 (to Islam), 18 Ewe–speaking peoples, 105n8, foasi ceremony, 106. See also Nyigbla, 107n14 zizidzela Anlo cultic networks, 106–7 Fofie cult on Bremen missionaries, 121ff and Afa, 70 on awoamefia, 122ff and Afrikania Mission, 181 Elmina (castle), 192, 192n8 and Anlo identity, 143, 153 Esulalu, 118ff, 183. (See Baum, Atorkor, 194 Robert) as cult in Anlo, 17 Evangelical Presbyterian Church, cultic competition, 181–3 (EP) Church cultic cooperation, 163, 166–8 Africanisation in, 165–6 decline in numbers of full–fledged ‘dual–worshipping’/cultic members, 211–12 cooperation, 167–9 description of, 3–5, 3n3, 63–5 largest churches in description of minor shrine, 67 Anlo-Afiadenyigba, 171 development of, 8 growth periods, 171 diasporan visitors to Anlo and, in Anlo–Afiadenyigba, 43 196–8 off shoot of the Bremen Mission, external origins, 71–2 163 family histories, 137 split within EP, 175–6 and fieldwork, 19–24 Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan, 52ff first initiate in Anlo–Afiadenyigba, Evegbe, 143, 143n37, 148–9ff, 151, 135 153–4, 154n55 on Fofie devotees in Anlo, 132–3 Ewe League, 141 initiation ceremony, 76–81

Index 237

and ‘Islam’, 93, 96–7, 96f Fon, 6, 25–6, 28–9, 53, 59, 68, as less successful cult, 153, 156, 68n37, 107ff, 125n 159 Fontein, Joost, spirit agency, 23ff lineages in Anlo–Afiadenyigba, 82 French Togoland main shrine of, 48f,75 carved after World War One, 149ff members in debate on Anlo and Keta’s trading hinterland, 150 religion, 156 transmission of Kunde, 126 narratives of initiates, 18, 103ff, See also British Togoland, German 131ff To g o l a n d , To g o and ‘northernness’, 94–8 Friedson, Steven phases of cult in Anlo, 199–206 on Alegba, 47–8 practices in Ewe north, 136n on Salah,97 pre-twentieth century spirit agency, 23ff manifestations of, 15, 82, 82n11, on spirit possession, 21 136 Frobenius, Leo, 6ff and reconfigurations the cult, 15–6, Fulbe, 7 85–93, 136 fulengan (society), 6 recruitment trends, 72–3, 83–5, 85f, 153, 156, 159, 162n, 185–6 Ga-Adangme speakers, 25, 37, relation to troxovi shrines, 190 37n15, 99 replacement cult, 161, 162ff Gannunkeebe,7 research on, 9–12 Gbanyaga (Yewe) shrine, 56, 56n13, slave origins, 99–101, 138–9 59 See also Fofiesi dual worshipping in, 59 Fofiesi memberships, 60 choice and initiation, 161–2. (See priestess of, 59 also cultic cooperation) testimonial on new recruitment cultic competition, 182 patterns, 182 cultic cooperation, 72, 163, 167–9, Gbara (Fofie initiate), 211–12 181, 184, 209 Gbe peoples, 25–6, 27f,28 decline in numbers of, 82, Gbedemah, Komla, 36–7 82–3n13, 211–12 gbogbe,50 definition and description, 2–3, German Togoland 3n3, 19–21, 24, 48f, 63–5, 72 border controls, 147 on diasporan subjectivities, 196–7 division of, 149, 149n51 initiation rituals, 75–6, 78–81 panyarring in, 116 Islamic gestures and imagery, 97 pawning in, 118 narratives of past, 4, 9–10 relocation of slaves from Anlo to, and northern ancestors, 86, 89–93 116 performance of history, 11–12 smuggling to Anlo (Gold Coast), replacement of ancestors, 78, 83–4, from, 111 85f, 184 Steyl Mission in, 163ff replacement cult and recruitment See also British Togoland, French patterns, 162n, 188 To g o l a n d , To g o stool houses, 86–7 Geschiere, Peter, 66 in trance, 95f Geurts, Kathryn See also Fofie differences between vodu and tro, 53 fome, 40ff. See also afedo reincarnation, 50

238 Index

Gifford, Paul on Fofie, 15 on ‘charismatic’ leadership, 172 on Mawu as Supreme Being, 54, ‘Demonology’, Pentecostalism, and 54n7 Deliverance, 52, 173–4 on newcomers in Anlo, 99–100 on Dzobo and his Christianity, 75 on Nyigbla, 105–7 on increases in the Pentecostal on Paul Sands, 138 sector, 173 on Yewe, 108–13 Global Alliance (GA), 176. See also Guan (people), 25, 31 Evangelical Presbyterian Church Gyanfosu, S., 178–9. See also or EP Church Afrikania Renaissance Mission Godian Religion, 179 (ARM) Goku (Yewe) shrine, 56–8, 56n13, 57f, 60, 108 Halbwachs, Maurice, Collective Gorovodu, 60–1n28 Memory, 10–11 in Afa, 70 Harlley, J. W. K., 36 Afrikania Mission, 181, 205 Harris, William Wade,´ 170, 170n22 as anti-witchcraft cult, 130–2, 202 Havedji, 162 campaign against Kunde, 158–9 Herskovits, Melville chiefs and, 139, 203 cult of royal ancestors, Abomey, 6 cultic competition, 176, 182, 183, on Dahomean shrines, 56ff, 161ff 185 Mawu and Lisa, 54 cultic cooperation 161–2, 163, 185, vodu, 26 203 westward ‘diffusion’ of shrines from deities, 53, 76 Dahomey, 108–9 description, 60–3 Hevieso, 47, 55–6, 57f, 58, 108, 110, evolution from Atikevodu, 130, 125n 201 in Dahomey, 108–9 god–objects, 67 Heward–Mills, Dag, 172 Gorovodu as more ‘open than Hill, Polly, 45, 45n31 closed cult’, 161–2, 162n, 184, hlo (clan) 206, 209 clan chiefs, 39 licenses, 142 clan deities as ‘closed’ cults, 73 as ‘new cult’, 71–3, 184 deities and cults associated with new recruitment strategies, 206, particular hlowo,105–7 206n individual clans and offices, 40, order, 8, 8n 40n23, 44 possession, 65 integration of non-Anlo men, shift in function from 99–100, 100n25 anti-witchcraft to memory of integration of slaves, 82, 100–1, slavery, 133–5, 203–4 138 shrines, 62f, 63f membership, 34 spirits and hosts in Fofie spaces, Nyigbla and Dzevi clan, 71 80–1, 91, 94, 96–7, 97n pawned individuals and See also Abrewa, Atikevodu, membership of, 33 Brekete, Kunde origins of clan system, 99 Grand Popo, 150 unit, patriliny, and houses, 40 Greene, Sandra E. voduwo cults and clan membership, on ‘cults’, 55 73

Index 239

Ho, 29, 137 Kente Hobsbawm, Eric, and Ranger, in Anlo-Afiadenyigba, 45 Terence, 13 in Fofie shrines, 95 Hogbetsotso festival, 28, 152 Keta District Assembly, 194 Hohoe, 28, 152, 211, 211n19 Keta Lagoon, 25, 31, 34, 43, 110, Holsey, Bayo 123–4, 140, 143–4 commodification of the slave trade, Ketakore (Togo), 57, 108 192 Kete Krachi, 130–1 sequestering of memories, 16 base of Dente shrine, 201 Horton, Robin as ‘homes’ of slaves of Anlo, 90, on conversion, 18, 118–19, 93, 116, 116n26, 133, 135, 136, 118n33, 183 154 on Kalabari religion, 208 Keve, 29 hozi, 86–8, 87n15, 88f, Klikor 90 chiefs and troxovi,189 hubono (Yewe cult), 56, 58ff, 108, Dente worship, 131 110–11 Relationship with Anlo, 144n39 Hueda (people), 6 refuge in shrine, 117 husikpokpo, 58. See also kpokpo Treaty with British, 143–4 See also Agbosome, Agbozume, Ifa, 54ff, 68, 68n36 Klikor-Agbozume Ifeka-Moller, Caroline Klikor–Agbozume conversion, 18 Fofie in, 131 ‘white power’, 119ff Gowu enactment, 198ff Igbo(land), 119ff, 179ff troxovi shrines in, 187, 188ff Indigenisation, of Christianity 165–6. kluvi, 32–3, 190. See also amefefle, See also Africanisation of awowa, pawns and pawnship, Christianity, syncretism slavery inner circle memberships of cults, kodzogbe,51 72–4, 161–2, 162n, 184, 206, Koku, 66–7, 72–3, 204–5 206n, 210. See also outer circle kope,40 memberships of cults Kopytoff, Igor, and Miers, Susan, 33ff International Needs (IN), kosi (kosio), 106–7, 106n10, 187ff, 188–91 188 Kotoka, E. K., 36 Jehu–Appiah (Prophet), 169ff Kove, Atsu, 180, 180n Jenkins, Julie Kpalime, 28 on enactments of trans-Atlantic Kpando, 28, 116, 126, 152 slave trade, 198ff Kpegla, Amedo, 121 on trokosi, 188, 188n3 Kpetoe, 29, 152 Jos, 177 Kpokpo, 58, 58n20, 184 kpoli, 50, 68–70, 68n37, 77. See also Kabye, 6ff, 98, 98n, 135 Afa Kalabari, 207–8, 211f kponu, 40ff. See also afedo Kannumon,6.See also Blier, Susan Kraamer, Malika, 45, 56ff, 58ff, 59, Preston, bocio 59n26, 146ff Kedzi, 31ff, 145ff Krachi Dente, 1, 63, 131ff, 132, Kemetic people, 178 202–3. See also Fofie

240 Index

Kunde, 127 Maasiasta, Dale, 190 as anti-witchcraft cult in Akan belt, Maccube (Fulbe society), 7, 11 125–6 Maier, Donna in Gorovodu cluster, 47, 53, 61–2, Dente shrine, 130 62f, 63f, 65, 67, 76, 91, 97 North-South trade route, 133 cooperation with Yewe shrines, 159, northern Eweland and ‘pagan’ 203 shrines, 29 and prohibition, 158 Mama Bate (deity), 123 as a shorthand for Gorovodu, Mama Hohoe (Fofie initiate), 211 139–42 Mama Tchamba, Rosenthal on, 8. See surveillance against, 158–9 also Tchamba cult See also Abrewa, Atikevodu, mama trowo, 71, 162n Brekete, Gorovodu Mama Vena, 187 Kwatsikor, David, 132–3 Mamattah, Charles Kwawuheme, Cornelius (awoamefia), Anlo-Asante alliance, 144–5 121. (See Sri II) on Ewe origins and migrations, 26, Kyerepon, 31 152ff on Sri II, 121ff Lambek, Michael mamawo, 51, 198 on memory, 12–13 Mamedu Badesi, (Fofie initiate), 80 on oral history, 8, 92 Mami Wata, 47, 56, 56n10, 67, 77, on spirit possession, 11, 21–2 202. (See Drewal, Henry John) Law, Robin Mamma (cultic network), 66, 72, 89, on Brazilians, 103, 103n3 183, 205 on Christian conversion in Ouidah, Mamprussi, 133 118–19n34 Marshall-Fratani, Ruth pawnship and slavery on Slave appeal of Pentecostalism, 174–5 Coast, 33ff Pentecostalism as transnationalism, ‘Slave Coast’, name of, 26 172 Lawrance, Benjamin Mawu, 47, 54 on cultic prohibitions, 139 other deities at pivot of pantheon, Evegbe, 143ff 54n7 Le Herisse,´ Auguste, 109, 109n16 promoted by missionaries, 54 Lighthouse International (church), as Supreme Being in pre-Christian 172. See also Heward-Mills, Dag culture, 54 Likpe, 149ff See also Supreme Being Limann, Hilla, 37 Mawusubosubo,54 Little Popo, 31, 117. (See Anexo) McCaskie, Thomas C. Lolobi, 25 on Africanist history, 18 Lome, 29, 36, 43, 76, 81, 126, 140, on slave descent in Asante, 7 147–8, 167, 176 on witchcraft in Akan areas, 127ff Lord’s Pentecostal Church medzi, 68, 70, 77. See also Afa (Agbelengor), 175ff. See also Merina (people), 11 Pentecostalism Meyer, Birgit Losso, 129ff, 135 on appeal of contemporary Lovell, Nadia, 16, 29, 41ff, 48, 56ff, Pentecostalism, 172, 174 57ff, 161n on Bremen Mission and Ewe Luvo,ofdeathandoflife,50 nation, 147, 150–3

Index 241

on diabolisation and early nkwankwaa (social class in Asante), Christianity, 49, 164 128, 131 on nationalistic concerns of Nogo–kpo, 19 (neo)-Pentecostal churches, ‘northern’, cultural and visual features 172n dog as symbolic other, 97, 97n on Fofie priest in central Eweland, costume, 80n8 136n cultural indicators for, 94–6 midao, 58–9 ethnic politics in performance, 97–8 as ancestral sponsor, 162 Fofie as northern derived, 65 Mina Gorovodu as ‘northern’ ritual links with Ewe, 29 knowledge, 53, 60–3 origins, 26 Islam and Christianity, 96–7 religion, 183 ‘northern ethnographica’, 96 slavery in society, 100ff shorthand for, 93n19 subgroup of Gbe, 25 slaves, 88–93 Tchamba cult, 8, 14, 98, 101 spirits, 80, 93 Yewe ritual language, 59 See also Taussig, Michael; Wendl, minao, 58–9 To b i a s mission stations Northern Region, 45 in Anlo towns, 201 Northern Territories, 125 and Asante Wars, 118 Notsie, 28, 28n4, 30, 151–2, descriptions of, 113–14 152n53–54, 169 Mittermaier, Amira, on dreams and Nugent, Paul dreaming, 77, 77n3–4 Anlo identity, 38 Mono River, 26 Intra-Ewe politics, 148 Mora, Don Jose,´ 103 central Eweland and chieftaincy, Moshi, Kwasi, 117–18, 117n30 148–9n49 Mossi (people), 95, 117, 117n30 Central Togo Minorities, 149n50 slave spirit, 80 Ewe societies, 36 Mudimbe, Valentin, 119 on Togoland border, 150 Muller,¨ Louise nukpekpe (ceremony), 110 Christian conversions in Asante, Nukunya, Godwin, K. 124ff on Anlo deities as ‘lesser gods’, Musama Disco Christo Church 54 (MDCC), 163 on Anlo patrilineages (afedowo), Mveng, E. (theologian), 165 40–1 on chiefs in Anlo settlements, 39, Nanunsi, 93, 211–12 39n22 National Democratic Congress on clans, 40 (NDC), 38, 38n20, 38–9n21, 97, on dual descent amongst southern 154ff Ewe, 29–30, 41 National Patriotic Party (NPP), 38, on Ewe origins, 26 97 on patriliny amongst central Ewe, ndokutsu, 138. See also amefefle, awoba, 29 dogbevi, kluvi, nkekevi,pawnsand on reincarnation, 41, 50, 160 pawnship, slavery slaves and adoptive patrilineages, Nkekevi,82 134 nku vu, 164 on Yewe, 58–60, 160–1

242 Index

nuvuvu (ceremony), 75 Ouidah (Wydah), 77, 103ff, 118–19ff Nyamesi, David (on slave women in outer circle memberships of cults, 72, Anlo), 134 73, 74, 161, 184–6, 206, 206n, Nyamesi, Gideon (on diasporan 209. See also inner circle visitors to Anlo), 197 memberships of cults Nyamesi, Quasi (on Afrikania Mission), 181 Palmie,´ Stephan, 49ff. See also Nyerwese, Fofie shrine at, 64, 64f, 75, syncretism 90, 135, 135n21 Panyarring, 33, 116, 116n26, 118ff. Nyigbla See also amefefle, awoba, kluvi, in Afa, 70 pawns and pawnship, slaves and centralisation of clan deities under, slavery 105–6 Parrinder, Geoffrey, 183 chief priest of, 39, 40 pawns and pawnship, 32, 33, 33n9, cultic competition, 113, 113n 33n11–12, 115–16, 190. See also comparison with Yewe, 111, 159 awoba and panyarring decline of cult, 107, 112–13, 122, Peel,J.D.Y. 200–1 Christianity and development of as deterrent to Bremen ‘ethnicity’, 146–7, 153 missionaries, 107–8 on historical anthropology, 18 identity politics, 202 on syncretism, 49ff, 170ff as immigrant deity, 71, 105n7 Peki initiates, 106–7, 106n11 Asante Wars, 115 more established network, 72–3 as base of Bremen missionaries, in pre-Christian Anloga, 104–5 102 popularity, 105n9 Dente/Fofie in, 130ff, 136ff troxovi shrine in Afife, 187 as Fofie spirit’s natal village, 79 priests attitude to Sri II, 122, as home of Anlos’ slaves, 83 123 homeland of Gbe–Ewe, 28, 152 relationship with Christianity, integration into Gold Coast colony, 123 and Ghana, 35–6, 147 Nyomi, 78, 135 Lord’s Pentecostal Church, 175ff Nzima, 36, 37ff Peki Wars, 86, 86n, 100, 134 relationship with Togoland obayifo, 128 Congress, 149–50 Ocloo, James I., 122, 156 Yewe in, 157 Ocran, A. K., 36 Pentecostalism odonko, 129, 129n9 Afrikania Mission and, 178–183, Ogun, 125ff 205–6 Olympio, Francis (slave dealer), 103 cults adopting strategies of Olympio, Sylvanus, 148ff, 148ff churches, 186 open cults, 72–4, 113, 161, 171, 185, deliverance sessions, 52 199, 200, 206, 209 as new Christianity, 73 Oppong, Samson (preacher), 170 Pentecostal ‘culture’, 172 orisa, 26, 49ff, 125ff, 208, 210 Pentecostalising mainline churches, Otabil, Mensa, 172 175–6 Ouatchi (Watchi) Ewe, 16, 29, 41ff, as political critique, 173 53, 161ff proliferation of, 97, 171–3, 175

Index 243

relationship with African tradition, returnees, 103–4, 103n3, 104n5, 148. 174, 177 See also Brazilians religious system and, 211 Rosenthal, Judy, 17, 33, 50, 52ff, 53, and social capital, 175 54ff, 55, 58, 60, 61ff, 68 transnational outlook, 172, 172n, Alegba, 33 174 Gorovodu and Mama Tchamba, See also Africanisation of 7–8, 8n Christianity, African religious system, 48 Independent Churches Rossi, Benedetta, legacies of Phla–Phera (people), 25–6 enslavement in West Africa, 7, Piot, Charles 11, 191, 191n Kabye and slavery, 6ff Rush, Dana on Pentecostalism, 172 assimilation, 7 Plessing, Friedrich (missionary), 104, religion as ‘vortex’, 14, 67–8, 114 97 Prempeh I (Asantehene), 124ff Tchamba, 90–1 Prinsenstein (Fort), 32, 32n7, 103–4, 110 Sacrebode (Sacrabundi) Proclamation (1874), 116–18, 120, anti-witchcraft movement, 125, 134, 138 126ff Progress Party (PP), 37. See also deity, 61, 80–1, 91 Busia, Koﬁ Sadah dynasty, 11 Provisional National Defence Council Sakpata, 108 (PNDC), 37, 172, 172n, 178 Salaga, 93, 116, 130, 133. See also Salaga trading axis Quarm, Kwasi, 179 Salaga trading axis, 116, 116n26 Salah,97 Rawlings, Jerry John, 37–9, 37n17 Sands, Paul, 138 Afrikania Mission and, 177 Sankofa Faith, 179, 179n35, 205. See PANAFEST, 192–3 also Afrikania Renaissance origins, 37n18. See also National Mission Democratic Congress (NDC), Sarem, 92, 97ff, 125, 128–9, 131 Provisional National Defence S(h)ango, 108ff, 125ff Council (PNDC) Shaw, Rosalind religious change on memory, 13–14 in Anlo, 8, 16–18 slave trade and Temne society, autochthonous and immigrant 5–6 gods, 70 spirit memoryscape, 22 Foﬁe and, 200 Se Horton, Robin, and, 118 deity, 54ff, 68n38 Kunde and Yewe, 159 destiny, 68 methodological challenges in the Senchisro, 90, 91f, 92f study of, 183–4 senterwa, 61, 61n31, 80 replacement cults, 72, 74, 83, Senyakupo, 61, 125 82–3n13, 107, 113, 156, 161, Seragagi, Adokomesi, 1–3, 10, 162ff, 167, 182, 184–5, 187, 199, 19 200, 202–3, 205–6, 209ff, Skinner, Kate, 35 210–13 Ablode, 149, 149n51

244 Index

Slave Coast troxovi and public debate on, African–Americans on, 195 187–91 Brazilian ‘returnees’, 103–4, 104n5 terminologies for, 33n13 Bremen mission, 102, 113 in Togo, 116 comparisons with Asante, 131, 145, in West African societies, 5–8 145n42 See also amefefle,pawnsand Danish presence, 34 pawnship, Proclamation Ellis on religion, 105ff, 106ff slavery, memories of Gen, Adja, and Hueda, 6 explusion from society, 5–6 manifestations of Hevieso on, 125ff fear of enslavement, 6 name, 26 incorporation into society, 6–8 pawnship and slavery, 33ff Slender (Gorovodu sofo), 62 religion, 14, 56ff, 67, 97, 118–19ff, Smith, Rexford, 195–8 183 Society of the Divine Word (SVD), slave trade along Salaga axis, 115 163ff slavery sofo, 96f Abolition of domestic slavery casual ‘sampling’ of religious (1874), 116, 118, 124 services, 206ff Afa and stories of, 70, 78ff cultic cooperation, 162–3 in Anlo memory, 2, 4–5 definition, 61 anti-slavery ideologies, 104ff fofiesi’s family history, 76 Bremen Mission and, 114–15 Fofie ceremony, 81 British anti-slavery policy, 124 as freelance advisers, 63 and cowries, 87 as ‘inner–circle members’ of cults, diminishing concerns about slavery 72 in Anlo, 212 membership trends over the last Fofie and, 159, 167–8, 186 decade, 162n Fofie and Gorovodu as Sogbo, 125n documentaries on, 91–2, 94 Sogolum Kwasiga, 66, 66f . See also and identity politics in Anlo, 143–5, Adzevodu 154 Sokode, 29 as institution, 3, 32–4 Some, 111ff, 143–4, 144n39. See also and integration, 98 Agbosome, Agbozume, Kete Krachi/savanna, associations Klikor-Agbozume with, 134 sosi,58 northern gods and, 63–4, 68 Spieth, Jakob Nyigbla priests and, 112 authentic versus new beliefs, 71, and pawnship, 33n11–12 71n39, 156 in post-1874s Anlo, 118n32 on Fofie, 136ff reawakening of slavery-related on Nyigbla, 105 concerns in Anlo, 202 ‘religion’, 48 reproduction of memories of, Supreme Being, 54ff 9–16 translation of Bible, 146 ritual to public consciousness, 101 Yewe, 58ff, 59, 111 shrines to, 88 spirit possession silencing of, in Mina society, 98 agency of spirits, 23ff trans-Altantic dialogue, 191–8 cults of, 73

Index 245

Gorovodu as possession cult, 61 togbi, 71ff and habit memory, 11 Togbi Addo VIII (of Klikor), slave spirits and, 79, 98 189 theories of, 21–2 Togbi Adelaza II, 44, 152, 169 veneration of slave ancestors, 8, 21 Togbi Honi III of Klikor, 189 Watchi-Ewe ceremonies, 56ff togbuifeme,41 southern Ewe (land and peoples), 7, togbui, 71ff 7n7, 8, 17, 29–30, 39, 60ff, 89, togbuiwofenoli, 51, 88 91, 98, 131, 139, 144, 169, 180, To g o 187ff Ewe ethnicity in, 148ff, 152–3, Sri (mythical hero), 30 152n54 Sri II Kabye slavery, 6ff as Christian, 156 Northern Togo as ‘home’ of Anlo and extension of ‘Anlo Proper’, slaves, 3 144ff state discourse on slavery, 98–9 as ‘moderniser’ of Anlo, 121–4 southern Togo as home of Anlo and ‘northern’ cults, 142, 158–9 Yewe shrines, 108–9 Pan–Ewe Unity, 147, 147n vodhun shrines in, 161ff redefinition of Anlo, 202 See also British Togoland, French regulation of Yewe, 203, 157–9 Togoland, German Togoland, Sri III, 44 Gorovodu, Mama Tchamba, Srogboe, 194 Mina, Rosenthal, Judy, Wendl, Steyl Mission, 163, 163n13 To b i a s Subosubo,48 Togoland Congress (TC), 35, Sui, 106, 112, 187 149–50, 149n51 Supreme Being, 54n7–8, 55, 118, tokomefia,39 118n33. See also Mawu Tomi (deity), 106–7, 112, 187 Syncretism, 49ff. See also Tong hills, 126ff Africanisation of Christianity Tongnaab, 126ff. See also Allman, Jean and Parker, John Tado region, 25, 28 Tongu, 187–90 Tadzewu, 169–70 Tove , 2 9 Talensi, 207–9 trading firms (in early colonial Keta), Tamakloe (slave dealer), 104 119, 119n35 Tamakloe, Chief Nyaxo, 120, 121ff, Trans-Atlantic (slave) trade 123, 138 Anlo economy and, 35 Tarosi (Fofie initiate), 211 abolition of, 4–5, 34 Taussig, Michael, Mimesis and collapse of, 145 Alterity,94 Fon and, 6 Tchamba cult, 8, 98, 101. See also internal slavery and, 5 Wendl, Tobais legacy of West African involvement Te fl e , 3 1 in, 191, 198ff Temne, 6, 13 rise of, 26 Tigare tro.(See trowo) anti-witchcraft movement, 125 tro wowo,75 deity, 53, 65, 126 troklu, 106ff, 188 Titan, Sharon, 188 trokosi, 106–7, 187–90

246 Index

trosi vodusi cultic cooperation, 72, 185, 209 dual worshipping, 169 definition and description, 61–2, cultic competition, 181–2 65, 71–2, 80–1 cultic cooperation, 162–3, 184–5 lineage recruitment patterns, 162, decline per generation, 206 162n definition, 57, 57n16, 58–60 patterns of religious engagement, Herskovits’s descriptions of, 109 76 as inner–circle members, 72 and Salah,97 lineage transmissions, 162n See also Gorovodu Nukunya on Yewe, 160 trowo, 22, 47–9, 52 Replacement in Yewe, 160–2, 184, Afa, 68, 70 188 and Christianity, 49, 51 Yewe (Anlo) in comparison to and cultic networks, 55 Dahomean shrines, 109n17 Fofie, 1, 2, 10, 12 voduwo, 1, 2, 10, 22, 47–9, 51–2 Gorovodu, 61, 63 Afa and, 68–70 as a mutating conceptual category, conceptual terms, 53–5, 70–1 52–4, 70–4, 160 Dahomean vodhun as Anlo voduwo, relationship with Mawu, 54–5, 56ff 118–19ff, 168–9 membership patterns of voduwo troxovi shrines, 111, 187–90, 205 cults, 72–4 See also Ellis, Alfred Burton, natural forces, 160 International Needs (IN), Titan, and religious change, 210, Sharon, Wisdom, Mark 213 trumba (spirits), 11 relationship with Christianity, tsiefe, 50–1 163–4, 168, 180, 182–5 relationship with Mawu, 118–19ff United Gold Coast Congress Yewe deities as, 108 (UGCC), 36, 37, 37n15 in Yewe shrines, 161 Ustorf, Werner wives of, 57 Bremen Mission and trading firms, 119–20 Wango, 61–3, 80, 96f enslaved people in mission stations, Waya, 102, 114 114 Weme River, 25 Ewe nation and Christianity, Wendl, Tobias 146–7, 156 northern ethnographica, 96 ritual consciousness, 14, 98, 100ff, Verdon, Michel 101 Abutia autochthonous and See also Tchamba immigrant deities, 71, 71n39, Wenya, 30 162ff Werbner, Richard, ‘memory crisis’, ancestral stools, 41ff, 51 15 on central Eweland, 29 West, Har r y, Ethnographic Sorcery, nature of study, 16 23ff See also Abutia Wheta, 29, 144 Voduda, 56, 58, 108, 110 Whuti, 39, 84, 89, 104, 120, 123, Vo d u n , 19, 57n15, 109, 118–19ff 167–8, 194

Index 247

Wilks, Ivor, on slave descent in Woe, 39–40, 60, 103 Asante,7,99 Wumenu, 137 Winneba District, 169ff Wirekye, 126ff Yewegbe, 58ff, 59 Wisdom, Mark, 188 yewesi, 57, 209 witchcraft Yoruba Akan perceptions of the North, 129 Aladura movement, 170ff Anlo and, 180 ethnicity, 146ff anti-witchcraft cults in Anlo, 66, expansions, 28 72, 204 ﬁrst converts, 114ff anti-witchcraft cults in Fankyeneko, Godianism, 179ff 159n7 Ifa, 54ff, 68, 68n36 anti-witchcraft deities, 44 ‘Imale’, 103ff anti-witchcraft movements in Lorand–Matory, 17 Asante/Akan forest belt, 60–1ff, Location and ethno–cultural 125, 126ff, 127, 127n7, 201 similarities with Ewe, 25–6 Christianity and, 170, 170n22, 177 marriage to a Yoruba person cults that prescribe remedies (testimonial), 58 against, 185 missionary activity, 164ff Dente and, 131, 201–2 native and immigrant gods, 71ff etymology, 52, 52n oriki,10 Gorovodu and, 159 religion, 48ff Inner-circle members of religious system, 207–10, 211f anti-witchcraft cults, 73, 161 ‘returnees’, 104ff in Keta district, 129–30 Shango, 108ff, 125ff kinship, 52, 76 supply of slaves from, 116 Mamma, 183 northern anti–witchcraft Zahn, Franz Michael, 113, 115, 146, movements, 141 151, 156 owners of, 52 Zarma people, 28 protection against, 55 zikpi in Sierra Leone, 6 stool fathers, 41 and social change, 128, 128n8 stool houses, 41, 86–7, 161 in Uganda, 22 See also avadzi, hozi, zikpifeme Yoruba and, 208 zikpifeme, 86, 87ff, 88 See also adze and, bayi zizidzela, 106