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Medicinal ethnobotany of Mozambique: A review and analysis

Eunezia Sitoe

DISSERTATION

submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree

MASTER OF SCIENCE

BOTANY

in the

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

SUPERVISOR: PROF BEN-ERIK VAN WYK

NOVEMBER 2020

DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR

Approval for submission of examination copies is hereby granted to the abovementioned student. This title is officially approved. Satisfactorily arrangements have been made to submit the article within the next 10 days.

26 November 2020 ______SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR DATE

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

• I express my gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Ben-Erik Van Wyk, for believing in me and pushing me towards greatness. Being under your supervision and guidance has significantly contributed to my growth and development as a young researcher, and for that I am grateful. I would also like to thank you Prof for all the academic support and all the opportunities that you have presented me with throughout the course of this degree. • I thank the University of Johannesburg for allowing me to use their resources and facilities. I am also thankful for all the financial support that the University has provided me with. • I thank the NRF and the University of Johannesburg Science Faculty for all the funding and merit bursaries. • I thank Ashton Welcome for assisting me with learning the statistical analysis tools that I have used in this dissertation, and I thank Gugu Gama for all her academic support including editing the first drafts of the chapters in this dissertation. • I thank Helen Long for all her administrative support and assistance. • I thank all the staff members and my fellow students at the Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology – your support is highly appreciated. I also thank Gugu Khumalo and Lloyd Mhlongo for their guidance and being such great inspirations to me. • Lastly, I give a special thanks to my parents, Gloria Alegria Nhamuchue and Victor Sitoe, for always being there for me and holding me up during this journey. I am also grateful for the emotional support I got from my siblings and friends, and I am thankful to God for being my spiritual guidance.

ABSTRACT

Like other African countries, Mozambique has a long history of medicinal plant use, but no comprehensive checklist or review of medicinal plants has yet been available. Therefore, this dissertation aims to provide a comprehensive literature review, including a first checklist of the medicinal plants of Mozambique and comparative analyses of the total flora and the medicinal flora. The differences and similarities between the medicinal plants used by the

Tsonga-speaking people of Mozambique and the Tsonga-speaking people of South Africa are also highlighted. Comparisons are made between the medicinal plants of Mozambique and those of the floristically similar KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. An attempt is made to determine whether their similar vegetation types, along with their shared Bantu-speaking culture, and close geographical proximity influenced the selection of medicinal plants in these two regions. Further investigations are made to determine whether the selection of medicinal plants between cultures was influenced by geographical proximity and ancestral linkages, or cultural similarities. Rigorous analyses were made using regression analysis (including the

Bayesian and the Imprecise Dirichlet model approaches). The two latter methods were used to determine which plant families were over- and underused, and the former regression method determined if plant families were randomly selected or not. Spearman rank correlation was done to determine the degree of similarity between the datasets that were studied. Spatial autocorrelation was investigated, to determine whether geographic proximity and ancestral linkages influenced the selection of medicinal plants between cultures.

The total documented flora of Mozambique comprises 6187 vascular plant species and infraspecific taxa from 1582 genera in 233 plant families. The medicinal flora comprises 758 vascular plant species and infraspecific taxa, of which 27 were only identified to genus level.

A comparison of the medicinal plants used by Tsonga-speaking people from Mozambique and South Africa showed similarities between the total floras and the medicinal floras.

However, notable differences in the selection of medicinal plants were revealed. In

Mozambique there appears to be a preference for the families Fabaceae (probably due to its abundance) and Capparaceae, while the Tsonga people of South Africa selected most of their medicinal plants from the family Anacardiaceae. The same results were observed when the medicinal flora of the Zulu people was compared to that of Mozambique. Spearman rank correlations showed that the ranks of families of the total floras were similar (also due to similar vegetation types) and the ranks of families of the medicinal floras were also similar.

The Sorensen Index values for the overlap in medicinal plants (0.248) were lower than for the total flora (0.312). A stronger argument that the two medicinal floras are different is that only

20 of the 171 shared medicinal plant species (11.7%) are used to treat the same ailments.

Furthermore, regression, Bayesian, and IDM analyses showed the selection of medicinal plants was different. The difference in the selection of medicinal plants was explained by the random selection shown by the regression analysis and that Galton’s problem was not relevant in this comparison. The close geographic proximity, and the similar Bantu-speaking culture did not influence the selection of medicinal plants, but rather the floristic environment

– people appear to have selected medicinal plants solely based on what was available in their environment. The results suggest that the traditional medicinal systems of Bantu-speaking

African countries are not standardized or systematized, and that substantial differences in the choice of species and the actual uses of medicinal plants can be expected, even between neighbouring countries. It appears that much research work remains to be done to gain more profound insights into the concept of Traditional African Medicine.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION BY STUDENT ...... ii DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi LIST OF TABLES ...... xiv CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Botanical abundance of Mozambique ...... 1 1.2. History of botanical and ethnobotanical explorations in Mozambique ...... 2 1.3. Justification and aims of the study ...... 15 1.4. Objectives and key questions ...... 18 CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 19 2.1. Data collection ...... 19 2.2. Analyses ...... 23 2.2.1. Shared taxa between regions and cultural groups studied ...... 23 2.2.2. Classification of medicinal ailments ...... 23 2.2.3. Regression analysis ...... 24 2.2.4. Bayesian and Imprecise Dirichlet Model approaches ...... 25 2.2.5. Spatial autocorrelation ...... 25 CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF MOZAMBIQUE MEDICINAL FLORA ...... 26 3.1. Introduction ...... 26 3.2. Results ...... 28 3.2.1. Total flora of Mozambique ...... 28 3.2.2. Medicinal species and infraspecific taxa of Mozambique as compiled from literature ...... 29 3.2.3. Analysis of families used medicinally...... 95 3.2.4. Relative frequency of Citation (RFC) ...... 96 3.2.5. Medicinal use-categories ...... 97 3.3. Analysis of the different applications in each medicinal use category ...... 99 3.4. Plant parts used and growth forms ...... 103 3.6. Discussions ...... 105

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3.6.1. Total available flora and medicinal flora ...... 105 3.6.2. Relative Frequency of Citation ...... 107 3.6.3. Medicinal use-categories ...... 107 3.6.4. Plant parts used and growth forms ...... 119 3.8. Conclusions ...... 120 CHAPTER 4: A COMPARISON OF THE MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE TSONGA POPULATIONS OF MOZAMBIQUE AND OF SOUTH AFRICA (LIMPOPO AND MPUMALANGA) ...... 121 4.1. Introduction ...... 121 4.2. Results ...... 123 4.2.1. Analysis of total flora ...... 123 4.2.2. Analysis of medicinal flora ...... 125 4.3. Selection of medicinal plant families ...... 127 4.4. Shared taxa...... 130 4.4.1. Families of taxa shared between the available flora and the medicinal flora of the Tsonga population groups of Mozambique and South Africa ...... 130 4.4.2. Shared medicinal taxa ...... 131 4.5. Discussions ...... 139 4.5.1. Analysis of available flora and medicinal flora ...... 139 4.5.2. Selection of medicinal plant families ...... 142 4.5.3. Shared species and infraspecific taxa ...... 143 4.6 Conclusions...... 146 CHAPTER 5: A COMPARISON OF THE MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES USED IN MOZAMBIQUE AND THE KWAZULU-NATAL PROVINCE OF SOUTH AFRICA ...... 148 5.1. Introduction ...... 148 5.2. Results ...... 150 5.2.1. Total floras of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal ...... 150 5.2.2. Medicinal flora of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal ...... 152 5.3. Shared taxa...... 154 5.4. Medicinal taxa of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal ...... 156 5.4.1. Medicinal uses and use-categories ...... 156 5.4.2. Plant parts used ...... 188 5.5. Comparison of medicinal floras at ordinal level ...... 188 viii

5.6. Comparison of medicinal floras at family level ...... 192 5.6.1. Regression analysis ...... 192 5.6.2. Bayesian analysis ...... 195 5.6.3 Imprecise Dirichlet Model (IDM) ...... 201 5.7. Discussions ...... 204 5.7.1. Total available flora and medicinal flora of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal ...... 204 5.7.2. Shared medicinal taxa ...... 206 5.7.3. Medicinal uses ...... 207 5.7.4. Comparisons of medicinal floras at ordinal level...... 210 5.7.5. Comparison of medicinal floras at family level...... 211 5.5. Conclusions ...... 215 CHAPTER 6: SPATIAL PATTERNS AND SELECTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS ...... 217 6.1. Introduction ...... 217 6.2. Results ...... 219 6.2.1. Spatial patterns ...... 219 6.3. Selection of medicinal plants ...... 220 6.4. Discussions ...... 228 6.5. Conclusions ...... 230 CHAPTER 7: GENERAL CONCLUSIONS...... 231 7.1. Conclusions ...... 231 7.2. Recommendations...... 234 REFERENCES ...... 236 APPENDIX 1: MOZAMBIQUE AVAILABLE TAXA (EXTERNAL EXCEL FILE) ...... 262 APPENDIX 2A: RESULTS OF REGRESSION ANALYSES OF MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE TSONGA POPULATIONS OF MOZAMBIQUE AND SOUTH AFRICA ...... 263 APPENDIX 2B: RESULTS OF IDM ANALYSES OF THE MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE TSONGA-MOZAMBIQUE AND TSONGA-SOUTH AFRICA POPULATIONS ...... 272 APPENDIX 3: SHARED % OF THE TOTAL FLORA AND MEDICINAL FLORA BETWEEN MOZAMBIQUE AND KWAZULU-NATAL ...... 281 APPENDIX 4: RESULTS OF REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR THE MEDICINAL PLANT ORDERS IN MOZAMBIQUE AND KWAZULU-NATAL ...... 289 APPENDIX 5: RESULTS OF REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR MOZAMBIQUE AND KWAZULU-NATAL MEDICINAL PLANTS ...... 294

APPENDIX 6: RESULTS OF IDM ANALYSES OF THE MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE TSONGA-MOZAMBIQUE AND TSONGA-SOUTH AFRICA POPULATIONS ...... 309 APPENDIX 7: DISTANCE MATRICES ...... 322

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Maps of the Tsonga-speaking regions studied in this dissertation. These areas are circled in black. A: is the language distribution map for South Africa showing the

Mpumalanga and Limpopo Tsonga-speaking regions (Census, 2011). B: is the map of

Mozambique showing the Tsonga-speaking regions which are the Gaza and Maputo,

Provinces (ACDM, 2019). C: is an old language map of the Tsonga language tribes and dialects (1962).

Figure 3.1: Families of the total flora of Mozambique which have more than 50 taxa, showing the total number of taxa and genera in each family.

Figure 3.2: The 20 most taxon-rich families used in traditional medicine in Mozambique, showing the total taxa and medicinal taxa per family.

Figure 3.3: The 20 medicinal taxa used in Mozambique with the highest Relative Frequency of Citation (according to 26 literature sources).

Figure 3.4: Number of taxa used for each of the different parts of plants used in traditional medicine in Mozambique.

Figure 3.5: Number of taxa available per growth forms.

Figure 4.1: Families of the Tsonga-Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa regions which have 10 or more taxa available in the total flora.

Figure 4.2: Families of the Tsonga-Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa regions which have three or more taxa used medicinally.

Figure 4.3: Scatter plot of the regression analyses values for the total flora versus the medicinal flora of A: Mozambique Tsonga population [R2 = 0.651, SE = 2.8; p<0.001] and B:

South African Tsonga population [R2 =0.386, SE = 1.9; p<0.001].

Figure 4.4: Number of taxa shared per family in the total flora and in the medicinal flora between the Tsonga-Mozambique and the Tsonga-South Africa regions.

Figure 4.5: Sorensen index of the shared medicinal species and infraspecific taxa between

Tsonga-Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa.

Figure 4.6: Map of the vegetation types in Mozambique. Areas circled in black are the

Tsonga-speakers populated regions (Maputo and Gaza provinces). Source: FAO, 2004

(http://www.fao.org.).

Figure 4.7: Vegetation map of South Africa, Lesotho, and Eswatini. Areas circled in black are the Tsonga-speakers populated regions in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces studied in this dissertation. Source: Mucina and Rutherford, 2006.

Figure 5.1: Comparison between the available flora of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal according to the families in Mozambique that have more than 50 taxa.

Figure 5.2: Comparison between the medicinal flora of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal according to the families in Mozambique that have 10 or more taxa.

Figure 5.3: Families that have more than 20 taxa shared between the total floras of

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal along with their Sorensen indices determining the percentage of shared taxa.

xii

Figure 5.4: Families that have three or more taxa shared between the medicinal floras of

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal along with their Sorensen indices determining the percentage of shared taxa.

Figure 5.4: Comparison of the number of medicinal taxa per category of use in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, with the number of shared taxa (i.e., with the same or similar uses) for each category.

Figure 5.5: Comparison of the plant parts that are used medicinally in Mozambique and the

KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa.

Figure 6.1: Comparisons of the most taxon-rich medicinal plant families in the five regions

(Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal, and Venda), according to the number of available taxa.

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Summary on the history of the literature on Mozambique flora and botanical explorations (MZ= Mozambique).

Table 1.2: The history of the ethnobotanical surveys of Mozambique. MZ=Mozambique

Table 1.3: Reviews on the ethnobotanical expeditions of Mozambique. MZ=Mozambique

Table 2.1: Population of Tsonga people in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces.

Table 2.2: Literature sources used to compile all the checklists used in this dissertation.

Table 3.1: Checklist of 758 medicinal plants of Mozambique, based on 26 references.

The accepted names are arranged in alphabetical order according to families. The medicinal uses and plant parts used are recorded alongside each species including taxa and infraspecific taxa. See bottom of table for key to references. *= exotic species; **= cultivated exotic species.

Table 3.2: Use-categories of medicinal plants in Mozambique, showing the number of species and infraspecific taxa in each category of use and the percentage they make up in the total medicinal flora.

Table 3.3: Medicinal plants used for the treatment of various medicinal use categories for each subcategory or ailment treated, showing ailments that have three or more taxa cited for their treatment.

Table 4.1: Rankings of the families in the available flora that have 10 or more species and infraspecific taxa. Statistics value of the Spearman’s correlation are also shown. MZ=

Mozambique, ZA= South Africa, N= number of families, DF: degrees or freedom.

Table 4.2: Rankings of the families in the medicinal flora that have 10 or more species and xiv

infraspecific taxa. MZ= Mozambique, ZA= South Africa.

Table 4.3: Comparison of IDM intervals between Tsonga-Mozambique region (J = 135) and

Tsonga-South Africa region (J = 144) floras showing over- and underused families.

Table 4.4: Table of the 240 medicinal taxa used by the Tsonga-Mozambique population, showing the 43 taxa that are also used by the Tsonga-South Africa population, represented by a tick (✓); those not used by the Tsonga-South Africa population are indicated with ().

Table 5.1: Rankings of the families in the available flora that have more than 100 species and infraspecific taxa in Mozambique. Statistics value of the Spearman’s correlation are also shown. MZ= Mozambique, KZN= KwaZulu-Natal, N= number of families, DF: degrees or freedom.

Table 5.2: Rankings of the families in the medicinal flora that have 10 or more species and infraspecific taxa in Mozambique. Statistics value of the Spearman’s correlation are also shown. MZ= Mozambique, KZN= KwaZulu-Natal, N= number of families, DF: degrees or freedom.

Table 5.3: Checklist of medicinal plants in Mozambique, showing taxa that are also used medicinally in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, including the numbers of medicinal uses that are the same, similar, different, or unspecified. (Taxa identified to genus level only are excluded).

Table 5.4: Rankings of the medicinal-use categories. Statistics value of the Spearman’s correlation are also shown. MZ= Mozambique, KZN= KwaZulu-Natal, N= number of families, DF: degrees or freedom.

Table 5.4a: Regression analysis results for the orders of Mozambique [R2 = 0.811, SE =8.32; p<0.001] in comparison to those of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa [R2 = 0.805, SE = 10.73; xv

p<0.001]. Only orders whose residuals are significantly greater or lesser than the standard error are shown (in bold). Pred. = predicted value; Res. = residual value.

Table 5.4b: Regression analysis results for the families of Mozambique [R2 = 0.762, SE

=4.11; p<0.001] in comparison to those of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa [R2 = 0.785, SE

=4.17; p<0.001]. Only families whose residuals are significantly greater or lesser than the standard error are shown (in bold). Pred. = predicted value; Res. = residual value.

Table 5.5a: Overused plant families of Mozambique (left) and KwaZulu-Natal (right) whose

95% posterior credible interval lies above the 95% posterior credible interval of the overall proportion for the flora θ (0.110, 0.126) and (0.109, 0.124) respectively. J=Family, nj=total taxa, xj=taxa used medicinally, Inf. = inferior interval, Sup. = superior interval.

Table 5.5b: Underused plant families of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal whose 95% posterior credible interval lies below the 95% posterior credible interval for the overall proportion θ (0.106, 0.121) and (0.109, 0.124) respectively. J = Family, nj = total taxa, xj = taxa used medicinally, Inf. = inferior interval, Sup. = superior interval.

Table 5.6: Comparison of IDM intervals between Mozambique (J = 233) and KwaZulu-Natal

(J = 253) floras showing over- and underused families.

Table 6.1: The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) and significance (p) of three correlations done between three different distance matrices.

Table 6.2: Statistics of the regression analyses of the available flora versus the medicinal flora within the Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal, and Venda regions.

Table 6.3: Results of the regression analysis done of the medicinal families for Mozambique,

Swaziland, Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal, and Venda (Available taxa versus medicinal taxa).

xvi

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1. Botanical abundance of Mozambique

Mozambique is a country in the south-eastern part of Africa and is bordered by Tanzania,

Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Eswatini (previously Swaziland) (Means, 2019).

It extends along the south-eastern seaboard of Africa from the mouth of Rovuma River to the border of South Africa and covers an area of 786 380 km2. The country is characterized by a wide range of ecosystems and habitats, including Afromontane forest and several woodland/forest biomes, edaphic grasslands and a variety of wetlands, and coastal and marine habitats. The country is endowed with natural resources which include marine resources, fertile soils, minerals, forests, wildlife, and some 2 770 km of near-pristine coastline (Ministry of the

Coordination of Environmental Affairs, 1997).

Limited information on Mozambique’s rich biological diversity has been reported to date.

However, the country is home to six biological “hotspots”, namely the Gorongosa Mountain, Rift valley, Marromeu complex, the Chimanimani massif, and the Maputaland Centre of Endemism

(Ministry of the Coordination of Environmental Affairs, 1997). These biological hotspots have of about 230 plant species that are endemic to Mozambique and the northern parts of KwaZulu-

Natal in South Africa (Ministry for the Coordination of Environmental Affairs, 2009).

Mozambique has sixteen general vegetation types that are recognized, and further scaled detail indicate that there are many more subtypes that can be noted. The largest vegetation type is the

Miombo woodlands which cover most of the northern and central parts of the country and the second is the Mopane woodland which is the most extensive vegetation type as it also covers the

Limpopo-Save area and upper Zambezi Valley (Ministry of the Coordination of Environmental 1

Affairs, 1997). According to the Ministry of the Coordination of Environmental Affairs (2014),

Mozambique was estimated to have approximately 5500 plant species, including microalgae, of which 10% of the plants are used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases. There are 6206 native or naturalized species with 3470 native or naturalized and a further 72 exotic species commonly but cultivated but not naturalized according to the Flora of Mozambique website which is updated daily (Hyde et al., 2020). Some of these plants are only identified to the genus level. Additionally, Burrows et al. (2018) published a book entitled Trees and Shrubs of

Mozambique, in which no less than 29 new taxa and new records of woody plants of the flora of

Mozambique were recorded.

1.2. History of botanical and ethnobotanical explorations in Mozambique

Plants in Mozambique were first collected by Father Joao de Loureiro in 1781 and early 1782.

Dr Wilhelm Peters, a German naturalist who specialized more in zoology, produced the first publications on the country’s flora However, the publications did not present a detailed flora, as it only covered a small area in Mozambique (Burrows et al., 2018). Dr John Kirk partook in Dr

David Livingstone’s Zambezi Expedition during which numerous plants were collected.

However, no publications resulted from this expedition (Clendennen and Simpson, 1985), although several new species were later described, based on this collection (Burrows et al.,

2018). Other important publications that contributed to the flora of Mozambique included

Plantais Uteis da Africa Portugesa (Ficalho, 1947), A Natural History of Inhaca Island,

Moçambique, this book generally dealt with the plant and animal life of the island. Gomes e

Sousa produced the last important book on the trees of Mozambique before the recent one by

Burrows et al. (2018).

In 1942 a botanical exploration was conducted in Mozambique (Conde et al., 2014), and included projects such as the International Joint Investigations in conjunction with the Botany

Centre. The first plants were collected in areas that were economically developed such as railways and plantations (Ministry of the Coordination of Environmental Affairs, 2009). These botanical expeditions were successful and led to two important floristic treatments, namely the

Flora Zambesiaca (based at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK) and the Flora Mozambique

(based at the Botanical Garden of the University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal). Several families and species were described in the late 1969 (Diniz and Martins, 2001). Since 1986, when Jeffrey and Fernandez published the Flora Mozambique, there has been very little to no studies on the plant diversity. Nevertheless, there was a study by the SABONET program in 2001 (Siebert and

Mossmer, 2002) in Maputaland. The Eduardo Mondlane University Herbarium (LMU) which was established in 1964 and the National Herbarium of Mozambique (LMA) at the Institute for

Agronomic Research established in 1967 together with De Koning as the principal author created the very first checklist of the vernacular names of plants in Mozambique (De Koning, 18993).

The herbaria then later went on to produce a checklist in 2004 to estimate the diversity of plants in Mozambique together with the SABONET program (Ministry of the Coordination of

Environmental Affairs, 2014).

Table 1.1: Summary on the history of the literature on Mozambique flora and botanical explorations (MZ= Mozambique)

Investigation Investigator Region Title or description of the work Special notes Reference

Period

1781–1782 Fr. J. de MZ The Flora Cochinchinsis Collection included C. africana, G. Merrill, 1936 Loureiro africana, M. oleifera

1844 Dr W. Peters Small area of • Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique. Did not present a detailed flora Burrows et al., MZ Botanik Abth. 1 2018 • Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique. Botanik Abth. 2

1859 Dr J. Kirk Zambezi No publication Collected during Livingstone’s Clendennen & Zambezi expedition Simpson, 1985

1944 Ficalho, de Portuguese Plantas Uteis da Africa Portugesa Ficalho, 1947 Conde speaking countries in Africa

1958 Dr W. Macnae Inhaca A Natural History of Inhaca Island, Mocambique Annotated checklist of 346 Macnae & & Dr M. Kalk Island, MZ flowering plants and ferns Kalk, 1959

1966 G. e Sousa MZ Dendrologia de Moçambique Last important book on the trees of Gomes e Sousa, MZ until Burrows et al., 2018 1967

1986 C. Jeffrey & MZ Flora of Mozambique Result of the botanical expedition Siebert & R.B. Fernandes conducted in 1942–1948 Mossmer, 2002

1993 De Koning MZ Checklist of Vernacular Plant Names in Mozambique Listed about 7000 vernacular plant De Koning, names 1993

2001 LMU & LMA MZ A preliminary Checklist of The Vascular Plant of The checklist is made up of 3932 Da Silva et al., Mozambique indigenous taxa and 516 taxa that 2004 are exotic

Several ethnobotanical surveys have been conducted to study the medicinal plants of

Mozambique and their traditional use. The table below presents a summary of literature that was produced as a result of these ethnobotanical survey. The oldest papers were published in 1968 and 1977 by Antonio Amico and his associate Renato Bavazzano. These papers included a long list of medicinal plants and descriptive medicinal uses in Mozambique (Amico, 1977; Amico and

Bavazzano, 1968). A similar publication was produced by Paulos Cornelis Maria Jansen and

Orlando Mendes in 1983, 1984, 1990, and 1991 which is a series of four volumes on the use of traditional medicine in Mozambique (Jansen and Mendes, 1983; 1984; 1990; and 1991).

Cunningham AB through the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation

(UNESCO) produced a paper on the series People and Plants to address the conservation and sustainability of medicinal plants traded in Africa. Seven African countries were surveyed, including Mozambique in which 32 species sold in the medicinal markets in Mozambique were listed with the respective plant parts sold (Cunningham, 1993).

The subsequent ethnobotanical surveys were mainly localized and focused on certain areas or provinces in the country. A PhD student (Maria Da Luz Dai) at the University of

Eduardo Mondlane conducted a survey on the local medicinal plants in an area called Catembe in Maputo, Mozambique (Dai, 1997). Joaquim Matavele and Mohamed Habib carried out ethnobotanical fieldwork on the medicinal plants used in Nanchukuro and Mecufi villages in the

Cabo Delgado province, Manga and Dondo communities, Sofala province, and Matutuine and

Zimpeto communities, Maputo province in Mozambique. The study recorded 16 species from

Cabo Delgado, 10 species from Sofala, and 18 species from Maputo. The total number of species that were recorded in this study were 19, excluding those that overlapped between the three provinces (Matavele and Mohamed, 2000). 6

In 2010, Ana Ribeiro conducted an ethnobotanical survey in Canhane village, district of

Massingir, Gaza province, Mozambique. The survey resulted in the collection and identification of 53 medicinal species which were used to treat 50 different human medical ailments. It is noteworthy that four species were recorded for the first time as having therapeutic properties, namely Blepharis diversispina (Nees) C.B.Clarke, Guibourtia conjugata (Bolle) J. Leonard,

Hermannia micropetala Harv. & Sond., and Loeseneriella crenata (Klotzch) Wilczek ex N.Halle

(Ribeiro et al., 2010). The ethnobotanical survey in Muda-Serracao, district of Gondola, Manica province, Mozambique yielded 198 medicinal species and infraspecific taxa. There were 162 species and infraspecific taxa that were identified, of which eight had no previous record of being used as medicine in Africa namely, Cissus bathyrhakodes Werd., Clematis viridiflora

Bertol., Combretum goetzei Engl. & Diels, Dioscorea cochleari-apiculata De Wild., Grewia pachycalyx K.Schum., Indigofera antunesiana Harms, Ipomoea consimilis Schulze-Menz, and

Tricliceras longipedunculatum (Mast.) R.Fern. However, more than half of the recorded species and infraspecific taxa that were known in African Traditional Medicine turned out to be new records for Mozambique (Bruschi et al., 2011).

The survey in Madjadjane village, district of Mututuine, Maputo province, was mainly focused on the exploitation of bark used in traditional medicine (Senkoro et al., 2014).

Furthermore, there were two ethnobotanical surveys that were conducted in the three main medicinal plant trade markets in the Maputo province, Mozambique. Xipamanine market is the largest one, followed by the Mazambane and Xiquelene markets. Krog et al. (2006) reported 51 species used to treat various ailments. Barbosa et al. (2020) reported 64 species, however, it was species that were used for the treatment of bacterial and parasitic diseases in humans.

Table 1.2: The history of the ethnobotanical surveys of Mozambique. MZ=Mozambique

Investigation Investigator Region Title or description of the work Special notes Reference period

1965–1970 A. Amico Zambesia Contributo alla conoscenzo della flora della Collections of medicinal plants Amico, 1968 Zambesia inferior (Mozambico) deposited at the Tropical Herbarium of Florence. Included 215 medicinal taxa

1977 A. Amico & R. Zambesia Medicinal Plants of Southern Zambesia Collections of medicinal plants Amico & Bavazzano deposited at the Tropical Bavazzano, Herbarium of Florence. 1977 Included 159 medicinal taxa

1983; 1984; P.C.M. Jansen & O. MZ Plantas Medicinais – Seu Uso Tradicional Series of four volumes which Jansen & 1990; 1991 Mendes em Mocambique recorded 120 species and Mendes, infraspecific taxa 1983; 1984; 1990; 1991

1986–1987 A.B. Cunningham Seven African African Medicinal Plants: Setting priorities at Surveyed seven medicinal plant Cunningham, countries the interface between conservation and trade markets in seven African 1993 primary healthcare countries

1997 M.L. Dai MZ Estudo dos padroes de uso de plantas From the ethnobotanical survey Dai, 1977 medicinais na localidade de Catembe 72 species from 38 families were recorded

1998–1999 J. Matavele & M. MZ Ethnobotany in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique: The total number of species that Matavele & Habib Use of Medicinal Plants were recorded in this study Habib, 2000 were 19

2004 M. Krog, M.P. MZ Medicinal Plant Markets and Trade in A total of 51 species were Krog et al., Falcao & C.S. Maputo, Mozambique recorded 2006 Olsen

Date not A. Ribeiro MZ Medicinal plants and traditional knowledge in Four new records, namely B. Ribeiro, specified the Canhane village, District of Massingir, diversispina, G. conjugata, H. 2010 Gaza Province micropetala, L. crenata

2005–2006 P. Bruschi, M. MZ Ethnobotanical survey on the medicinal Eight new records, namely C. Bruschi et Morganti, M. plants used by the people in the rural bathyrhakodes, C. viridiflora, al., 2011 Mancini & M.A. community of Muda, central Mozambique C. goetzei, D. cochleari- Signorini apiculata, G. pachycalyx, I. antunesiana, I. consimilis, T. longipedunculatum

2009 V.L. Williams, MZ Ethnobotanical evidence of the occurrence of Hydnora abyssinica was Williams et M.P. Falcao & E.M. Hydnora abyssinica in southern Mozambique recorded for the first time in the al., 2011 Wojtasik medicinal plant trade markets of Maputo

2013 A.M. Senkoro, MZ Bark Stripping from Forest Tree Species in The survey resulted in the Senkoro et F.M.A. Barbosa, Madjadjane, Southern Mozambique: identification of 10 species al., 2014 S.F. Moiane, G. Medicinal Uses and Implications for from eight families Albano & A.I. conservation Ribeiro de Barros

2015 L. Manuel, A. MZ Ethnobotanical Study of Plants Used by A total 37 plants from 22 Manuel et Bechel, E.V. Traditional Healers to Treat Malaria in families were identified and al., 2020 Noormahomed, Mogovolas District, Northern Mozambique recorded for the treatment of D.F. Hlashwayo & malaria M.C. Madureira

2019 F. Barbosa, D. MZ This study was on the medicinal plants sold The study resulted in the Barbosa et Hlashwayo, V. in Maputo plant trade markets that are used to identification of 64 species al., 2020 Sevastyanov, V. treat bacterial and parasitic diseases in from 32 families Chichava, A. humans Mataveia, E. Boane & A. Cala

Apart from ethnobotanical surveys, there were various reviews published on the traditional medicinal plants of Mozambique. In 1986, Rezsco Verzar and Gizella Petri from the

Semmelweis Medical University (Hungary) wrote a literature review on the medicinal plants of

Mozambique and their popular use. The 32 species published in their paper were those which were found in the medicinal plant trade markets in Maputo province, Mozambique (Verzar and

Petri, 1987). A paper written by A.B. Cunningham, based on surveys conducted during 1986–

1989 for the conservation of medicinal plants in Africa, included several medicinal plants sold to international markets (Cunningham, 1997). The review article by Salamao Bandeira and his colleagues included data that was obtained from the office of Medicinal Plants in Mozambique, found in the Ministry of Health Mozambique and the plant collection from Eduardo Mondlane

University, with additional data gathered from literature (Bandeira et al., 2001).

The Ministry for the Coordination of Environmental Affairs gave a national report on the biodiversity of the country as part of the national report on implementation of the Convention on

Biological Diversity in Mozambique (Ministry of the Coordination of Environmental Affairs,

2009). A literature review was conducted based on the exploration of the Botanic Mission of

Mozambique (1942–1948). The review mainly focused on medicinal plants, of which 71 species were identified. There were 34 species which were new records for Mozambique, and five of the

34 had no reports in Africa. Additionally, 58 different uses were reported for the first time in

Mozambique (Conde et al., 2014).

Table 1.3: Reviews on the ethnobotanical expeditions of Mozambique. MZ=Mozambique

Investigation Investigator Region Title or description of the work Special notes Reference period

1986 R. Verzar & G. MZ Literature review on the medicinal plants of The authors found 585 Verzar & Petri Mozambique and their popular use medicinal species, but only Petri, 1987 included 32 species in their paper

1997 A.B. Cunningham Africa An Africa-Wide Overview of Medicinal Plant About nine species listed are Cunningham, Harvesting, Conservation, and Healthcare imported from Mozambique 1997 and sold to international markets

2001 S.O. Bandeira, F. MZ Review article on the medicinal plants of The study included 43 species Bandeira et Gaspar & F.P. Mozambique which were used for the al., 2001 Pagula treatment of diarrhoea, malaria, respiratory complaints, and sexual diseases

2009 Not specified MZ Ministry for the Coordination of Seven species were Ministry for Environmental Affairs documented as having the medicinal uses in southern Coordination Mozambique of Environmental Affairs, 2009

1942–1948 P. Conde, R. MZ Literature review of the medicinal plants used • The review identified Conde et al., Figueiro, S. in Mozambique was conducted based on the 71 species. 2014 Saraiva, L.

Catarino, M. exploration of the Botanic Mission of • 34 species (new records Romeiros & M.C. Mozambique (1942–1948) for Mozambique) Duarte • Five species (had no reports in Africa)

Other studies that mentioned medicinal plants of Mozambique were mainly focused on their chemical properties. Maite (1987) studied the medicinal properties of four Malvaceae species, with information pertaining to the selected species obtained from traditional practitioners. Jurg et al. (1991) selected two species for clinical studies for the treatment of malaria by conducting a questionnaire survey in Maracuene, Maputo province, Mozambique.

They interviewed more than 50 traditional medical practitioners. In November 1993, the United

Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) sent out an expert to Mozambique to gather knowledge on medicinal plants and find out whether these plants can be produced into pharmaceutical products, more than 10 plants were identified including well known essential oils such as Mentha and Eucalyptus oils (Atal, 1993). Moreover, Ramalhete et al. (2008) conducted a literature survey focused on the medicinal plants that are traditionally used to treat malaria in

Mozambique. There were 15 species that were identified and studied for their antimalarial activities. Another study to evaluate crude extracts of 14 medicinal plants with antimycobacterial properties was conducted, with information regarding the uses of these species obtained from the literature. The selected species were collected in southern Mozambique, specifically in Machava and Massingir, Gaza province, Mozambique (Luo et al., 2011).

1.3. Justification and aims of the study

The ethnobotanical expeditions to report on the uses of medicinal plants in traditional medicine in Mozambique done by Amico and Bavazzano (1965–1975) documented 374 species, while

Jansen and Mendes documented 120 species. These are the only surveys that I am aware of that have apparently attempted to list all known medicinal plants used in Mozambique. Subsequent ethnobotanical surveys have been conducted and documented few species from some provinces in Mozambique. However, these surveys are mostly older than 10 years thus there is a limited number of ethnobotanical surveys being conducted in Mozambique on traditional medicine.

Nevertheless, Barbosa et al. (2020) and Manuel et al. (2020) presented recent studies on the medicinal plants that are sold in the medicinal plant trade markets in the Maputo province. There is however a need to broaden the geographical scope of ethnobotanical surveys that are conducted. This gives potential for the discovery of new species and documentation of new medicinal plants and uses for Mozambique. Furthermore, there are no complete checklists and analysis of the medicinal plants of Mozambique. There is clearly a need for a first comprehensive checklist and analysis of the recorded medicinal plants used in Mozambique. The checklist, however, does not assume to be complete but it is intended to be a good starting point, with as many literature references as possible included. A list of the medicinal plants of

Mozambique and their uses would be useful to researchers and other parties interested in the medicinal plants of Mozambique.

It will also be important to highlight the differences and similarities between the South

African Tsonga people to those of Mozambique in terms of their uses of medicinal plants. Such a study will show whether there is a need to further study the Vatsonga culture, similar to what has been done for the Vavhenda (Magwede et al., 2018), Basotho (Moteetee, and Van Wyk, 2011), 15

and Zulu medicinal ethnobotany (Mhlongo, 2019). This study aims to document all medicinal plants used in Mozambique that are recorded in literature to date. It also aims to statistically analyse the overall flora and the medicinal flora of Mozambique, to determine how many taxa are currently recorded in the total flora and the medicinal flora and which medicinal plants (at the level of species, family and order) are the most abundant and which families have the most taxa used in traditional medicine.

The study will also compare the medicinal flora of Mozambique to that of other southern

African cultures, namely the Zulu people of the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa, the

Venda people of the Limpopo Province of South Africa, the Swazi people of Eswatini

(Swaziland), and the Basotho people of Lesotho. These comparisons are made under the assumption that there has been a transfer of knowledge among African cultures, especially those who are in close geographic proximity, so that the species compositions and actual uses of the plants should be similar. A consistent pattern of taxonomic diversity and medicinal uses would help to conceptualize and describe Traditional African Medicine (TAM) as a distinct healing culture.

If, however, there are large differences, then the need to study all Bantu-speaking cultures would be indicated. The latter result would also show or confirm that TAM as a healing system is not uniform and has not yet been systematized in the same way as, for example, Ayurveda and

Traditional Chinese Medicine.

The hypothesis is that the selection of medicinal plants and the patterns of medicinal plant use in Mozambique are similar to those of the Zulu culture in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa (and other Bantu-speaking cultures of South Africa) and that the similarities will

allow for a first broad description and characterization of TAM as one of the great healing cultures of the world.

One way to determine if there are substantial differences between the selection of medicinal plants in Mozambique when compared to KwaZulu-Natal is to compare the percentage of shared species for all the major medicinal plant families of the total flora of Mozambique with the percentage of shared species that are used medicinally in both regions. If the percentage of shared medicinal taxa of the major plant families between Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal is similar to the percentage of shared taxa for the flora as a whole, then the hypothesis cannot be rejected. However, if the percentage overlap of shared medicinal taxa of the major plant families are substantially lower than the corresponding percentage overlap of the shared taxa for the flora as a whole, then the hypothesis must be rejected. In the same way, if the Sorensen index value for shared medicinal species is much lower than the Sorensen index value for shared species in the total flora, then the conclusion will be that the two medicinal floras are different. Another possible measure of similarity would be the number of shared medicinal species that are used to treat the same ailments (i.e., medicinal plants that are used in the same way in Mozambique and in KwaZulu-Natal). For example, if only one in five (20%) of the shared species are used in the same way, then the conclusion will be that the medicinal systems are substantially different.

The overall aim of this study is therefore not only to provide a first review and assessment of the medicinal ethnobotany of Mozambique, but also to examine the spatial pattern of medicinal plant use amongst the major Bantu-speaking cultures of south and south-eastern

Africa and to gain insight into the way in which geographically representative studies in other regions of Africa can (or should be) approached.

1.4. Objectives and key questions

• To compile checklists for the available floras of the regions studied.

• To compile the first checklist for the medicinal flora of Mozambique by using existing

literature.

• To create checklists of the medicinal plants used by the Tsonga people of Mozambique

and the Tsonga people of South Africa and the Zulu people of KwaZulu-Natal, South

Africa to establish comparisons.

• To gather data on the available and medicinal floras of Eswatini, Lesotho, and Venda to

determine whether Galton’s problem is relevant.

The key questions that are answered in this study are:

• How many taxa have been recorded for Mozambique and how many families? Which

families are the most abundant (species-rich) in the flora of Mozambique?

• How many taxa have been reported to have medicinal uses?

• Which families have the most taxa used in traditional medicine?

• Is the selection if medicinal plants by the Mozambican Tsonga people similar to the

South African Tsonga people?

• Is the selection and use of medicinal plants in Mozambique similar to KwaZulu-Natal?

• Are the shared medicinal plants used for the same or similar indications?

• Is the selection of medicinal plants between Bantu-speaking cultures based on availability

or ancestral linkages?

CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Data collection

A checklist of all recorded plant species (including subspecific taxa) in Mozambique was compiled, using mainly The Flora of Mozambique website (Hyde et al., 2020) which is updated daily. As of 7 July 2020, this website provided a list of 6206 taxa (species and infraspecific taxa) of flowering plants and ferns in 249 families, compiled from various literature sources as listed on the website. Unidentified plants were excluded for the purposes of this dissertation.

The checklist for the Mozambique medicinal plants was compiled using various literature sources as shown in Table 2.1, with a few medicinal plant species also listed in the Convention on Biological Diversity report for Mozambique (CBD, 2009). The nomenclature and classification of species, genera and families were updated following The Plant List (2013)

(www.theplantlist.org) and the APG III system (Bremer, 2009) were used to reorganize families and orders. Habits (growth forms) of plants were taken from The Flora of Mozambique (Hyde et al., 2019) and SABONET checklists (Germishuizen and Meyer, 2003; Da Silva, 2004).

The Tsonga-speaking regions of Mozambique were the Maputo and Gaza Provinces (see

Figure 2.1). Only taxa that were found in Tsonga-speaking regions were selected, and the list was further enriched with taxa from the Mozambique specimen collection extracted from the newPOSA website of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI, 2016). The medicinal plant list was compiled by selecting all taxa that have been recorded as being used in the Tsonga-speaking regions of Mozambique.

Due to availability of data, this dissertation will focus on the Tsonga-speaking populations of the Limpopo (Giyani and Tzaneen) and Mpumalanga provinces (Bushbuckridge)- see Figure 2.1. Only taxa that were collected in the Tonga-populated areas were used to compile a checklist of the available flora for the South African Tsonga people. The percentage of the

Tsonga people in these areas is shown in Table 2.1, using data extracted from Census (2011).

Figure 2.1: Maps of the Tsonga-speaking regions studied in this dissertation. These areas are circled in black. A: is the language distribution map for South Africa showing the Mpumalanga and Limpopo Tsonga-speaking regions (Census, 2011). B: is the map of Mozambique showing

the Tsonga-speaking regions which are the Gaza and Maputo, Provinces (ACDM, 2019). C: is an old language map of the Tsonga language tribes and dialects (Junod, 1962).

Table 2.1: Population of Tsonga people in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces.

Province % Population in City % Population in city province Limpopo 10 Giyani 90.8 Tzaneen 44.5 Mpumalanga 17 Bushbuckridge 46

Initially, I compared the available and medicinal floras of Mozambique to the floras of

South Africa but the high endemism in South Africa, the extreme diversity in vegetation types

(with the Nama and Succulent Karoo biomes confined to South Africa) and the number of species (with South Africa having many more) weakened the analysis. Therefore, the Province of

KwaZulu-Natal was selected instead as it presented a similar vegetation type, Bantu-speaking culture, and ancestral linkages to those of Mozambique. I am aware that there may be objections to comparing a country (Mozambique) with a Province (Zululand) but I was convinced that useful insights could be gained. The book used to compile the medicinal plant list of the Zulu people in KwaZulu-Natal (Hutchings et al., 1996) included magical and ethnoveterinary purposes, but plants used only for magic and ethnoveterinary purposes were excluded. The sources used to compile the medicinal checklist for the Basotho (Moteetee et al., 2019) and

Swati people (Long, 2005) included non-medicinal plants, so that the latter were also excluded for the purposes of this dissertation since it is limited to medicinal plants.

Both the checklists for the total flora and medicinal flora in the Venda region of the

Limpopo province in South Africa was compiled using an inventory of Vhavenda useful plants

by Magwede et al. (2018) which also includes detailed uses of the medicinal plants.

Table 2.2: Literature sources used to compile all the checklists used in this dissertation.

Region Sources used to create medicinal flora checklist Sources used to create available flora checklist Mozambique Amico & Bavazzano (1968); Amico (1977); Jansen Flora of Mozambique (Hyde et al., 2020) & Mendes (1983, 1984, 1990, 1991); Maite (1987); Vezar & Petri (1987); Jurg et al. (1991); (http://www.mozambiqueflora.com/index.php) Atal (1993); Cunningham (1993); Cunningham (1997); Dai (1997); Matavele & Habib (2000); Bandeira et al. (2001); Krog et al. (2006); Ramalhete et al. (2008); CBD (2009); Ribeiro et al. (2010); Bruschi et al. (2011); Luo et al. (2011); Williams et al. (2011); Conde et al. (2012); Senkoro et al. (2014); Barbosa et al. (2020), and Manuel et al. (2020) Tsonga-MZ Compiled from the checklist of Mozambique Preliminary checklist of the vascular plants of medicinal plants – see Chapter 3 (section 3.22) Mozambique (Da Silva et al., 2004) Specimen list of Mozambique (SANBI, 2016) (http://www.newposa.sanbi.org/sanbi/Explore) Tsonga-SA Liengme (1981); Sobeicki (2002); Anthony and Specimen list of the Mpumalanga and Bellinger (2007); Rampedi (2010), and Limpopo Provinces, South Africa (SANBI, Tshikalanga et al. (2016) 2016) (http://www.newposa.sanbi.org/sanbi/Explore) KwaZulu- Zulu Medicinal Plants (Hutchings et al., 1996) Specimen list of the KwaZulu-Natal Province, Natal-SA South Africa (SANBI, 2016) (http://www.newposa.sanbi.org/sanbi/Explore) Venda An Inventory of Vhavenda Useful Plants An Inventory of Vhavenda Useful Plants (Magwede et al., 2018) (Magwede et al., 2018) Lesotho A review of the Ethnobotany of the Basotho of Specimen list of Lesotho (SANBI, 2016) Lesotho and the Free State Province of South Africa (Moteetee et al., 2019) (http://www.newposa.sanbi.org/sanbi/Explore)

Eswatini Swaziland’s Flora- isiSwati Names and Uses Specimen list of Eswatini (SANBI, 2016) (Long, 2005) (http://www.newposa.sanbi.org/sanbi/Explore) (http://www.sntc.org.sz/backup/flora/chrislong.asp)

2.2. Analyses

2.2.1. Shared taxa between regions and cultural groups studied

To identify the number of taxa shared between these regions, the total floras and medicinal floras

were compared using the Excel Match lookup function. These were the comparisons:

Mozambique vs Swaziland, Mozambique vs Lesotho, Mozambique vs KwaZulu-Natal,

Mozambique vs Venda, and Tsonga-Mozambique vs Tsonga-South Africa.

Spearman rank correlation (Spearman, 1904) was done to rank families and medicinal-use

categories, and also to determine the correlation and significance to which the datasets have an

association. Sorensen Index (Sorensen, 1948) was used to calculate the percentage similarities

between shared taxa in the total floras and shared medicinal taxa.

2.2.2. Classification of medicinal ailments

The medicinal uses in Table 3.1 (Chapter 3) were grouped according to different uses in the body

and their effects on diverse systems in the body. The order in which the medicinal use-categories

are classified follows the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) (WHO, 2016) and

that of Mhlongo (2019) for a master’s dissertation for other medicinal uses that are not included in the ICPC, who ultimately followed Moffett (2010) and Snyman (2010).

To determine whether the ailments treated in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal were the same, similar, or different, the uses of medicinal plants in the two checklists were directly compared.

2.2.3. Regression analysis

Using Excel, and following the methodology of Moerman (1979, 1991 and 1996), least-square linear regression analyses were performed. For all regression analyses, the total flora was used as the independent variable and the medicinal flora as the dependent variable. The purpose of the regression analyses was to compare the taxonomic patterns of medicinal plant use in

Mozambique to areas with a similar culture, climate, and vegetation. It was also used to determine if medicinal plants/ species were selected randomly or non-randomly. The terms over- and underused are often used in regression analysis to describe families that either exceed or are below the standard error. However, it may be scientifically more correct to use the terms overrepresented and under-represented.

2.2.4. Bayesian and Imprecise Dirichlet Model approaches

Since regression analysis does not accurately reflect smaller families (because their residual values rarely exceed the standard error of the regression), Bayesian analysis and the similar (but more conservative) Imprecise Dirichlet Model (IDM) were also performed, following Weckerle et al. (2011, 2012).

2.2.5. Spatial autocorrelation

A method similar to that presented by Saslis-Lagoudakis et al. (2014) to test for Galton’s problem/autocorrelation in the Nepal study of cultural groups was followed in this dissertation.

Three distance matrices were compiled. A distance matrix for geographical proximity was constructed using the Harvesine formula (Veness, n.d.) in which the calculator can be found online; the coordinates of the five regions/cultural groups were obtained from Google Earth

(http://www.google.com/earth/) (Table 1 in Appendix 7). Sorensen Index (Sorensen, 1948) was used to construct distance matrices of the similarity between the total taxa (Table 2 in Appendix

7) and total medicinal taxa (Table 3 in Appendix 7) that occur between the five regions/cultural groups. Three correlations (total flora vs geography, total medicinal flora vs geography, and total flora vs medicinal flora) were done between the distance matrices in order to calculate the

Pearson product-moment coefficient (r) and the corresponding significance values (p). The

Mantel test (Mantel, 1967) was used to determine the correlation using the vegan package in R

(Oksanen et al., 2009).

CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF MOZAMBIQUE MEDICINAL FLORA

3.1. Introduction

The practice of traditional medicinal is ancient and people have relied on these medicinal plants for their products as remedies, in treatment and relief of illnesses (Rahman et al., 2019). There are medicinal plants that have been reported to have been used in China since 5000 BCE (Wang et al., 2007) and by Syrians, Hebrews, Egyptians, and Babylonians in 1600 BC (Schultes and

Raffauf, 1990). About 70% of plants used account for medicine in the form of primary healthcare (World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1992). However, plants found in Africa have many various uses besides medicine, such as food, timber, and crafts (Bandeira et al., 1999; Van

Wyk and Gericke, 2018).

Mozambique has a wide diversity of plants that are medicinally important and thus vital to rural and sub-urban people. Sixty percent of the population in Mozambique turn to plants as a source of basic primary healthcare. Most diseases vary from simple to complex pathogens, psychological, and mental illnesses are treated using traditional medicine. Almost every disease can be treated traditionally, except for those that require surgical interference (Ministry for the

Coordination of Environmental Affairs, 2009). Even though more than half of the population relies on medicinal plants, there is no actual evidence to support the exact number of plant species used by Mozambicans but there are several common plant species that are used such as

Adansonia digitata L., Annona senegalensis Pers., Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl.,

Euclea natalensis A.DC., Landolphia kirkii Dyer, Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth.,

Ricinodendron rauranenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm., Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst.,

Tamarindus indica L., Uapaca kirkiana Mull.Arg., Ziziphus mauritianus Lam., and among many more (Ministry for the Coordination of Environmental Affairs, 2014).

Mozambique was known as an important supply country in distributing traditional medicine to its neighbouring country, South Africa (Botha et al., 2004). The most traded bark was Warburgia salutaris (Bertol.f.) Chiov. (Mander, 1998) where 30–40 tons were sold to medicinal markets in South Africa from Mozambique (Netshiluvhi, 1999). According to

Williams (2004), approximately 43% of W. salutaris bark found in the main medicinal market of

Johannesburg originates from Mozambique.

However, during the Portuguese colonization (1498–1975), traditional medicinal practices were considered as superstitious and non-scientific. The practice of traditional medicine was illegal, and practitioners were regarded as wizards and witch doctors. Local people nevertheless continued to rely on traditional medicine (Ministerio da Saude, 2004). The ratio of doctors to patients in Mozambique was 1:50 000, but the ratio of traditional practitioners to patients was only 1:200 (Hamilton, 2004), therefore traditional medicine is critically important for the primary healthcare of the people of Mozambique (Krog et al., 2006). Conversely, after independence, a policy that attended to the use of traditional medicine was formulated and a board of research around this subject was established (Ministerio da Saude, 2004). According to

Allkin (2017) there are at least 28,187 plant species recorded for medicinal use around the world, but less than 16% of these species are cited in publications. Therefore, the most used species in traditional medicine in Mozambique can only be known by conducting extensive ethnobotanical surveys, as not all the taxa used may be recorded.

Online databases and publications on the plant diversity of Mozambique have been made available. However, there have not been any reviews or statistical analysis on the flora of

Mozambique and their traditional medicinal use, thus this chapter provides an overview of the analysis of the total flora and medicinal flora of Mozambique through compilation of data from various literature sources and online databases. Hence, the aim is to statistically analyse the total flora and medicinal flora of Mozambique, to identify the most cited medicinal taxa, and to determine medicinal ailments that are treated the most.

With reference to literature used to compile the checklist of the medicinal plants of

Mozambique shown in Chapter 2, section 2.1, most of these sources include lists of medicinal plants, some even include medicinal uses and plant parts used. Thus, that information was extracted and used to compile the checklist presented in this Chapter.

3.2. Results

3.2.1. Total flora of Mozambique

A checklist of the total flora of Mozambique was compiled, with 6187 vascular plant species and infraspecific taxa in 1582 genera (taxa identified to species level only), representing 233 families

– see Appendix 1. Figure 3.1 shows all families that have more than 50 taxa in Mozambique. The largest family was the Fabaceae with 764 taxa from 125 genera, the second largest family was the Poaceae (443 taxa from 125 genera) followed by Asteraceae (362 taxa from 109 genera).

Other large families that make up the top 10 families were Rubiaceae (355 taxa from 83 genera),

Orchidaceae (227 taxa from 46 genera), Acanthaceae (214 genera from 39 genera), Malvaceae

(200 taxa from 37 genera), Euphorbiaceae (195 taxa from 36 genera), Lamiaceae (185 taxa from

29 genera) and Apocynaceae (165 taxa from 61 genera).

Figure 3.1: Families of the total flora of Mozambique which have more than 50 taxa, showing the total number of taxa and genera in each family.

3.2.2. Medicinal species and infraspecific taxa of Mozambique as compiled from literature

Table 3.1 is a checklist of Mozambique medicinal plants, compiled from 26 literature sources. It includes 731 species and infraspecific taxa. An additional 27 taxa are identified only to genus level, thus giving a total of 758 recorded medicinal plants. Of these, 654 are indigenous and 104

non-indigenous (69 naturalized and 35 cultivated exotics). These medicinal plants are from 421 genera in 115 families.

Table 3.1 shows the medicinal uses of each species and infraspecific taxa, and the plant parts used to treat the different ailments. It can be observed that one taxon might have various uses, and that many of these infraspecific taxa are used to treat mostly diarrhoea, stomach ailments. skin ailments, gynaecological problems (including menstrual pains, easing of delivery), and aphrodisiacs. It should be noted that some of publications used were in Portuguese and

Italian and thus had to be translated into English using Google translate. Plant parts used to treat various diseases are also included in the table. Note that different plant parts of the same species might sometimes be used to treat different ailments, but this level of detail is not shown in Table

3.1. This information can be found in the supplied references.

Table 3.1: Checklist of 758 medicinal plants of Mozambique, based on 26 references.

The accepted names are arranged in alphabetical order according to families. The medicinal uses and plant parts used are recorded alongside each species including taxa and infraspecific taxa.

See bottom of table for key to references. *= exotic species; **= cultivated exotic species.

Family Accepted names Medicinal uses Plant parts used References Anisotes formosissimus (Klotzsch) Acanthaceae Leprosy (JM1), purgative (V1) Roots (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 Milne-Redhead Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anders. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Aphrodisiac (A1; A2), treat sores (A1), Bark (A1), leaves Acanthaceae Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. smallpox (A1; A2), wounds (A2), (A1), roots (A), A1, A2 ulcers (A2), astringent (A2) seeds (A) Flowers (JM1), Acanthaceae Blepharis buchneri Lindau Leprosy (JM1) JM1 leaves (JM1) Blepharis diversispina (Nees) Haemorrhoids (R1), cough (R1), Fruits (R1), roots Acanthaceae R1 C.B.Clarke wounds (R1), fontanel hardening (R1) (R1), seeds (R1) Acanthaceae Blepharis katangensis De Willd. Unspecified Unspecified JM1 Articular pains (JM1), lower members Acanthaceae Blepharis pungens Klotzsch Roots (JM1) JM1 (JM1) Acanthaceae Blepharis stuhlmanni Lindau Unspecified Unspecified JM1 Acanthaceae Crabbea velutina S.Moore Ascariasis (JM1) Leaves (JM1) JM1 Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Acanthaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Heine Acanthaceae Justica flava (Vahl) Vahl Cataract (B1) Leaves (B1) B1, J1 Acanthaceae Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. Ears (JM1) Unspecified JM1 Infections/infestations (C3), genitourinary (S1), respiratory pain Leaves (JM1), roots Acanthaceae Thunbergia lacifolia T.Anders. (S1), contraceptive (JM1), bilharzia JM1, V1, C3, S1 (JM1) (JM1; V1), constipation (JM1), stitches (JM1), thrust-like pains (V1) Infections/infestations (C3), Achariaceae Hydnocarpus venenata Gaertn. subcutaneous cellular tissue and Unspecified C3 injuries (C3) Achariaceae Xylotheca tettensis (Klotzsch) Gilg Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Alismataceae Limnophyton obtusifolium (L.) Miq. Ears (JM1) Root (JM1) JM1

Achyropsis leptostachya (E. Mey. ex Amaranthaceae Rheumatism (JM1) whole plant (JM1) JM1 Meisn.) Hook.f. Yellow fever (JM1), worms (V1), Amaranthaceae Aerva leucura (L.) Moq. Roots (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 vomitus (V1) Abortive (A1; A2), dyspepsia (A1), galactogen and cholagogue (A1; A2), Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.* Whole plant (A1) A1, A2 ophthalmic (A1; A2) and febrifuge (A1; A2) Pulmonary disorders (A1; A2), Leaves (A1; A2), abortifacient (A1; A2), diuretic (A1; Amaranthaceae Amaranthus caudatus L.* seeds (A1; A2), A1, A2 A2), laxative for children (A1; A2), roots (A1; A2) toothpaste (A1; A2) Blennorrhagia (A1), menorrhagia (A1), Amaranthaceae Amaranthus spinosus L.* snuff (A1), eczema (A1; A2), febrifuge Whole plant (A1) A1, A2 (A2), diuretic (A2), galactagogue (A2) Amaranthaceae Celosia trigyna L. Unspecified Unspecified K1 Amaranthaceae Chenopodium album L.* Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Diarrhoea (JM4), stomach-ache (JM4), Amaranthaceae Chenopodium ambrosoides L.* Leaves (JM4) JM4, A3 worms in children (A3) Skin/subcutaneous cellular tissue and Amaranthaceae Cyathula natalensis Sond. injuries (C3), infections/infestations Unspecified K1, C3 (C3) Inflorescence (JM1), Wounds in heads of children (JM1), Amaranthaceae Cyathula spathulifolia Lopr. fruits (JM1), roots JM1, JM2 leprosy (JM1), cicatrize (JM2) (JM2) Diuretic (JM1; V1), worms (M1), Hermbstaedtia odorata (Burch.) Bulb (A2), leaves A2, JM1, V1, Amaranthaceae rheumatism (A2), hysteria (A2), T.Cooke* (A2), root (JM1; V1) JM3, M1 abdominal pain (A2), styptic (A2) Sexual complaints (JM1), paralysis Bulb (JM1; S1), (JM1; V1), sexual potency (V1), Amaryllidaceae Boophone disticha (L. f.) Herb. leaves(S1), roots JM1, V1, S1 weakness (V1), eye disease (V1), (JM1) wounds (V1) 33

Galactogen (A1; A2), rubefacient (A1; Crinum bulbispermum (Burm.f.) Bulb (A1; A2), Amaryllidaceae A2), rheumatism (A1; A2), abscesses A1, A2 Milne-Redh. & Schweick. leaves (A2) (A1), earache (A2) Amaryllidaceae Crinum delagoense Verdoorn* Boils (JM1), galactagogue (JM1; V1) Bulb (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 Amaryllidaceae Crinum sp. Muscular pains (B1) Bulbs (B1) B1, K1 Amaryllidaceae Crinum stuhlmannii Bak. Swellings (R1) Stem (R1) R1 Diabetes (JM1; V1), corns (JM1), freckles (JM1; V1), Worts (JM1; V1), Bark (A1; A2; V1; helminthiasis (JM1) and leprosy (JM1; L1), flower (V1), A1, A2, B1, V1), hernia (B1), cough (JM1; L1; B1), Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. fruit (A2) Leaves JM1, L1, M1, scars (V1), pneumonia (L1), chest (A1; A2; B1), nut V1 pains (L1), dysentery (A1; A2), diuretic (B1; V1) roots (B1) (A1), febrifuge (A2), astringent (A2), vesicant (A2), dropsy (A2) Diarrhoea (B1), female infertility (B1), Anacardiaceae Lannea discolor (Sond.) Engl. Roots (B1) B2, B1, JM1 sexual complaints (B2) Lannea edulis (Sond.) Engl. var. Infections/infestations (C), digestive Anacardiaceae Roots (JM1; V1) C3, JM1, V1 edulis system (C3), diarrhoea (JM1; V1) Lannea schimperi (Hochst. ex Abdominal pains (JM1), cough (JM1; Bark (JM1), whole Anacardiaceae JM1, M1 A.Rich.) Engl. M1) plant (JM1) Anaemia (R1), diarrhoea (R1), stomach bark (R1), roots Anacardiaceae Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. disorders (R1), malaria (R1), venereal B1, JM1, R1 (B1), stem (R1) diseases (B1) Diarrhoea (JM1), mental illnesses (JM1), abdominal pains (JM1), Bark (JM1), leaves Lannea stuhlmanni (Engl.) Engl. var. Anacardiaceae gonorrhoea (JM1), yellow breast milk (JM1), roots (JM1; JM1, V1 stuhlmannii * (JM1), cough (JM1), tuberculosis V1) (JM1; JM3)

Bark (A1; A2), Hernia (B1), diarrhoea (A1; A2; M1), leaves (A2), roots A1, A2, B1, B3, Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. dysentery (A1), anthelmintic (A1; A2; (A2; B1; B3), seeds M1 B3), leukorrhea (A2), syphilis (A2) (A1; A2) Anacardiaceae Ozoroa gomesiana R.Fern & A.Fern. Unspecified Unspecified JM1 Diarrhoea (JM1;V1;M1 ;B2 ;D), pain with chills (JM1), joint point (JM1), back and muscle pains (JM1), emetic (JM1), wash blood or increase it (JM1), pennaceous (JM1;JM2), rheumatism (JM1), sexual impotence (JM1;JM2), Bark (JM1), leaves articular diseases (JM3;JM4;JM3 ), (JM1; JM3), roots B1, B2, B3, D1, Ozoroa obovata (Oliv.) R.Fern. & A. Anacardiaceae headache related illnesses (JM3), (JM1; JM2; V1; B1; JM1, JM2, JM3, Fern tachycardia (JM3), fevers(first D1; B3), root bark JM4, M1, V1 symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), (V1) oedema (V1;JM3), stomach-ache(B1), venereal diseases (B1), Chronic aches and pains (JM4 ), swelling (M1 ), arthralgia (V1), headache (V1), wounds (B3) Anaemia (R1), diarrhoea (JM4; R2; CBD; R1), stomach disorders (R), Bark (A; A2; R2; Haemorrhoids (R1), cough (R2; B1), Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) C1), leaves (B1; sexual complaints (B2), flue (R2), B1, C1, CBD, Anacardiaceae Hochst. subsp. caffra (Sond.) D1), stem (R1), root toothache (R2), stomach-ache (CBD; D1, JM4, R2, R1 Kokwaro (JM1; B1), shell R1; D1), Diarrhoea (A1; JM1; V1), (JM1) vomiting boils (JM1), mouth sores (JM1; M1), stomach-ache(B1), bloody vomit (B1), Leaves (B1), roots Anacardiaceae Searsia dentata Thunb. B1 headache (B1), muscular pain (B1) (B1) Anacardiaceae Searsia gueinzii Sond. Unspecified Unspecified A1

Abdominal pains (JM1), male and female sterility (JM1; V1), difficult Anacardiaceae Searsia longipes Engl. var. longipes birth (JM1), abdominal pains and Roots (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 indigestion (JM1), the flu (JM1), ventral aches (V1) Anacardiaceae Searsia longipes Engl.* Unspecified Unspecified JM1 Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex Anacardiaceae Asthma (JM1), open throat (D1) Roots (JM1; D1) JM1, D1 Krauss) F.A.Barkley Sexual complaints (JM1;B2), stitches (sedative) (JM2), blennorrhagia (JM1), dysenteries (JM1;V1;A1;A2), throat diseases (JM1), vertebral column diseases (JM1), menstrual pains (JM1;V1), epilepsy (JM1;V1), wounds (JM1;M1; B3), wounds of the uterus (JM1), hydrocele (JM1), sexual potential stimulant (V1), conjunctivitis Roots (B1; A1; B3), A1, A2, B2, B3, (V1), pharyngitis (V1), spinal marrow bark (B1; A2), Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers. JM1, JM2, M1, disease (V1), stomach-ache(B1), leaves (A1; A2), V1 intestinal wounds (B1), cough seeds (A2) (JM2;B1;B3), tuberculosis (B1), fever (B1), asthma (B1), diarrhoea (JM2;M1 ;B2), respiratory (B2), anthelmintic (A1;A2), venereal diseases (A1), gastrointestinal disorders (A1), ophthalmic (A1;A2), snakebites (A1), astringent and tonic (A2), abortifacient (A2)

Headache (JM1), abdominal pain (JM1;JM2), joint pains (JM1), intestinal pains (JM1), sexual impotency (JM2), panacea (JM2), febrifuge (JM3), female sterility (JM4; B1), fever, haematuria (A1;A2), Leaves, root (JM2;4; A1, A2, B1, B3, Annonaceae Artabotrys brachypetalus Benth. rheumatism, cough with asthma (L1), JM4; B1; B3), whole JM1, JM2, JM3, intestinal worms (B1), stomach- plant(A) JM4, K1, L1 ache(B1), food or snake poisoning (B1), general weaknesses (B1), venereal diseases (B1), blennorrhagia(A1), gonorrhoea(A2), helminthiasis (B3) Annonaceae Artabotrys monteiroae Oliv. Unspecified Unspecified JM1 Haemorrhoids (JM1; V1), rheumatism (JM1; V1), tuberculosis (JM1; V1; JM3), stomach-ache (B1), vomit B1), Leaves (B1), root A, B1, JM1, Annonaceae Cleistochlamys kirkii (Benth.) Oliv. muscular pains (B1), venereal diseases (JM3; B1) JM3, V1 (B1), hernia (B1), general weakness (B1) Friesodielsia obovata (Benth.) Stomach-ache (B1), mouth sores Annonaceae Roots (JM1; B1) JM1, JM3, B1 Verdc. (JM1), throat (JM1) Roots (M2), bark Annonaceae Monanthotaxis caffra Verdc. Malaria (M2), muscle pain (M2) M2 (M2), leaves (M2) Annonaceae Monodora stenopetala Oliv. Tuberculosis (JM1) Roots (JM1) JM1

Heart disease, tachycardia, fevers, ants in the limbs, generalized oedema that begin in the lower limbs and on the cheeks (JM1), abdominal pains (JM2), Bark (JM1), leaves Sphaerocoryne gracile (Engl. & Annonaceae heart aches (JM2), articular diseases (JM1; JM3), roots JM1, JM2, JM3 Diels) Verdc. subsp. gracile (JM3), headache related illnesses (JM1; JM2) (JM3), tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3) Local disease with the following symptoms: loss of contact with reality, Annonaceae Xylopia parviflora (A.Rich.) Benth. Roots (JM1; JM4) JM1, JM4 cries, tachycardia (JM1), chronic pain (JM4) Apiaceae Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. & Zeyh Malaria (B2) Unspecified B2 Apiaceae Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam** Coronary vasodilator (A3) Unspecified A3 Apiaceae Centella asiatica Wound healing (A3) Unspecified A3 Heteromorpha arborescens (Spreng) Apiaceae Unspecified Leaves (C1) C1 Cham. & Schltdl. Stomach-ache (B1), constipation (B1), weakness in children (B1), female Leaves (B1, M2), Apiaceae Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. B1, M2 infertility (B1), headache (B1), malaria roots (B1) (M2) Male sterility (JM2; JM3), abdominal Bulb (JM2), leaves A2, JM2, JM3, Apocynaceae Adenium multiflorum Klotzsch swelling with loss of appetite (JM2), (JM2), root (JM2; JM4 constipation (strong purgative) (JM2) JM3) Apocynaceae Adenium swazicum Stapf Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Ancylobotrys petersiana (Klotzsch) Diarrhoea (JM2), snakebites (A; A2), Fruits (A1; A2), Apocynaceae A1, A2, JM2 Pierre colic (A1; A2) roots (A1; A2; JM2) Apocynaceae Asclepias burchellii Schltr.* Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Wounds (JM2), diarrhoea (JM2), Bark (JM2), roots Apocynaceae Calotropis procera Ait. JM1, JM2 dysenteries (JM2) (JM2), sieve (JM2) 38

Fever access (JM2), stomach-ache (JM2), rheumatism (JM2), tuberculosis Carissa bispinosa (L.) Desf. ex Apocynaceae (JM2), genitourinary (C3), digestive Roots (JM2) C3, JM2 Brenan (C3), muscular-skeletal system (C3), infections/infestation(C3) Apocynaceae Carissa macrocarpa (Eckl.) A.DC. Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Apocynaceae Carissa spinarum L. Asthma (JM2) Roots (JM2) JM2 Deworming (in children) (JM2), diabetes (A2; JM2), dysentery (JM2), Leaves (A2), roots A2, B1, D1, Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don* venereal diseases (JM2; B1), diarrhoea (A2; JM2; B1; D1) JM2, M1 (M1; D1), rheumatism (A2), hypotensive (A2), feB1ifuge (A2) Apocynaceae Cryptolepis B1azzaei Baill. Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Abdominal pains (JM1; JM2), rheumatism (JM2), tuberculosis (JM2), eye diseases (JM2), oedema (JM2), Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Meisn.) fever (JM2), panacea (JM2), digestive Leaves (JM2), roots C, JM1, JM2, Apocynaceae Schltr. problems (M1), ventral aches (V1), (JM1; JM2; V1) M1, V1 poisonings (C3), muscular-skeletal system (C3), sensory system (C3), pain (C), infections/infestations (C3) Anti-abortion (JM2), abdominal cramps (JM2), wounds (JM2), Leaves (JM2), roots Apocynaceae Cryptolepis obtusa N. E. Br. JM2 vermifuge (deworming in children with (JM2), sap (JM2) epileptic seizures) convulsions (JM2)

Headache (JM2), abdominal cramps (JM2), abdominal pains (JM2), bronchitis and tuberculosis (A1;A2;JM3), diarrhoea (B1), vomit (B1), vertigo (B1), skin/subcutaneous Fruit (A2), latex cellular tissue and injuries (C3), Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (JM2; B1), leaves A1, A2, B1, Apocynaceae circulatory system (C3), digestive, (Mull. Arg.) Pichon (A1; A2), roots (A1; JM2, JM3 respiratory and sensory system(C3), A2; JM2; JM3; B1) infections/infestations (C3), pain (C3), poisoning (C3), pregnancy (C), haematuria (A1;A2), syphilis (A1;A2), chronic cough (A1;A2), indigestion (A2), flowers (JM2), Latex (A2), leaves (A2) Apocynaceae Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Ait.f. Headache (JM2), purgative (A2; JM2) A2, JM2 root (bark)(JM2), root (JM2) Flowers (JM2), Leaves (JM2), root Apocynaceae Gomphocarpus physocarpus E.Mey. Headache (JM2), purgative (JM2) JM2 (bark) (JM2), root (JM2) Apocynaceae Gomphocarpus semilunatus A.Rich. Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Holarrhena floribunda (G.Don) Apocynaceae Dysentery (A3) Unspecified A3 T.Durand & Schinz

Abdominal pains (JM2; JM3), postpartum pain (JM2), fever (JM2), wounds (JM2), male sexual weakness (JM2), hernias (JM2), inflammation of Latex (JM2), leaves Holarrhena pubescens (Buch. - Apocynaceae the spleen (JM2), meteor digestion (JM2), roots (JM2; B1, JM2, JM3 Ham.) Wall. & G.Don (JM2), rheumatism (JM2), tonic (JM2), JM3; B1) cough (JM2), stomach-ache(B1), vomit (B1), venereal diseases (B1), earache (B1) Landolphia buchananii (Hallier f.) Apocynaceae Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Stapf. Leaves (JM2), roots Apocynaceae Landolphia kirkii Dyer ex Hook.f. Epilepsy (JM2), breast cancer (JM2) JM2 (JM2) Marsdenia macrantha (Klotzsch) Bulb (JM2), roots Apocynaceae Male sterility (JM2; JM4) JM1, JM2, JM3 Schltr. (JM1; JM4) Apocynaceae Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels** Unspecified Roots (C1) C1 Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L. Scabies (A2) Leaves (A2) A2 Stomach-ache(B1), speed/induce Apocynaceae Pentarrhinum sp. delivery (B1), menstrual pains (B1), Roots (JM3; B1) B1, JM3 snake bites (B1) Apocynaceae Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. Anti-emetic (JM2) Roots (JM2) JM2 Warts (A2), skin eruptions (A2), Apocynaceae Plumeria alba L.* Latex (A2) A2 wounds (A2) Venereal diseases (JM2), malaria (JM2; Apocynaceae Rauvolfia cafra Sond. Bark (JM2) B1, JM2 B1), respiratory (B1) Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Apocynaceae Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Kurz Unspecified (A3), Apocynaceae Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.** Anti-hypertension (A3) A3, C2 roots (C2) Bark (JM2), roots Apocynaceae Saba comorensis (Bojer) Pichon Gonorrhoea (JM2) JM2 (JM2)

Asthma (cough) (JM2), emollient galactagogues (JM2), fever (JM2), Latex (JM2), leaves infection and inflammation of the eyes (JM2), roots (JM2; B1, JM2, JM3, Apocynaceae Sarcostemma viminale (L.) L.* (JM2), tuberculosis (JM2; JM3; L), JM3; R2; L1), sap L1, R2 sexual complaints (B2), stomach-ache (JM2; R2) (R2), eye treatment (R2) Deworming (R2), rheumatism (R2), Root (R2), stem Apocynaceae Secamone parvifolia (Oliv.) Bullock R2 epilepsy (R2), stomach-ache(R2) (R2) Apocynaceae Secamone punctulata Decne Diarrhoea (B3) Roots (B3) B3, K1 Secamone punctulata Decne var. Apocynaceae Eye diseases (JM2) Leaves (JM2) JM2 stenophylla (K. Schum.) N.E.Br. Apocynaceae Secamone stenophylla K.Schum. Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Strophanthus courmontii Sacl. ex Apocynaceae Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Franch. Leaves (JM2), Roots Apocynaceae Strophanthus gerrardii Stapf. Bubbles (JM2), abdominal pains (JM2) JM2 (JM2) Apocynaceae Strophanthus hypoleucos Stapf. Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Convulsions in children (JM2), Leaves (JM2), roots Apocynaceae Strophanthus kombe Oliv. abdominal pain (JM2), diarrhoea (with JM2 (JM2) blood) (JM2) Apocynaceae Strophanthus luteolus Codd Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Apocynaceae Strophanthus nicholsonii Holmes Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Sexual impotence (D1), intoxication Apocynaceae Strophanthus petersianus Klotzsch Roots (D1) C3, D1, JM2 (D1)

Sexual impotence (JM1), abortifacient (JM2), headache (JM2), healing (JM2), diarrhoea (JM2;CBD; B3 ), lung diseases (A1;JM2), stomach-ache Fruit (JM2), latex (JM2), gonorrhoea (JM2), haemostatic A1, A2, B1, B3, (A2), leaves (JM2), (JM2), malaria (JM2;JM4 ;L1), C2, CBD, D1, Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana elegans Stapf. roots (A; A2; JM1; measles (JM2), tuberculosis (JM2;L1), JM1, JM2, JM4, JM2; B2; D1; B3), dysentery (JM4;CBD ), respiratory K1, L1, R1 seeds (C2) (JM4 ), venereal diseases (CBD ), chest complaints (L1), painful urination (D1), styptic (A2), pulmonary disease (A2), wounds (B3), UTI (B3) Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana stapfiana Britten Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Tabernaemontana ventricosa Wounds (JM2), haemostatic and drying Latex (JM2), roots Apocynaceae JM2 Hochst. ex A.DC. (JM2) (JM2) Apocynaceae Thevetia neriifolia (l.)** Threadworms (A3) Unspecified A3 Apocynaceae Voacanga africana Stapf. Ortiques (JM2) roots (JM2) JM2 Apocynaceae Voacanga thouarsii Roem & Schult. Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Araceae Gonatopus boivinii (Decne) Hook.f. Scabies (JM2) Tubers (JM2) JM2 Pertussis (JM2), ulcers (A2), Araceae Pistia stratiotes L. Whole plant (JM2) A2, JM2 rheumatism (A2), fever (A2) Seizures (convulsions) in children (JM2), encephalitis (generalized Leaves (JM2), roots Araceae Stylochaeton natalensis Schott B1, JM2 oedema of the head) (JM2), snake bites (JM2; B1) (B1), earache (B1) Zamioculcas zamiifolia (Lodd.) Araceae Ears (JM2) Sap (JM2) JM2 Engl. Araliaceae Cussonia arborea Hochst. ex A.Rich Unspecified Unspecified JM2, K1 Araliaceae Cussonia arenicola Strey. Venereal diseases (JM2) Roots (JM2) JM2 Araliaceae Cussonia spicata Thunb. Unspecified Unspecified JM2

Araliaceae Cussonia zimmermannii Harms Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Araliaceae Cussonia zuluensis Strey Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Schefflera actinophylla (Endl.) Araliaceae Malaria (S1) Leaves (S1) S1 Harms* Anti-phlegmatic (A2), leprosy (A2), Fruits (A2), roots Arecaceae Borassus flabellifer L. aphrodisiac (A2), tonic (A2), laxative A2 (A2), seeds (A2) (A2), diuretic (A2) Toothache (JM3), high blood pressure Fruits (A2), roots Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L.** (M1), anthelmintic (A2), aphrodisiac A2, JM3, M1 (A2; JM3) (A2) tumours (A2) Hydrocoele (JM1) [as “Hyphaene Roots (JM1); Arecaceae Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn. JM1, K 1 thebaica (L.) Mart.”]; unspecified (K) unspecified (K) Arecaceae Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Astringent (A2) Roots (A2) A2 Poisonings (C3), pregnancy/birth (1C), Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia albida Duch. Unspecified A2, C3 infections/infestations (C3) Aristolochiaceae Hydnora abyssinica A.Br. UTI (B3), helminthiases (B3) Rhizome (B3, W1) B3, W1 Asparagaceae Asparagus aethiopicus L. Asthma (D1) Rhizome(D1) D1 Stomach disorders (Ri), induce/speed Roots (A1; A2; R2, delivery process (B1), diuretic (A; A2), Asparagaceae Asparagus africanus Lam. B1), whole plant A1, A2, B1, R2 syphilis (A; A2), leprosy (A; A2), (R2) rheumatism (A2), chronic gout (A2) Asparagus africanus var. puberulus Digestive system (C3), genitourinary Asparagaceae Unspecified C3 (Bak.) Sebsebe system (C3) Chills (JM3), pain in eyes (JM3), Asparagaceae Asparagus asiaticus L. Leaves (JM3; JM4) JM3, JM4 abdominal pains (JM4) Asparagaceae Asparagus falcatus L. Female infertility (B1) Leaves (B1) B1 Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Stitches (JM1), aches (V1) Roots (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 Asparagaceae Asparagus setaceus Engl. Headache (B1) Leaves (B1) JM3, B1 Asparagaceae Asparagus sp. Unspecified Unspecified K1 Asparagaceae Dipcadi viride (L.) Moench gonorrhoea(A2) Unspecified A2

Articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), Asparagaceae Dracaena mannii Bak. tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first Unspecified JM1, JM3 symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3) Abdominal bloating with lack of Roots (JM2), bulb Asparagaceae Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl. C1, JM2 appetite (JM2) (C1) Asparagaceae Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn Cardiac insufficiency arrythmia (A3) Unspecified A3 Contusions (R2), Haemorrhoids (R2), rheumatism (R2), swelling (R2), women fertility (R2), epilepsy (R2), Leaves (Ri), roots Asparagaceae Sansevieria hyacinthoids (L.) Druce B1, R2 stomach-ache in children (B1), (Ri; B1) weakness in children (B1), venereal diseases (B1), snake bites (B1) Venereal diseases (V1), malaria (M2), Asphodelaceae Aloe chabaudii Scheonl. Roots (V1, M2) M2, V1 abdominal pain (M2) Asphodelaceae Aloe greatheadii Schoenl. Venereal diseases (JM1) Roots (JM1) JM1 Biliary disorder (R2), malaria (R2), Leaves (R2; D1; wounds (R2; D1; B3), toothache (R2; Asphodelaceae Aloe marlothii Berger B3), sap (R2), roots B3, D1, JM4, R2 D1), liver disorder (R2), sexual (R2) complaints (JM4) Venereal diseases (R1; B2), malaria Asphodelaceae Aloe parvibracteata Schonland Leaves (R1; V1; B2) B2, R1, V1 (V1) Unspecified (A3; Asphodelaceae Aloe sp. Scar clearing (A3), unspecified (K1) A3, K1 K1) Eye treatments (R2), wounds (R2), Leaves (R2), roots Asphodelaceae Aloe zebrina Bak. liver disorder (R2), malaria (M2), M2, R2 (R2, M2) abdominal pain (M2)

Purgative (JM4), chronic ulcers (A; A2), uterine disorders (A1), laxative Leaves (A2), whole Asteraceae Ageratum conyzoides L. (A1), emetic (A1), febrifuge (A1), A, A2, JM4 plant (JM4) ophthalmic (A1), catarrh (A2), eyewash (A2) Asteraceae Artemisia maritima L. Ascariasis (A3) Unspecified A3 Diuretic (and venereal pains) (JM4), Asteraceae Aspilia mendonace Wild Roots (JM4) JM4 tuberculosis (JM4) Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Asteraceae Tuberculosis (JM1; V1) Roots (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 Willd. Athrixia rosmarinifolia (Sch. Bip. ex Asteraceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Walp.) Oliv. & Hiern Baccharoides adoensis Sch. Bip. ex Asteraceae Propitiatory (B1) Leaves (B1) B1 Walp. Ophthalmic (A), haemorrhage (A), earaches (A; A2), colic (A2), Leaves (A2), whole Asteraceae Bidens pilosa L.* A1, A2 inflammation (A2), dysentery (A2), plant (A) conjunctivitis (A2), toothache (A2) Asteraceae Bidens steppia (Steez.) Scherff Unspecified Unspecified A1 Blepharispermum zanguebaricum Asteraceae Unspecified Unspecified M Oliv.* Asteraceae Blumea lacera DC. Anti-abortive (A1), antiscorbutic (A2) Whole plant (A1) A1, A2 Asteraceae Blumea viscosa (Mill.) V.M.Badillo Unspecified Unspecified A1 Stomach-ache (JM4), tuberculosis Leaves (JM4), roots Asteraceae Brachylaena discolor DC. JM4, D1 (JM4), contraceptive (D1) (JM4; D1) Asteraceae Brachylaena huillensis O.Hoffm. Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Asteraceae Brachylaena rotundata S.Moore Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Chromolaena odorata (L.) Asteraceae Malaria (A3) Unspecified A3 R.M.King & H.Rob** Asteraceae Chrysocoma mozambiquensis Bayer Eye illnesses (JM4) Leaves (JM4) JM4

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) Gonorrhoea (A1; A2), suppuration (A1; Asteraceae Whole plant A1, A2 S.Moore A2) Asteraceae Dicoma anomala Sond. All type of pains (JM4) Roots (JM3) JM3 Asteraceae Dicoma galpini Wilson Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Asteraceae Dicoma macrocephala DC. Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Asteraceae Dicoma tomentosa Cass. Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Ophthalmic (A; A2), lotion of new- Leaves (A1; A2), born (A1), colic for children (A), Asteraceae Emilia coccinea (Sims) G.Don roots (A1; A2), A1, A2 abdominal ailments (A1), febrifuge whole plant (A) (A1), colic (A2), ulcers (A2) Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex Asteraceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Wight Asteraceae Erigeron bonariensis L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Asteraceae Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.* Unspecified Unspecified A1 Fever (D1), temporary blindness (D1), Asteraceae Helichrysopsis kraussii Sch.Bip.* Leaves (D1) D1 intoxication (D1) Helichrysopsis septentrionalis Asteraceae unspecified Unspecified C3 (Vatke) Hillilard Helichrysum kirkii Oliv. & Heirn ex Tuberculosis (JM1; V1), epilepsy Asteraceae Roots (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 Oliv. (JM1; V1) Laphangium luteoalbum (L.) Asteraceae Skin diseases (A2) Unspecified A1, A2 Tzvelev. Launaea cornuta (Hochst. ex Oliv. Asteraceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 & Hiern) C.Jeffrey Genitourinary, digestive system (C3), Linzia gerberiformis (Oliv. & Hiern) infection/infestations (C3), Asteraceae Unspecified C3 H.Rob subcutaneous cellular tissue and injuries (C3), pain (C3)

Leaves (JM4), roots Macledium sessiliflora (Harv.) Skin diseases (JM4; M1), epilepsy Asteraceae (JM4), whole plant JM4, M1 S.Ortiz (JM4), stitches (JM4), cough (JM4) (JM4) Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) Snakebites and scorpion antidote (A2), Asteraceae Unspecified A1, A2 B.L.Rob.* venereal spores (A2) Asteraceae Neojeffreya decurrens (L.) Cabrera Unspecified Unspecified A1 Asteraceae Nidorella auriculata DC. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Vomit (B1), chinhamucaca (B1), ulcers Latex (Br), roots Asteraceae Sonchus oleraceus L.* A1, A2, B1 (A2), vermicide (A2), wounds (A2) (A2; Br) Sunburn (A1), tonic for children (A), Leaves (A2), whole Asteraceae Sphaeranthus suaveolens DC. A1, A2 anticonception (A2), febrifuge (A2) plant (A1) Asteraceae Tridax procumbens L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Asteraceae Vernonia acuminatissima S.Moore Unspecified Unspecified A1 Asteraceae Vernonia amygdalina Del. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Stomach-ache(B1), constipation (B1), venereal diseases (B1), induce/speed labour (B1), post-partum pains (B1), Bark (B1), leaves B1, B2, B3, D1, Asteraceae Vernonia colorata (Willd.) Drake general weakness (B1), vertigo (B1), (B1), roots (B1; D1; M1 venereal diseases (B1), respiratory B3), seeds (B1) (B2), digestive problems (M1), diarrhoea (D1), helminthiasis (B3) Vernonia colorata (Willd.) Drake Asteraceae Cough (L1), pneumonia (L1) Leaves(L1) L1 subsp. colorata Asteraceae Vernonia sp. Venereal diseases (B1) Roots (B1) B1 Balsaminaceae Impatiens wallerana Hook.f. (Suppression) during pregnancy (JM3) Leaves (JM3) JM3 Begoniaceae Begonia oxyloba Welw. ex Hook.f. Digestive system (C3) Unspecified C3 Bignoniaceae Jacaranda mimosifolia D.Don* Syphilis (A2) Fruit (A2) A2

Fever (JM3), dysenteries (A1;A2;JM3), wounds (A2;JM3; B3), cauterization of the navel (B1), diarrhoea (B2;R1 ), anal Bark (A1; A2; V1; A1, A2, B1, B2, wounds (R1 ), disinfectant (R1), B1; C1), fruits (A1; Bignoniaceae Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. B3, C1, CBD, stomach-ache(R1 ), toothache (R1), A2; B3; C1), leaves JM3, R1 syphilis (A1;A2), rheumatism (A1;A2), (CBD) ulcers (A1;A2), purgative (A1;A2), gonorrhoea(A1;A2) Cramps and fevers (JM3), cough Markhamia obtusifolia (Bak.) Leaves (JM3), roots Bignoniaceae (JM3), stitches (JM3), convulsions A2, JM3 Sprague (A2; JM3) (A2), galactagogue (A2) Markhamia zanzibarica (Bojer. ex Bignoniaceae General weakness (B1) Roots (B1) JM3, B1 DC.) K.Schum Pregnancy (complicated and painful with abdominal distension not corresponding to the time of gestation), Bark (A; JM3, M2), A1, A2, B1, Bignoniaceae Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. uterine disorders (JM3), induce/speed fruits (A2), leaves JM3, M2 delivery (B1), venereal diseases (A1), (B1), roots (A; A2) cough (A1; A2), malaria (M2), delusions (M2) Boraginaceae Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. Difficult births (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 Diarrhoea (JM3), dysentery (B1), Bark (JM3, M2), stomach-ache(B1), venereal diseases Boraginaceae Ehretia amoena Klotzsch roots (B1, M2), B1, JM3, M2 (B1), malaria (M2), muscle pain (M2), leaves (M2) vomiting (M2) Boraginaceae Ehretia coerulea Guerke Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Boraginaceae Ehretia cymosa Thonn. Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Heart disease (JM3), epileptic attacks (JM3), abdominal pains Boraginaceae Ehretia obtusifolia Hochst. ex DC. Roots (JM3) JM3 (children)(JM3), menstrual pains (JM3), haematuria (astringent) (JM3)

Boraginaceae Ehretia rigida (Thunb.) Druce Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Trichodesma ambacense subsp. Boraginaceae Aphrodisiac (JM3) Rhizome (JM3) JM3 hockii (De Wild.) Brummitt Trichodesma physaloides (Fenzl) Boraginaceae Aphrodisiac (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 A.DC. Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) Boraginaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1, JM3 R.Br. Brassicaceae Brassica sp. Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Rorippa madagascariensis (DC.) Brassicaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Hara Menstrual pains (JM3), toothache Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.** (JM3), colic (M1), digestive problems Roots (V1) M1, V1 (M1) Asthma (JM3; M1), abdominal Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) discomfort (JM3), head disturbances Leaves (B1), roots Burseraceae B1, JM3, M1 Engl. (JM3), stomach-ache(B1), fontanelle (JM3; B1) syndrome (B1), hernia (B1) Burseraceae Commiphora edulis (Klotzsch) Engl. Cobra bites (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 Skin/subcutaneous cellular tissue and Burseraceae Commiphora neglecta I.Verd. Unspecified C3 injuries (C3) Abdominal pains (JM2; JM3), disturbance (no blood) (JM3), articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), tachycardia (JM3), Fruits (JM3), leaves A3, JM1, JM2, Burseraceae Commiphora serrata Engl. fevers (first symptoms) (JM3), ants in (JM2; JM3), roots JM3, JM4 limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3), eczema (JM3) (JM3), epilepsy (JM3; JMJ4; M3), rheumatism (JM3), arthritis (A3), dental problems (A3)

Cough (B1; B3), gout (A2), Cactaceae Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.** rheumatism (A2), antihemorrhagic Stems (B1; B3) A2, B1, B3 (A2) Cough in children, especially with Leaves (JM3), whole Cactaceae Opuntia sp. convulsions (JM3), cough (L1), JM3, K1, L1 plant(L) bronchitis (L1) Rhipsalis baccifera (J.M.Mill.) Roots (B1), whole Cactaceae General weakness (B1) B1 Stearn. plant (B1) Campanulaceae Lobelia anceps L.f. var. anceps Unspecified Unspecified A1 Angina and constipation (JM3), constipation and inflammation of gums Warburgia salutaris (Bertol.f.) Bark (JM3; B3; C1), B2, B3, C1, D1, Canellaceae in children (JM3), throat diseases Chiov. roots (JM3; D; B3) JM3, K1 (JM3), respiratory (B2), malaria (D1), mouth ulcers (B3), cough (B3) Tuberculosis in small children (JM3), Leaves (JM3), roots Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L.** B1, JM3 sedative (B1) (B1) Diarrhoea (R2), Haemorrhoids (R2), Leaves (K1; R2), Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Gilg & B1, C1, CBD, Capparaceae muscular pains (B1, M2), constipation roots (CBD; B1; C1; Gilg-Ben K1, M2, R2 (B1), anaemia (M2) M2) Capparaceae Boscia foetida Schinz Unspecified Unspecified K1, R2 Boscia foetida Schinz subsp. filipes Capparaceae Stomach and kidney purification (R2) Roots (R2) R2 (Gilg) Lotter Boscia foetida subsp. rehmanniana Capparaceae Unspecified Unspecified C3 (Pestal.) Toelken Capparaceae Boscia mossambicensis Klotzsch Eyes (disinfection) (JM3) Whole plant (JM3) JM3, K Chills (JM3), pain in eyes (JM3), leaves (JM3; JM4; A1, JM3, JM4, Capparaceae Boscia salicifolia Oliv. oedema of the limbs (V1; JM3), JM3), roots (JM3) V1 vomiting with diarrhoea (JM3) Capparaceae Boscia welwitschii Gilg Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Capparaceae Cadaba kirkii Oliv. Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Capparaceae Cadaba natalensis Sond. Tuberculosis (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 51

Capparaceae Cadaba termitaria N.E.Br. Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Menstrual pains (JM3), female sterility Capparaceae Capparis brassii DC. Roots JM3 (JM3) Bronchitis (JM3), bronchitis and Capparis erythrocarpos Isert var. tuberculosis (JM3; JM4), headache Capparaceae Roots (V1; JM3) JM3, V1 rosea (Klotzsch) DeWolf (JM3), toothache (JM3), tuberculosis (JM3) Capparaceae Capparis fascicularis DC. Kidney pains (JM3), rheumatism (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 Roots (JM1), root- Capparaceae Capparis rosea (Klotzsch) Oliv. Tuberculosis (JM1), stitches (JM2) A1, JM1, JM2 bark (JM1) Tuberculosis (JM3;L;B1), respiratory (A1; B2 ), cough (L1), chest pains (A2;L1), m1ental disturbance (D1), Roots (A1; A2; JM3; snake bites (A;A2), sore eyes (A1), L1; B1; D1), whole A1, A2, B2, B1, Capparaceae Capparis tomentosa Lam. pectoral disease (A1), jaundice (A1), plant (A1), leaves D1, JM3, L1 impotence (A1), cancer (A1;A2), (A1; A2), seeds (A1) ophthalmic use (A1), diuretic (A1;A2), purgative (A1), blennorrhagia (A1;A2), syphilis (A1;A2), ophthalmia (A2) Capparis viminea Hook.f. & Capparaceae Poisonings (C3) Unspecified C3, JM3 Thomson ex Oliv. var viminea Capparis viminea var. orthacantha Capparaceae Pain (C3) Unspecified C3, JM3 (Gilg & Gilg-Ben.) DeWolf Women fertility (JM3; R1), stomach- Maerua edulis (Gilg & Gilg-Ben) ache (JM3; R2), eye diseases (JM3), Capparaceae Roots (R2; L1) JM3, L1, R2 DeWolf rectal prolapse (JM3), cough (L1), tuberculosis (L1) Capparaceae Maerua grantii Oliv. Abortion (JM3) Unspecified JM3 Respiratory problems (L1), Capparaceae Maerua juncea Pax Roots (L1; B3) B3, K1, L1 helminthiases (B3)

Diarrhoea (R2), stomach-ache and Capparaceae Maerua parvifolia Pax Roots (R2) R2 purification (R2) Maerua rosmarinoides (Sond.) Gilg Capparaceae Menstrual pains (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 & Ben. Haematuria (JM3), ears (JM3), Maerua triphylla var. pubescense Capparaceae genitourinary, sensory system (C3), Unspecified C3, JM3 (Klotzch) infections/infestations (C3) Asthma (JM3), rheumatism (JM3; M1), oedema (JM3), fontanelle (clasp) (JM3), vomiting with diarrhoea (JM3), A3, C3, JM3, Capparaceae Thilachium africanum Lour. Leaves, roots skin injuries (C3), digestive, muscular- M1 skeletal, respiratory system (C3), Asthma (A3) Caprifoliaceae Scabiosa columbaria L. Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Toothache (JM3; M1), gonorrhoea (JM3), hepatitis (JM3), diarrhoea (B2), Fruits (A2), flowers febrifuge (A2), laxative (A2), (A2; JM3), leaves A2, A3, B1, Caricaceae Carica papaya L.** respiratory affections (A2), (A2) roots (A2; JM3, M1 anthelmintic (A2), syphilis (A2), JM3) digestive (A3) Krauseola mosambicina (Moss) Pax Caryophyllaceae Stomach-ache (JM3; JM4) Roots (JM3; JM4) JM3, JM4 ex K.Hoffm. Brexia madagascariensis (Lam.) Anti-abortion and cessation of bleeding Celastraceae Leaves (JM3) JM3 Ker-Gawl. in early pregnancy (JM3) Celastraceae Cassine burkeana (Sond.) Kuntze Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Elaeodendron sphaerophyllum Celastraceae Unspecified Unspecified JM4 (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Presl. Celastraceae Gymnosporia buxifolia (L.) Szyszyl. Unspecified Unspecified JM4

Dysenteries (JM4; B3); wounds (JM4); stitches (JM4); cough (JM4), internal clots (R2), stabbing heart (R2), Gymnosporia heterophylla (Eckl. & Leaves (JM4; R2), Celastraceae swellings (R2), diarrhoea (B1), B1, B3, JM4, R2 Zeyh.) Loes roots (R2; B1; B3) stomach-ache(B1), male infertility (B1), HIV (B1), snake bites (B1), diarrhoea (B3) Epileptic attack and convulsions (JM4; S1), bilharzia (JM4), bronchitis and tuberculosis (JM3; JM4), diarrhoea Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) (JM4; B1), dysentery (JM4), oedema Leaves (JM3; JM4), B1, C3, JM2, Celastraceae Loes. (JM3; JM4), female sterility (JM2; roots (JM2; JM4) JM3, JM4, S1 JM4), male sterility (JM2; JM4), cough (JM4), infections (C3), digestive, genitourinary, nervous system (C3) Celastraceae Hippocratea parvifolia Oliv. Diarrhoea (JM4) Roots (JM4) JM4 Loeseneriella crenata (Klotzch) Epilepsy (R2), stomach-ache(R2), Roots (R2), stem Celastraceae R2 Wilczek ex N.Halle malnutrition (R2), antiallergic (R2) (R2) Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Celastraceae Diarrhoea (JM4); female sterility (JM4) Roots (JM4) JM4 Loes. Celastraceae Phoenix aethiopica Thunb.* Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Bilharzia (JM4), dysentery (JM4), Celastraceae Salacia kraussii (Harv.) Harv. Roots (JM4) B2, JM4 diarrhoea (B2), malaria (B2) Chrysobalanaceae Parinari capensis Harv. Unspecified Unspecified JM1, JM4 Diseases with chills (JM1; JM4), pains Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex in the veterinary spine (JM1; JM4,) Leaves (JM4), roots A1, B1, JM1, Chrysobalanaceae Benth. local diseases (JM1), female sterility (JM4; B1) JM4 (JM4), rheumatism (JM4), cough (B1) Chrysobalanaceae Parinari excelsa Sabine Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Cleome angustifolia subsp. Cleomaceae Digestive system (C3) Unspecified C3 petersiana (Klotzsch) Kers.

Ears (A1; A2; JM3), bronchitis and other respiratory system disease (A), Leaves (A; A2; Cleomaceae Cleome gynandra L. A1, A2, JM3 relieve labour pains (A), headache JM3), flowers (A1) (A2), internal disorders (A2) deworming (A1), eye inflammation Whole plant (A1), Cleomaceae Cleome monophylla L. A1 (A1) leaves (A1) Clusiaceae Garcinia huillensis Welw. ex Oliv. Sterility (JM1; V1) Roots (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 Gonorrhoea (JM1), conjunctivitis (V1; Bark (V1; R1; D1), B1), diarrhoea (B; R; B3), anal wounds leaves (B1), roots B1, B3, D1, Clusiaceae Garcinia livingstonei T. Anders. (R1), malaria (R1), stomach-ache (R1; (JM1; B3), stem JM1, R1, S1, V1 D1), cough (B3), dysentery (B3), (B3) helminthiases (B3) Stitches in the pulmonary regions and Leaves (JM4), roots A2, A3, C2, K1, Colchicaceae Gloriosa superba L. vomiting (JM4), impotency (A2), gout (A2), seeds (C2) JM4 (A3) Combretum adenogonium Steud. ex Combretaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 A.Rich. Abdominal pains (JM4), aphrodisiac Bark (B1), roots Combretaceae Combretum apiculatum Sond. B1, JM4 (B1) (JM4) Toothache (JM4), stomach-ache (JM4), Leaves, resin, roots Combretaceae Combretum collinum Fresen. purgative (JM4), pain (JM4; C3), C3, JM4 (JM4) digestive system (C3) Diarrhoea (JM4), wounds (JM4), Leaves (JM4), roots Combretaceae Combretum fragrans F.Hoffm. JM4, M1 injuries (M1) (JM4) Combretaceae Combretum goetzei Engl. & Diels Diarrhoea (B1), cupiranganica (B1) Roots (B1) B1, JM4 Disease with joint pain (JM1), articular diseases (JM1; V1; JM4), headache related illnesses (JM3), tachycardia JM1, JM3, JM4, Combretaceae Combretum holstii Engl. Leaves (JM4) (JM3), fevers (first symptoms) (JM3), V1 ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3), epilepsy (JM4)

Roundworms (JM2), eye illnesses (JM2), abdominal pains (JM2), galactagogue (JM2), cobra or crocodile Bark (JM4; R2), bites (JM2), stitches (JM2), toothache leaves (A1; A2; A1, A2, B1, Combretaceae Combretum imberbe Wawra (JM4 ;R2), stomach-ache(JM4 ;R2; JM2; JM4; B1), JM2, JM4, R2 B1), bilharzia (JM4 ), vision roots (JM2; B1) deficiencies (JM4 ), dysentery (JM4 ), tuberculosis (JM4 ), coughs and colds (A;A2), chest complaints (A2) Bilharzia (JM4), diarrhoea with abdominal pains (JM4), cardiac Leaves (JM4), roots Combretaceae Combretum microphyll Klotzsch diseases (JM4), abdominal illnesses (JM4), root bark JM4, M1 (JM4), oedema (JM4), female sterility (JM4) (JM4); infuriation (M1) Anti-abortive (JM4), dysentery (JM4; B3), haemorrhage during menstruation Bark (A2), leaves A1, A2, B2, B3, Combretaceae Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don (JM4), diarrhoea (B2; B3), snakebite (JM4), roots (JM4; JM4 antidote (A2), hydrops (A2) UTI (B3), B3) wounds (B3) Combretum mossambicense Combretaceae Diarrhoea (JM4) Roots (JM4) A, JM4 (Klotzsch) Engl. Combretaceae Combretum paniculatum Vent. Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Combretum platyetum Welw. ex Roots (JM4), whole Combretaceae Constipation (JM4), cough (JM4) JM4 Laws. subsp. aotesii (Rolfe) Exell plant (JM4) Combretaceae Combretum rupicola Engl. Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Bark (B1), leaves Combretaceae Combretum sp. Wounds (B1) B1, JM4 (B1) Abdominal pains (JM4), eyes (JM4), rapturing of umbilical cord in foetus Bark (A1; A2; JM4; Combretaceae Combretum zeyheri Sond. (JM4), cough (L1), regulate menstrual L1), root- bark A1, A2, JM4, L1 flow (A1; A2), ophthalmic (A1; A2), (JM4), roots (JM4) diarrhoea (A2) 56

Sterility (JM4), fever (JM4), wounds Bark (JM4), leaves Pteleopsis myrtifolia (Laws.) Engl. Combretaceae (JM4), madness (JM4), muscle pain (JM4, M2), roots A1, JM4, M2 & Diels (M2), malaria (M2), diarrhoea (M2) (JM4, M2) Terminalia brachystemma Welw. ex Combretaceae Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Hiern Skin diseases (A2) catarrh (A2), Combretaceae Terminalia catappa L. Unspecified A2 diarrhoea (A2), dysentery (A2) Terminalia macroptera Guill. & Combretaceae Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Perr. Bark (B1), roots Combretaceae Terminalia mollis M.A.Law. Diarrhoea (JM2), asthma (B1) B1, JM2 (JM2) Anti-abortive (JM4), diabetes (JM4), dysentery (JM4; CBD; A1; B3), abdominal pains (JM4), burns (R2), wounds (JM4 ;R2), rheumatism (JM4), Branches syphilis (JM4), stomach-ache (A1; R1; (bark)(R2), bark A1, A3, B1, B2, CBD; R2), diarrhoea (JM4; A3; B1 (R1, M2), leaves CBD, D1, JM1, Combretaceae Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC. ;R2; B1; D1; B3), menstrual pains (Br), (JM4; R2; B2; B3), JM4, M2, R1, female infertility (B1), venereal roots (A1; JM4; R2; R2, S1 diseases (B1), anal wounds (R1), B2; D1; B3) diaphoresis (CBD ), haemorrhoids (B3), helminthiases (B3), lack of appetite (M2), malaria (M2) Combretaceae Terminalia trichopoda Diels Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Aneilema cf pendunculosum Commelinaceae Conjunctivitis (JM4) Leaves (JM4) JM4 C.B.Clarke Commelinaceae Aneilema leiocaule K.Schum. Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Asthma, abdominal disturbances, head and stomatal disorders (JM4), induce Leaves (A1; D1), Commelinaceae Commelina africana L. labour (D1), sterility (A1; A2), roots (A2; JM4), A1, A2, D1, JM4 venereal diseases (A1; A2), neurosis whole plant (A1) (A1), ophthalmia (A2), laxative (A2) 57

Leaves (JM4), roots Commelinaceae Commelina benghalensis L. Abdominal pains (JM4) A1, JM4 (JM4) Commelinaceae Commelina sp. Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Local disease (JM1), articular diseases (JM1;JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), tachycardia (JM3), fevers(first symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3), madness (JMJM3 ), Bark (B2), leaves illnesses with chills (JM1), pain in the A2, B2, JM1, Connaraceae Rourea orientalis Baill. (A2; JM3; B2, M2), veterinary spine (JM1), diarrhoea (B2), JM3, JM4, M2 roots (JM1; B2) bloody vomit (B2), menstrual pains (B2), venereal diseases (B2), induce/speed delivery (B2), gonorrhoea(A2), malaria (M2), lack of appetite (M2) Astripomoea lachnosperma (Choisy) Convolvulaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 A.Meeuse Bonamia mossambicensis (Klotzsch) Cough (JM3), eyes (disinfection) Roots (JM3), whole Convolvulaceae C3, JM3 Hallier f. (JM3), respiratory system (C3) plant Stomach-ache(B2), constipation in Convolvulaceae Ipomoea consimilis Schulze-Menz Roots (B2) B2 children (B2) Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) Sweet Unspecified Unspecified A1 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy Unspecified Unspecified A1 Malaria (D1), gonorrhoea(A2), Convolvulaceae Merremia tridentata (L.) Hallier f. Leaves (A2; D) A2, D1 snakebite (A2) Costaceae Costus spectabilis (Fenzl) K.Schum. Anthelmintic (A2) Stem (A2) A2 Crassulaceae Kalanchoe lateritia Engl. Madness (B2) Leaves (B2) B2 Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. Cucurbitaceae Bandama (Br) Fruits (B2) B2 & Nakai Cucurbitaceae Coccinia senensis (Klotzsch) Cogn. Unspecified Unspecified A1

Helminthiases (B3), schistosomiasis Cucurbitaceae Cucumis africanus L.f. Roots (B3) B3 (B3) stomach-ache(B2), fontanelle syndrome (B2), vomit (B2), female Cucurbitaceae Cucumis hirsutus Sond. infertility (B2), infections/infestations Roots (B2) B2, C3, K1 (C3), digestive; genitourinary; muscular-skeletal (C3) Cucumis metuliferus E. Mey. ex Cucurbitaceae Appendicitis (Ri), stomach-ache (Ri) Roots (R2) R2 Naudin Stomach disorders (Ri), laxative (Ri), Fruits (R2), leaves Cucurbitaceae Cucumis zeyheri Sond. R2 dysentery (Ri) (R2) Diplocyclos tenuis (Klotzsch) Cucurbitaceae Pain (C3) Unspecified C3 C.Jeffrey Cucurbitaceae Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naudin Bandama (B2) Fruits (B2) B2 Cucurbitaceae Luffa cylindrica (L.) M. Roem.** Spots on the face and body (D1) Whole plant (D1) D1 Malaria (B1; B2; S1; J1), general Bark (Br), leaves A3, B1, B2, J, Cucurbitaceae Momordica balsamina L. weakness (B2), liver (M1), measles (B2; J1), roots (Br) M1, S1 (M1), digestive (A3) Leaves (A2), roots Purgative (A1; A2), cathartic (A1; A2), Cucurbitaceae Zehneria scabra Sond. (A2), whole plant A1, A2 diuretic (A1; A2), emetic (A2) (A1) Cyperaceae Bulboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla Unspecified Unspecified A1 Cyperaceae Cyperus involucratus Rottb. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Cyperaceae Cyperus longus L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Cyperaceae Cyperus papyrus L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Cyperaceae Kyllinga alba Nees Unspecified Unspecified A1 Cyperaceae Scleria racemosa Poir. Abdominal pains (JM1) Roots (JM1) JM1, JM2

Articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related illnesses (V1; JM3), tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first Leaves (V1; B2, B2, JM3, M2, Dilleniaceae Tetracera boiviniana Baill. symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), M2), roots (JM3, V1 oedema (V1; JM3), arthralgia (V1), M2) malaria (M2), lack of appetite (M2), psychotic disorders (M2) Dioscorea cochleari-apiculata De Dioscoreaceae Stomach-ache(B2) Tubers (B2) B2 Wild. Dipterocarpaceae Monotes glaber Sprague Aphrodisiac (B2) Bark (B2), roots (Br) B2 Diarrhoea (B2), stomach-ache (B2), Bark (A1), fruits Diospyros galpinii (Hiern.) De dysentery (A1), fever (A1), leprosy Ebenaceae (A1), leaves (A1), A1, B2 Winter (A1), abortion (A1), cough (A1), roots (A1; B2) anthelmintic (A1) Propitiatory (B2), dysentery (A2), Diospyros mespiliformis Hoschst. ex Bark (A2); leaves Ebenaceae leprosy (A2), relief for skin eruptions A2, B2 A.DC. (A2; B2) (A2) Diospyros quiloensis (Hiern) Ebenaceae Asthma (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 F.White Ebenaceae Diospyros sp. Unspecified Unspecified K1 Ebenaceae Diospyros usambarensis F.White Bilharzias (JM4) Leaves (JM4) JM4 Diospyros villosa (L.) De Winter Ebenaceae Oral hygiene (C3) Unspecified C3 var. villosa Roots (M2), leaves Ebenaceae Diospyros verrucose Hiern Malaria (M2), abdominal pain (M2) M2 (M2) Ebenaceae Euclea divinorum Hiern Unspecified Roots (C1) C1 Malaria (JM2; B1), stomach-ache(B2), respiratory (B2), infections/infestations Leaves (JM2), roots B1, B2, C1, C3, Ebenaceae Euclea natalensis A.DC. (C3), respiratory system (C3), skin (B2; C1)) JM2 injuries (C3), oral hygiene (C3)

Euclea natalensis A.DC. subsp. Pregnancy/birth (C3), infections (C3), Ebenaceae Unspecified C3 acutifolia F.White skin (C3) Caries (R2), toothache (R2), wounds Roots (R2), stems Ebenaceae Euclea racemosa Murr. R2 (R2) (R2) Haemorrhoids (R2), intestinal lavage Leaves (R2), roots Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L. R2 (R2), laxative (R2) (R2), stems (R2) Gonorrhoea (JM2), relieve postpartum Leaves (A1; A2), Euphorbiaceae Acalypha ornata Hochst ex A.Rich. A1, A2, JM2 pain (A1; A2), laxative (A1; A2) roots (A1; A2; JM2) Wounds (B2), female infertility (B2), Leaves (B2), roots Euphorbiaceae Acalypha sp. B2 menstrual cycle trouble (B2) (B2), stems (B2) Acanthospermum australe (Loefl.) Euphorbiaceae Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Kuntze Acanthospermum glabratum (DC.) Euphorbiaceae Diarrhoea (with blood) (JM4) Whole plant (JM4) JM4 Wild Euphorbiaceae Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Wounds (B3) Leaves (B3) A1, B3, JM4 Euphorbiaceae Conyza abyssinica Sch.Bip. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Infection/infestations (C3), digestive; Euphorbiaceae Croton megalobotrys Mull.Arg. genitourinary system (C3), nutritional Unspecified C3 disorders (C3) Malaria (M2), muscle pain (M2), Roots (M2), leaves Euphorbiaceae Croton pseudopulchellus Pax M2 headache (M2) (M2) Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia balsamifera Ait. Unspecified Unspecified JM1 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia graniticola L.C.Leach Skin (C3), injuries (C3) Unspecified C3 Chinhamucaca (B2), gargling (A1), coughing (A1), cathartic (A1; A2), Latex (A2), roots diuretic (A1; A2), purgative (A1; A2), Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L. (B2), whole plant A1, A2, B2 galactogen (A1; A2), conjunctivitis (A) (A), antidote for arrow poison (A1; A2), ophthalmic (A2) Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Kidney pains (D1) Leaves (D1) D1

Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Euphorbiaceae Depilatory (A2) Latex (A2) A2 Klotzsch Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia serpens Kunth Unspecified Unspecified A1 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia sp. Unspecified Unspecified K1 Toothache (B2), stimulate breastmilk Latex (B2), Leaves Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia tirucalli L. B2, D1 (D1), sexual impotency (D1) (D1) Euphorbiaceae Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Jatropha gossypiifolia L. var. Euphorbiaceae Purgative (A2), liver complaints (A2) Leaves (A2) A2 elegans (Pohl) Mull. Arg. Euphorbiaceae Jatropha multifida L. Poisonings (A2) Unspecified A2 Local diseases (JM1), articular diseases (JM1; JM3), cephalous (JM1), headache related illnesses (JM3), Leaves (JM1; JM3), Euphorbiaceae Maprounea africana Muell. Arg. JM1, JM3 tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first roots (JM1) symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3) Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Bark (A2), seeds Euphorbiaceae Elephantiasis (A2) A2, C1 Heckel (C1) Measles (JM2), ears (JM3), fontanelle Leaves (JM3; D1), A1, A2, C2, D1, (JM3), respiratory problems (M1), Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. roots (JM2; JM3), JM2, JM3, K1, haemorrhage (D1), purgative (A2), skin seeds (C2) M1 (A2), scalp diseases (A2)

Debility (HIV/AIDS)(R2), ear and eye treatment (R2), burns (R2) and wounds (R2), abdominal bloating with lack of Bark (A2; R2; B2; appetite (JM2), tuberculosis (V1), D1), latex (B2), A2, Br, D, J, stomach-ache(B2 ), constipation (B2), Euphorbiaceae Spirostachys africana Sond. roots (JM2; JM3; JM2, JM3, R2, female infertility (B2), miscarriage B2; J1; B3), sap V1 (B2), menstrual pains (B2), diarrhoea (R2), stem (R2; B3) (JM3; D1; B3), malaria (JM3; J1 ), purgative (A2), emetic (A2), epilepsy (B3), dysentery (B3) Euphorbiaceae Tragia okanyua Pax Pain (C3) Unspecified C3 Abdominal pains (JM1;JM2), anti- abortive (JM4 ), diarrhoea (B1 ;B2; D1), antibacterial (B1 ), stomach- ache(A1;A2;B2), female infertility Leaves (A1; A2; A1, A2, B1, B2, (B2), menstrual cycle (B2), digestive JM4), roots (A1; A2; B3, C1, C3, D1, Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. system (C3), skin/ cellular tissue and JM1; JM2; B2; B3), JM1, JM2, JM4, injuries (C3), conjunctivitis (D1), seeds (A1; A2; C1), K1 ophthalmic (A1;A2), emetic (A1), stems (A1) anthelmintic (A1;B3), aphrodisiac (A1;A2), venereal diseases (A1), urinary disorders (A), snakebites (A2) Articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), Aerial parts (JM1; tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first B1, C3, JM1, Fabaceae Acacia karoo Hayne C3), leaves (JM3), symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), JM3 roots (JM1; JM3) oedema (JM3), diarrhoea (B1), malaria (B1, C3) Fabaceae Acacia kraussiana Benth Diverse pains (D1) Roots (D1) D1

Diarrhoea (A2; B1), malaria (B1), respiratory (B1), stitches (D1), eye disease (A1), leper’s ulcer (A1), Bark (A1; A2), Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile A1, A2, B1, D1, Fabaceae astringent (A1; A2), haemostatic (A1; leaves (A1; A2), subsp. kraussiana (Vatke) Brenan JM3 A2), syphilis (A1), haemorrhage (A2), roots (D1) ophthalmia (A2), leprosy (A2), wounds (A2), ulcers (A2) Throat ailments (A), energetic tonic Acacia polyacantha Willd. subsp. (A), tonic (A2), leprosy (A2), Bark (A2, M2), roots Fabaceae campylacantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) aphrodisiac (A2), pneumonia (A2), A1, A2, M2 (A1) Brenan throat (A2), tooth troubles (A2), malaria (M2), headache (M2) Bark (A1; A2), roots A1, A2, JM1, Fabaceae Acacia xanthophloea Benth. Emetic (A; A2), prophylactic (A2) (A2), stem (A2) JM3 Coughs (A; A2), fever (A), liver (A2), Leaves (A1; A2), Fabaceae Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC. A1, A2 chest complaints (A2) roots (A1; A2) Fabaceae Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Diarrhoea (A1), bleeding (A1), infantile convulsions (A1), febrifuge Whole plant (A1), Fabaceae Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. A1 (A1; A2), tonic (A1), anthelmintic (A1; seeds (A1) A2), diarrhoea (A2), headache (A2) Purgative (A2), malaria (A2), Fabaceae Cassia afrofistula Brenan. Fruit (A2) A2 dysentery (A2) Roundworms (JM2), anti-emetic (JM2), malaria (A2;S1), purgative (A1;A2), dysentery (A1), rheumatism Leaves (A1; A2), (A1), tonic (A1;A2), anthelmintic (A1), roots (A2; JM2; S1; A1, A2, C1, Fabaceae Cassia occidentalis L. ophthalmic (A1), pleurisy (A1), C1), seeds (A;1 A2), JM2,S1 inflammation of other organs (A1), whole plant (A1) syphilis (A1), febrifuge (A2), toothache (A2), oedema (A2), skin diseases (A2), dropsy (A2) 64

Abdominal cramps (in children) (JM2), articular diseases (JM1;JM3), stitches (JM1), headache related illnesses (JM3), tachycardia (JM3), fevers(first Leaves (A2; JM1; A2, JM1, JM2, Fabaceae Cassia petersiana Bolle symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), JM3), roots (JM2; JM3, JM4 oedema (JM3), epilepsy (JM3), rectal JM3) prolapse (JM3), gonorrhoea(A2), Haematuria (A2), sterility (A2), febrifuge (A2), purgative (A2) Dysentery (A1; A2), appetite (A1), cutaneous herniations of the face (A1), Whole plant (A1; Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) wounds and sores caused by poisonous Fabaceae A2), leaves (A1; A1, A2 Greene bites (A1), pectoral disorders (A1), A2), roots (A1; A2) eruptions on the face (A2), diarrhoea (A2), snakebites (A2), cough (A2) Bark (R2), leaves Colophospermum mopane (Benth.) Bleeding (R2), dysentery (R2), Fabaceae (R2), roots (R2), JM4, R2 Leonard stomach-ache(R2) stem (R2) Fabaceae Cordyla africana Lour. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Fabaceae Crotalaria axillaris Ait. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Fabaceae Crotalaria bernieri Baill. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Fabaceae Crotalaria monteiroi Bak.f. Malaria (J1), headaches (D1) roots (J1; D1) D1, J1 Roundworms (JM2), fortification for children (JM3), measles (JM3) Roots (JM2; JM3; B2, JM2, JM3, Fabaceae Dalbergia melanoxylon Guil. & Perr toothache (R2), wounds (B2), general R2; B2) R2 weakness (B2) Rheumatism (A1; A2), throat pains Leaves (A1; A2), Fabaceae Delonix elata (L.) Gamble (A1), astringent (A1; A2), snakebites A1, A2 fruits (A1; A2) (A2), cough (A2) Fabaceae Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Fabaceae Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. Febrifuge (A2), catarrh (A2) Unspecified A2 65

Fabaceae Desmodium sp. Difficult births (JM3) Unspecified JM3 Fabaceae Dialium holtzii Harms Diarrhoea (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 Burns (S1), rheumatism (S1), wounds Fabaceae Dialum schlechteri Harms Bark (S1) S1 (S1) Illnesses with chills (JM1), pain in the Fabaceae Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A.Rich. Leaves (JM1) JM1 veterinary spine (JM1) Unspecified (A1), malaria (M2), Unspecified (A1), Fabaceae Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. A1, M2 delusions (M2) bark (M2) Fabaceae Erythrina lysistemon Hutch. Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 Erythrophleum africanum (Welw. ex Wounds (D1), headaches (D1), Bark (D1), leaves Fabaceae K1, D1 Benth.) Harms fontanelle (D1) (D1) Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guill. & Fabaceae Analgesic (A2), cancer (A2) Bark (A2) A2 Perr.) Brenan Guibourtia conjugata (Bolle) J. Stomach disorders (R2), intense cough Leaves (R2), roots Fabaceae R2 Leonard (R2) (R2) Fabaceae Hymenaena verrucose Gaertn. Malaria (M2) Leaves (M2) M2 Fabaceae Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe Unspecified Unspecified A1 Lonchocarpus laxiflorus Guill. & Fabaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Perr. Leaves (A1; A2), Diarrhoea (A1; A2), gonorrhoea (A1; Fabaceae Mimosa pigra L. roots (A1; A2), A1, A2 A2), leprosy (A1; A2), emetic (A1; A2) seeds (A1; A2) Fabaceae Neorautanenia mitis (A.Rich.) Verd. Scabies (A1) Roots (A1) A1, A2 Newtonia buchananii (Baker f.) Fabaceae Genitourinary system (C3) Unspecified C3 G.C.C. Gilbert & Boutique Fabaceae Parkinsonia aculeata L. Malaria (S1) Aerial parts(S1) S1 Fabaceae Peltophorum africanum Sond. Diarrhoea (D1), dysentery (D1) Roots (D1) D1 Pericopsis angolensis (Baker) Fabaceae Digestive system (C3) Unspecified A1, C3, D1, JM2 Meeuwen Fabaceae Physostigma venenosum Balf. Glaucoma (A3) Unspecified A3

Fever in children (JM4), induce Bark (A1; JM4), Fabaceae Pterocarpus angolensis DC. A1, JM3, JM4 lactation (A1), vermifuge (A1) roots (A1) Fabaceae Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. Conjunctivitis (A2) leaves (A2) A1, A2 Fabaceae Schotia brachypetala Sond. Respiratory (B1), digestive system (C3) Unspecified B1, C3 Fabaceae Senna bicapsularis (L.) Roxb. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Fabaceae Senna didymobotrya Fresen. Malaria (S1) twigs(S1) S1 Malaria (B1), epilepsy (D1), diarrhoea Fabaceae Senna occidentalis (L.) Link* Roots (D1; B3) B1, B3, D1 (B3), helminthiases (B3) Asthma (D1), helminthiases (B3), Roots (D1; B3; M2), Fabaceae Senna petersiana (Bolle) Lock epilepsy (B3), malaria (M2), pain in stem (M2), leaves B3, D1, K1, M2 bones (M2), convulsions (M2) (M2) Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S. Irwin & Fabaceae Astringent (A2) Bark (A2) A2 Barneby Diarrhoea (B2), stomach-ache (B2), Leaves (B2), roots Fabaceae Senna sp. female infertility (B2), tuberculosis B2 (B2) (B2), asthma (B2) Throat pain (A1), gonorrhoea (A1; A2), syphilis (A1; A2), anthelmintic (A1; Leaves (A1), seeds Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. var. A2), treat scorpion bites (A1), Fabaceae (A1; A2), whole A1, A2 nubica Chiov. bronchial discharges (A1), cure plant (A1) suppurations (A1), galactagogue (A2), snakebites (A2), skin itch (A2) Fabaceae Tephrosia capensis Pers. Unspecified Unspecified JM4 Anthelmintic (A1; A2), purgative (A; A2), diuretic (A1; A2), rash (A1), Whole plant (A1), Fabaceae Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. A1, A2 indigestion (A1), renal diseases (A1), roots (A1) liver colic (A1) Fabaceae Tephrosia uniflora Pers. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Fabaceae Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. Unspecified Unspecified A1, A2 Fabaceae Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper** Unspecified Unspecified A1

Fabaceae Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc** Bilharzia (JM4) Leaves (JM4) JM4 Fabaceae Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Bilharzia (JM4) Leaves (JM4) A1, JM4 Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. subsp. Fabaceae stenophylla (Harv.) Marechal, Unspecified Unspecified A1 Mascheropa & Stainier Local diseases (JM1), articular diseases (JM1;JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), tachycardia (JM3), fevers(first Bark (B2), leaves symptoms) (JM3), fever in children (A1; JM3), fruits A1, B2, JM1, Fabaceae Afzelia quanzensis Welw. (JM4), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (A1), roots (A1; JM3, JM4 (JM3), fontanelle syndrome (B2), JM1; JM3; B2) menstrual cycle (B2), venereal diseases (B2), laxative (A1), febrifuge (A1), sores (A1), jaundice (A1), leprosy (A1) Anal wounds (S), diarrhoea (S), Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) Fabaceae malaria (S1), stomach-ache(S1), Bark(S1), roots(D1) D1, S1 W.Wight scabies (D1) Diarrhoea (Br), stomach-ache (Br), Fabaceae Albizia antunesiana Harms Roots (B2) B2 hernia (B2), venereal diseases (B2) Albizia gummifera (J.F.Gmel.) Toothache (A1; A2), gingivitis (A1), Leaves (A1; A2), Fabaceae A1, A2 C.A.Sm. ophthalmic (A1; A2), diarrhoea (A2) stems (A1; A2) Diarrhoea (JM4), intestinal trouble Fabaceae Albizia harveyi Fourn. Roots (JM4) A2, JM4 (A2) Astringent (A1), scrofula (A1), Bark (A2), flowers anthelmintic (A2), disease of blood (A2), fruits (A), Fabaceae Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth. (A2), leukoderma (A2), skin disease A, A2 leaves (A2), roots (A2), ophthalmia (A2), asthma (A2) (A2) seeds (A; A2) aphrodisiac (A2) Fabaceae Albizia sp. Unspecified Unspecified K1

Diarrhoea (B2), stomach-ache (B2), Fabaceae Albizia viscolor Welw. Ex Oliv. hernia (B2), venereal diseases (B2), Bark(S1), roots (B2) B2, S1 anal wounds (S1), cough (S1) Amblygonocarpus andongensis Fabaceae Epilepsy (B2) Roots (B2) A1, B2 (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell & Torre Fontanelle syndrome (B2), bloody vomit (B2), general weakness (B2), Roots (B2, M2), Fabaceae Bauhinia galpinii N.E.Br. B2, JM4, M2 malaria (M2), pain in bones and joints leaves (M2) (M2) Purgative (A1), diarrhoea (A1), Bark (A1), fruits Bobgunnia madagascariensis antidote to poisons (A1), coughs (A1), Fabaceae (A1), roots (A1), A1 (Desv.) J.H. Kirkbr. & Wiersema stomach disorders (A1), sexual seeds (A1) stimulant (A1), abortive (A1) Fabaceae Brachystegia boehmii Taub. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Stomach disorders (A1) and intestinal Fabaceae Brachystegia longifolia Benth. Bark (A1) A1 worms (A1) Fabaceae Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. Unspecified Unspecified JM1, JM3 Tuberculosis (B2), asthma (B2), dysentery (A1), abdominal pain (A1), Roots (B2); leaves Fabaceae Burkea africana Hook. A1, B2, JM3 flatulence (A1), sores (A1), headaches (A1), bark (A1) (A1), cough (A1) Fabaceae Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.** Earache (JM3; B2) Roots (B2) B2, JM3 Eye treatments (R2), stomach-ache (R2; B2), diarrhoea (R2), malaria (R2; S1), dysentery (B2), bloody vomit Barks (B2; S1), (B2), venereal diseases (B2), hernia leaves (R2), roots Fabaceae Cassia abbreviate Oliv. B2, C3, R2, S1 (Br), bilharzia (B2), snake bites (B2), (R2; B2) and stem post-partum pain (B2), menstrual cycle (R2) (B2), skin (C3), digestive system (C3), infections (C3)

Articular diseases (JM1, JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), Leaves (JM3), roots Fabaceae Dalbergia lactea Vatke tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first JM1, JM3 (JM1) symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3) Gonorrhoea (JM1), skeletal disorder (R2), laxative (R2), bloody vomit (B2), Bark (A2; R2; S1), sexual complaints (B1), conjunctivitis leaves (A2), roots A2, B1, B2, B3, Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & (V1), ringworms (D1), anthelmintic Fabaceae (JM1; R2; CBD), C1, CBD, JM1, Arn. (A2), analgesic (A2), aphrodisiac (A2), sap (R2), fruits (D1, R2, S1 indigestion (A2), diarrhoea (A2), B3; C1) emetic (A2), leprosy (A2), syphilis (A2), wounds (B3) Anaemia (R2), pain killer (R2), fever (R2), venereal diseases (JM3), Elephantorrhiza elephantina Roots (JM3; R2; B3; B1, B3, C1, Fabaceae diarrhoea (B1; B3), sexual complaints (Burch.) Skeels C1) JM3, R2 (B1), helminthiases (B3), cough (B43), tuberculosis (B3), haemorrhoids (B3) Stomach-ache(B2), bloody vomit (B2), Elephantorrhiza goetzei (Harms) Bark (B2), roots Fabaceae venereal diseases (B2), cough (B2), B2 Harms (B2) backache (B2), general weakness (B2) Bloody vomit (B2), cough (B2), skin Bark (B2), roots Fabaceae Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev. B2 infection (B2) (B2) Fabaceae Indigofera antunesiana Harms General weakness (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex General weakness (D1), skin diseases Fabaceae Roots (A1; A2; D1) A1, A2, D1 A.Rich. (A1; A2), colic pain (A1; A2) Fabaceae Indigofera spicata Forssk. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Conjunctivitis (A2), malaria (M2), Fabaceae Bark (A2, M2) A1, A2, M2 Troupin headache (M2) Fabaceae Microcharis latifolia Benth. Unspecified Unspecified A1

Bark (B2), roots Wounds (B2), venereal diseases (B2), A1, B2, JM3, Fabaceae Millettia stuhlmannii Taub. (B2), leaves (M2), malaria (M2), pain in bones (M2) M2 stem (M2) Venereal diseases (B2), helminthiases Fabaceae Mucuna coriacea Bak. Roots (B2; B3) B2, B3 (B3), internal wounds (B3) Snake bites (A2), scorpion sting (A2), Fabaceae Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. expectorant (A2), aphrodisiac (A2), Seeds (A2) A2 gout (A2) Malaria (M2), headache (M2), skin Fabaceae Ormocarpum kirkii S.Moore Leaves (M2) M2 disorders (M2) Ormocarpum trichocarpum (Taub.) Leaves (B2), roots Fabaceae Burns (B2) B2 Engl. (B2) Philenoptera violacea (Klotzsch) Fabaceae Fontanelle (JM3), earache (B2) Roots (B2) B2, JM3 Schrire Bloody vomit (B2), bilharzia (B2), fever (B2), backache (B2), febrifuge Bark (A2; B2), Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) (A1; A2), colds (A1), cough (A1; A2), leaves (A2; B2; A1, A2, B2, Fabaceae Milne-Redh. toothache (A1; A2), diarrhoea (A2), M2), roots (A2; B2; JM3, M2 dysentery (A2), malaria (M2), muscle M2), stem (M2) pain (M2), convulsions (M2) Fabaceae Pterocarpus angolensis DC. Malaria (M2) Leaves (M2) M2 Pterocarpus rotundifolius (Sond.) Fabaceae Fontanelle syndrome (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Druce Fabaceae Rhynchosia caribaea (Jacq.) DC. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Female sterility (JM4), abdominal Rhynchosia sublobata (Schumach.) Leaves (JM4), roots Fabaceae pains (JM4), stomach-ache(B2), B2, JM4 Meikle (B2) backache (B2) Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke Fabaceae Bloody vomit (B2) Roots (B2) B2 ex Engl.

Stomach-ache (B2), tuberculosis (B2), Bark (A2), fruits wounds (A2), ulcers (A2), abscesses (A2), leaves (A2), Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L.* A2, B2, JM4 (A2), purgative (A2), diaphoretic (A2), roots (B2), seeds emollient (A2), liver complaints (A2) (A2) Intestinal worms in children (B2), Bark (A1, M2), Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) tuberculosis (B2), menstrual pains A1, B2, JM1, Fabaceae leaves (A1), roots Mendoca & E.C.Sousa (B2), coughs (A1), Purgative (A1), K1, M2 (B2) malaria (M2), headache (M2) Venereal diseases (A1; A2), skin Fruits (A1; A2), Flagellariaceae Flagellaria guineensis Schumach. A1, A2 diseases (A2), diuretic (A2) leaves (A1) Gentianaceae Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg Unspecified Unspecified A1 Gisekiaceae Gisekia africana (Lour.) Kuntze Abortive (A1), purgative (A1) Whole plant (A1) A1 Taenicide (A2), purgative (A2), Gisekiaceae Gisekia pharnaceoides L. Seeds (A2) A2 abortifacient (A2), anthelmintic (A2) Epilepsy (JM1; V1), articular pains Leaves (JM1), roots JM1, JM2, JM3, Hypericaceae Psorospermum febrifugum Spach. (JM1), fever (JM1), cough (JM1) (JM1; V1) JM4, V1 Venereal diseases (B2), sexual Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch. & complaints (B1), helminthiases (B3), Hypoxidaceae Tubers (B2; B3) B1, B2, B3, K1 C.A.Mey. diarrhoea (B3), dysentery (B3), wounds (B3), UTI (B3), haemorrhoids (B3) Venereal diseases (JM3), loss of Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis obtusa Burch. Roots (JM3) A2, JM3 appetite (A2), abdominal pain (A2) Iridaceae Dietes iridioides (L.) Sweet ex Klat Unspecified Unspecified D1, K1 Iridaceae Gladiolus dalenii van Geel Diarrhoea (B1) Unspecified B1 Lamiaceae Basilicum polystachyon (L.) Moench Unspecified Unspecified A1 Mental illness (D1), cough (A2), Lamiaceae Clerodendrum glabrum E.Mey Leaves (A2; D1) A2, D1 intestinal parasites (A2) Diarrhoea (JM4), gonorrhoea (A2), Leaves (A2), roots Lamiaceae Hoslundia opposita Vahl blennorrhagia (A2), cough (A2), A2, JM4 (JM4) snakebites (A2) Lamiaceae Karomia tettensis (Klotzsch) R.Fern. Fontanelle (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 72

Lamiaceae Leonotis dubia E. Meyer* Unspecified Unspecified A1 Lamiaceae Leonotis leonurus (L.) R.Br Malaria (S1) Aerial parts(S1) S1 Lamiaceae Melissa officinalis L.* High blood pressure (M1) Unspecified M1 Lamiaceae Mentha x piperita L.** Muscular pain (A3) Unspecified A3 Madness (JM4), tonic (A2), diuretic Lamiaceae Ocimum basilicum L. Leaves (JM4) A1, A2, JM4 (A2), cough (A2), antispasmodic (A2) Ocimum gratissimum L. var. Headache (A3), muscular pain(A3), Lamiaceae Unspecified A3, C3 gratissimum digestive system (C3), pain (C3) Lamiaceae Pycnostachys sp. Pain (C3) Unspecified C3 Leaves (B2), roots Lamiaceae Pycnostachys urticifolia Hook. Malaria (B2) A1, B2 (B2) Tuberculosis (JM1; V1), articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related Rotheca myricoides var. discolor Leaves (JM3), roots Lamiaceae illnesses (JM3), tachycardia (JM3), JM1, JM3, V1 (Klotzsch) Verdc. (V1) fevers (first symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3) Lamiaceae Vitex doniana Sweet Epilepsy (D1) Leaves (D1) A1, D1 Bark (B2), leaves Local disease (JM1), general weakness Lamiaceae Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr.* (B2), roots (JM1; B2, JM1, JM2 (B2), burns (B2), toothache (B2) B2), seeds (B2) Bulbs (B2), leaves Stomach-ache (B2), menstrual cramps Lauraceae Cassytha filiformis L. (B2), whole plant B2, D1 (D1) (D) Lauraceae Cinnamonum verum J.Presl** Headache (A3) Unspecified A3 Lauraceae Persea americana Mill.** Cough (M1), kidney (M1) Unspecified M1 Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz Unspecified Fruits (C1) C1 Tonic (A2), vermifuge (A2), Bark (A2), leaves Lecythidaceae Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. A2 ophthalmic (A2), diarrhoea (A2) (A2), seeds (A2)

Articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first Leaves (JM3), roots B3, JM1, JM3, Linaceae Hugonia orientalis Engl. symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), (B3), bark (M2) M2 oedema (JM3), diarrhoea (B3), wounds (B3), malaria (M2), delusions (M2), psychotic disorders (M2) Loganiaceae Strychnos decussata (Pappe) Gilg Helminthiases (B3) Roots (B3) B3 Loganiaceae Strychnos gerrardii N.E.Br. Colic (A2) Bark (A2) A1, A2 Cough (M1), bronchitis (M1, D1), digestive system (C3), malaria (J1), Roots (J1, B3), bark B3, C3, D1, J, Loganiaceae Strychnos henningsii Gilg dysentery (D1), stomach-ache (D1, (J1) M1 abdominal pains (B3) Induce/speed labour (B2), facilitate Bark (B2), leaves Loganiaceae Strychnos innocua Delile B2 placenta expulsion (B2), madness (B2) (B2), roots (B2) Strychnos madagascariensis Spreng. Fever (JM4; R2), abdominal pains Leaves (JM4), roots Loganiaceae JM4, R2 ex Bak. (JM4) (JM4; R2) Loganiaceae Strychnos sp. Unspecified Unspecified K1, S1 Diarrhoea in children (JM2), venereal diseases (B2), hernia (B2), induce/speed labour (B2), snake bites Leaves (D1), roots B1, B3, C1, Loganiaceae Strychnos spinosa Lam. (B2), digestive problems (M1), (JM2; B2; B3), fruits CBD, D1, JM2, stomach-ache (CBD, D1), oral hygiene (C1) JM3, K1, M1 (CBD), epilepsy (CBD, D1), helminthiases (B3) Erianthemum dregei (Eckl. & Zeyl.) Loranthaceae Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 Tiegh. Loranthaceae Eriosema cordatum E.Mey. Sexual complaints (B1) Unspecified B1 Loranthaceae Eriosema englerianum Harms Paralysis (JM1; JM3) Roots (JM1; JM3) JM1, JM3 Eriosema psoraleoides (Lam.) syphilis (A1; A2), venereal diseases Leaves (A1; A2), Loranthaceae A1, A2 G.Don (A1; A2) roots (A1; A2) 74

Loranthaceae growing on Loranthaceae Propitiatory (B2) Whole plant (B2) B2 Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. Loranthaceae growing on Afzelia Loranthaceae Leprosy (B2) Whole plant (B2) B2 quanzensis Welw. Loranthaceae growing on Cissus Loranthaceae Leprosy (B2) Whole plant (B2) B2 integrifolia Loranthaceae growing on Loranthaceae Female infertility (B2), wounds (B2) Whole plant (B2) B2 Combretum sp. Loranthaceae growing on Loranthaceae Propitiatory (B2) Whole plant (B2) B2 Hymenocardia acida Tul. Loranthaceae growing on Kirkia Loranthaceae Unspecified Unspecified B2 acuminata Oliv. Loranthaceae growing on Ochna Loranthaceae Propitiatory (B2) Whole plant (B2) B2 natalitia Warp. Loranthaceae growing on Loranthaceae Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Unspecified Unspecified B2 Milne-Redh. Loranthaceae growing on Loranthaceae Stomach-ache (B2) Whole plant (B2) B2 Sclerocarya birrea Hochst. Loranthaceae growing on Xeroderris Loranthaceae stuhlmannii (Taub.) Mendoca et Unspecified Unspecified B2 E.P.Sousa Loranthaceae Loranthus sp. Unspecified Unspecified B2 Lythraceae Ammannia prieuriana Guill. & Perr. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Malpighiaceae Acridocarpus chloropterus Oliv. Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Anti-diarrhoeal (B1), headache (D1), B1, B3, C1, D1, Malpighiaceae Acridocarpus natalitus Juss. epilepsy (D1), diarrhoea (B3), Roots (D1; B3; C1) JM3, K1 Haemorrhoids (B3) Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Malvaceae Stomach (A2), digestive (A2) Unspecified A2 Moench*

Abutilon angulatum (Guill. & Perr.) Malvaceae Herat pains(M1), epilepsy(M1) Roots(M1) M1 Mast. Fortification for children (JM3), debility (R2), diarrhoea (JM3; B1; R2; Bark (A2; V1; R2; A2, B, JM1, JM1; M1), fever (JM3), malaria (B1; Malvaceae Adansonia digitata L. L1; M2), fruits (A2); JM3, L, R2, M1, M1; M2), tuberculosis (L1), persistent roots (R2) M2, V1 cough (L1), bronchitis (L1), dysentery (A2), emollient (A2), headache (M2) Malvaceae Bombax mossambicense A.Robyns Unspecified Unspecified A1 Malvaceae Bombax rhodognaphalon K.Schum. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Bark (A2), flower Wounds (V1), emollients (A1; A2), (A2), leaves (A1; gonorrhoea (A1; A2), diarrhoea (A1; Malvaceae Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaetn. A2), stem (A), Roots A1, A2, V1 A2), emetic (A1; A2), antispasmodic (A1), flowers (A), (A1; A2), laxative (A1) whole plant (V1) Cola acuminata (P.Beauv.) Schott & Malvaceae Eupeptic and tonic (A1; A2) Nuts (A1; A2) A1, A2 Endl. Malvaceae Corchorus trilocularis L.** Unspecified Unspecified A1 Malvaceae Dombeya acutangula Cav. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Dombeya burgessiae Gerrard ex Bloody vomit (B2), cough (B2), Bark (B2), roots Malvaceae B2 Harv. dysentery (B2) (B2) Ear treatment (R2), vomits control Fruits (R2), roots Malvaceae Gossypium herbaceum L. R2 (R2), tonic (R2) (R2) Gossypium herbaceum subsp. Anti-abortion (M1), purification of Leaves (M1), roots Malvaceae M1 africanum (G.Watt) Vollesen breastmilk (M1), poor appetite(M1) (M1) Grewia flavescense Juss. var. Malvaceae Stomach disorders (R2) Leaves (R2) R2 flavascense Menstrual cycle (R2), women fertility Malvaceae Grewia hexamita Burret Roots (R2), sap (R2) R2 (R2), post-delivery cleaning (R2)

Fruits (R2), seeds Ear treatment (R2), wounds (R2), Malvaceae Grewia monticola Sond. (R2), root (R2), stem R2 diarrhoea (R2), swelling (R2) (R2) Malvaceae Grewia pachycalyx K.Schum. Tuberculosis (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Malvaceae Grewia sulcata Mast. Cough (B3) Roots (B3) B3, K1 Diarrhoea (A1; A2), dysentery (A1; Bark (A1; A2), fruit Malvaceae Heritiera littoralis Ait. A1, A2 A2), eupeptic (A1), tonic (A2) (A1) Malvaceae Hermannia glanduligera K.Schum. Tuberculosis (JM1) Roots (JM1) JM1 Hermannia micropetala Harv. & Fruit (R2), leaves Malvaceae Laxative (R2), fontanel hardening (R2) R2 Sond. (R2), roots (R2) Ophthalmic (A1; A2), dysentery (A; Leaves (A1; A2), Malvaceae Hibiscus cannabinus L. A1, A2 A2), eczema (A1; A2) seeds (A; A2) Malvaceae Hibiscus meyeri Harv. Tonic (R2), stabbing hearts (R2) Root (R2) R2 Malvaceae Hibiscus physaloides Guill. & Perr. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Roots (A1), bark Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.** Emollient (A1) (A1), leaves (A1), A1 flowers (A1) Abdominal pains (JM2), vomiting Leaves (M1; D1), Malvaceae Hibiscus surattensis L. (M1), female fertility (M1), poor D1, JM2, M1 roots (JM2) appetite (M1), boils (D1) Malvaceae Melochia corchorifolia L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Stitches (JM3), painful menstruation Leaves (JM3), roots Malvaceae Sida acuta Burm.f. (M1), depressed fontanelle (M), sharp JM3, M1 (M1) pain (M1), fever (M1) Malvaceae Sida cordifolia L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 tuberculosis (A1), snakebites (A1), Whole plant (A1), Malvaceae Sida rhombifolia L. emollient (A1; A2), cough (A2), chest leaves (A; A2), roots A1, A2 complaints (A2) (A1; A2) Malvaceae Sterculia appendiculata K.Schum. Unspecified Unspecified A1

Colic (A2), blennorrhagia (A2), boils Thespesia mossambicensis (Exell & (A2), ophthalmia (A2), relief of Bark (A2), leaves Malvaceae A1, A2 Hillc.) Fryxell. childbirth (A2), catarrh (A2), diarrhoea (A2), roots (A2) (A2), dysentery (A2) Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Malvaceae Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 Correa Malvaceae Triumfetta amuletum Sprague Unspecified Fruits (C1) C1 Colic (A1), vermifuge (A1), blennorrhagia (A1), facilitates Leaves (A1), roots Malvaceae Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. childbirth (A1), weakens sterility (A1), A1 (A1), bark (A1) catarrh (A1), diarrhoea (A1), haemorrhage (A1), gonorrhoea (A1) Malvaceae Triumfetta welwitschii Mast. Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 Malvaceae Waltheria indica L. Bronchitis (D1) roots (D1) D1 Melastomataceae Dissotis irvingiana Hook. Unspecified Unspecified A1 cough (A1; A2), scabies (A1; A2), Bark (A2), leaves Meliaceae Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. anthelmintic (A1; A2), expectorant A1, A2 (A), roots (A) (A2) Entandrophragma utile (Dawe & Meliaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Sprague) Sprague Meliaceae Khaya nyasica Stapf ex Bak.f. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Venereal diseases (B2), diarrhoea (B1), Leaves (D1), roots Meliaceae Melia azedarach L.** B1, B2, D1 epilepsy (D1), malaria (D1) (B2) Leaves (B2), roots Meliaceae Trichilia dregeana Sond. Stomach-ache(B2) B2 (B2) Leprosy (JM1), diarrhoea (B1; R1), malaria (S1), anal wounds (R1), Bark (A2; R1), A2, A3, B1, Meliaceae Trichilia emetica Vahl disinfectant (R1), menstrual pains (R1), seeds(S1) JM1, R1, S1 stomach-ache (R1), purgative (A2), emetic (A2), skin diseases (A3)

Trichilia emetica Vahl subsp. Branches (sap)(R2), Meliaceae Stomach-ache (R2), contraceptive (R2) R2 emetica roots (R2) Epilepsy (JM1; V1), diarrhoea (B2), Meliaceae Turrea nilotica Kotschy & Peyr. dysentery (B2), venereal diseases (B2), Roots (JM1; V1; B2) B2, JM1, V1 bilharzia (B2) Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Toothache (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Albertisia delagoensis (N.E.Br.) Menispermaceae Wounds of the uterus (JM1) Roots (JM1) JM1, JM3 Forman Panacea (JM2), epilepsy in children Leaves (D1), roots Menispermaceae Cissampelos hirta Klotzsch D1, JM2 (D1) (JM2) Diarrhoea (A1; A2; B1), sexual complaints (B1), syphilis (A1; A2), blood purifier (A1), diuretic (A1), Whole plant (A1), Menispermaceae Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. blennorrhagia (A1), anti-abortive (A1; roots (A1), plant A1, A2, B1, K1 A2), haemorrhagic (A1), dysentery juice (A1) (A1; A2), menorrhagia (A2), purgative (A2) Unspecified (A3), Menispermaceae Jateorhiza palmata (Lam.) Miers Dysentery (A3) A3, C2 roots (C2) Menispermaceae Tiliacora funifera (Miers) Oliv. Helminthiases (B3), diarrhoea (B3) Roots (B3) B3, K1 Paralysis and children diseases (R2), Leaves (R2), roots Menispermaceae Tinospora caffra (Miers) Troupin epilepsy (R2), pain killer (R2), R2 (R2), stems (R2) stomach-ache (R2) Menispermaceae Tinospora tenera Miers Unspecified Unspecified A1 Moraceae Ficus glumosa Delile Toothache (B2) Latex (B2) B2 Moraceae Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. Anaemia (A2) Unspecified A1, A2 Moraceae Ficus lutea Vahl Malaria (M2), body aches (M2) Bark (M2) M2 Moraceae Ficus platyphylla Delile Unspecified Unspecified K1 Moraceae Ficus sp. Unspecified Unspecified JM1 Galactagogue (A2), malaria (M2), Bark (A2; M2), Moraceae Ficus sur Forssk. A2, M2 headache (M2), weakness (M2) leaves (M2) 79

Ringworm (R2), toothache (B2), cough (A1), throat pain (A1; A2), skin Bark (A1; A2), sap Moraceae Ficus sycomorus L. A1, A2, B2, R2 inflammation (A1), diarrhoea (A2) (R2), latex (A1; B2) chest conditions (A2) Intestinal pains (JM1), panacea (JM2), bronchitis and tuberculosis (JM3; Roots (JM2; JM3; B3, C3, D1, JM4); male sterility (JM2; JM4), Moraceae Maclura africana (Bureau) Corner JM4; D1; B3), root JM1, JM2, JM3, respiratory system(C3), genitourinary bark (JM1) JM4 system (C3), bloody diarrhoea (D1), helminthiases (B3) Febrifuge (A2), antivenereal (A2), Bark (A2), latex Moraceae Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg expectorant (A2), skin lesions (A2), A2 (A2), leaves (A2) gonorrhoea(A2), dental caries (A2) Diarrhoea (B2), stomach-ache in Moraceae Morus alba L.* children (B2), hernia (B2), bilharzia Roots (B2) B2 (B2), venereal diseases (B2) Moringaceae Moringa oliefera Lam.** Febrifuge (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 Musaceae Musa x paradisiaca L.** Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Unspecified (B1), Myrothamnaceae Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw. Respiratory (B1) leaves (C1), stem B1, C1, K1 (C1) Myrtaceae Eucalyptus citriodora Hook** Muscular pain (A3) Unspecified A3 Unspecified (M1), Myrtaceae Eucalyptus sp.** Cough (M1) bark (C1), leaves C1. M1 (C1) Intestinal colic (M1), tuberculosis (A1), tracheobronchitis (A1), astringents Leaves (A1; A2; Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L.** (A1; A2), anti-diarrhoea (A1; A2), A1, A2, M1, M2 M2), bark (M2) intestinal haemorrhage (A2), malaria (M2), cough (M2), headache (M2)

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Myrtaceae Headache (A3), muscular pain (A3) Unspecified A3 L.M.Perry Leaves (A1; A2), Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Laxative (A1), galactogen (A1), Myrtaceae roots (A1), bark A1, A2 C.Krauss diarrhoea (A2), dysentery (A2) (A1; A2) Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. Myrtaceae Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 Subsp. guineense Myrtaceae Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston* Diabetes (A2) Fruits (A2) A1, A2 Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa L.* Unspecified Unspecified A1 Cystitis (A2), enteritis (A2), insomnia (A2), nephritis (A2), Haemorrhoids Rhizome (A2), Nyctaginaceae Nymphaea alba L. (A2), urinary troubles (A2), hysteria Leaves (A2), A2 (A2), narcotic (A2), aphrodisiac (A2), Flowers (A2) eye lotion (A2) Cystitis (A2), enteritis (A2), insomnia (A2), nephritis (A2), Haemorrhoids Rhizome (A2), Nyctaginaceae Nymphaea lotus L. (A2), urinary troubles (A2), hysteria leaves (A2), flowers A2 (A2), narcotic (A2), aphrodisiac (A2), (A2) eye lotion (A2) Cystitis (A2), enteritis (A2), insomnia (A2), nephritis (A2), Haemorrhoids Rhizome (A2), Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea Nyctaginaceae (A2), urinary troubles (A2), hysteria leaves (A2), flowers A2 (Savigny) Verdc. (A2), narcotic (A2), aphrodisiac (A2), (A2) eye lotion (A2)

Articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first symptoms) (JM3), ants in limb s(JM3), Bark (B2, C2), B2, C3, C2, Ochnaceae Brackenridgea zanguebarica Oliv. oedema (JM3), diarrhoea (B2), leaves (JM3), roots JM1, JM3 induce/speed labour (B2), venereal (B2) diseases (B2), miscarriage (B2), wounds (B2), nervous system (C3), pregnancy/birth (C3) Malaria (M2), diarrhoea (M2), cough Roots (M2), leaves Ochnaceae Ochna kirkii Oliv. M2 (M2), headache (M2) (M2) Articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), Leaves (JM1; JM3), Ochnaceae Ochna mossambicensis Klotzsch* tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first JM1, JM2, JM3 roots (JM1) symptoms) (JM1; JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3) Sprains (D1), helminthiases (B3), Ochnaceae Ochna natalitia (Meisn.) Walp Roots (D1, B3) B3, D1, K1 tuberculosis (B3) Induce/speed delivery (B2), Ochnaceae Ochna schweinfurthiana F.Hoffm. Roots (B2) B2 miscarriage (B2) Leaves (R2), Roots Olacaceae Olax dissitiflora Oliv. Wounds (R2), fever (D1), malaria (M2) D1, R2 (D1) Stomach-ache in children (B2), Leaves (A2; M2); Oleaceae Jasminum fluminense Vell. A2, B2, M2 snakebite antidote (A2) roots (A2; B2) Oleaceae Schrebera trichoclada Welw. Female infertility (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Opiliaceae Opilia amentacea Roxb. Helminthiases (B3) Roots (B3) B3 Fruit (R2), stems Cough (R2; B3), rheumatism (R2), (R2; B3), whole C1, B1, B3, L1, Orchidaceae Ansellia africana Lindl. respiratory (B1; L1), asthma (L1), plant(L1), leaves R2 tuberculosis (B3) (B3), whole plant (C1)

Orobanchaceae Alectra cordata Benth. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Buchnera hispida Buch. -Ham. ex Orobanchaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 D.Don Cycnium adonense E.Mey. ex Benth. Orobanchaceae Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 subsp. adonense Orobanchaceae Cycnium tubulosum (L.f.) Engl. Unspecified Unspecified A1 anti-malarial (A1), vermifuge (A1), treat eye inflammation (A1), toothache (A1), warts (A1), venereal ulcers (A1), Whole plant (A1), Paperveraceae Argemone mexicana L. narcotic (A2), diaphoretic (A2), roots (A1), leaves A1, A2 expectorant (A2), diuretic (A2), emetic (A1), latex (A1) (A2), purgative (A2), warts (A2), ulcers (A2) Diarrhoea (JM3), speed delivery Leaves (B2), roots process (B2), female infertility (B2) (JM3; B2; B3), B2, B3, C1, Passifloraceae Adenia gumnifera (Harv.) Harms wound (B2; B3), helminthiasis (B3), stems (CBD; B2; CBD, JM1, JM3 tuberculosis (B3) C1) Tricliceras longipedunculatum Passifloraceae Snake bites (B2) Roots (B2) B2 (Mast.) R.Fern. Dicerocaryum senecioides Pedaliaceae Unspecified Unspecified K1 (Klotzsch) Abels Dicerocaryum zanguebarium (Lour.) Pedaliaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1, A2 Merr. Harpagophytum procumbens Unspecified (A3), Pedaliaceae Arthritis (A3), backache (A3) A3, C2 (Burch.) DC. ex Meisn.** roots (C2) Pedaliaceae Sesamum alatum Thonning Unspecified Unspecified A1 Purgative (A2), menstrual troubles Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L.* (A2), abortifacient (A2), aphrodisiac Seeds (A2) A2 (A2)

Anti-emetic (JM2), diarrhoea (B2), bloody vomit (B2), venereal diseases Roots (JM2; CBD; B2, CBD, D1, Phyllanthaceae Antidesma venosum E. Mey. ex Tul. (B2), hernia (B2), female infertility B2; D1) JM2 (D1) Leprosy (JM1), malaria (B1; J1), sexual complaints (B1), epilepsy (M1), B1, B3, CBD, digestive problems (M1), stomach-ache Roots (S1; J1; D1; Phyllanthaceae Bridelia cathartica Bertol.f. D1, J1, JM1, (CBD), venereal diseases (CBD), B3) M1, S1 digestive system(C), menstrual cramps (D1), helminthiases (B3) Cleistanthus schlechteri (Pax) Roots (M2), bark Phyllanthaceae Malaria (M2), headache (M2) M2 Hutch. (M2), leaves (M2) Abdominal pains (JM1; JM3), sexual Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Roots (JM1; JM2; JM1, JM2, JM3, Phyllanthaceae impotence (JM1; JM2), epileptic Voigt JM3), branches (R2) R2 attacks (JM3), abscesses (R2) Vomit (B2), menstrual pains (B2), Phyllanthaceae Hymenocardia acidi Tul. general weakness (B2), skin injuries Roots (B2) B2, C3 (C3), infections (C3) Stomach-ache(B2), bloody vomit (B2), Magaritaria discoides (Baill.) G.L. Phyllanthaceae tuberculosis (B2; B3), asthma (B2), Roots (B2; B3) B2, B3 Webster* cough (B3), UTI (B3) Hydrocoele (JM1), oral hygiene (C3), Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. skin/injuries (C), genitourinary system Roots (JM1; D1; B3) B3, C3, D1, JM1 (C3), epilepsy (D1), diarrhoea (B3) Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus sp. Cough (B2), bloody vomit (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia Phyllanthaceae Stitches (JM1), cough (B2), aches (V1) Roots (JM1; V1; B2) A1, B2, V1, JM1 Pax Phyllanthaceae Uapaca sansibarica Pax Unspecified Unspecified A1, B2 Picrodendraceae Androstachys johnsonii Prain Unspecified Unspecified A1, R2 Piperaceae Piper capense L.f. Digestive system (C3) Unspecified C3

Pittosporum tobira (Thunb.) W.T. Pittosporaceae Malaria (S1) Aerial parts (S1) S1 Ait.* Plantaginaceae Digitalis sp. Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Plumbaginaceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. Malaria (S1) Aerial parts (S1) S1 Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Fever (D1), epilepsy (D1) Leaves (D1) D1 Poaceae Cenchrus ciliaris L. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Poaceae Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle Unspecified Unspecified A3 Anti-abortifacients (R2), blood purifier Leaves (R2), whole Poaceae Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (A1), diuretic (A1; A2), expectorant A1, A2, R2 plant (A1) (A1; A2) antimalarial (A1), anti-diarrhoeal (A1), diuretic (A1; A2), anthelmintic (A1; Poaceae Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Whole plant (A1) A1, A2, K1 A2), febrifuge (A1; A2), dysentery (A2) Poaceae Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Poaceae Eragrostis superba Wawra & Peyr. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Eriochloa fatmensis (Hochst. & Poaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Steud.) Clayton Bilharzia (A1), diuretic (A1; A2), tonic (A1; A2), haemostatic (A), astringent Poaceae Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Roots (A1) A1, A2 (A1; A2), febrifugal (A1), antifebrile (A2) Poaceae Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka Unspecified Unspecified A1 Poaceae Panicum maximum Jacq. Headache (A2), febrifuge (A2) Seeds (A2) A1, A2 Panicum trichocladum Hack. ex Poaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 K.Schum. Poaceae Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. Diuretic (A1; A2) Whole plant (A1) A1, A2 Poaceae Pennisetum typhoides Stapf & Hubb. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Poaceae Perotis patens Gandoger Unspecified Unspecified A1

Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Poaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Steud. Poaceae Saccharum officinarum L.** Unspecified Unspecified A1 Poaceae Sorghum arundinaceum Stapf Unspecified Unspecified A1 Poaceae Sporobolus pyramidalis P. Beauv. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Sporobolus tenuissimus (Schrank) Poaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Kuntze Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Poaceae Diuretic (A2) Roots (A2) A2 Kuntze Urochloa mosambicensis (Hack.) Poaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Dandy Poaceae Zea mays L.** Aphrodisiac (B2) Fruits (B2) B2 Cough (L1), chest complains (L1), tuberculosis (L1), stomach-ache(B2), constipation in children (B2), intestinal worms in children (B2), venereal Bark (A1; A2; B2), diseases (A1; A2; B2), wounds (A1; Securidaca longependuculata leaves (A1; B2), A1, A2, B1, B2, Polygalaceae B2), respiratory (A1; B1), Fresen. roots (A1; A2; L1), C3, K1, L1 genitourinary system (C3), rheumatism seeds (A1) (A1; A2), snake bites (A1; A2), coughs (A1), syphilis (A1), vermifuge (A1), diuretic (A1), otitis (A1), toothache (A2), headache (A2) Wounds (A2), purgative (A2), emetic Leaves (A2), roots Polygonaceae Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara A2 (A2), astringent (A2), cooling (A2) (A2), seeds (A2) Pontederiaceae Eichhornia crassipes Solms Female sterility (JM4) leaves (JM4) JM4 Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L.* Tonic (A2), snakebites remedy (A2) Unspecified A2 Portulacaceae Portulaca quandrifida L. Infections (C3), digestive system (C3) Unspecified C3 Proteaceae Protea caffra Meisn. Unspecified Flowers (C1) C1 Respiratory system (C3), infections Ranunculaceae Clematis brachiata Thunb. Unspecified C3, D1 (C3), flu (D1) 86

Leaves (B2; J1), Ranunculaceae Clematis viridiflora Bertol. Headache (B2), malaria (J1) B2, J1 roots (B2; J1) Ranunculaceae Ranunculus multifidus Forssk. Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Rhamnaceae Bloody vomit (B2), cough (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Hemsl. Rhamnaceae Helinus integrifolius (Lam.) Kuntze Digestive system (C3) Unspecified A1, C3 Ulcers (A1; A2), gonorrhoea (A1; A2), post-partum haemorrhage s (A1), colic Bark (A1; A2), Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.* (A1), gastric disorders (A1), purgative leaves (A1; A2), A1, A2 (A1), dysentery (A2), chest complaints Roots (A1; A2) (A2) Roundworms (JM2), stomach- ache(B2), constipation (JM1), muscular Roots (JM1; JM2; B1, B2, JM1, Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mucronata Willd. pains (B2), diarrhoea (B1), sexual JM4; B2) JM2, JM4 complaints (B1), female sterility (JM1; JM4) Rhizophoraceae Cassipourea sp. Unspecified Unspecified K Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. Diarrhoea (A2), dysentery (A2) Bark (A2) A2 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Lam. Diarrhoea (A2), dysentery (A2) Bark (A2) A2 Rosaceae Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkm. Sexual complaints (B1) Unspecified B1 Rubiaceae Agathisanthemum bojeri Klotzsch Cough (A2), chest pains (A2) Seeds (A2) A1, A2 Induce/speed delivery (B2), stomach- Breonadia salicina (Vahl.) Hepper Leaves (B2), roots Rubiaceae ache (B2), malaria (M2), convulsions A1, B2, M2 & J.R.I. Wood (B2), bark (M2) (M2) Catunaregam obovata (Hoschst.) To close fontanelle (B2), venereal Rubiaceae Roots (B2) B2 Goncalves diseases (B2), tuberculosis (B2) Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Rubiaceae Helminthiases Roots (B3) B3, K1 Tirveng Catunaregam swynnertonii Rubiaceae Genitourinary system (C3) Unspecified C3 (S.Moore) Bridson

Coddia rudis (E. Mey. ex Harv.) Rubiaceae Sprains (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Verdc. Rubiaceae Coffea racemosa Lour. Tonic (A2) Seeds (A2) A2 Articular diseases (JM1; JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), Leaves (JM3) roots Rubiaceae Craterispermum laurinum Benth. tachycardia (JM3), fevers (first JM1, JM3 (JM1) symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3) Diarrhoea (A2;B2), stomach-ache(B2), wounds (A1; B2), backache (B2), malaria (A2;S1), syphilis (A1;A2), Aerial parts(S1), Crossopteryx febrifuga (Afzel. Ex ulcers (A1), febrifuge (A1), galactogen bark (A1; A2; B2), A1, A2, B2, R1, Rubiaceae G.Don) Benth. (A1), deworming (A1), eye leaves (A1; A2; B2), S1 inflammation (A1;A2), fever (A2), roots (A2; B2) colic (A2), intestinal worms (A2), ophthalmia (A2) Rubiaceae Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf. Female sterility (JM4) Roots (JM4) JM4 Rubiaceae Fadogia cienkowskii Schweinf. Epilepsy (JM1; V1) Roots (JM1; V1) JM1, V1 Gardenia jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Rubiaceae Local disease (JM1) Roots (JM1) JM1 Hiern Gardenia ternifolia Schumach & Thonn. subsp. jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Rubiaceae Digestive system (C3) Unspecified A1, C3 Verdc. var. goetzei (Stapf & Hutch.) Verdc. Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. Diarrhoea (CBD), stomach-ache in Bark (B2), roots Rubiaceae &Thonn. Subsp. jovis-tonantis children (B2), tuberculosis (B2), B2, CBD (B2) (Welw.) Verdc. asthma (B2), induce/speed labour (B2) Rubiaceae Gardenia volkensii K.Schum. Stomach-ache(R2) Leaves (R2) R2 Gardenia volkensii K.Schum. subsp. Rubiaceae Digestive system (C3) Unspecified C3 volkensii var. volkensii Rubiaceae Heinsia crinita (Afzel.) G.Taylor Helminthiases (B3) Roots (B3) B3

Oldenlandia affinis (Roem. & Rubiaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Schult.) DC. Abdominal pains (JM4), asthma (A2), Leaves (JM4), roots Rubiaceae Oldenlandia herbacea (L.) Roxb. A2, JM4 heart disease (A2) (A2) Psydrax locuples (K.Schum.) Rubiaceae Headaches (D1) Leaves (D1) D1 Bridson Rubiaceae Spermacoce chaetocephala DC. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Spermacoce subvulgata (K.Schum.) Rubiaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 J.G.García Articular diseases (JM3), headache related illnesses (JM3), tachycardia Rubiaceae Tarenna junodii (Schinz) Brem. Leaves (JM3) JM1, JM3 (JM3), fevers (first symptoms) (JM3), ants in limbs (JM3), oedema (JM3) Tricalysia jasminiflora (Klotzsch) Rubiaceae Diarrhoea (JM4) Roots (JM4) JM4 Benth. & Hook.f. ex Hiern Stomach-ache(B2), constipation (B2), Rubiaceae Tricalysia sp. Roots (B2) B2 earache (B2) Stomach-ache (CBD; B2), diarrhoea (CBD), oral hygiene (CBD), cough Bark (B2), leaves Rubiaceae Vangueria infausta Burch. (A2; B2), induce/speed delivery (B2), A2, B2, CBD (B2), roots (A2; B2) skin blisters (B2), menstrual pain (A2), dental pain (A2) Cough (M1), headaches (M1), laxative Rutaceae Citrus aurantiifolia Swing Fruit (A2) A2, M1 (A2), tonic (A2) Tonic (A2), chest troubles (A2), Rutaceae Citrus limon L.** Fruit (A2) A2, JM3 anthelmintic (A2) Rutaceae Citrus paradisi Macfad.** Diabetes (A2), rheumatism (A2) Fruit (A2) A2 Rutaceae Citrus reticulata Blanco** Chest troubles (A2) Unspecified A2 Rutaceae Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck ** Venereal diseases (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Rutaceae Citrus sp.** Cough (B2) Leaves (B2) B2 Rutaceae Ptaeroxylon obliquum Radlk. Stomach-ache(R2) Sap (R2) JM4, R2 89

Rutaceae Vepris reflexa I. Verd. Aphrodisiac (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Vepris undulata Verdoorn & Rutaceae Asthma (D1) Roots (D1) D1 C.A.Sm. Malaria (B1), violent chronic coughing Zanthoxylum capense (Thunb.) Rutaceae (L1), tuberculosis (L1), bronchitis (L1), Roots (L1; B3) B1, B3, L1 Harv. helminthiases (B3), UTI (B3) Mouth aesthetic (R2), toothache (R2), Zanthoxylum humile (E.A Bruce) Rutaceae wounds and burns (R2), pain killer (R2; Roots, stem B2, C3, K1 P.G.Waterman C3) Leaves (JM1), Roots Salicaceae Casearia gladiiformis Mast. Stitches (JM1), fontanelle (D1) D, JM1 (D) Stomach-ache(B2), malaria (B2; M2), Leaves (B2; M2), Salicaceae Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. B2, C3, M2 digestive system (C3), infections (C3) roots (B2) Dysentery (A1; A2), diuretic (A1; A2), Leaves (A1; A2), A1, A2, B2, C1, Salicaceae Oncoba spinosa Forssk. hernia (B2), infections (C3), poisonings fruits (C1), roots C3 (C3) (A1; A2; B2) Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica L. var. persica Respiratory system (C3) Unspecified C3 Salvadoraceae Salvadora sp. Unspecified Unspecified JM2 Santalaceae Viscum triforum DC. Unspecified Unspecified JM2, C3 Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. ex Sapindaceae Female sterility (JM4) Roots (JM4) JM4 A.Rich.) Engl. Tuberculosis (JM1), abdominal pains (JM4), oedema (JM4), female sterility Leaves (JM4; D1), Deinbollia oblongifolia (E. Mey. ex B2, D1, JM1, Sapindaceae (JM4), stomach-ache (B2), roots (JM1; JM4; Arm.) Radlk. JM4 haemorrhage (D1), stomach-ache in B2) children (D1) Deinbollia xanthocarpa (Klotzsch) Sapindaceae Diarrhoea (A2), dysentery (A2) Roots (A2) A2 Radlk. Sapindaceae Paullinia pinnata L. Ophthalmic (A2) Leaves (A2) A2

Stomach-ache (B2), constipation (B2), wounds (B2), sprains (B2), muscular Bark (B2), leaves Sapindaceae Zanha golungensis Hiern pains (B2), headache (B2), toothache (B2), roots (B2), B2 (B2), malaria (B2), general weakness twigs (B2) (B2) Manilkara discolor (Sond.) J.H. Sapotaceae Toothache (R1) Bark (R1) R1 Hemsl. Sapotaceae Manilkara mochisia (Baker) Dubard Toothache (R2), ear treatment (R2) Roots (R2) R2 Rheumatism (A2), digestive Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L.* Fruit (A2) A2 disfunction (A2) Solanaceae Datura stramonium L. Backache (B2) Fruits (B2) B2 Leaves (A2), roots Enema (A1), fertility (A1), diuretic Solanaceae Physalis angulata L.* (A2), whole plant A1, A2 (A2), vermifuge (A2), diabetes (A2) (A2) Solanaceae Solanum acuteatissimum Jacq. Pain (C3) Unspecified C3 Fruits (A2), roots Solanaceae Solanum campylacanthum Hochst. Antifebrile (A2) A2 (A2) Articular pains (A2; JM1), lower Fruits (A2), roots Solanaceae Solanum incanum L.* members (JM1), pleurisy (A2), A2, JM1, K (A2; JM1) snakebites (A2) Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L.* Emollient (A2), sedative (A2) Unspecified A1, A2 Stomach-ache(B2), toothache (B2; D1), Latex (B2), roots Solanaceae Solanum panduriforme E.Mey. A2, B2, D1 snake bites (B2), Haemorrhoids (A2) (A2; B2; D1) Solanaceae Solanum sp. Stomach-ache(B2) Whole plant (B2) B2 Stilbaceae Halleria elliptica Thunb. Unspecified Unspecified A1 Menstrual pains (B2), snake bites (B2), Taccaceae Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze Tubers (B2) B2 toothache (B2) Wounds (A2), aesthetic (A2), narcotic Talinaceae Talinum tenuissimum Dinter Tubers (A2) A2 (A2) Cyclosorus gongylodes (Schkuhr) Thelypteridaceae Unspecified Unspecified A1 Link 91

Bark (B2), roots Thymelaceae Synaptolepis kirkii Oliv. Constipation (B2), skin blisters (B2) B2, C1 (B2, C1) Velloziaceae Xerophyta retinervis Baker Unspecified Stem (C1) C1 Abdominal cramps (in children) (JM2), stitches (JM3), abdominal pains (JM4), cough (L1), fever (L1), tuberculosis Leaves (JM4; L1; B2, JM2, JM4, Verbenaceae Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels* (L1), bronchitis (L1), diarrhoea (B2), B2), roots (JM2; B2) L1 stomach-ache(B2), female infertility (B2), menstrual cycle (B2), miscarriage (B2), general weakness (B2) Verbenaceae Lantana camara L.** Bloody diarrhoea (D1) Roots (D1) A1, D1 Madness (JM3), chinhamucaca (B2), malaria (A1; A2; B1), respiratory (A1; Leaves (A1; A2; A1, A2, B2, D1, Verbenaceae Lippia javanica (N.L.Burm.) Spreng. B1), constipation (D1), colds (A1), JM4; D1), roots (B2) JM3, JM4 febrifuge (A1; A2), dysenteric (A1; A2), cough (A2) Verbenaceae Priva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce Eye illnesses (JM4) Leaves (JM4) A1, JM4 Ampelocissus obtusata subsp. Vitaceae kirkiana (Planch.) Wild & Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 R.B.Drumm. Vitaceae Cissus bathyrhakodes Werd. To facilitate placenta expulsion (B2) Roots (B2) B2 Burns (R2), wounds (R2; C3), Vitaceae Cissus cornifolia (Bak.) Planch. Roots (R2) C3, R2 infections (C3) Rectal prolapse (JM3), conjunctivitis Roots (JM3; B2), Vitaceae Cissus integrifolia (Bak.) Planch. (B2), wounds (B2), hernia (B2), B2, JM3 Stems (B2) induce/speed labour (B2) Ear treatment (R2), wounds (R2), Leaves (B2), roots antidote (R2), sprains (R2), cough (CBD; B2), sap B2, C1, C3, Vitaceae Cissus quadrangularis L. (R2), venereal diseases (B2), leprosy (CBD), seeds CBD (B2), skin/injuries (C3), respiratory (CBD), stems (CBD; system (C3), poisoning (C3) B2; C1)

Vitaceae Cissus rutondifolia (Forssk.) Vahl Tuberculosis (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3, K1 Cyphostemma barbosae Wild & Vitaceae Female infertility (D1) Roots (D1) D1 R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma buchananii (Planch.) Vitaceae Asthma (JM3) Roots (JM3) JM3 Desc. Abdominal pains (JM2), fever (JM3), Cyphostemma congestum (Baker) Bark (JM3), roots Vitaceae stomach-ache(B2), venereal diseases B2, JM2, JM3 Descoings ex Willd. & Drumm. (JM2; B2) (B2), hernia (B2) Cyphostemma gigantophyllum (Gilg Vitaceae & M.Brandt) Desc. ex Wild & Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 R.B.Drumm. Cyphostemma junceum (Webb) Wild Vitaceae Infections (C3) Unspecified C3 & R.B.Drumm. Diarrhoea (B2), stomach-ache (B2), cupiranganica (B2), bloody vomit Vitaceae Rhoicissus revoilii Planch. (B2), cough (B2), tuberculosis (B2), Roots (B2; D1) B2, D1 fever (B2), general weakness (B2), menstrual pains (D1), rheumatism (D1) Rhoicissus tomentosa (Lam.) Willd. Vitaceae Miscarriage (B2) Roots (B2) B2 & Drumm. Rhoicissus tridentata (L. f.) Wild & Unspecified (B1), Vitaceae Sexual complaints (B1) B1, C1 Drumm. roots (C1) Anti-abortifacients (K1; R2), HIV/AIDS (R2), menstrual cycle (R2), JM1, JM2, L1, Ximeniaceae Ximenia americana L. Roots (R2) stabbing heart (R2), stomach-ache(R2), R2 women fertility (R2), wounds (R2)

Local diseases (JM1), panacea (JM2), stomach-ache(B2), constipation (B2), intestinal worms in children (B2), Leaves (JM4; B2), weakness in children (B2), female B2, JM1, JM2, Ximeniaceae Ximenia caffra Sond. roots (JM1; JM2; infertility (B2), menstrual pains (B2), JM3, JM4 B2) venereal diseases (B2), tuberculosis (B2), leprosy (B2), cough (B2), propitiatory (B2), diarrhoea (JM4) Headache (A2), catarrh (A2), ophthalmia (A2), diuretic (A2), Zingibaraceae Curcuma longa L.* Rhizome (A2) A2 diaphoretic (A2), carminative (A2), anthelmintic (A2) Siphonochilus aethiopicus Zingibaraceae Unspecified Unspecified K1 (Schweinf.) B.L.Burtt Siphonochilus kirkii (Hook.f.) Zingibaraceae Malaria (A2), catarrh (A2) Rhizome (A2) A2 B.L.Burtt Zygophyllaceae Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Unspecified Unspecified JM3 Malaria (JM3; R2), general fortifier (as Bark (JM3; D1), Zygophyllaceae Balanites maughamii Sprague panacea) (JM3), Haematuria (JM3), D1, JM3, R2 Roots (JM3; R2) intoxication (D1)

Key to references: A1: Amico and Bavazzano (1968); A2: Amico (1977); JM1: Jansen and

Mendes (1983); JM2: Jansen and Mendes (1984); M2: Maite (1987); V1: Vezar and Petri (1987);

JM3: Jansen and Mendes (1990); JM4: Jansen and Mendes (1991); J1: Jurg et al. (1991); A3:

Atal (1993); C1: Cunningham (1993); C2: Cunningham (1997); D1: Dai (1997); M1: Matavele and Mohamed (2000); B1: Bandeira et al. (2001); K1: Krog et al. (2006); R1: Ramalhete et al.

(2008); CBD: Centro (2009); R2: Ribeiro et al. (2010); L1: Luo et al. (2011); B2: Bruschi et al.

(2011); W1: Williams et al. (2011); C3: Conde et al. (2012); S1: Senkoro et al. (2014); B3:

Barbosa et al. (2020), M2: Manuel et al. (2020). 3.2.3.

3.2.3. Analysis of families used medicinally.

Shown in Figure 3.2 are the 20 medicinal plant families with the largest number of taxa that are used in Mozambican traditional medicine. The number of medicinal plants per family can be compared with the most taxon-rich families in the Mozambique flora as a whole, as illustrated in

Figure 3.1. Fabaceae had the largest number of medicinal taxa (97 out of a total of 764), followed by the Apocynaceae with 46 taxa used medicinally out of 165 taxa in the total available flora of the country (thus ranking as the tenth largest family in Figure 3.1). Asteraceae were the third largest family used medicinally with 43 taxa (out of 362).

Other prominent families used in traditional medicine included Malvaceae (36 taxa),

Rubiaceae (24 taxa), Capparaceae (24 taxa), Euphorbiaceae (23 taxa), Poaceae (22 taxa), and several other families as can be seen in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: The 20 most taxon-rich families used in traditional medicine in Mozambique, showing the total taxa and medicinal taxa per family.

3.2.4. Relative frequency of Citation (RFC)

The most cited taxa used medicinally in Mozambique are shown in Figure 3.3, as determined by the Relative Frequency of Citation. This value was obtained by the number of times a taxon was cited in the literature sources used to compile Table 3.1. Here the most cited taxon was

Tabernaemontana elegans, which has over 10 medicinal uses and was cited 50% of the time. It is followed by Terminalia sericea and Abrus precatorius, both with RFC values of 50%.

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Relative Frequency of Citation of Frequency Relative

Species and infraspecific taxa

Figure 3.3: The 20 medicinal taxa used in Mozambique with the highest Relative Frequency of

Citation (according to 26 literature sources).

3.2.5. Medicinal use-categories

There about 439 medicinal ailments in Table 3.1 which were then grouped into medicinal use categories (Table 3.2). A total of 105 species and infraspecific taxa have uses that were uncategorized whilst there were also 190 species and infraspecific taxa which had uses that were known to be medicinal, but the uses were not specified in Mozambique literature. Furthermore, there were exactly 191 species and infraspecific taxa that only had one medicinal use recorded.

There were 54 digestive system ailments recorded, general (36 ailments), female/ male genital

(15 ailments), pregnancy, childbearing, and family planning (26 ailments), respiratory (17 ailments), neurological (18 ailments), dermatological (30 ailments), musculoskeletal (18

ailments), antimicrobial (8 ailments), paediatric (25 ailments), ophthalmic (9 ailments), ear, throat, and nose (13), trauma (5 ailments), circulatory ailments (11 ailments), analgesics (7 ailments), tonics (5 ailments), urological (12 ailments), endocrine (4 ailments), blood, blood- forming organs and immune mechanism (8 ailments), there were a 184 species that had unspecified medicinal uses.

Table 3.2: Use-categories of medicinal plants in Mozambique, showing the number of species and infraspecific taxa in each category of use and the percentage they make up in the total medicinal flora.

Number of Percentage Medicinal categories species per of use use-category Digestive 578 79 General 328 45 Female/ male genital 167 23 Pregnancy, childbearing, and family planning 161 22 Respiratory 156 21 Neurological 114 16 Dermatological 98 13 Musculoskeletal 98 13 Antimicrobial uses 71 10 Paediatric 59 8 Ophthalmic 54 7 ENT 43 6 Trauma uses 40 5 Circulatory system 37 5 Analgesic 36 5 Tonics 35 5 Urological 31 4 Endocrine/metabolic and nutritional 17 2 Blood, blood forming organs and immune mechanism 16 2 Unspecified uses 184 24

3.3. Analysis of the different applications in each medicinal use category

There are 19 medicinal use categories shown in Table 3.3, each category is made up of ailments.

These are the ailments that are treated with medicinal plant. Table 3.3 also shows the number of species and infraspecific taxa used to treat that particular ailment. Most ailments have more than one taxon used to treat them, also note that from Table 3.1 one species and infraspecific taxon can be used to treat various ailments.

Number of taxa Medicinal use category Subcategory/ ailment cited Digestive Diarrhoea 101 Stomach-ache 72 Dysentery 51 Helminthiasis 44 Abdominal pains 38 Purgative 27 Diuretic 26 Digestive system 24 Haemorrhoids 18 Deworming 17 Bloody vomit 15 Hernia 14 Constipation 14 Laxative 12 Ulcers 11 Vomit 9 Stomach disorders 8 Colic pain 8 Digestive problems 8 Anal wounds 6 Liver disorder 5 99

Ventral aches 3 Rectal prolapse 3 Abdominal pains 3 Indigestion 3 General and unspecified Malaria 77 Tuberculosis 41 Febrifuge 25 Fever 25 pain 22 Fevers (first symptoms) 18 General weaknesses 18 Ants in limbs 17 Chest pains 12 Local disease 8 Panacea 7 Propitiatory 7 Swellings 5 Chills 5 Astringent 5 Narcotic 3 Cancer 3 Haemostatic 3 Chinhamucaca 3 Venereal diseases Female/ male genital (unspecified) 50 Blennorrhagia/ gonorrhoea 28 Menstrual pains 20 Syphilis 15 Aphrodisiac 15 Sexual complaints 14 Sexual impotence 9 Menstrual cycle trouble 7 Hydrocoele 3 Pregnancy, childbearing, and family Sterility/ barrenness planning 43 Infections/ infestations 31 Speed/ induce delivery 15 Anti-abortion 11 Galactagogue 10 Abortion 7 100

Pregnancy 7 Miscarriage 5 Contraceptive 4 Postpartum pain 4 Difficult birth 3 Haematuria 3 Facilitate placenta expulsion 3 Respiratory Cough 69 Respiratory 25 Asthma 21 Throat diseases 8 Bronchitis 7 Expectorant 5 Bronchitis and tuberculosis 4 Pneumonia 3 Influenza 3 Colds 3 Neurological Headache 47 Epilepsy 26 Headache related illnesses 18 Madness 8 Anesthetic 4 Paralysis 3 Convulsions 3 Delusions 3 Dermatological Wounds 22 Bilharzia 12 Skin injuries 10 Skin disease 10 Burns 6 Scabies 4 Skin eruptions 4 Warts 3 Eczema 3 Abscesses 3 Musculoskeletal Rheumatism 27 Articular diseases 20 Muscular pain 14 Backache 6 101

Joint pains 4 Muscular-skeletal system 4 Sprains 4 Pains in the spine 4 Antimicrobial Edema 26 Leprosy 19 Stitches 13 Emollients 6 Paediatric Fontanelle syndrome 9 Stomach-ache 5 Fontanelle (clasp) 5 Measles 4 Subcutaneous cellular 4 tissue and injuries Intestinal worms 3 Weakness 3 Colic 3 Ophthalmic Unspecified ophthalmic 37 Conjunctivitis 10 Ear, nose, and throat Ears 18 Catarrh 7 Oral hygiene 5 Trauma Snake bites 26 Unspecified poisoning 9 Scorpion bites 3 Circulatory system Tachycardia 18 Heart disease 4 Stabbing heart 3 Analgesics Toothache 30 Tonics Unspecified tonic 18 Emetic 12 Anti-emetic 3 Urological Genitourinary 13 Urinary Tract Infection 6 (UTI) Kidney pains 3 Endocrine/ metabolic and nutritional Diabetes 6 Gout 4 Loss of appetite 4 Nutritional disorders 3

102

Blood, blood forming organs and Anaemia 5 immune mechanism HIV 3

3.4. Plant parts used and growth forms

Figure 3.4 shows the number in which different plant parts are used in traditional medicine. Note that from the data in Table 3.1, it can be observed that different plant parts from the same plant may be used to treat different ailments. There were exactly 232 of the 726 taxa that had only one plant part used medicinally, and the rest of the taxa had multiple plant part used. The most used plant parts were roots and leaves with 328 and 210 taxa respectively and followed by bark (97 taxa) and stem (71 taxa). The least used plant parts were fruit or seed shells (1 taxon), nuts (5 taxa), aerial parts (7 taxa), and bulbs (10 taxa). There are 246 taxa which were used in traditional medicine, but the plant parts that were used for those ailments were not specified, therefore, these may likely be any recorded plant parts.

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350

300

250

200

150

100 Number of taxa used taxa of Number 50

Plant parts used

Figure 3.4: Number of taxa used for each of the different parts of plants used in traditional medicine in Mozambique.

Figure 3.5 illustrates the different growth forms of the medicinal taxa. Majority of the taxa grow in the form of herbs (222 taxa), followed by shrubs, trees, and climbers with 207, 195, and 64 taxa, respectively.

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250

200

150

100 Number of taxa of Number

0 Herbs Shrubs Trees Climbers Other Growth forms

Figure 3.5: Number of taxa available per growth forms.

3.6. Discussions

3.6.1. Total available flora and medicinal flora

The Fabaceae were found to be the largest family in the total available flora of Mozambique mainly because the majority of the taxa were extracted from the Miombo woodlands, which mostly consist of species from the family Fabaceae (Bruschi et al., 2011). This is in contrast to the world flora checklist, where the largest family was Orchidaceae (ca. 28,000 species, ca. 736 genera), followed by the Asteraceae (ca. 24,700 species, ca. 1,623 genera) (Christenhusz and

Byng, 2016). The Orchidaceae were only the fifth largest family in Mozambique and Asteraceae were the third largest, (Figure 3.1). When comparing Mozambique to its neighbouring southern

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African countries, Asteraceae were the largest family, having about 2300 species (Herman,

2004).

Fabaceae and Asteraceae have remained in the same positions as being the first and third largest families respectively, both in the total flora and medicinal flora. This suggests that the total taxa in Fabaceae and Asteraceae were directly proportional to the number of taxa used.

Their abundant availability might be the reason for this relationship, suggesting that if the total number of species and infraspecific taxa increases, so will the number of taxa used. However, this appears to be only true for Fabaceae and Asteraceae, but not for the Apocynaceae. This family does not have as many taxa in the total flora, but a large number of its taxa are used medicinally thus ranking it as the second most used family in Mozambique. It is noteworthy that these prominent families were also among the 10 largest families in the total flora in

Mozambique, and now in the 10 largest medicinal families. Furthermore, Fabaceae and

Asteraceae were reported to have the most traded medicinal species in the plant trade market of the Limpopo Province of South Africa (Rasethe et al., 2019). The Poaceae were amongst the 10 most used medicinal families. Poaceae are not popularly known for their medicinal uses, but they are better known as an economically important family that provides the world’s grains and building materials (Constable, 1985). Even though it was amongst the 10 most used medicinal families, in Mozambique, Poaceae were the second largest family in the total flora with 441 taxa but only 21 of its taxa are used medicinally. One would expect the number of medicinally used

Poaceae taxa to be closer to the number of total taxa in the family, if medicinal plants were selected based on availability. In comparison to the world taxa, Poaceae are the fifth largest plant family (Stevens, 2001). The overall impression is that some plant families are selected for their use in traditional medicine, while others are avoided. 106

3.6.2. Relative Frequency of Citation

Plant species such as Adansonia digitata (Kamatou and Viljoen, 2011), Anacardium occidentale

(Nair, 2010), Ricinus communis (Patel et al., 2016) and Sclerocarya birrea (Mokgolodi et al.,

2011 all have important commercial uses in Africa. In addition, Kigelia africana having cosmetic potential (Bello, 2016). The presence of these species amongst the twenty most cited taxa is therefore not unexpected and their importance in Mozambique was also evident in Figure

3.3.

3.6.3. Medicinal use-categories

3.6.3.1. Digestive uses

Various kinds of digestive system disorders contribute to the worlds morbidity and mortality rate

(Tangjitman et al., 2015). Gastrointestinal ailments are also among the digestive system and have always been a problem in humans since the ancient times and herbs have always been used to remedy gastrointestinal related illnesses (Kelber et al., 2018). Plants used to treat gastrointestinal ailments are inexhaustible (Olajuyigbe and Ofolayan, 2012). Gastrointestinal related illnesses are mostly common and sometimes occur due to poor sanitation and lack of clean drinking water

(De Wet et al., 2010). Majority of the taxa in this category were used in the treatment of diarrhoea whereby 101 taxa were cited. According to WHO (2014) diarrhoea was recorded to be the fifth cause of death globally. The most cited taxa for treating diarrhoea were Sclerocarya birrea (7 citations), Ozoroa obovata (5), Terminalia sericea (5), Adansonia digitata (4),

Mangifera indica (3), Annona senegalensis (3), Abrus precatorius (3) and Cissampelos

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mucronata (3). With 72 taxa used, stomach aches were the second most treated illness with four and three citations respectively for Terminalia sericea and Abrus precatorius also seen above as a remedy for diarrhoea, Combretum imberbe was also common in the treatment of stomach aches with three citations. Other ailments with a notable number of taxa cite include diuretics which are known to be important in the management of oedema and hypertension and thus the use of medicinal plants as diuretics has increased over the years worldwide (Dutta et al., 2014). The recorded taxa in Mozambique for diuretics (see Table 3.1) all had less than two citations, these were Amaranthus caudatus, Asparagus africanus, Capparis tomentosa, Hermbstaedtia odorata and Zehneria scabra, just to name a few. Abdominal pains have 38 different recorded taxa for their treatment with the most common or cited taxa being Hermbstaedtia odorata, Cryptolepis oblongifolia, Artabotrys brachypetalus, Commiphora serrata, amongst others which only have two citations or less. Even though abdominal pains are among the most treated, it should be noted that they are generalized to pain of the abdomen and some may not necessarily be a result of underlying diseases (King, 2006). Other ailments of the digestive system can be seen on Table

3.2.

3.6.3.2. General and unspecified ailments

The category for general and unspecified uses had the second most taxa cited. This category includes ailments such as malaria, tuberculosis, general pain, and other ailments that could not be placed in any of the 19 categories. Malaria was among the most treated ailments with 77 taxa used, it was also reported to be the second leading cause of death in Mozambique (Dgedge et al.,

2001), making it the most common disease. The species and infraspecific taxa with the most citations for malaria were Momordica balsamina with four citations, followed by

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Tabernaemontana elegans, Sclerocarya birrea and Lippia javanica, all having three citations.

Tuberculosis had the second most taxa cited (41). The ailment “ants in limbs” was originally translated to English from Portuguese referring to formigueiros nos membros. Taxa that were cited for this ailment include Ozoroa obovata, Sphaerocoryne gracile, Dracaena mannii,

Commiphora serrata, amongst other taxa.

These ailments, panacea (7 taxa), propitiatory (7 taxa) and astringent (5 taxa). Were included in this category because they did not treat any specific system in the human body, or their function was not made clear when the information was gathered during ethnobotanical interviews. The panacea for example is used as a cure for all illnesses, an astringent is used to stop the flow of blood by tightening the skin or any other organ and a propitiatory is defined as

‘to please’ or ‘to make calm’ (Cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary, 2008). Ailments like cancer can also affect any other organ in the body. Taxa that were recorded for cancer in the checklist (Table 3.1) were Erythrophleum suaveolens, Capparis tomentosa and Landolphia kirkii which is specifically cited for breast cancer.

3.6.1.3. Female/ male genital ailments, and pregnancy, childbearing, and family planning

Plants used in reproductive primary healthcare play a significant role in public healthcare and social problems all over the world (Tsobou et al., 2016). According to Kaingu et al. (2013) 18% of the global burden of diseases is subjected to problems of the reproductive system. Moreover, reproductive healthcare has been recorded as the second largest and most widespread problem in

Africa (Kamatenesi-Mugisha and Oryem-Origa, 2007). Venereal diseases were found to be the most common, having 50 different taxa used to treat them. It was no surprise that venereal diseases were the most treated, as each year more than 340 million new cases of curable sexually

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transmitted infections are recorded worldwide (De Wet et al., 2012; WHO, 2007). Securidaca longependuculata has been cited three times for the treatment of venereal disease, all other taxa have less than two citations, thus making it the most cited, these include taxa like Catharanthus roseus, Aloe parvibracteata and Commelina africana. Ailments that have a notable number of taxa used are blennorrhagia/gonorrhoea (28 taxa), menstrual pain (20 taxa), and syphilis (15 taxa).

The category for pregnancy, childbearing, and family planning sterility or barrenness both in women and men had the most taxa cited (43). Moteetee and Seteleng-Kose (2016) also showed the vast use of plants in the category of reproductive healthcare for the treatment of sterility in Lesotho. For the treatment of sterility there were no taxa used that had more than two citations, however common taxa immerge such as Aloe marlothii, Commelina africana, again

Combretum imberbe which was previously cited for the treatment of stomach aches, and the naturalized cultivated plant Carica papaya and Ziziphus mucronata amongst others. After sterility or barrenness are infections or infestations (31 taxa) and the induction of childbirth (15 taxa). According to Balamurugan et al. (2018) most pregnant women from rural populations generally preferred traditional midwives over gynaecologists, sometimes it is because they cannot afford specialty healthcare, this could explain the high number of taxa used for most gynaecological ailments in Mozambique.

3.6.3.4. Respiratory uses

Respiratory ailments are common and thus play a significant role in causing illnesses and death around the world (Alamgeer et al., 2018). Ailments with the highest number of taxa used were cough (62 taxa), general respiratory ailments (25 taxa), asthma (20 taxa), bronchitis (7 taxa). Not

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only were these the most treated respiratory ailments in Mozambique, but also the most common diseases of the respiratory system, specifically cough, asthma, and bronchitis (Reddy et al.,

2006). Taxa that were mostly cited for these three ailments respectively, were Anacardium occidentale (3 citations), Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (3 citations), which also included the treatment of tuberculosis, and Commiphora africana (2 citations).

3.6.3.5. Dermatological ailments

There were 30 individual applications under the category for dermatological ailments, however, are ailments that have more than one taxon used. Only nine of the ailments had more than five taxa used for their treatment, three had three taxa used which were warts, eczema, and abscesses.

One (healing cream) had two taxa used and 19 had only one taxon recorded for that ailment. The ailments with prominent number of taxa used were wounds (42 taxa), stitches (13 taxa), skin injuries (10 taxa), skin disease (8 taxa), burns (6 taxa), taxa used as emollient (5 taxa), and swellings (5 taxa). Skin ailments that were said to be caused by various microorganisms were namely wounds, leprosy, skin disorders, eczema, itching, boils, and scabies amongst others

(Malik et al., 2019; Gongalez-Aspajo et al., 2015), some of which are included in Figure 3.10 as the ailments treated with the highest number of taxa. Wound healing forms part of the largest group of skin diseases that are found in most countries, including eczema, dermatitis, and scabies

(Barboza et al., 2009).

3.6.3.6. Neurological ailments

The nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems and includes diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, traumatic disorders, epilepsy, bipolar disorder, Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias, neuro-infections, brain tumours, and 111

cerebrovascular diseases such as stroke and migraine. (Amaoteng et al., 2018). Approximately more than one billion people die from diseases related to the nervous system (WHO, 2016). The most treated ailments were headaches with 47 taxa used. Hutchings and Van Staden (1994) identified about 96 species used treat headaches among the Zulu, Xhosa, and Sotho people. In this paper Erythrophleum lasianthum Corbishley is listed as a treatment for headaches but in the checklist (Table 3.1) Erythrophleum africanum is used instead (Hutchings and Van Staden,

1994). Epilepsy was found to be the second most common ailment of the nervous system in

Mozambique and 24 taxa has been recorded for its treatment using traditional medicine. Of all the brain disorders, epilepsy is the most common and chronic (Sahoo, 2018). It is estimated to affect about 40 million people worldwide (Bum et al., 2011). The most common taxon used to treat epilepsy was Annona senegalensis with two citations in Mozambique, it was also cited for the same use in Cameroon, Central Africa, West Africa, and South Africa (Bum et al., 2011).

3.6.3.7. Musculoskeletal ailments

Musculoskeletal system disorders, abbreviated as MSD are the second largest leading cause of disability (Marks et al., 2017) and their impact commonly increases with the age of individuals

(Oakman et al., 2016) affecting one out of four adults annually (Tompkins et al., 2017). There are 23 different ailments that were observed and only two had a substantial number of taxa used while the rest had six or less taxa for their treatment. The two most treated ailments were rheumatism and articular pains with 27 and 20 taxa, respectively. Rheumatism probably had the highest number of taxa used because it constitutes of more than 200 different conditions including non-articular rheumatism and arthritis (Sudha, 2018; Altorok et al., 2016). Of the taxa used to treat rheumatism, none of them had more than two citations. The taxa with only two

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citation, in this case making them the most cited for rheumatism were Hermbstaedtia odorata,

Kigelia africana, Thilachium africana, Securidaca longependuculata and Delonix alata.

Interestingly, Delonix alata was also cited for musculoskeletal ailments in India (Esakkimuthu et al., 2018), although rheumatism was not specifically mentioned, it is still presumed to be one of the treated ailments. Articular diseases include various other joint disorders (Dragos et al., 2017) like rheumatism, and thus could explain its commonness in traditional medicine in Mozambique.

The most cited taxa for the treatment of articular diseases were Ozoroa obovata and Combretum holstii both with three citations, the rest of the taxa used had less than two citations.

3.6.3.8. Antimicrobial uses

Infectious diseases play a significant role on the worlds mortality and morbidity rate and account for approximately half of all deaths in tropical countries (Mahady, 2005). Edema had the most taxa used (26) in Mozambique. Edema causes swellings in areas in the body that has fluid inside

(Lee, 2019). Some of the cited taxa that have two citation include Boscia salicifolia,

Gymnosporia senegalensis, Ozoroa obovata, and Tetracera boiviniana. Leprosy is a skin infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium laprae, it has a high prevalence in temperate, sub- tropical, and tropical regions (Sundar et al., 2018). Leprosy has the second highest number of taxa (19) used where Anacardium occidentale and Asparagus africanus have the highest citations (two each). In Nigeria, they use Tamarindus indica mixed with Diospyros mespiliformis, whilst in Mozambique they use D. galpinii and D. mespiliformis. In Mozambique,

Dichrostachys cinerea was recorded for the treatment of leprosy whilst in East Sudan D. glomerata is used instead (Nwude and Ebong, 1979).

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3.6.3.9. Paediatric uses

Paediatrics refers to medical care that is given to infants, children, and adolescence. The age limit differs between countries but it normally between the age of birth and until the child reaches 18 (Abubakar et al., 2017; Hatfield, 2007). Paediatrics differ from adult medicine in terms of development issues, congenital defects, physiological body size (Gardiner et al., 2004).

According to Miller (2011) and Tanner (2011) the effect of infections in children decrease due to the knowledge that mothers had on herbal medicine, thus producing a positive effect on the outcome of the child’s health. Out of the 25 paediatrics ailments treated using traditional medicinal plants, fontanelle syndrome was the most common as there were nine taxa used to treat it. The treatment of fontanelle is a common practice because it is important for the fontanelle to breathe so that it can eventually close up, if it fails to do so children tend to get sick and thus herbal medicine is either given to children as washes, ingestions or teas so that the fontanelle can close up (Towns et al., 2014). Stomach aches and clasping of the fontanelle also appeared to be common, both with five different taxa used. Measles had four taxa used and the rest of the ailments had less than three taxa recorded for their treatment. In developing countries, children who are younger than five years normally die from infectious diseases such as pneumonia, malaria, and diarrhoea (WHO, 2012), Abubakar (2017) also reported malaria, pneumonia, and stomach aches as the most common ailments that affect children. It is thus surprising to see that no taxa had been recorded for the treatment of malaria and pneumonia in children in Mozambique and only one taxon is recorded for diarrhoea which is Strychnos spinosa, this goes to show that more information regarding the use of medicinal plants is still to be recorded in Mozambique.

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3.6.1.10. Ophthalmic uses

The eye has many natural defence mechanisms against trauma, and infections, however, these defence mechanisms may occasionally be disrupted thus resulting in injury, infections, or other ocular diseases (Sandhu et al., 2011). Ophthalmic related problems treated with medicinal plants are otherwise known as Traditional Eye Medicine (TEM). TEM is very common but differs between countries (Maregesi et al., 2016). Unspecified ophthalmic problems had the most taxa used (37 taxa), this generally includes any eye disease as they are not specified. There are many different eye diseases, some are infections caused by pathogens, others are eye conditions such as cataract, eye allergies, dry eyes and others involve vision impairment such as glaucoma and diplopia (Haddrill, 2009; Klotz et al., 2000). The most common taxa used for treating eye problems were Capparis tomentosa, Spirostachys africana, Afzelia quanzensis, Crossopteryx febrifuga, these taxa were also cited for treating eye diseases in Tanzania (Maregesi et al., 2016).

3.6.3.11. Ear, nose, and throat

The ear, nose and throat are vital organs that are frequently used (Ghosal and Tumil, 2017), infections to these organs can result in severe impairment and dysfunction (Njoroge and

Bussmann, 2006). Ears were the most significant as they had 18 taxa cited for their treatment, followed by throat diseases (8 taxa) and oral hygiene (5 taxa). However, according to Njoroge and Bussmann (2006) common cold is the most treated ENT illness through traditional therapeutics among the people of Kenya. For this category, all the taxa used had only been cited once in Mozambique, however when compared to other literature, Bidens pilosa is used in ENT ailments in Mozambique and has also been cited by Ghosal and Tamuli (2017) in Eastern Cape,

South Africa. Lippia javanica also appears to be a frequently used species in ENT ailments in

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Kenya (Njoroge and Bussmann, 2006) and the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa (Dyubeni and Buwa, 2011) and again in Mozambique.

3.6.1.12. Trauma uses

Trauma uses involve plants that are used as antidotes for poisonings. There was a total of 40 taxa used in this category. The most common kind of poisonings were snake bite, with 26 taxa used.

The most cited taxa used as snakebite antidotes were Ancylobothrys petersiana, Capparis tomentosa and Securidaca longependunculata, Triclicerus longipedunculata was the only species that was cited only for the use of snakebite antidote and no other uses. Solanum incanum was only cited once as an antidote for snakebites in Mozambique, Omara (2020) reported the same use of Solanum incanum in the rural areas of Kenya.

3.6.1.13. Analgesic uses

Analgesics are pain relievers, plant derived secondary metabolites have made it possible for pharmaceuticals to develop painkiller drugs. Plant species that are widely known for this category are Papaver somniferum L., Cannabis sativa and those from the genus Capsicum L. and

Salix L. species (Calixto et al., 2005). Toothaches were the most commonly treated ailments having 30 taxa used, all subsequent ailments had only one taxon used. Among the 30 taxa used for toothaches, the highest citation is two including species such as Gymnosporia heterophylla,

Piliostigma thonningii, Ficus sycomorus, Aloe marlothii, and Cissus quadrangularis. In

Ethiopia, Datura stramonium was the most common plant species used to treat toothaches

(Megersa, 2019), in Mozambique it had only one recorded use which is for backaches.

Moreover, Hutchings and Van Staden (1994) reported the potential of analgesic properties in

Datura stramonium thus this plant species has been frequently cited to relieve pain. 116

3.6.3.14. Tonics

A tonic is defined as a substance that is given to patients who are not feeling well but do not exhibit any obvious symptoms (Mhlongo, 2019). Tonics that were generally used for ailments that were not specified had 18 taxa used. These plants were likely to be used for any other ailment in this category. The second largest use for tonics was for emetics, with 12 taxa, followed by anti-emetics with three taxa used. Commonly used taxa as general tonics were

Cassia occidentale, Cola acuminata and Imperata cylindrica. However, the highest citations of the presented taxa were only two.

3.6.3.15. Circulatory system uses

Circulatory system disorders include an array of diseases such as hypertension and heart disease

(Baharvand-Ahmadi et al., 2016). It was noted that tachycardia was the most common circulatory system disorder treated with 18 taxa. Other prominent recorded ailments and the number of taxa used were haemorrhoids (14 taxa), diabetes (6 taxa), anaemia (4 taxa) and heart disease (4 taxa). All other ailments had less than three taxa used, including hypertension of which according to Baradaran et al. (2014) it was the most common cardiovascular disorder, but did not appear to be very common in the recorded ailment of Mozambique treated using traditional medicine.

3.6.3.16. Urological uses

Urological disorders are ailments that affect or are related to the urinary tract (Whitefield, 2006).

The most cited ailments for this category are generalized disorders of the genitourinary system with 13 taxa used. All the taxa that are used have been only referenced once, however only two

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of the taxa are only generally used for genitourinary system, they are Newtonia buchananii and

Catunaregam swynnertonii. The genitourinary system is made up of organs of the reproductive and urinary system. The two systems are co-joined due to their common embryological origin, close proximity, and partaking of the same biological pathways (Abolbashari et al., 2015). The second most cited ailments are urinary tract infections with six taxa reported for their use.

Hydnora abyssinica has been reported to be sold in the medicinal plant trade markets in Maputo for the treatment of urinary tract infection, helminthiases, and internal wounds (Barbosa et al.,

2020) the same was reported in southern Africa (Williams et al., 2011). Furthermore, the use of

Hydnora abyssinica for the above-mentioned ailments is owed to the high amounts of tannins in the rhizome that have a strong astringency (Yagi et al., 2012).

3.6.3.17. Blood, blood- forming organs and immune mechanism

This category includes ailments such as anaemia and HIV have the most taxa used, other ailments in this category have only one taxon cited for their treatment. Of all the blood disorders, anaemia is the most common and is most likely cause by a lack of iron (Peter et al., 2014). HIV was reported to also be a cause of anaemia as a result of depressed haematopoiesis (Duffy et al.,

2020). Taxa that are documented for the treatment of anaemia in Mozambique are

Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Ficus ingens, Lannea schweinfurthii, and Sclerocarya birrea with each only being cited once. Ficus ingens has been historically used to treat anaemia (Olayinka et al., 2017). In South Africa, the Zulu people also use it to treat anaemia (Grace et al., 2003).

3.6.3.18. Endocrine/ metabolic and nutritional

Endocrine disorders include diabetes (Balogun et al., 2016). There are six taxa cited for the treatment of diabetes which has the most cited taxa in this category. However, according to 118

Silva-Matos et al. (2011) diabetes is not very common in Mozambique. Catharanthus roseus was cited twice for the treatment of diabetes in Mozambique. Furthermore, Odeyemi and Bradley

(2018) also reported the use of Catharanthus roseus as a treatment for diabetes. Gout and other nutritional disorders had three taxa cited, other ailments are not shown as they have only one taxon cited.

3.6.4. Plant parts used and growth forms

According to the U.S. Forest Service (2020) one plant may consist of different active ingredients which are distributed within the different parts of the plant, hence different parts of the same plant may have different medicinal uses. This can be observed in Table 3.1. Moreover, Barbosa at al. (2020) showed that roots are the most sold plant parts in the medicinal markets of Maputo, the same was reported by Krog et al. (2006). As per Rasethe et al. (2019) roots are the most sold plant parts in the medicinal plant trade market in Limpopo, South Africa, which are then followed by bulbs and barks.

Majority of the medicinal species and infraspecific taxa were herbs. Data from Bhattarai et al. (2010) displayed the exact pattern to that of Mozambique for the growth forms of medicinal plants used in the Mustang district of Nepal whereby herbs where the most common form of medicinal plants, followed by shrubs, trees and climbers (Figure 3.5). Moreover,

Mongalo et al. (2018) conducted a survey for the Pedi tribe in Limpopo and most species were herbs, then trees, and shrubs. Furthermore, herbs are seemingly the most common form of medicinal plants in other African countries such as Ethiopia (Abera, 2014; Geremew et al., 2012) and Cameroon (Tsobou et al., 2016). Herbs have a greater representation because they are 119

abundant (Stepp and Moerman, 2001) and have been reported to greater amounts of secondary metabolites and bioactive compounds (Da Silva et al., 2018.

3.8. Conclusions

There are at least 6187 recorded taxa in Mozambique and only 758 have recorded medicinal uses

(including taxa that are identified to genus level only) according to the data that has been documented and used to compile the Mozambique medicinal plant checklist. The largest plant families in the total flora of Mozambique were the Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Asteraceae; however, the largest families used in traditional medicine were the Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and

Asteraceae. Apocynaceae were the second most used family but only the tenth family in the total flora, giving the impression that some families are specifically selected for medicinal use.

Furthermore, the species that made up the twenty most cited species in Mozambique used in traditional medicine were well known species of which some are important commercial plants in

Africa, such as Adansonia digitata, Ricinus communis, and Sclerocarya birrea. It was noted that ailments of the digestive system were the most commonly treated ailment category (especially diarrhoea and stomach-ache). The same was found in other regions, suggesting that digestive ailments are also the most commonly treated condition in traditional medicine systems around the world. Furthermore, most medicinal plant species were herbs and the most plant parts used and were roots.

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CHAPTER 4: A COMPARISON OF THE MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE

TSONGA POPULATIONS OF MOZAMBIQUE AND OF SOUTH AFRICA (LIMPOPO

AND MPUMALANGA)

4.1. Introduction

Mozambique is a multi-ethnic society, consisting of 16 ethnic groups originating mainly from the

Bantu Niger-Congo group. The most widespread languages among the Bantu groups are the

Tsonga, Lomwe, Sena, Makua, Chuabo, and Shona. However, the official language of

Mozambique is Portuguese; mostly Portuguese speakers are concentrated in the urban areas and mainly in the capital province and the city of Maputo (Sheldon and Pavenne, 2020).

Mozambique also shares certain languages with its neighbouring countries, thus making it more culturally and linguistically diverse. Most cultural groups in Mozambique that inhabit the northern region of the Zambezi valley speak languages akin to the surrounding countries, namely

Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania. Those who inhabit the southern region of the valley were found to be closely related to the ethnic groups of South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe (Ndedge,

2007).

Makua is the largest ethnic group whose people occupy the central part of the country.

The second largest ethnic group comprises of the Tsonga population, who inhabits the southern parts of the country (Sheldon and Pevenne, 2020). Tsonga speaking people represent one-seventh of the population, which is about 23% and are mostly found south of the Save River. Shangaan is a dialect of Tsonga that is also spoken in South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe (King, 2006).

The Tsonga people speak the Xitsonga language as registered in the South African constitution 121

(Maluleke, 2019), but anciently known as Tonga or the Thonga language of Mozambique

(Hopgood, 1992). The Vatsonga tribes inhabited Mozambique and the Kruger National Park area as early as 697 A.D. (Erasmus, 1995). These tribes consist mainly of five language groups: (1)

Xitsonga of Zambezi and Inhambane, (2) Xirhonga of Maputo, (3) Xitswa of Inhambane, (4)

Xitembe of KwaZulu-Natal, and (5) Xitsonga of Limpopo and Mpumalanga, South Africa

(Maluleke, 2019).

Historically, the Vatsonga have migrated numerous times during the 19th century to their surrounding areas (Liengme, 1981). The first migration took place when they were conquered by the Nguni people of KwaZulu-Natal between the years 1835–1840; the ‘War of Succession’ then led to the second migration that occurred between 1856 and 1862, and the third migration happened in 1894 and 1895, when the Portuguese and the Vatsonga were at war (Junod, 1962)

During the earlier times of the 20th century, they migrated to work in mining towns in South

Africa (Van Warmelo, 1974).

The Tsonga people were generally agriculturalists. They cultivated crops and kept livestock. They have relied on traditional vegetation for a range of household uses, including medicine, structural timber, and food (Liengme, 1981). Tsonga people have been making use of herbs as a form of medicine long before the introduction of modern pharmaceutical products and they have generally preferred plants as medicines as opposed to the using modern medicine. This is especially true amongst the older generations (Maluleke, 2019; Luseba and Van der Merwe,

2006).

Over the past centuries, the Tsonga people have managed to sustain and preserve their cultural and traditional practices. For more than 800 years, the Tsonga people of Mozambique,

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South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Eswatini have shared a similar heritage (Maluleke, 2019).

Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to analyse the available flora in the Tsonga-populated regions of Mozambique and South Africa, and to determine which plant families are selected for medicinal use, and which taxa are used as medicines in both Tsonga regions.

4.2. Results

4.2.1. Analysis of total flora

There are currently 1126 recorded taxa for flora in the Tsonga-speaking region of Mozambique that are from 135 plant families. The South African Tsonga-speaking region has 914 taxa recorded from 144 plant families. There are 19 families that have more than 10 taxa in the

Tsonga-Mozambique region and 17 that have 10 or more taxa in the Tsonga-South Africa region.

Figure 4.1 is a graphic representation showing all plant families that have 10 or more taxa. The rankings of these families are shown in the Table 4.1. Furthermore, the Spearman’s rank correlation values are indicated.

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Table 4.1: Rankings of the families in the available flora that have 10 or more species and infraspecific taxa. Statistics value of the Spearman’s correlation are also shown. MZ=

Mozambique, ZA= South Africa, N= number of families, DF: degrees or freedom.

Rank in Rank in

Family Tsonga-MZ Tsonga-ZA Coefficient (rs): 0.706 Poaceae 1 1 N: 134 Fabaceae 2 2 T statistic: 11.459 Asteraceae 3 3 DF: 132 Malvaceae 4 4 p value: <0.001 Rubiaceae 5 5 Euphorbiaceae 6 6 Cyperaceae 7 9 Apocynaceae 8 7 Convolvulaceae 9 11 Acanthaceae 10 8 Celastraceae 11 29 Capparaceae 12 38 Amaranthaceae 13 29 Lamiaceae 14 5 Moraceae 15 21 Sapindaceae 16 54 Myrtaceae 17 37 Combretaceae 18 16 Ebenaceae 19 31

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Figure 4.1: Families of the Tsonga-Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa regions which have

10 or more taxa available in the total flora.

4.2.2. Analysis of medicinal flora

A checklist of the medicinal flora of the Tsonga regions of Mozambique and South Africa was compiled using various literature sources. A total of 240 medicinal taxa was recorded for the

Tsonga-Mozambique region and 135 taxa was recorded for the Tsonga-South Africa region.

Figure 4.2 shows the number of taxa per family that are used in traditional medicine, which have three or more taxa recorded according to the Tsonga-Mozambique rankings which are shown in 125

Table 4.2. A Spearman rank correlation was done to determine whether there is a relationship between the two medicinal floras. The statistics values are shown on Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Rankings of the families in the medicinal flora that have 10 or more species and

infraspecific taxa. MZ= Mozambique, ZA= South Africa.

Rank in Rank in

Family Tsonga-MZ Tsonga-ZA Coefficient (rs): 0.595 Fabaceae 1 2 N: 73 Poaceae 2 123 T statistic: 6.233 Capparaceae 3 10 DF: 71 Malvaceae 4 8 p value: <0.001 Apocynaceae 5 5 Asteraceae 6 2 Celastraceae 7 11 Combretaceae 8 6 Euphorbiaceae 9 7 Rubiaceae 10 3 Vitaceae 11 14 Asphodelaceae 12 23 Amaranthaceae 13 24 Anacardiaceae 14 4 Loganiaceae 15 33 Phyllanthaceae 16 17 Acanthaceae 17 47 Cyperaceae 18 75 Ebenaceae 19 12 Moraceae 20 20 Rhamnaceae 21 39 Sapindaceae 22 41

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Figure 4.2: Families of the Tsonga-Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa regions which have three or more taxa used medicinally.

4.3. Selection of medicinal plant families

Shown in Figure 4.3 are scatter plots of the regression analysis values. Regression analysis determines the selection of medicinal plants, whether they are randomly or non-randomly selected. The terms over- and underused are used in regression analysis to describe plant species that are either below or above the standard error, however, it is scientifically perhaps more elegant to use the terms over- and underrepresented. To further understand the patterns of plant

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selection within the Tsonga regions the Imprecise Dirichlet Model was applied. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Scatter plot of the regression analyses values for the total flora versus the medicinal flora of A: Mozambique Tsonga population [R2 = 0.651, SE = 2.8; p<0.001] and B: South

African Tsonga population [R2 =0.386, SE = 1.9; p<0.001].

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Table 4.3: Comparison of IDM intervals between Tsonga-Mozambique region (J = 135) and

Tsonga-South Africa region (J = 144) floras showing over- and underused families.

Tsonga-Mozambique Tsonga-South Africa

Family nj xi Inf. Sup. Family nj xi Inf. Sup.

Overused Overused

Capparaceae 17 12 0.361 0.913 Rutaceae 4 4 0.184 0.000

Fabaceae 143 47 0.247 0.425 Anacardiaceae 11 6 0.177 0.872

Underused Underused

Poaceae 189 17 0.052 0.156 Poaceae 129 0 0.000 0.065

Total 1126 240 0.190 0.240 Total 914 135 0.125 0.175

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4.4. Shared taxa

4.4.1. Families of taxa shared between the available flora and the medicinal flora of the Tsonga population groups of Mozambique and South Africa

The histogram in Figure 4.4 is an illustration of the number of taxa shared in the total available flora and in the medicinal flora. All 20 most taxa-rich families have taxa that is shared between the two Tsonga regions. However, only few of the medicinal families have taxa shared and

Fabaceae had the most shared taxa.

80 70 60 50 40 30 20

Number shared taxa of Number 10 0

Taxa shared in total flora Taxa shared in medicinal flora

Figure 4.4: Number of taxa shared per family in the total flora and in the medicinal flora between the Tsonga-Mozambique and the Tsonga-South Africa regions.

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4.4.2. Shared medicinal taxa

Sorensen index is used to determine the percentage of shared taxa between two populations

(Sorensen, 1948). The percentages of families that have medicinal taxa are thus shown on Figure

4.5. The Sorensen index for the overall medicinal flora is 0.23. A Sorensen index value of 1.00 means that all or 100% of the taxa that are used medicinally in the Tsonga regions are shared.

1.20 SI=0.23 1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40 Sorensen index Sorensen 0.20

0.00

Families with shared taxa

Figure 4.5: Sorensen index of the shared medicinal species and infraspecific taxa between

Tsonga-Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa.

Table 4.4 shows detail of the 43 medicinal taxa shared between the two Tsonga population groups. The exact species and infraspecific taxa that are shared can be seen on Table 4.4, families that were not represented in Figure 4.4 can be seen in this table. Only seven families have more than one taxon shared, the rest of the families that have shared taxa have only one taxon reported as being shed.

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Med- taxa Families Medicinal taxa used by Tsonga-Mozambique population shared

Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson  Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine  Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng.  Achariaceae Xylotheca kraussiana Hochst.  Alismataceae Limnophyton obtusifolium (L.) Miq.  Amaranthaceae Aerva leucura Moq.  Celosia trigyna L.  Cyathula natalensis Sond.  Hermbstaedtia odorata (Burch. ex Moq.) T.Cooke  Amaryllidaceae Crinum stuhlmannii Baker 

Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. 

Ozoroa obovata (Oliv.) R.Fern. & A.Fern. var. obovata R.Fern  Searsia gueinzii (Sond.) F.A.Barkley  Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. subsp. caffra (Sond.)  Kokwaro Annonaceae Artabotrys brachypetalus Benth.  Sphaerocoryne gracilis (Engl. & Diels) Verdc.  Apocynaceae Ancylobotrys petersiana (Klotzsch) Pierre  Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don  Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Ait.  Landolphia kirkii Dyer  Marsdenia macrantha (Klotzsch) Schltr.  Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.  Secamone parvifolia Bullock.  Secamone punctulata Decne.  Strophanthus petersianus Klotzsch  Strophanthus luteolus Codd  Voacanga thouarsii Roem. & Schult.  132

Araceae Stylochaeton natalensis Schott  Araliaceae Cussonia arenicola Strey  Asparagaceae Asparagus africanus Lam.  Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl.  Asphodelaceae Aloe greatheadii Schonland  Aloe marlothii A.Berger ✓ Aloe parvibracteata Schonland  Aloe zebrina Baker  Aloe spicata L.f.  Asteraceae Berkheya bipinnatifida (Harv.) Roessler  Brachylaena discolor DC.  Brachylaena discolor DC. subsp. discolor DC.  Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore  Enydra fluctuans DC.  Helichrysum adenocarpum DC.  Vernonia ambigua Klotschy & Peyr.  Vernonia fastigiata Oliv. & Hiern  Acanthospermum hispidum DC.  Bignoniaceae Rhigozum zambesiacum Baker  Boraginaceae Heliotropium giessii M.Friedrich  Brassicaceae Commiphora merkeri Engl.  Capparaceae Boscia filipes Gilg  Boscia mossambicensis Klotzsch  Cadaba natalensis Sond.  Cadaba termitaria N.E.Br.  Capparis brassii DC.  Capparis fascicularis DC. ✓ Capparis tomentosa Lam. ✓ Cladostemon kirkii (Oliv.) Pax & Gilg  Maerua juncea Pax subsp. crustata Wild  Maerua parvifolia Pax ✓ Thilachium africanum Lour.  Caprifoliaceae Scabiosa columbaria L.  Caricaceae Carica papaya L.  Caryophyllaceae Krauseola mosambicina Pax & Hoffm.  Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Schweinf.  Celastraceae Brexia madagascariensis Lam.  Elaeodendron matabelicum Loes.  Gymnosporia grandifolia (Davison) Jordaan  Gymnosporia markwardii Jordaarn  133

Loeseneriella africana (Willd.) N.Halle var. richardiana  (Cambess.) R.Wilczek ex N.Halle Gymnosporia harveyana Loes.  Salacia leptoclada Tul.  Cleomaceae Cleome hirta (Klotzsch) Oliv.  Cleome stricta (Klotzsch) R.A.Graham.  Combretaceae Combretum apiculatum Sond. ✓ Combretum apiculatum Sond. subsp. leutweinii (Schinz) Exell  Combretum hereroense Schinz  Combretum microphyllum Klotzsch  Pteleopsis myrtifolia (M.A.Lawson) Engl. & Diels  Terminalia phanerophlebia Engl. & Diels  Commelinaceae Commelina livingstonii C.B.Clarke  Convolvulaceae Convolvulus farinosus L.  Paralepistemon shirensis (Oliv.) Lejoly & Lisowski  Cucurbitaceae Zehneria parvifolia (Cogn.) J.H.Ross  Cyperaceae Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla  Cyperus papyrus L.  Cyperus rotundus L.  Ebenaceae Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. ✓ Diospyros villosa (L.) De Winter  Euclea natalensis A.DC. ✓ Euphorbiaceae Croton megalobotrys Mull.Arg. ✓ Euphorbia hirta L.  Euphorbia tirucalli L.  Spirostachys africana Sond. ✓ Tragia okanyua Pax  Conyza attenuate DC.  Euphorbia prostrata Ait.  Fabaceae Acacia karroo Hayne ✓ Acacia kraussiana Benth.  Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile subsp. kraussiana (Benth.) Brenan ✓ Afzelia quanzensis Welw.  Albizia harveyi E.Fourn. ✓ Albizia versicolor Oliv. ✓ Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC.  Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.  Bauhinia galpinii N.E.Br.  Brachystegia spiciformis Benth.  Burkea africana Hook.  134

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.  Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.  Cassia abbreviata Oliv. ✓ Cassia afrofistula Brenan  Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene  Colophospermum mopane (Benth.) Leonard ✓ Crotalaria monteiroi Baker f.  Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. ✓ Dialium schlechteri Harms  Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. ✓ Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Skeels  Elephantorrhiza goetzei (Harms) Harms  Erythrina lysistemon Hutch.  Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev.  Guibourtia conjugata (Bolle) J.Leonard  Indigofera arrecta A.Rich.  Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin  Millettia stuhlmannii Taub.  Mimosa pigra L.  Ormocarpum trichocarpum (Taub.) Engl. ✓ Parkinsonia aculeata L.  Peltophorum africanum Sond. ✓ Philenoptera violacea (Klotzsch) Schrire ✓ Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.) Milne-Redh. ✓ Pterocarpus rotundifolius (Sond.) Druce ✓ Rhynchosia sublobata (Schum.) Meikle  Schotia brachypetala Sond.  Senna occidentalis (L.) Link  Senna petersiana (Bolle) Lock  Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby  Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.  Tamarindus indica L.  Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. subsp. leptostachya (DC.)  Brummitt Acacia xanthophloea (Benth.)  Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.  Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) Mendoca & Sousa  Gentianaceae Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg  Iridaceae Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel  Lamiaceae Basilicum polystachyon (L.) Moench  135

Clerodendrum glabrum E.Mey.  Lauraceae Cassytha filiformis L.  Loganiaceae Strychnos gerrardii N.E.Br.  Strychnos innocua Delile  Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. ✓ Strychnos spinosa Lam.  Loranthaceae Erianthemum dregei (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Tiegh.  Lythraceae Ammannia prieuriana Guill. & Perr.  Acridocarpus natalitius A.Juss. ✓ Malpighiaceae Abutilon angulatum (Guill. & Perr.) Mast.  Malvaceae Hermannia glanduligera K.Schum. ex Schinz  Hermannia micropetala Harv. & Sond.  Hibiscus meyeri Harv.  Hibiscus physaloides Guill. & Perr.  Hibiscus surattensis L.  Sida cordifolia L.  Sida rhombifolia L. ✓ Waltheria indica L.  Grewia pachycalyx K.Schum.  Grewia sulcata Mast.  Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.  Ekebergia capensis Sparrm.  Trichilia emetica Vahl ✓ Meliaceae Tinospora caffra (Miers) Troupin  Ficus sycomorus L.  Menispermaceae Maclura africana (Bureau) Corner  Moraceae Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg.  Psidium guajava L.  Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss  Myrtaceae Nymphaea lotus L.  Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. var. caerulea (Savigny) Verdc.  Nyctaginaceae Ochna natalitia (Meisn.) Walp. ✓ Olax dissitiflora Oliv.  Ochnaceae Jasminum fluminense Vell. ✓ Olacaceae Alectra dunensis Hilliard & B.L.Burtt  Oleaceae Adenia gummifera (Harv.) Harms  Orobanchaceae Adenia multiflorum Klotzsch  Passifloraceae Antidesma venosum E.Mey. ex Tul.  Bridelia cathartica Bertol 

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Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) G.L.Webster var. fagifolia (Pax) Phyllanthaceae  Radel-Sm Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. ✓ Plumbago zeylanica L.  Cenchrus ciliaris L.  Plumbaginaceae Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.  Poaceae Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.  Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br.  Eragrostis superba Peyr.  Eriochloa fatmensis (Hochst. & Steud.) Clayton  Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch.  Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka  Panicum maximum Jacq.  Panicum trichocladum K.Schum.  Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.  Perotis patens Gand.  Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.  Sporobolus pyramidalis P.Beauv.  Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze  Urochloa mosambicensis (Hack.) Dandy  Zea mays L.  Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen.  Clematis viridiflora Bertol.  Polygalaceae Ranunculus multifidus Forssk.  Ranunculaceae Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl.  Helinus integrifolius (Lam.) Kuntze  Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mucronata Willd. ✓ Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob.  Agathisanthemum bojeri Klotzsch ✓ Rhizophoraceae Catunaregum obovata (Hochst.) A.E.Gonc. ✓ Gardenia volkensii K.Schum. subsp. spathulifolia (Stapf. & Rubiaceae ✓ Hutch.) Verdc. Heinsia crinita (Afzel.) G.Taylor. subsp. parviflora (K.Schum.  & K.Krause) Verdc. Psydrax locuples (K.Schum.) Bridson  Vangueria infausta Burch. ✓ Zanthoxylum capense (Thunb.) Harv. ✓ Zanthoxylum humile Waterm.  Rutaceae Casearia gladiiformis Mast. ✓ Salvadora persica L. 

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Salicaceae Viscum triflorum DC.  Salvadoraceae Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl.  Santalaceae Deinbollia xanthocarpa (Klotzsch) Radlk.  Sapindaceae Deinbollia oblongifolia (E.Mey. ex Arn.) Radlk.  Manilkara discolor (Sond.) J.H.Hemsl.  Manilkara mochisia (Baker) Dubard  Sapotaceae Solanum campylacanthum Hochst.  Synaptolepis kirkii Oliv.  Solanaceae Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob.  Thymelaeceae Lantana camara L.  Ampelocissus obtusata (Welw. ex Baker) Planch. subsp. kirkiana Verbenaceae  (Planch.) Wild & R.B.Drumm. Vitaceae Cissus cornifolia (Baker) Planch.  Cissus integrifolia (Baker) Planch.  Cissus rotundifolia Vahl.  Cyphostemma congestum (Baker) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm  Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & R.B.Drumm. subsp. ✓ cuneifolia (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Urton Ximeniaceae Ximenia americana L.  Ximenia caffra Sond. ✓ Zygophylaceae Balanites pedicellaris Mildbr. & Schltr.  Total Taxa: 240 Total shared taxa: 43

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4.5. Discussions

4.5.1. Analysis of available flora and medicinal flora

The first four largest families were the same in both regions, being Poaceae (189 taxa for

Tsonga-Mozambique; 129 taxa for Tsonga-South Africa), Fabaceae (143; 115), Asteraceae (98;

75), and Malvaceae (52; 34). The first three families were also seen as the largest families in the total flora of Mozambique as shown in the previous chapter, they are also among the top five families of southern Africa with Asteraceae being the first largest, Fabaceae being the third and

Poaceae being the fifth largest family (Koekemoer et al., 2015).

The Tsonga regions of Mozambique are made up of mostly the savannah and grassland biomes (FAO, 2004) and the vegetation type of the South African Tsonga region is mostly savannah (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006) these vegetation types can be seen on Figures 4.6 and

4.7 thus these Tsonga regions have similar vegetation types. These vegetation types explain the abundance of the Poaceae and Fabaceae families. In the Gaza province of Mozambique there is an abundance of Caesalpinoideae and some Acacia spp. (now referred to as Senegalia and

Vachellia) that occur in the Miombo savannah woodlands (FAO, 2004). Furthermore, results from the Spearman rank correlation showed that there is indeed an association between the families in the available floras of the two Tsonga regions. This suggests that the floras are similar since there is a positive relationship between the families, even the p-value shows that there is significance between these families.

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Figure 4.6: Map of the vegetation types in Mozambique. Areas circled in black are the Tsonga- speakers populated regions (Maputo and Gaza provinces). Source: FAO, 2004

(http://www.fao.org.).

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According to the Spearman rank correlation there is a moderate correlation between the two medicinal floras and there is a significant relationship. Thus, it can be deduced that the medicinal floras in the Tsonga regions are similar. This is also evident in Figure 4.2 and Table 4.2. The

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rankings and the number of taxa in each family are close to similar. In both regions Fabaceae had more taxa recorded with 47 taxa in the Tsonga-Mozambique region and 24 taxa in the Tsonga-

South Africa region.

4.5.2. Selection of medicinal plant families

According to Figure 4.3, the selection of medicinal plants is random in both regions, thus rejecting the aforementioned hypothesis, as both p-values are less than 0.001 with standard errors

2.8 and 1.9 for Tsonga-Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa, respectively. However, the selection appears to be more random amongst the Tsonga-Mozambique population with 65% of the variation explained by the regression model (R-square value of 0.651). Even though the medicinal taxa are selected at random by the Tsonga-South Africa population, only 38% of the variation is explained by the regression model (R-square value of 0.386). Therefore, as explained by the Spearman rank correlation, there is a positive relationship between the medicinal floras in the Tsonga-Mozambique region and the Tsonga-South Africa region.

The most overrepresented plant family was the Fabaceae (by both populations), as shown by the regression and IDM analyses. Other families that were overused in both the Tsonga populations (Figure 4.3) included the Apocynaceae and Malvaceae; however, their overuse was not statistically significant, as seen in Table 4.1. It is noteworthy that these two families were reported as the second (Malvaceae) and third (Apocynaceae), most taxa-rich medicinal families used by the Pedi people (Mongalo and Makhafola, 2018) which reside in close proximity to the

South African Tsonga people. Nonetheless, Capparaceae and Fabaceae were the most preferred plant families to be used as traditional medicine by the Mozambique Tsonga people and 142

Anacardiaceae were mostly used by the South African Tsonga people. This is because these plant families were shown as overused in both the regression and IDM analyses. It seems that in both Tsonga populations and in both approaches, the Poaceae were the least used (i.e., the most underrepresented) family in traditional medicine. Furthermore, the differences in the selection of medicinal plants could be due to availability of taxa in the total flora (Saslis-Lagoudakis et al.,

2014).

4.5.3. Shared species and infraspecific taxa

A comparison of the plant families with the most shared taxa in the total flora and the medicinal flora will aid in determining how much medicinal plant knowledge was preserved (i.e., indicating the degree of similarity between Mozambique-Tsonga and South Africa-Tsonga medicinal plant use). However, due to insufficient data on the traditional uses of medicinal plants on the Tsonga regions, the degree to which knowledge was preserved or lost cannot be quantified. Furthermore, according to Subramoniam (2014), the knowledge and traditional methods on medicinal plants are gradually lost with time and dies out with the older generations.

Nonetheless, there were 251 taxa shared in the total flora and 43 taxa shared with medicinal uses. Only seven plant families had more than one taxon shared in the medicinal flora with the highest number of taxa shared in a family being 13 for Fabaceae, and 13 families had only one taxon shared in the medicinal flora. Figure 4.4 demonstrates the plant families with two or more taxa shared in the total flora and their respective shared medicinal taxa. The most available taxa were shared between Poaceae, Fabaceae, and Asteraceae. It was predictable that most of the taxa would be shared between these three families, as they were the most abundant 143

families in both the floras of the two Tsonga populated regions. It was also expected that

Fabaceae would have the most medicinal taxa shared since it was the most abundant and overused plant family in traditional medicine by both the Tsonga populations.

Even though Fabaceae had the most medicinal taxa shared, the family still had a very low similarity percentage (Figure 4.5) which was 37%, this percentage is less than half and thus can be deduced that the use of medicinal plants in this family was different. The Sorensen index for the overall shared medicinal flora was 0.23 which means only 23% of the taxa was shared between the Tsonga populations. Families that demonstrated 100% similarity were Ochnaceae,

Rhizophoraceae, and Lythraceae because only one species was used and also shared within these families. Ultimately, the family that had the most medicinal taxa shared was Combretaceae with a 73% similarity.

It is remarkable that Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. subsp. caffra (Sond.) Kokwaro had no recorded uses in the Tsonga-South Africa region, and Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don have no recorded medicinal uses in either of the two Tsonga populations, but are part of their total floras. Catharanthus roseus has a wide distribution in the African continent and is popularly known as a medicinal plant due to its anticancer properties (Mahomoodally, 2013) and

Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra also has an abundant distribution in Africa, and it is commercially important and used as medicine and food (Gouwakinnou et al., 2011; Van Wyk et al., 2018). The fact that these popular and commonly used African medicinal plants have no recorded medicinal uses for the Tsonga populations strongly suggests that the study of medicinal plants amongst the Tsonga populations is lacking and more effort should be put into studying

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them. This was also seen by the total number of recorded medicinal plants as previously mentioned.

Nonetheless, important African medicinal plant species such as Terminalia sericea

Burch. ex DC. and Colophospermum mopane (Benth.) Leonard emerged as medicinal plants that were shared between the Tsonga populations. These two species have a wide distribution in

Africa, especially across the northern, southern, and north western parts of the continent.

Terminalia sericea is a multipurpose plant and is highly used as medicine across many cultures;

Colophospermum mopane is also gaining commercial importance as a source of essential oil

(Nair et al., 2018; Brophy et al., 1992). Extensive ethnobotanical surveys across the Tsonga populations might reveal many more shared taxa than what is currently recorded.

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4.6 Conclusions

The Tsonga regions of Mozambique and South Africa have similar vegetation types; and thus, their floristic compositions are similar. This was proven to be true by the strong correlation between the total available floras (0.706) and a moderately strong relation between the medicinal floras (0.595) of the two Tsonga populations. Even the p-values from the Spearman rank correlation and the regression analysis showed that there was a significance in the datasets and that there was a positive relationship. The most abundant families in the total floras were the

Poaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae, and Malvaceae. The Fabaceae were the most abundant in the medicinal floras of both the Tsonga regions, however the rest of the families had different ranking. Further analysis showed that medicinal plants were mainly selected at random, however, the South African Tsonga population selection of medicinal plants was less random than that of the Mozambican population (R2 values respectively 0.65097 and 0.38620). The

Fabaceae and Capparaceae were found to be the most preferred medicinal families of the

Tsonga-Mozambique people, while the Tsonga-South Africa people preferred the family

Anacardiaceae. Poaceae were underused by both populations.

A total of 240 medicinal taxa and 135 medicinal taxa were recorded for the Tsonga-

Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa regions, respectively. The Sorensen index revealed that only 23% of the taxa were shared between the medicinal floras and that even though the

Fabaceae had the most medicinal taxa shared it still had a very low percentage of similarity. The shared taxa included well-known and medicinally important species such as Terminalia sericea and Colophospermum mopane. However, other commercially and medicinally popular plants across African cultures such as Catharanthus roseus had no recorded medicinal uses, which led

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to the assumption that the current knowledge on medicinal plants of the Tsonga groups is incomplete and not comprehensively recorded. Furthermore, the current available data showed that the total floras were similar, and the medicinal floras were also similar, however, the selection of medicinal plants was different as shown by the percentage of shared medicinal taxa.

Evidently, the low number of shared taxa, regression, and IDM analyses, also showed that medicinal plants were selected differently. Therefore, comparing the actual uses of the shared medicinal plants could aid in reaching a more comprehensive and logical conclusion with regards to the similarity of the uses of medicinal plants between the Mozambique and South

African Tsonga populations. There is nevertheless an urgent need for a comprehensive ethnobotanical survey to be conducted for the Tsonga people before the information dissipates over time and is lost when the elder generations pass away. Such an ethnobotanical survey would give a deeper understanding as to how different or similar the Vatsonga groups are in terms of traditional and cultural practices.

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CHAPTER 5: A COMPARISON OF THE MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES USED IN

MOZAMBIQUE AND THE KWAZULU-NATAL PROVINCE OF SOUTH AFRICA

5.1. Introduction

Traditional Medicine is alternatively referred to as folk medicine, ethno-medicine, native healing, or complementary, and alternative medicine. Consequently, different groups or societies have their own evolved form of indigenous healing approaches which are all classified under Traditional Medicine (Abdullahi, 2011). This type of medicine has traditionally been known as an indigenous system that differs from one culture to another and is ultimately used to sustain health and prevent illnesses, to improve and to tend to physical and mental illnesses (WHO, 2000b).

Traditional Medicine is a conjunction of knowledge, skills, and practices based on the beliefs, theories, and experiences that are indigenous to different cultures (Mahomoodally,

2013). The knowledge on Traditional Medicine is sometimes transferred between cultures and populations and is referred to as complementary and alternative medicine (Gurib-Fakim,

2006). The extensive use of medicinal plants in Africa has been said to be linked to cultural and economic reasons, thus, the World Health Organization (WHO, 2013) has encouraged

African states to promote and integrate the practice of Traditional Medicine in their primary healthcare systems.

In Mozambique, the practice of Traditional Medicine was not encouraged during the colonial period (1891–1975), but with political changes, the use of Traditional Medicine has gained respect from the government and healthcare providers, particularly over the last decades of the 20th century (Ministerio da Saude, 2004). It was also reported by Fato (1995)

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that the commercial trade of medicinal plants in southern Mozambique has increase drastically since the 1980’s, when there were only 10 traders at the main market in Maputo.

The numbers have increased to over 175 registered traders up to 2004 (Krog et al., 2006).

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2002) reported that about 30% of the population in

Mozambique can get access to public healthcare, while the majority remains reliant on

Traditional Medicine (Hamilton, 2004).

In the current 21st century, Western Medicine has been made easily available and accessible. The largest muthi market in South Africa is the Warwick Street market in Durban,

KwaZulu-Natal. The other two largest medicinal plant trade markets in South Africa are in

Johannesburg namely, the Faraday and Kwa Mai-Mai markets (Williams et al., 1997).

KwaZulu-Natal is a province of South Africa located on the north eastern side of the country, bordering on Mozambique, Eswatini, and the Indian Ocean (Tikkanen, 2019).

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal lay in close proximity, so that the comparison between

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal was motivated by the similar vegetation types, including grassland, savanna, forest, and coastal vegetation (FAO, 2004; Mucina and Rutherford, 2006) and the similar Bantu-speaking cultures.

Due to extensive ethnobotanical surveys conducted and online resources being made available, plant lists can be extracted from the internet and other literature sources. The list of the medicinal plants for the Zulu people of KwaZulu-Natal was compiled using the book on the Zulu Medicinal Plants by Hutchings et al. (1996). The availability of these lists made it possible to do a comparison between the total flora and medicinal flora of Mozambique and

KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa with focus to the Zulu people using rigorous statistical analysis.

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Ethnobotany is known as the study of plants in relation to the people and their culture

(Ezekwesili-Ofili and Chinwe, 2019). Over the years, ethnobotany has evolved with new theories and hypotheses being introduced. Nowadays, ethnobotany does not only focus on the diversity of plants used by local people, but it also focuses on understanding how and why people use plants and how they select those plants (Gaoue et al., 2017). In this chapter, three different ethnobotany hypotheses testing approaches were used for quantitative analysis, namely least-square regression analysis (first used in this context by Moerman, 1979), the

Bayesian approach (Weckerle et al., 2011), and the Imprecise Dirichlet Model (IDM)

(Weckerle et al., 2012). The purpose of these analyses is to quantify the data, the regression analysis will determine whether medicinal plant species in the two regions are randomly or non-randomly selected. The two latter methods will help determine which plant families are over- or underrepresented.

5.2. Results

5.2.1. Total floras of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal

There are at least 6187 vascular plant species and infraspecific taxa from 1584 genera recorded for Mozambique (identified taxa only), representing 233 families (Appendix 3).

KwaZulu-Natal has 7728 species and infraspecific taxa recorded, which are from 253 vascular plant families (Appendix 3). A relatively large number of taxa (2120) are shared between the two regions.

Shown in Figure 5.1 are the most taxon-rich families in the available flora of

Mozambique in comparison to the available flora of KwaZulu-Natal. Only families that have more than 50 taxa were shown. The three most taxon-rich families in Mozambique and

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KwaZulu-Natal were the Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Asteraceae (but the sequence is Asteraceae,

Fabaceae, and Poaceae in KwaZulu-Natal) which can be seen on Table 5.1 showing the rankings of the most taxa-rich families. Table 5.1 also indicates the Spearman rank correlation to determine if there is an association between the two floras. According to the

Spearman correlation there is an association since the coefficient (0.789) is closer to +1 and the p-value suggests that the correlation between the datasets is significant.

Rank in Rank in Family MZ KZN Coefficient rs: 0.789 Fabaceae 1 2 N: 280 Poaceae 2 3 T static: 21.408 Asteraceae 3 1 DF: 278 Rubiaceae 4 10 p-value: <0.001 Orchidaceae 5 6 Acanthaceae 6 15 Malvaceae 7 9 Euphorbiaceae 8 12 Lamiaceae 9 7 Apocynaceae 10 4 Asparagaceae 11 11 Cyperaceae 12 5 Convolvulaceae 13 27.5

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Figure 5.1: Comparison between the available flora of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal according to the families in Mozambique that have more than 50 taxa.

5.2.2. Medicinal flora of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal

The most taxon-rich families that were used in traditional medicine are shown in Figure 5.2.

Only families in Mozambique that have 10 or more taxa are shown which were compared to

KwaZulu-Natal. The most common families in the medicinal flora of Mozambique were

Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Asteraceae. In KwaZulu-Natal they were Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. The rankings of the families are given in Table 5.2 which also shows the values of the Spearman rank correlation. The results show that the ranks of the two medicinal

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floras are only moderately correlated, as indicated by the coefficient value of 0.502 (and the low p-value).

Table 5.2: Rankings of the families in the medicinal flora that have 10 or more species and infraspecific taxa in Mozambique. Statistics value of the Spearman’s correlation are also shown. MZ= Mozambique, ZA= South Africa, N= number of families, DF: degrees or freedom.

Rank in Rank in Family MZ KZN Coefficient rs: 0.502 Fabaceae 1 2 N: 163 Apocynaceae 2 5 T static: 7.356 Asteraceae 3 1 DF: 161 Malvaceae 4 12 p- value: <0.001 Capparaceae 5.5 34.5 Rubiaceae 5.5 6 Euphorbiaceae 7 3 Poaceae 8 24.5 Combretaceae 9 24.5 Anacardiaceae 10 18 Loranthaceae 11 83.5 Acanthaceae 12.5 18 Lamiaceae 12.5 7.5 Asparagaceae 14 4 Amaranthaceae 16 34.5 Celastraceae 16 13.5 Cucurbitaceae 16 24.5 Ebenaceae 18.5 21 Rutaceae 18.5 34.5

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Figure 5.2: Comparison between the medicinal flora of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal according to the families in Mozambique that have 10 or more taxa.

5.3. Shared taxa

Figures 5.3 and 5.4 are scatter plots of the shared taxa in the total available floras and the shared taxa in the medicinal flora. The figures show families that have the most taxa shared in the total available floras (Figure 5.3) and in the total medicinal floras (Figure 5.4) of

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal. They also show on the y-axis the Sorensen index which is a value of the percentage of the taxa shared. Sorensen index (SI) on the graphs represent the

Sorensen index of the overall percentage of taxa shared in the total flora and the overall percentage of the taxa shared in the medicinal floras.

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SI= 0.312

Figure 5.3: Families that have more than 20 taxa shared between the total floras of

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal along with their Sorensen indices determining the percentage of shared taxa.

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SI= 0.248

Figure 5.4: Families that have three or more taxa shared between the medicinal floras of

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal along with their Sorensen indices determining the percentage of shared taxa.

5.4. Medicinal taxa of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal

5.4.1. Medicinal uses and use-categories

Further investigations into the similarities and differences between the two medicinal floras were conducted, and two detailed checklists of medicinal plant taxa were compiled, one for

Mozambique and one for KwaZulu-Natal. The checklist for Mozambique included data from

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26 literature sources (Table 2.1). It consisted of 758 species and infraspecific taxa (731 species and infraspecific taxa identified from species level), in which 654 were indigenous and 104 non-indigenous (69 naturalized and 35 cultivated exotics). These medicinal plants were from 421 genera in 115 families. The checklist for KwaZulu-Natal was based on the review of Zulu medicinal plants by Hutchings et al. (1996). It included 898 species and infraspecific taxa that were used medicinally (some of them also have veterinary and magic uses). Both checklists include full details of the plant parts that are used, and the specific medicinal uses as recorded in the literature. A total of 171 (23.4%) medicinal plant taxa are shared by Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal, in comparison to 2120 taxa (34.3%) in the total flora. The Sorensen index values are similar: 0.248 for medicinal taxa and 0.312 for the total floras. This means that the shared total floras are more similar that the shared medicinal floras.

How similar are the uses of medicinal plants in Mozambique to the medicinal uses of the same taxa in KwaZulu-Natal? A comparison of uses is shown in Table 5.3, where all 731 medicinal plant taxa of Mozambique were listed (i.e., those that have been identified to species level). Only 20 (2.73%) of the taxa shared the exact same medicinal uses, 29 (3.97%) had similar uses and 114 (15.60%) had different uses. Additionally, 53 taxa (7.25%) had unspecified medicinal uses. Note that Table 5.4 accommodates the possibility of a single species sharing the same and similar uses, as well as different uses (so that the totals add up to more than 171).

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Table 5.3: Checklist of medicinal plants in Mozambique, showing taxa that are also used medicinally in KwaZulu-Natal, South

Africa, including the numbers of medicinal uses that are the same, similar, different, or unspecified. (Taxa identified to genus level

only are excluded).

Used Species name (*naturalised exotics; **cultivated Same Similar Different Unspecified Family medicinally exotics) uses uses uses uses in KZN Acanthaceae Anisotes formosissimus (Klotzsch) Milne-Redhead - - - - - Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anders. - - - - - Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. - - - - - Blepharis buchneri Lindau - - - - - Blepharis diversispina (Nees) C.B. Clarke - - - - - Blepharis katangensis De Willd. - - - - - Blepharis pungens Klotzsch - - - - - Blepharis stuhlmanni Lindau - - - - - Crabbea velutina S.Moore - - - - - Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine - - - - - Justica flava (Vahl) Vahl + - - + - Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. - - - - - Thunbergia lancifolia T.Anders. - - - - - Achariaceae Hydnocarpus venenata Gaertn. - - - - - Xylotheca tettensis (Klotzsch) Gilg - - - - - Alismataceae Limnophyton obtusifolium (L.) Miq. - - - - - Amaranthaceae Achyropsis leptostachya (E.Mey. ex Meisn.) Hook.f. - - - - - Aerva leucura (L.) Moq. - - - - - Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.* - - - - - Amaranthus caudatus L.* - - - - - 158

Amaranthus spinosus L.* - - - - - Celosia trigyna L.* + - - - + Chenopodium album L.* + - - - + Cyathula natalensis Sond. - - - - - Cyathula spathulifolia Lopr. - - - - - Dysphania ambrosoides L.* + - + - - Hermbstaedtia odorata (Burch.) T. Cooke* + - + + - Amaryllidaceae Boophone disticha (L.f.) Herb. + - - + - Crinum bulbispermum (Burm.f.) Milne-Redh. & + + + + - Schweick. Crinum delagoense Verdoorn* - - - - - Crinum stuhlmannii Baker + - - + - Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. - - - - - Lannea discolor (Sond.) Engl. + - - - + Lannea edulis (Sond.) Engl. var. edulis - - - - - Lannea schimperi (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Engl. - - - - - Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. + - - - + Lannea stuhlmanni (Engl.) Engl. var. stuhlmannii * - - - - - Mangifera indica L. - - - - - Ozoroa gomesiana R.Fern & A.Fern. - - - - - Ozoroa obovata (Oliv.) R.Fern. & A.Fern + - - - + Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. subsp. caffra + + + + - (Sond.) Kokwaro Searsia dentata Thunb. F.A. Barkley - - - - - Searsia gueinzii Sond. F.A. Barkley + - - - + Searsia longipes Engl. Moffett* - - - - - Searsia longipes Engl. var. longipes - - - - - Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex Krauss) F.A.Barkley - - - - - Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers. + - - + - 159

Artabotrys brachypetalus Benth. - - - - - Artabotrys monteiroae Oliv. - - - - - Cleistochlamys kirkii (Benth.) Oliv. - - - - - Friesodielsia obovata (Benth.) Verdc. - - - - - Monodora stenopetala Oliv. - - - - - Monanthotaxis caffra Verdc. - - - - - Sphaerocoryne gracile (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. subsp. - - - - - gracile Xylopia parviflora (A.Rich.) Benth. - - - - - Apiaceae Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. & Zeyh. + - - + - Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam** - - - - - Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. - - - - - Heteromorpha arborescens (Spreng) Cham. & Schltdl. - - - - - Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. - - - - - Apocynaceae Adenium multiflorum Klotzsch - - - - - Adenium swazicum Stapf - - - - - Ancylobotrys petersiana (Klotzsch) Pierre - - - - - Asclepias burchellii Schltr. * - - - - - Calotropis procera (Ait.) W.T. Ait. - - - - - Carissa bispinosa (L.) Desf. ex Brenan + - - - + Carissa macrocarpa (Eckl.) A.DC. - - - - - Carissa spinarum Vahl - - - - - Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don* + - + + - Cryptolepis brazzaei Baill. - - - - - Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Meisn.) Schltr. - - - - - Cryptolepis obtusa N.E.Br. - - - - - Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Mull.Arg.) Pichon - - - - - Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Ait.f. + - - + -

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Gomphocarpus physocarpus E.Mey. + + - + - Gomphocarpus semilunatus A.Rich. - - - - - Holarrhena floribunda (G.Don) T.Durand & Schinz - - - - - Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. & G.Don - - - - - Landolphia buchananii (Hallier f.) Stapf. - - - - - Landolphia kirkii Dyer ex Hook.f. - - - - - Marsdenia macrantha (Klotzsch) Schltr. - - - - - Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels** - - - - - Nerium oleander L. - - - - - Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. - - - - - Plumeria alba L.* - - - - - Rauvolfia caffra Sond. + - - + - Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz - - - - - Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.** - - - - - Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A.DC.) Pichon - - - - - Sarcostemma viminale (L.) L.* - - - - - Secamone parvifolia (Oliv.) Bullock - - - - - Secamone punctulata Decne - - - - - Secamone punctulata Decne. var. stenophylla - - - - - (K.Schum.) N.E.Br. Secamone stenophylla K.Schum. - - - - - Strophanthus petersianus Klotzsch + - - + + Strophanthus courmontii Sacl. ex Franch. - - - - - Strophanthus gerrardii Stapf. + - - + + Strophanthus hypoleucos Stapf. - - - - - Strophanthus kombe Oliv. - - - - - Strophanthus luteolus Codd + - - - + Strophanthus nicholsonii Holmes - - - - -

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Tabernaemontana elegans Stapf. + - - + - Tabernaemontana stapfiana Britten - - - - - Tabernaemontana ventricosa Hochst. ex A.DC. + - - + - Thevetia neriifolia (l.)** - - - - - Voacanga africana Stapf. - - - - - Voacanga thouarsii Roem & Schult. - - - - - Araceae Gonatopus boivinii (Decne) Engl. - - - - - Pistia stratiotes L. - - - - - Stylochaeton natalensis Schott + + - + - Zamioculcas zamiifolia (Lodd.) Engl. - - - - - Araliaceae Cussonia arborea Hochst. ex A.Rich. - - - - - Cussonia arenicola Strey. - - - - - Cussonia spicata Thunb. + - - - + Cussonia zimmermannii Harms - - - - - Cussonia zuluensis Strey. - - - - - Schefflera actinophylla (Endl.) Harms* + - - - + Arecaceae Borassus flabellifer L. - - - - - Cocos nucifera L.** - - - - - Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart. - - - - - Phoenix reclinata Jacq. + - - + - Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia albida Duch. - - - - - Hydnora abyssinica A.Br. + - - + - Asparagaceae Asparagus aethiopicus L - - - - - Asparagus africanus Lam. + - - + - Asparagus africanus var. puberulus (Baker) Sebsebe - - - - - Asparagus asiaticus L. - - - - - Asparagus falcatus L. - - - - - Asparagus racemosus Willd. - - - - -

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Asparagus setaceus Engl. - - - - - Dipcadi viride (L.) Moench - - - - - Dracaena mannii Baker + - - - + Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl. + - - - + Sansevieria hyacinthoides (L.) Druce + - - + - Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn - - - - - Asphodelaceae Aloe chabaudii Scheonl. - - - - - Aloe greatheadii Schoenl. - - - - - Aloe marlothii A.Berger + - - + - Aloe parvibracteata Schonland - - - - - Aloe zebrina Baker - - - - - Asteraceae Ageratum conyzoides L. - - - - - Artemisia maritima L. - - - - - Aspilia mendonace Wild - - - - - Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Willd. - - - - - Athrixia rosmarinifolia (Sch. Bip. ex Walp.) Oliv. & - - - - - Hiern Baccharoides adoensis Sch. Bip. ex Walp. + - - - + Bidens pilosa L.* + - + + - Bidens steppia (Steez.) Scherff - - - - - Blepharispermum zanguebaricum Oliv.* - - - - - Blumea lacera Burm.f. DC. - - - - - Blumea viscosa (Mill.) V.M.Badillo - - - - - Brachylaena discolor DC. + - - + - Brachylaena huillensis O.Hoffm. - - - - - Brachylaena rotundata S.Moore - - - - - Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob** - - - - - Chrysocoma mozambiquensis Bayer - - - - -

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Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S.Moore - - - - - Dicoma anomala Sond. + - - + - Dicoma galpini Wilson - - - - - Dicoma macrocephala DC. - - - - - Dicoma tomentosa Cass. - - - - - Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. + - - - + Emilia coccinea (Sims) G.Don - - - - - Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex Wight - - - - - Erigeron bonariensis L. - - - - - Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.* - - - - - Helichrysopsis kraussii Sch. Bip.* - - - - - Helichrysopsis septentrionalis (Vatke) Hillilard - - - - - Helichrysum kirkii Oliv. & Heirn - - - - - Laphangium luteoalbum (L.) Tzvelev. - - - - - Launaea cornuta (Hochst. ex Oliv. & Hiern) C.Jeffrey - - - - - Linzia gerberiformis (Oliv. & Hiern) H.Rob. - - - - - Macledium sessiliflora (Harv.) S.Ortiz - - - - - Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L.Rob.* - - - - - Neojeffreya decurrens (L.) Cabrera - - - - - Nidorella auriculata DC. - - - - - Sonchus oleraceus L.* - - - - - Sphaeranthus suaveolens (Forssk.) DC. - - - - - Tridax procumbens L. - - - - - Vernonia acuminatissima S.Moore - - - - - Vernonia amygdalina Del. - - - - - Vernonia colorata (Willd.) Drake - - - - - Vernonia colorata (Willd.) Drake subsp. colorata + - - + - Balsaminaceae Impatiens wallerana Hook.f. - - - - -

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Begoniaceae Begonia oxyloba Welw. ex Hook.f. - - - - - Bignoniaceae Jacaranda mimosifolia D.Don* - - - - - Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. + + - + - Markhamia obtusifolia (Baker) Sprague - - - - - Markhamia zanzibarica (Bojer. ex DC.) K.Schum. - - - - - Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. - - - - - Boraginaceae Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. - - - - - Ehretia amoena Klotzsch. - - - - - Ehretia coerulea Guerke - - - - - Ehretia cymosa Thonn. - - - - - Ehretia obtusifolia Hochst. ex A.DC. + - - - + Ehretia rigida (Thunb.) Druce + - - - + Trichodesma ambacense subsp. hockii (De Wild.) - - - - - Brummitt Trichodesma physaloides (Fenzl) A.DC. - - - - - Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br. - - - - - Brassicaceae Rorippa madagascariensis (DC.) Hara - - - - - Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.** - - - - - Burseraceae Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Endl. + - - + - Commiphora edulis (Klotzsch) Engl. - - - - - Commiphora neglecta I.Verd. - - - - - Commiphora serrata Engl. - - - - - Cactaceae Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.** - - - - - Rhipsalis baccifera (Mill.) Stearn. + - - + - Campanulaceae Lobelia anceps L.f. var. anceps - - - - - Canellaceae Warburgia salutaris (Bertol.f.) Chiov. + - + + - Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L.** + - - + - Capparaceae Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Gilg & Gilg-Ben + - - - +

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Boscia foetida Schinz - - - - - Boscia foetida Schinz subsp. filipes (Gilg) Lotter - - - - - Boscia foetida subsp. rehmanniana (Pestal.) Toelken + - - - + Boscia mossambicensis Klotzsch. - - - - - Boscia salicifolia Oliv. - - - - - Boscia welwitschii Gilg - - - - - Cadaba kirkii Oliv. - - - - - Cadaba natalensis Sond. + - - + - Cadaba termitaria N.E.Br. - - - - - Capparis brassii DC. + - - + - Capparis erythrocarpos Isert var. rosea (Klotzsch) De - - - - - Wolf Capparis fascicularis DC. - - - - - Capparis rosea (Klotzsch) Oliv. - - - - - Capparis tomentosa Lam. + + + + - Capparis viminea Hook.f. & Thomson ex Oliv. var. - - - - - viminea Capparis viminea (Gilg) DeWolf var. orthacantha - - - - - Maerua edulis (Gilg & Gilg-Ben.) DeWolf - - - - - Maerua grantii Oliv. - - - - - Maerua juncea Pax - - - - - Maerua parvifolia Pax - - - - - Maerua rosmarinoides (Sond.) Gilg & Ben. - - - - - Maerua triphylla var. pubescense (Klotzch) DeWolf - - - - - Thilachium africanum Lour. + - - - + Caprifoliaceae Scabiosa columbaria L. + - - - + Caricaceae Carica papaya L.** - - - - - Caryophyllaceae Krauseola mosambicina (Moss) Pax ex K. Hoffm. - - - - - Celastraceae Brexia madagascariensis (Lam.) Ker-Gawl. - - - - - 166

Cassine aethiopica Thunb. + - - - + Cassine burkeana (Sond.) Kuntze - - - - - Elaeodendron sphaerophyllum (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Presl. - - - - - Gymnosporia buxifolia (L.) Szyszyl. - - - - - Gymnosporia heterophylla (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Loes. + + + + - Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. + - - - + Hippocratea parvifolia Oliv. - - - - - Loeseneriella crenata (Klotzch) Loes. - - - - - Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. - - - - - Salacia kraussii (Harv.) Harv. - - - - - Chrysobalanaceae Parinari capensis Harv. - - - - - Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth. - - - - - Parinari excelsa Sabine - - - - - Cleome angustifolia (Forssk.) subsp. petersiana Cleomaceae - - - - - (Klotzsch) Kers. Cleome gynandra L. - - - - - Cleome monophylla L. + - - + - Clusiaceae Garcinia livingstonei T.Anders. + - - - + Garcinia huillensis Welw. ex Oliv. - - - - - Colchicaceae Gloriosa superba L. + + - + - Combretaceae Combretum adenogonium Steud. ex A.Rich. - - - - - Combretum apiculatum Sond. + + - + - Combretum collinum Fresen. - - - - - Combretum fragrans F.Hoffm. - - - - - Combretum goetzei Engl. & Diels - - - - - Combretum holstii Engl. - - - - - Combretum imberbe Wawra - - - - - Combretum microphyllum Klotzsch - - - - -

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Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don - - - - - Combretum mossambicense (Klotzsch) Engl. - - - - - Combretum paniculatum Vent. - - - - - Combretum platyetum Welw. ex M.A.Laws. subsp. - - - - - aotesii (Rolfe) Exell Combretum rupicola Ridl. - - - - - Combretum zeyheri Sond. + - - + - Pteleopsis myrtifolia (M.A. Laws.) Engl. & Diels + - - - + Terminalia brachystemma Welw. ex Hiern - - - - - Terminalia catappa L. - - - - - Terminalia macroptera Guill. & Perr. - - - - - Terminalia mollis M.A. Laws. - - - - - Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC. + + - + - Terminalia trichopoda Diels. - - - - - Commelinaceae Aneilema cf pendunculosum C.B.Clarke - - - - - Aneilema leiocaule K.Schum. - - - - - Commelina africana L. + - - + - Commelina benghalensis L. + - - + - Connaraceae Rourea orientalis Baill. - - - - - Convolvulaceae Astripomoea lachnosperma (Choisy) A.Meeuse - - - - - Bonamia mossambicensis (Klotzsch) Hallier f. - - - - - Ipomoea consimilis Schulze-Menz - - - - - Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) Sweet - - - - - Ipomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy - - - - - Merremia tridentata (L.) Hallier f. + - - + - Costaceae Costus spectabilis (Fenzl) K.Schum. - - - - - Crassulaceae Kalanchoe lateritia Engl. - - - - - Cucurbitaceae Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai - - - - -

168

Coccinia senensis (Klotzsch) Cogn. - - - - - Cucumis africanus L.f. + - - + - Cucumis hirsutus Sond. + - - + + Cucumis metuliferus E.Mey. ex Naudin - - - - - Cucumis zeyheri Sond. - - - - - Diplocyclos tenuis (Klotzsch) C.Jeffrey - - - - - Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naudin + - - + + Luffa cylindrica (L.) M.Roem.** - - - - - Momordica balsamina L. + - - + - Zehneria scabra Sond. - - - - - Cyperaceae Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla - - - - - Cyperus involucratus Rottb. - - - - - Cyperus longus L. + - - - + Cyperus papyrus L. - - - - - Cyperus rotundus L. - - - - - Kyllinga alba Nees - - - - - Scleria racemosa Poir. - - - - - Dilleniaceae Tetracera boiviniana Baill. - - - - - Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea cochleari-apiculata De Wild. - - - - - Dipterocarpaceae Monotes glaber Sprague - - - - - Ebenaceae Diospyros galpinii (Hiern.) De Winter + - - - + Diospyros mespiliformis Hoschst. ex A.DC. - - - - - Diospyros quiloensis (Hiern) F.White - - - - - Diospyros usambarensis F.White - - - - - Diospyros verrucose Hiern - - - - - Diospyros villosa (L.) De Winter var. villosa + - - - + Euclea divinorum Hiern - - - - - Euclea natalensis A.DC. + - - + -

169

Euclea natalensis subsp. acutifolia F.White - - - - - Euclea racemosa Murr. + - - + - Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L. - - - - - Acalypha ornata Hochst ex A.Rich. - - - - - Acanthospermum australe (Loefl.) Kuntze - - - - - Acanthospermum glabratum (DC.) Wild. - - - - - Acanthospermum hispidum DC. - - - - - Conyza abyssinica Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich. - - - - - Croton megalobotrys Mull.Arg. - - - - - Croton pseudopulchellus Pax - - - - - Euphorbia balsamifera Ait. - - - - - Euphorbia graniticola L.C.Leach - - - - - Euphorbia hirta L. - - - - - Euphorbia prostrata Ait. - - - - - Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch - - - - - Euphorbia serpens Kunth - - - - - Euphorbia tirucalli L. + - - - + Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. - - - - - Jatropha gossypiifolia L. var. elegans (Pohl) Mull.Arg. - - - - - Jatropha multifida L. - - - - - Maprounea africana Mull.Arg. - - - - - Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel - - - - - Ricinus communis L. + - + + - Spirostachys africana Sond. + - + + - Tragia okanyua Pax - - - - - Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. + - - + - Acacia karoo Hayne + - - + - Acacia kraussiana Meisn. - - - - -

170

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile subsp. kraussiana + - + + - (Vatke) Brenan Acacia polyacantha Willd. subsp. campylacantha - - - - - (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Brenan Acacia xanthophloea Benth. + - - + - Afzelia quanzensis Welw. + - - + - Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W.F.Wight + - + + - Albizia antunesiana Harms - - - - - Albizia gummifera (J.F.Gmel.) C.A.Sm. - - - - - Albizia harveyi E.Fourn. - - - - - Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth. - - - - - Albizia versicolor Welw. ex Oliv. - - - - - Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC. + + - + - Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. - - - - - Amblygonocarpus andongensis (Welw. Ex Oliv.) Exell - - - - - & Torre Bauhinia galpinii N.E.Br. - - - - - Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J.H.Kirkbr. & - - - - - Wiersema Brachystegia boehmii Taub. - - - - - Brachystegia longifolia Benth. - - - - - Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. - - - - - Burkea africana Hook. - - - - - Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. - - - - - Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.** - - - - - Cassia abbreviate Oliv. - - - - - Cassia afrofistula Brenan. - - - - - Cassia occidentalis L. - - - - - Cassia petersiana Bolle - - - - -

171

Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene + - - + - Colophospermum mopane (Benth.) Leonard - - - - - Cordyla africana Lour. + - - - + Crotalaria axillaris Ait. - - - - - Crotalaria bernieri Baill. - - - - - Crotalaria monteiroi Baker.f. - - - - - Dalbergia lactea Vatke - - - - - Dalbergia melanoxylon Guil. & Perr - - - - - Delonix elata (L.) Gamble - - - - - Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf. - - - - - Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. - - - - - Dialium holtzii Harms - - - - - Dialium schlechteri Harms + + - + - Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. + - + + - Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Skeels + + - + - Elephantorrhiza goetzei (Harms) Harms - - - - - Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A.Rich. - - - - - Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. - - - - - Erythrina lysistemon Hutch. + - - + - Erythrophleum africanum (Welw. ex Benth.) Harms - - - - - Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guill. & Perr.) Brenan - - - - - Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev. + - - - + Hymenaena verrucose Gaertn. - - - - - Guibourtia conjugata (Bolle) J. Leonard - - - - - Indigofera antunesiana Harms - - - - - Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. - - - - - Indigofera spicata Forssk. - - - - - Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin - - - - -

172

Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe + - - - + Lonchocarpus laxiflorus Guill. & Perr. - - - - - Microcharis latifolia Benth. - - - - - Millettia stuhlmannii Taub. - - - - - Mimosa pigra L. + - - - + Mucuna coriacea Baker - - - - - Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. - - - - - Neorautanenia mitis (A. Rich.) Verd. - - - - - Newtonia buchananii (Baker f.) G.C.C. Gilbert & - - - - - Boutique Ormocarpum kirkii S.Moore - - - - - Ormocarpum trichocarpum (Taub.) Engl. + - - - + Parkinsonia aculeata L. - - - - - Peltophorum africanum Sond. + - - + - Pericopsis angolensis (Baker) Meeuwen - - - - - Philenoptera violacea (Klotzsch) Schrire - - - - - Physostigma venenosum Balf. + - - - + Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. - - - - - Pterocarpus angolensis DC. + - - - + Pterocarpus rotundifolius (Sond.) Druce - - - - - Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. - - - - - Rhynchosia caribaea (Jacq.) DC. - - - - - Rhynchosia sublobata (Schumach.) Meikle - - - - - Schotia brachypetala Sond. + - - + - Senna bicapsularis (L.) Roxb. - - - - - Senna didymobotrya Fresen. - - - - - Senna occidentalis (L.) Link* + - - + - Senna petersiana (Bolle) Lock - - - - -

173

Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby - - - - - Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. var. nubica Chiov. - - - - - Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke ex Engl. - - - - - Tamarindus indica L.* - - - - - Tephrosia capensis Pers. + - - - + Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. + - - + - Tephrosia uniflora Pers. - - - - - Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. + - - - + Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper** - - - - - Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc** - - - - - Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. + - - - + Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. subsp. stenophylla (Harv.) - - - - - Marechal, Mascheropa & Stainier Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) Mendoca & E.C.Sousa - - - - - Flagellariaceae Flagellaria guineensis Schumach. - - - - - Gentianaceae Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg - - - - - Gisekiaceae Gisekia africana (Lour.) Kuntze - - - - - Gisekia pharnaceoides L. - - - - - Hypericaceae Psorospermum febrifugum Spach. - - - - - Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch. & C.A.Mey. + - - + - Hypoxis obtusa Burch. - - - - - Iridaceae Dietes iridioides (L.) Sweet ex Klatt + - - - + Gladiolus dalenii van Geel + - - + - Lamiaceae Basilicum polystachyon (L.) Moench - - - - - Clerodendrum glabrum E.Mey. - - - - - Hoslundia opposita Vahl - - - - - Karomia tettensis (Klotzsch) R.Fern. - - - - - Leonotis dubia E.Mey.* - - - - -

174

Leonotis leonurus (L.) R.Br + - + - - Melissa officinalis L.* - - - - - Mentha x piperita L.** - - - - - Ocimum basilicum L. - - - - - Ocimum gratissimum L. var. gratissimum - - - - - Pycnostachys urticifolia Hook. - - - - - Rotheca myricoides var. discolor (Klotzsch) Verdc. + - - + + Vitex doniana Sweet - - - - - Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr.* - - - - - Lauraceae Cassytha filiformis L. - - - - - Cinnamonum verum J.Presl** - - - - - Persea americana Mill.** - - - - - Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz - - - - - Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. + - - + - Linaceae Hugonia orientalis Engl. - - - - - Loganiaceae Strychnos gerrardii N.E.Br. - - - - - Strychnos henningsii Gilg. + - + + - Strychnos innocua Del. - - - - - Strychnos madagascariensis Spreng. ex Baker - - - - - Strychnos spinosa Lam. + + - + - Loranthaceae Erianthemum dregei (Eckl. & Zeyl.) Tiegh. + - - + - Eriosema cordatum E.Mey. - - - - - Eriosema englerianum Harms. - - - - - Eriosema psoraleoides (Lam.) G.Don. - - - - - Loranthus sp. growing on Xeroderris stuhlmannii - - - - - (Taub.) Mendoca & E.P.Sousa Loranthus sp. growing on Abelmoschus esculentus - - - - - Moench. Loranthus sp. growing on Alfezia quanzensis Welw. - - - - - 175

Loranthus sp. growing on Cissus integrifolia - - - - - Loranthus sp. growing on Combretum sp. - - - - - Loranthus sp. growing on Hymenocardia acida Tul. - - - - - Loranthus sp. growing on Kirkia acuminata Oliv. - - - - - Loranthus sp. growing on Ochna natalitia Warp. - - - - - Loranthus sp. growing on Piliostigma thonningii - - - - - (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. Loranthus sp. growing on Sclerocarya birrea Hoschst. - - - - - Lythraceae Ammannia prieuriana Guill. & Perr. - - - - - Malpighiaceae Acridocarpus chloropterus Oliv. - - - - - Acridocarpus natalitus Juss. - - - - - Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench* - - - - - Abutilon angulatum (Guill. & Perr.) Mast. - - - - - Adansonia digitata L. - - - - - Bombax mossambicense A. Robyns - - - - - Bombax rhodognaphalon K.Schum. - - - - - Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaetn. - - - - - Cola acuminata (P.Beauv.) Schott & Endl. - - - - - Corchorus trilocularis L.** - - - - - Dombeya acutangula Cav. - - - - - Dombeya burgessiae Gerrard ex Harv. - - - - - Gossypium herbaceum L. - - - - - Gossypium herbaceum subsp. africanum (G.Watt) - - - - - Vollesen Grewia flavescense Juss. var. flavascense - - - - - Grewia hexamita Burret - - - - - Grewia monticola Sond. - - - - - Grewia pachycalyx K.Schum. - - - - - Grewia sulcata Mast. - - - - - 176

Heritiera littoralis Ait. - - - - - Hermannia glanduligera K.Schum. - - - - - Hermannia micropetala Harv. & Sond. - - - - - Hibiscus cannabinus L. - - - - - Hibiscus meyeri Harv. - - - - - Hibiscus physaloides Guill. & Perr. - - - - - Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.** - - - - - Hibiscus surattensis L. + - + + - Melochia corchorifolia L. - - - - - Sida acuta Burm.f. - - - - - Sida cordifolia L. - - - - - Sida rhombifolia L. - - - - - Sterculia appendiculata K.Schum. - - - - - Thespesia mossambicensis (Exell & Hillc.) Fryxell. - - - - - Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa - - - - - Triumfetta amuletum Sprague - - - - - Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. + + - + - Triumfetta welwitschii Mast. - - - - - Waltheria indica L. - - - - - Melastomataceae Dissotis irvingiana Hook. - - - - - Meliaceae Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. + + - + - Entandrophragma utile (Dawe & Sprague) Sprague - - - - - Khaya nyasica Stapf ex Baker f. - - - - - Melia azedarach L.** + - - + - Trichilia dregeana Sond. + - + + - Trichilia emetica Vahl + - + + - Trichilia emetica Vahl subsp. emetica - - - - - Turrea nilotica Kotschy & Peyr. - - - - -

177

Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica Fresen. - - - - - Menispermaceae Albertisia delagoensis (N.E.Br.) Forman - - - - - Cissampelos hirta Klotzsch - - - - - Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. + - - + - Jateorhiza palmata (Lam.) Miers - - - - - Tiliacora funifera (Miers) Oliv. - - - - - Tinospora caffra (Miers) Troupin - - - - - Tinospora tenera Miers - - - - - Moraceae Ficus glumosa Delile + - - + - Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. + + - + - Ficus lutea Vahl - - - - - Ficus platyphylla Delile - - - - - Ficus sur Forssk. + + - + - Ficus sycomorus L. - - - - - Maclura africana (Bureau) Corner - - - - - Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg - - - - - Morus alba L.* - - - - - Moringaceae Moringa oliefera Lam.** - - - - - Musaceae Musa x paradisiaca L.** - - - - - Myrothamnaceae Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw. + - - - + Myrtaceae Eucalyptus citriodora Hook** - - - - - Psidium guajava L.** - - - - - Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry - - - - - Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss + - + + - Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. subsp. guineense - - - - - Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston* - - - - - Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa L.* - - - - - Nymphaea alba L. - - - - -

178

Nymphaea lotus L. - - - - - Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea (Savigny) Verdc + - - + - Ochnaceae Brackenridgea zanguebarica Oliv. - - - - - Ochna kirkii Oliv. - - - - - Ochna mossambicensis Klotzsch - - - - - Ochna natalitia (Meisn.) Walp + - - + - Ochna schweinfurthiana F.Hoffm. - - - - - Olacaceae Olax dissitiflora Oliv. - - - - - Oleaceae Jasminum fluminense Vell. - - - - - Schrebera trichoclada Welw. - - - - - Orchidaceae Ansellia africana Lindl. + - - + - Orobanchaceae Alectra cordata Benth. - - - - - Buchnera hispida Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don - - - - - Cycnium adonense E.Mey. ex Benth. subsp. adonense - - - - - Cycnium tubulosum (L.f.) Engl. + - - - + Paperveraceae Argemone mexicana L. - - - - - Passifloraceae Adenia gummifera (Harv.) Harms + - - + - Tricliceras longipedunculatum (Mast.) R.Fern. - - - - - Pedaliaceae Dicerocaryum senecioides (Klotzsch) Abels - - - - - Dicerocaryum zanguebarium (Lour.) Merr. - - - - - Harpagophytum procumbens (Burch.) DC. ex Meisn.** - - - - - Sesamum alatum Thonn. - - - - - Sesamum indicum L.* - - - - - Phyllanthaceae Antidesma venosum E.Mey. ex Tul. + - + + - Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f. - - - - - Cleistanthus schlechteri (Pax) Hutch. - - - - - Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt + - - - + Hymenocardia acidi Tul. - - - - -

179

Magaritaria discoides (Baill.) G.L. Webster* + - - + - Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. + - - + - Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia Pax - - - - - Uapaca sansibarica Pax - - - - - Picrodendraceae Androstachys johnsonii Prain - - - - - Piperaceae Piper capense L.f. - - - - - Pittosporaceae Pittosporum tobira (Thunb.) W.T. Ait.* - - - - - Plumbaginaceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. + - - + - Plumbago zeylanica L. - - - - - Poaceae Cenchrus ciliaris L. - - - - - Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle - - - - - Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. - - - - - Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. - - - - - Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. - - - - - Eragrostis superba Wawra & Peyr. - - - - - Eriochloa fatmensis (Hochst. & Steud.) Clayton. - - - - - Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. + - - + - Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka - - - - - Panicum maximum Jacq. - - - - - Panicum trichocladum Hack. ex K.Schum. - - - - - Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. - - - - - Pennisetum typhoides Stapf & Hubb. - - - - - Perotis patens Gand. - - - - - Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. - - - - - Saccharum officinarum L.** - - - - - Sorghum arundinaceum Stapf - - - - - Sporobolus pyramidalis P. Beauv. - - - - - Sporobolus tenuissimus (Schrank) Kuntze - - - - -

180

Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze - - - - - Urochloa mosambicensis (Hack.) Dandy - - - - - Zea mays L.** - - - - - Polygalaceae Securidaca longependuculata Fresen. - - - - - Polygonaceae Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara - - - - - Pontederiaceae Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms - - - - - Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L.* - - - - - Portulaca quandrifida L. + - - + - Proteaceae Protea caffra Meisn. - - - - - Ranunculaceae Clematis brachiata Thunb. + - - + - Clematis viridiflora Bertol. - - - - - Ranunculus multifidus Forssk. + - - + - Rhamnaceae Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. + - - + - Helinus integrifolius (Lam.) Kuntze + - + - - Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.* - - - - - Ziziphus mucronata Willd. + - - + - Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. - - - - - Rhizophora mucronata Lam. - - - - - Rosaceae Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. + - - + - Rubiaceae Agathisanthemum bojeri Klotzsch + - - + - Breonadia salicina (Vahl.) Hepper & J.R.I. Wood + - + + - Catunaregam obovata (Hoschst.) Gonc. - - - - - Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng + - - - + Catunaregam swynnertonii (S.Moore) Bridson - - - - - Coddia rudis (E.Mey. ex Harv.) Verdc. + - - + - Coffea racemosa Lour. - - - - - Craterispermum laurinum Benth. - - - - - Crossopteryx febrifuga (Afzel. ex G.Don) Benth. - - - - -

181

Fadogia ancylantha Schweinf. - - - - - Fadogia cienkowskii Schweinf. - - - - - Gardenia jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Hiern - - - - - Gardenia ternifolia Schumach & Thonn. subsp. jovis- tonantis (Welw.) Verdc. var. goetzei (Stapf & Hutch.) - - - - - Verdc. Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. et Thonn. Subsp. jovis- + - - + - tonantis (Welw.) Verdc. Gardenia volkensii K.Schum. - - - - - Gardenia volkensii K.Schum. subsp. volkensii var. - - - - - volkensii Oldenlandia affinis (Roem. & Schult.) DC. + - - - + Oldenlandia herbacea (L.) Roxb. - - - - - Psydrax locuples (K.Schum.) Bridson - - - - - Spermacoce chaetocephala DC. - - - - - Spermacoce subvulgata (K.Schum.) J.G.García - - - - - Tarenna junodii (Schinz) Brem. - - - - - Tricalysia jasminiflora (Klotzsch) Benth. & Hook.f. ex - - - - - Hiern Vangueria infausta Burch. + - + + - Rutaceae Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle - - - - - Citrus limon L.** - - - - - Citrus paradisi Macfad.** - - - - - Citrus reticulata Blanco** - - - - - Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck - - - - - Ptaeroxylon obliquum Radlk. + - - + - Vepris reflexa I.Verd. - - - - - Vepris undulata Verdoorn & C.A.Sm. - - - - - Zanthoxylum capense (Thunb.) Harv. + + - + -

182

Zanthoxylum humile (E.A Bruce) P.G. Waterman - - - - - Salicaceae Casearia gladiiformis Mast. + - - - + Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. - - - - - Oncoba spinosa Forssk. + - - - + Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica L. var. persica - - - - - Santalaceae Viscum triforum DC. - - - - - Sapindaceae Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. - - - - - Deinbollia oblongifolia (E.Mey. ex Arn.) Radlk. + - + + - Deinbollia xanthocarpa (Klotzsch) Radlk. - - - - - Paullinia pinnata L. - - - - - Zanha golungensis Hiern - - - - - Sapotaceae Manilkara discolor (Sond.) J.H. Hemsl. + - - + - Manilkara mochisia (Baker) Dubard + - - - + Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L.* - - - - - Datura stramonium L.* + - - + - Physalis angulata L.* - - - - - Solanum acuteatissimum Jacq. + - - + - Solanum campylacanthum Hochst. - - - - - Solanum incanum L.* + - - + - Solanum nigrum L.* - - - - - Solanum panduriforme E.Mey. + - - + - Stilbaceae Halleria elliptica Thunb. - - - - - Taccaceae Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze - - - - - Talinaceae Talinum tenuissimum Dinter - - - - - Thelypteridaceae Cyclosorus gongylodes (Schkuhr) Link - - - - - Thymelaceae Synaptolepis kirkii Oliv. + - + - - Velloziaceae Xerophyta retinervis Baker - - - - - Verbenaceae Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels* - - - - -

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Lantana camara L.** - - - - - Lippia javanica (N.L. Burm.) Spreng. + + + + - Priva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce - - - - - Ampelocissus obtusata subsp. kirkiana (Planch.) Wild & Vitaceae - - - - - R.B.Drumm. Cissus bathyrhakodes Werderm. - - - - - Cissus cornifolia (Baker) Planch. - - - - - Cissus integrifolia (Baker) Planch. - - - - - Cissus quadrangularis L. - - - - - Cissus rutondifolia (Forssk.) Vahl - - - - - Cyphostemma junceum (Webb) Wild & R.B.Drumm. - - - - - Cyphostemma barbosae Wild & R.B.Drumm. - - - - - Cyphostemma buchananii (Planch.) Desc. - - - - - Cyphostemma congestum (Baker) Desc. ex Willd. & - - - - - Drumm. Cyphostemma gigantophyllum (Gilg & M.Brandt) Desc. - - - - - ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. Rhoicissus revoilii Planch. - - - - - Rhoicissus tomentosa (Lam.) Willd. & Drumm. + - + - - Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & Drumm. + - + - - Ximeniaceae Ximenia caffra Sond. + - - + - Ximenia americana L. + - - - + Zingibaraceae Curcuma longa L.* - - - - - Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B.L.Burtt + - - - + Siphonochilus kirkii (Hook.f.) B.L.Burtt - - - - - Zygophyllaceae Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile - - - - - Balanites maughamii Sprague + - - + - Balanites pedicellaris Mildbr. & Schltr. - - - - - Tribulus terrestris L. - - - - - 184

171 20 29 114 54 Total 731 (23.4%) (2.74%) (3.98%) (15.60%) (7.38%)

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The medicinal uses were grouped according to different medicinal categories, mainly by the systems they affect. Figure 5.4 compares the number of medicinal taxa used to treat the same ailment categories in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal. The rankings and values from the

Spearman rank correlation are indicated on Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Rankings of the medicinal-use categories. Statistics value of the Spearman’s correlation are also shown. MZ= Mozambique, ZA= South Africa, N= number of families, DF: degrees or freedom.

Rank Medicinal categories Rank in in MZ KZN Coefficient rs: 0.661 Digestive 1 1 N: 19 General and unspecified 2 2 T static: 4.837 Female/ male genital 3 7 DF: 17 PCFP 4 6 p- value: <0.001 Respiratory 5 4 Neurological 6 11 Dermatological 7.5 5 Musculoskeletal 7.5 8 Antimicrobial uses 9 12 Pediatric 10 9 Ophthalmic 11 18 ENT 12 19 Trauma uses 13 10 Circulatory system 14 15 Analgesic 15 16 Tonics 16 3 Urological 17 14 Endocrine/metabolic and nutritional 18 17 Blood, blood forming organs and immune mechanism 19 13

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700 600 Mozambique KwaZulu-Natal Shared/similar uses 500 category - 400 300 200 100 15 3 3 4 6 2 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 No. of taxa per use per taxa ofNo.

Medicinal use-categories

Figure 5.4: Comparison of the number of medicinal taxa per category of use in Mozambique and

KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, with the number of shared taxa (i.e., with the same or similar uses) for each category.

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5.4.2. Plant parts used

Plant parts used appear to be used in a similar pattern (Figure 5.5) for both Mozambique and

KwaZulu-Natal with the number of taxa used for their roots, leaves, and bark in the top positions.

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 Number of times times used of Number 50 0

Mozambique KwaZulu-Natal

Figure 5.5: Comparison of the plant parts that are used medicinally in Mozambique and the

KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa.

5.5. Comparison of medicinal floras at ordinal level

The data for Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal was first analysed using regression analysis, following the approach of Moerman (1979), to determine whether the selection of medicinal plants was random or non-random. Families with residual values greater than the standard error

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of the regression are considered to be overutilized, while those with residuals lesser than the standard error of the regression, were underutilized. The null hypothesis here was that the overall selection of medicinal plants is non-random.

The analysis of the least square regression showed a strong linear relationship between the total flora of Mozambique and the medicinal taxa (grouped by order) as the p-value in

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal was less than 0.001 with R-square values of 0.811 and 0.814, respectively. The hypothesis therefore has to be rejected, and the selection of medicinal plants appears to be predominantly random, with ca. 80% of the variation explained by the regression model. According to Table 5.4a the residuals range from +24 to -29 for Mozambique and +29 to

-73 for KwaZulu-Natal, where the standard error for the least-square regression in Mozambique is 8.57, whilst the standard error for KwaZulu-Natal was 10.73. The results therefore serve to identify orders that are significantly above or below the expected values predicted by the regression function. These orders were therefore not randomly selected, i.e., explanations are required for their over- or under-utilization.

The orders in Table 5.4a for KwaZulu-Natal were selected based on the orders of

Mozambique that were significantly greater and significantly lesser than the standard error

(shown in bold). Sapindales, Brassicales, and the Gentianales were the three most overutilized orders in Mozambique, followed by Fabales, but in KwaZulu-Natal the three most used orders were Asparagales, Malphigiales, and Fabales, and the fourth one being Sapindales (which is first in Mozambique).

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Table 5.4a: Regression analysis results for the orders of Mozambique [R2 = 0.81090, SE =8.32; p<0.001] in comparison to those of KwaZulu-

Natal, South Africa [R2 = 0.80457, SE = 10.73; p<0.001]. Only orders whose residuals are significantly greater or lesser than the standard error are shown (in bold). Pred. = predicted value; Res. = residual value.

Mozambique KwaZulu-Natal

Order Total Used Pred. Res. Total Used Pred. Res.

Sapindales 177 43 19 +24 143 34 16 +18

Brassicales 74 31 9 +23 102 14 12 +2

Gentianales 572 77 59 +17 583 68 60 +8

Fabales 797 98 81 +16 783 99 80 +19

Malvales 223 38 24 +14 231 24 25 -1

Myrtales 172 29 19 +10 141 19 16 +3

Santalales 100 19 12 +8 87 6 10 -4

Malpighiales 473 56 49 +7 337 64 35 +29

Solanales 43 14 18 -4 127 26 14 +12

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Saxifragales 43 1 6 -5 104 9 12 -3

Lamiales 601 48 62 -14 670 69 69 0

Polypodiales 165 1 18 -17 195 10 21 -11

Asparagales 483 26 50 -24 916 122 93 +29

Poales 569 31 61 -30 841 13 86 -73

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5.6. Comparison of medicinal floras at family level

5.6.1. Regression analysis

Table 5.4b shows the results of the regression analysis of families. The families show a rather interesting pattern of selection, where the p-values for the Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal regressions were less than 0.001, which show that the selection of medicinal plants both in

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal is mostly random. The R-square values also demonstrate the random selection of medicinal plants, with R-square values of 0.762 for Mozambique and

0.785 for KwaZulu-Natal. This means that a large part (roughly three quarters) of the variation can be explained by the regression model. The results show that some families are well above or well below the regression line, and Table 5.4b indicate those residuals that are statistically significant (i.e., those families where the absolute value of the residuals are greater than the standard error of the regression).

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Table 5.4b: Regression analysis results for the families of Mozambique [R2 = 0.762, SE

=4.11; p<0.001] in comparison to those of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa [R2 = 0.785, SE

=4.17; p<0.001]. Only families whose residuals are significantly greater or lesser than the standard error are shown (in bold). Pred. = predicted value; Res. = residual value.

Mozambique KwaZulu-Natal

Families Total Used Pred. Res. Total Used Pred. Res.

Apocynaceae 165 46 18 +28 355 29 34 -5

Capparaceae 46 24 5 +19 37 7 4 +3

Fabaceae 764 97 80 +17 688 80 64 +16

Malvaceae 200 36 21 +15 177 17 17 0

Combretaceae 62 21 7 +14 26 9 3 +6

Anacardiaceae 49 15 5 +10 68 13 7 +6

Vitaceae 52 14 6 +8 38 6 4 +2

Loranthaceae 53 14 6 +8 19 2 2 0

Meliaceae 23 9 3 +6 12 7 2 +5

Rutaceae 38 10 4 +5 23 7 3 +4

Ebenaceae 43 10 5 +5 41 10 5 +5

Menispermaceae 17 7 2 +5 11 3 2 +1

Asteraceae 362 43 38 +5 830 85 78 +7

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Celastraceae 57 11 6 +5 70 15 7 +8

Boraginaceae 41 9 5 +4 49 7 5 +2

Pteridaceae 40 0 5 -4 47 5 5 0

110 7 11 -4 268 3 26 -23 Cyperaceae 108 7 12 -5 62 11 6 +5 Convolvulaceae Lamiaceae 185 13 20 -7 202 24 19 +5

Acanthaceae 214 13 23 -10 128 13 13 0

Rubiaceae 355 24 38 -14 173 28 17 +11

Orchidaceae 227 1 24 -23 255 24 24 0

Poaceae 443 22 47 -25 530 10 54 -44

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5.6.2. Bayesian analysis

The families shown in Table 5.5a were found to be overrepresented families in Mozambique and

KwaZulu-Natal when the more conservative Bayesian approach to regression analysis was used, and the families in Table 5.5b are underrepresented. Mozambique has 731 identified taxa distributed within J=233 plant families and KwaZulu-Natal has 898 identified taxa within J=253 plant families.

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Table 5.5a: Overused plant families of Mozambique (left) and KwaZulu-Natal (right) whose 95% posterior credible interval lies above the 95% posterior credible interval of the overall proportion for the flora θ (0.110, 0.126) and (0.109, 0.124) respectively.

J=Family, nj=total taxa, xj=taxa used medicinally, Inf. = inferior interval, Sup. = superior interval.

Mozambique KwaZulu-Natal

Family (J) nj xj Inf. Sup. Margin Family (J) nj xj Inf. Sup. Margin

Capparaceae 46 24 0.381 0.659 0.255 Portulacaceae 4 4 0.478 0.995 0.354

Gisekiaceae 2 2 0.292 0.992 0.166 Primulaceae 4 4 0.478 0.995 0.354

Zygophyllaceae 6 4 0.290 0.901 0.164 Peraceae 6 5 0.421 0.963 0.297

Arecaceae 9 5 0.262 0.813 0.136 Melianthaceae 12 7 0.316 0.808 0.192

Combretaceae 62 21 0.233 0.463 0.107 Resedaceae 2 2 0.292 0.992 0.168

Chrysobalanaceae 5 3 0.223 0.882 0.097 Ranunculaceae 13 7 0.289 0.770 0.165

Meliaceae 23 9 0.221 0.594 0.095 Sapotaceae 17 8 0.260 0.692 0.136

Apocynaceae 165 46 0.216 0.352 0.090 Annonaceae 7 4 0.245 0.843 0.121

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Menispermaceae 17 7 0.215 0.643 0.089 Icacinaceae 10 5 0.234 0.766 0.111

Araliaceae 15 6 0.198 0.646 0.072 Lauraceae 16 7 0.230 0.671 0.106

Anacardiaceae 49 15 0.195 0.446 0.069 Casuarinaceae 3 2 0.194 0.932 0.070

Aristolochiaceae 3 2 0.194 0.932 0.068 Talinaceae 3 2 0.194 0.932 0.070

Lecythidaceae 3 2 0.194 0.932 0.068 Ximeniaceae 3 2 0.194 0.932 0.070

Plumbaginaceae 3 2 0.194 0.932 0.068 Combretaceae 26 9 0.194 0.540 0.070

Bignoniaceae 13 5 0.177 0.649 0.051 Phytolaccaceae 9 4 0.187 0.738 0.063

Vitaceae 52 14 0.168 0.403 0.042 Meliaceae 17 6 0.173 0.590 0.049

Loranthaceae 53 14 0.165 0.397 0.039 Polygalaceae 47 13 0.170 0.418 0.046

Pedaliaceae 14 5 0.163 0.616 0.037 Loganiaceae 10 4 0.167 0.692 0.043

Bromeliaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Dioscoreaceae 14 5 0.163 0.616 0.039

Canellaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Aristolochiaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

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Caricaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Burmanniaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Flagellariaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Connaraceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Moringaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Cunoniaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Musaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Gigaspermaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Myrothamnaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Heteropyxidaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Papaveraceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Hydnoraceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Pittosporaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Marattiaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Taccaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.032 Martyniaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Zingiberaceae 7 3 0.157 0.755 0.031 Musaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Loganiaceae 19 6 0.154 0.543 0.028 Smilacaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Rutaceae 38 10 0.150 0.421 0.024 Typhaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

Cactaceae 4 2 0.147 0.853 0.021 Ulmaceae 1 1 0.158 0.987 0.034

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Ximeniaceae 4 2 0.147 0.853 0.021 Rutaceae 23 7 0.156 0.511 0.032

Nyctaginaceae 12 4 0.139 0.614 0.013 Euphorbiaceae 165 34 0.151 0.274 0.027

Lauraceae 8 3 0.137 0.701 0.011 Amaryllidaceae 95 21 0.150 0.315 0.026

Malvaceae 200 36 0.133 0.239 0.007 Solanaceae 64 15 0.148 0.352 0.024

Ebenaceae 43 10 0.132 0.378 0.006 Ebenaceae 41 10 0.139 0.395 0.015

Phyllanthaceae 36 9 0.138 0.412 0.014

Celastraceae 70 15 0.135 0.324 0.011

Asparagaceae 170 30 0.127 0.241 0.003

Sapindaceae 23 6 0.126 0.467 0.002

Total 6187 731 0.110 0.126 Total 7728 898 0.109 0.124

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Mozambique KwaZulu-Natal

Family (J) nj xj Inf. Sup. Margin Family (J) nj xj Inf. Sup. Margin

Acanthaceae 214 13 0.036 0.101 0.009 Santalaceae 63 2 0.010 0.108 0.001

Rubiaceae 355 24 0.046 0.099 0.011 Scrophulariaceae 156 8 0.027 0.098 0.011

Aspleniaceae 36 0 0.001 0.095 0.015 Aspleniaceae 35 0 0.001 0.097 0.012

Pteridaceae 40 0 0.001 0.086 0.024 Ericaceae 73 0 0.000 0.049 0.060

Poaceae 443 22 0.033 0.074 0.036 Cyperaceae 268 3 0.004 0.032 0.077

Orchidaceae 227 1 0.001 0.024 0.086 Poaceae 530 9 0.009 0.032 0.077

Total 6187 731 0.110 0.126 Total 7728 898 0.109 0.124

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5.6.3 Imprecise Dirichlet Model (IDM)

Table 5.6 indicates the calculations of the IDM approaches for over- and underused families. The results from the Bayesian and IDM approaches are very similar although the IDM method is more conservative. However, in the Bayesian approach, 35 and six families were shown as overrepresented and underrepresented in Mozambique and 41 and six families in KwaZulu-

Natal, respectively. Similarly, due to the conservative approach of the IDM method, only 12 and three families were represented as overused and underused in Mozambique and 13 and two families in KwaZulu-Natal, respectively, thus fewer families were shown in the IDM method.

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Table 5.6: Comparison of IDM intervals between Mozambique (J = 233) and KwaZulu-Natal (J = 253) floras showing over- and underused families.

Mozambique KwaZulu-Natal

Family nj xi Inf. Sup. Family nj xi Inf. Sup.

Overused Overused

Capparaceae 46 24 0.344 0.693 Melianthaceae 12 7 0.213 0.882

Combretaceae 62 21 0.212 0.498 Peraceae 6 5 0.212 0.997

Apocynaceae 165 46 0.208 0.367 Ranunculaceae 13 7 0.198 0.848

Meliaceae 23 9 0.172 0.666 Sapotaceae 17 8 0.191 0.769

Anacardiaceae 49 15 0.171 0.491 Portulacaceae 4 4 0.184 1.000

Menispermaceae 17 7 0.154 0.728 Primulaceae 4 4 0.184 1.000

Arecaceae 9 5 0.152 0.901 Lauraceae 16 7 0.163 0.756

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Vitaceae 52 14 0.147 0.448 Combretaceae 26 9 0.153 0.611

Loranthaceae 53 14 0.144 0.441 Polygalaceae 47 13 0.146 0.467

Zygophyllaceae 6 4 0.137 0.972 Euphorbiaceae 165 34 0.144 0.291

Araliaceae 15 6 0.133 0.740 Icacinaceae 10 5 0.139 0.861

Malvaceae 200 36 0.127 0.253 Amaryllidaceae 95 21 0.138 0.342

Solanaceae 64 15 0.131 0.391

Underused Underused

Rubiaceae 355 24 0.043 0.108 Cyperaceae 268 3 0.002 0.048

Poaceae 443 21 0.029 0.082 Poaceae 530 9 0.008 0.039

Orchidaceae 227 1 0.000 0.044

Total 6187 731 0.110 0.127 Total 7728 896 0.109 0.124

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5.7. Discussions

5.7.1. Total available flora and medicinal flora of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal

The list in Appendix 3 appears to be quite comprehensive, especially when compared to estimates of the floristic diversity of Mozambique by Sosef et al. (2017). Of an estimated 5264 species, only 4095 could be verified (Sosef et al., 2017). However, the expectation is that more species will be discovered in future botanical surveys.

The rankings in Table 5.1 and the graphical representation of the number of taxa in

Figure 5.1 showed that the floristic composition of the two areas were similar and that the difference is in the number of taxa in each family. It was noted that the three most taxa-rich families were the same. Further evidence of similarities in the total flora was indicated by the

Spearman rank correlation which had a coefficient of 0.789 suggesting that there was an association between the rankings of the families in the flora of Mozambique and that of

KwaZulu-Natal. The p-value was also significant.

The similarities in these two floras could be accounted for by the similar vegetation types. Mozambique was mainly grassland, savannah, and forest biomes (FAO, 2004), KwaZulu-

Natal had similar biomes (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006). The Fabaceae, Asteraceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Malvaceae, were typical families in the savannah biome in

Angola and the most useful (Gohre et al., 2016), these families were also similar to the most taxa-rich families in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal. Additionally, grasslands were mainly dominated by Poaceae (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006) which was the second largest family in

Mozambique and third largest in KwaZulu-Natal. Moreover, 34.44% of the biomes in South

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Africa is accounted for by the Savannah biome, and 24.48 is the Nama-Karoo, and 24.27 is the grassland biome (Palmer and Ainslie, 2005).

Moreover, the most taxon-rich families in Mozambique were similar to other tropical

African countries although the sequence or ranking was different, but the top five families were the same (Sosef et al., 2017) and include Fabaceae (rank 1 in Mozambique vs rank 2 in Tropical

Africa), Poaceae (2 vs 5), Asteraceae (3 vs 4), Rubiaceae (4 vs 1), and Orchidaceae (5 vs 3). Van

Wyk (2020) showed a similar trend at family level for sub-Saharan Africa. The most taxa-rich families were reported to be the Fabaceae (5220 taxa, rank 1), Asteraceae (4250 taxa, rank 2),

Rubiaceae (2754 taxa, rank 3), Poaceae (2031 taxa, rank 4), and Orchidaceae (1897 taxa, rank 5).

Available data therefore indicate that the floristic composition of different regions in Africa, that is; Sub-Saharan and, Tropical African countries are similar, at least when the five most taxon- rich families are compared.

Although the total available floras were similar, there appeared to be moderate similarity between the medicinal floras and that there was a correlation which was determined by the coefficient (0.502) of the Spearman rank correlation (Table 5.2). However, the strength of the relationship between the two medicinal floras could not be determined by the Spearman rank correlation. Nonetheless, given the availability and abundance of the Fabaceae and Asteraceae in both regions, it was not surprising that they were commonly used in traditional medicine,

Fabaceae was the first most taxon-rich family in the medicinal flora of Mozambique and

Asteraceae was the first most taxon-rich family in the medicinal flora of KwaZulu-Natal. These two families are amongst the five largest families of the world (Willis, 2017). Although the family Apocynaceae was not as abundant in Mozambique as in KwaZulu-Natal, the family was

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still very popular in traditional medicine, as reflected in being the second most taxon-rich medicinal family in Mozambique. According to Islam and Lucky (2019), Apocynaceae were among the most used families in traditional medicine. Species of the Apocynaceae family have alkaloids and thus constitute properties that are against cancer and malaria, some of the well- known species include Catharanthus roseus and Tabernaemontana elegans which had the most citations in Mozambique (Figure 3.3). Furthermore, Apocynaceae were used in traditional medicine for various ailments such as pain, fever, diabetes, and other gastrointestinal ailments

(Islam and Lucky (2019). Nevertheless, the family Poaceae was also a very large family but only few of its taxa are used medicinally, as was also shown by Van Wyk (2020) in an analysis of the

African medicinal flora. This could suggest some plant families were carefully selected for their use in traditional medicine, while others were avoided.

5.7.2. Shared medicinal taxa

There are 194 families that have taxa shared between Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal, the most of which was shared in Fabaceae (202 taxa), Poaceae (160) and Asteraceae (157). As can be expected, the most taxa were shared between the families that had more than 100 taxa in the total flora of Mozambique. There were 68 families that had shared medicinal taxa between the two regions. The Sorensen index was calculated to determine the degree of similarity between the shared taxa. In Chapter one, it was stated that if the percentage of shared medicinal taxa of the major plant families is similar to the overall percentage of shared taxa in the total flora then it can be assumed that the two medicinal floras are similar, but if the percentages overlap of the major medicinal plant families are less than the cut off then the hypothesis can be rejected. 206

The shared percentages (Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4) suggest that the medicinal floras were not the same (but also not very dissimilar) because the overall medicinal floras were 24.8% and the overall total flora was 31.2%, with the overlap percentage of about 80%. Furthermore, these overall percentages of the shared medicinal flora support the evidence of similarity demonstrated by the Spearman rank correlations for plant families. However, the data also showed that it was not all families that had similar medicinal taxa shared. The Poaceae, for example, had no medicinal taxa shared, the Asteraceae had 9.4% taxa shared in the medicinal flora and 26.3% taxa shared in the total flora and thus they had an overlap that was less than the cut off. However, the overall impression given by the Sorensen index (0.312 for the total floras shared, 0.248 for the medicinal floras shared) is that these values are relatively high and that there is a relatively high degree of similarity between the medicinal floras of Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal.

5.7.3. Medicinal uses

Even though the medicinal floras were rather similar, the results in Table 5.3 showed that medicinal uses were mainly different among the shared medicinal taxa. There were only 20 species and infraspecific taxa that shared the exact same uses and a 114 species and infraspecific taxa that had different uses. Taxa that had similar uses were 29. This could suggest that even though medicinal species and infraspecific taxa were selected in a similar way, the uses were different. This means that a species could have been recorded as a useful medicinal plant in both regions, however, the ailment treated by that species could be different.

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Similarities between intercultural groups are mainly facilitated by the transfer and sharing of ethnomedicinal knowledge between the two groups. A similar study by Kujawska et al. (2016) showed similar trends between the Guarani, Criollos, and Polish migrants in the subtropics of

Argentina, where the Guarani and Criollos people seemed similar at first sight but further investigations suggested that these intercultural groups were actually different. However, the

Criollos people had similar ethnomedicinal knowledge or traditions to those of the Polish migrants probably due to the exchange of knowledge between the two groups. Thus, by far, the

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal regions have similar floristic compositions of the total and medicinal floras but had mainly different uses.

Majority of the uses were shared between the ailments of the digestive system, with 15 taxa cited to having the same or similar uses. Digestive system ailments had the most taxa cited for their treatment, ranking number one both in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal. Respiratory ailments had the second highest number of shared uses with six taxa cited, additionally respiratory ailments were ranked the fifth most treated ailments in Mozambique and the fourth most treated ailments in KwaZulu-Natal. Even though some of the species and infraspecific taxa used to treat the ailments in these medicinal-use categories, the medicinal-use categories in themselves were similar and had an associated relationship. The degree to which the medicinal- use categories are associated was shown by the Spearman rank coefficient which was 0.661.

Therefore, the ailments that were treated were similar however, the species and infraspecific taxa selected to treat these ailments were different.

Tonics seem to be common among the Zulu people ranking as the third most cited use in

KwaZulu-Natal. In most instances, tonics are taken as an emetic. Additionally, Mhlongo and

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Van Wyk (2019) reported tonics as the most cited medicinal-use category in the Amandawe area in KwaZulu-Natal. Furthermore, the most treated ailments in the Ambalabe area in Eastern

Madagascar were diarrhoea, stomach-ache, malaria, cough, dysentery, and bilharzia

(Rakotoarivelo et al., 2015). These ailments that were identified as the frequently treated form part of the medicinal-use categories which had the highest number of species and infraspecific taxa used to treat them.

5.7.3.1 Plant parts used

As per Krog et al. (2006), the most sold plant parts in the Maputo (Mozambique) medicinal plant trade market were roots, followed by whole plants and leaves. According to this survey, whole plants were not much traded, since only 51 of the taxa were reported as being used as whole plants. Additionally, Barbosa et al. (2020) also attested to roots being the most sold and used plant part in three main medicinal plant trade markets in Maputo (Xipamanine, Xiquelene, and

Mazambane). Figure 5.5 shows that the roots are the first most used, and the bark was only the third most used plant part in KwaZulu-Natal. However, in South Africa, there is a greater demand for bark as it has a higher economic value. It was further noted that even in markets such as the Faraday in Johannesburg, bark was sold in the greatest volume, comprising 52% of the woodland volume traded in the market (Williams, 2004). In Figure 5.5 unspecified plant parts are also shown, including 246 taxa with unspecified plant parts for Mozambique and 164 taxa for

KwaZulu-Natal.

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5.7.4. Comparisons of medicinal floras at ordinal level

From this result is appears that the orders were selected differently except for the underutilized orders, which were similar, being Poales and Polypodiales. Although the Asparagales (consisting of large families such as Asparagaceae, Orchidaceae and Asphodelaceae) were underutilized in

Mozambique but highly overutilized in KwaZulu-Natal, Lamiales were also underutilized but not statistically significant (the residual value of 0.479 falls within the standard error for KwaZulu-

Natal).

The selection of orders in KwaZulu-Natal (as presented here) and southern Africa (as presented by Douwes et al., 2008) was similar but completely different from that of

Mozambique. Only the order Gentianales were shown to be overused in both Mozambique and southern Africa (but not in KwaZulu-Natal). The residuals of the most utilized orders in southern

Africa (Douwes et al., 2008) were the largest for Malphigiales, Fabales, Gentianales and

Asterales. Douwes et al. (2008) suggested that a large part of the non-random variation can probably be explained by the chemical constituent of the orders and families (e.g., a high presence of physiologically active alkaloids), showing that there is a potential rational explanation for the selection of medicinal taxa.

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5.7.5. Comparison of medicinal floras at family level

5.7.5.1. Regression analysis

The Apocynaceae were overutilized in Mozambique but underutilized in KwaZulu-Natal, even though the family had an abundant availability in the latter (Table 5.4b). The standard errors of the regression for Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal were 4.11 and 4.17 respectively, and the residual value for Apocynaceae in Mozambique, was +26, but in KwaZulu-Natal it was -5. The non-random selection of Apocynaceae could be accounted for by the reason that it was the second largest medicinal family in Mozambique (see Figure 5.2), that it was amongst the 20 most used medicinal families of the world, ranking 4th (Van Wyk, 2020) and that it is known for the high frequency of occurrence of alkaloids and low-toxicity cardiac glycosides in this family.

The most common and well-known species is Catharantus roseus (L.) G. Don., known for its anti-cancer properties (Willis, 2017). Surprisingly, however, this species has not yet been recorded as a medicinal plant in Mozambique for the Tsonga people.

Capparaceae had the second highest residual (+19) in Mozambique, but in KwaZulu-

Natal, they did not appear to be significant as the residual was within the standard error of the regression, with a residual value of +3. Interestingly, Capparaceae ranked number six among the most used medicinal taxa in Mozambique and only number 34 in KwaZulu-Natal, which explains its insignificance in KwaZulu-Natal. The families Asparagaceae and Euphorbiaceae

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were highly represented in KwaZulu-Natal, having the highest residuals (+18) – see Appendix 5–

, but in Mozambique they are neither over- nor underutilized.

However, it was expected that Fabaceae would be over-represented (above the predicted value) in both regions. Statistics from the report of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Kew, 2017) indicate that Fabaceae are more widely used globally in traditional medicine than any other family. Additionally, in comparison with the regression analysis of the total African taxa versus the medicinal taxa done by Van Wyk (2020), Fabaceae also had the highest residual (+136), thus being the most overutilized family, not only in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal, but also in

Africa as a whole. Apocynaceae, however, occurred within the standard error with a residual of

+19. Furthermore, according to Williams (2004), species of the Fabaceae family were the most traded in medicinal markets, this was probably due to their abundant availability in the flora and biomes of southern Africa and thus making they harvest or selection random.

The analyses show that Fabaceae were over-selected (perhaps partly due to their abundant availability, as well as their chemical diversity) in both regions, whilst Apocynaceae and Capparaceae were non-randomly selected only in Mozambique, and Asparagaceae and

Euphorbiaceae only in KwaZulu-Natal. The Poaceae are widely known as food plants (such as maize, rice and wheat) but apparently not often used in traditional medicine. The use of Poaceae is similar in most parts of the world; Moerman (1979) also reported the under usage of Poaceae,

Orchidaceae, and Acanthaceae in traditional medicine by the Native Americans, and the same was recently reported by Van Wyk (2020) for the underusage of Poaceae, Orchidaceae, and

Acanthaceae in Traditional African Medicine. However, Van Wyk (2020) also reported that

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Asteraceae were underutilized in Africa as a whole, but in this current regression analysis, the family is shown to be overutilized in both Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal.

5.7.5.2. Bayesian and IDM analyses

The Capparaceae, Gisekiaceae and Zygophyllaceae were overrepresented in Mozambique whilst in KwaZulu-Natal the Portulacaceae, Primulaceae and Peraceae were overrepresented. These families were shown as overrepresented by the Bayesian analysis because most of the taxa that were present in these families were used medicinally. Capparaceae were represented as the most overused family in Mozambique. Capparaceae were again overrepresented by the IDM analysis probably due to the fact that it had at least half of its taxa used medicinally. Apocynaceae were overrepresented in all three approaches in Mozambique even though it did not retain a prominent position in all the analyses. This confirms the significant use of the Apocynaceae and its selection in traditional medicine in Mozambique.

In addition to Fabaceae and Asteraceae being the largest families, they were both overutilized according to the regression analysis method but were not viewed as such with

Bayesian and IDM methods. However, this was expected since these two approaches make provision for small families, where it is not possible for the residual values of small families to exceed the standard error of the regression in conventional analyses, even when all the species of a small family are used medicinally. The Bayesian and IDM approach consider all families in the flora checklist by allowing for a more logic contextualization of the data (Weckerle et al., 2012).

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The family Combretaceae was seen in both regions as overused, however, other than this family there were no other families that were similarly overrepresented. Underused families were similar except for the Orchidaceae, which did not appear as underused in KwaZulu-Natal. The

Bayesian and IDM approaches indicated that there were large differences between the two medicinal floras, as can be seen from the exceptionally low number of families that were shown to be overrepresented in both study areas.

Furthermore, the comparison between Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal in Bayesian and

IDM analyses indicated that the selection of medicinal plant species was different for some medicinal plant families. Since families that were overrepresented in Mozambique were not those that were overrepresented in KwaZulu-Natal despite the similar vegetation and cultural types. This was further proven in Chapter six whereby the selection of medicinal plants was based on availability. There was a correlation of 0.601 between the available taxa and the medicinal taxa, but there were negative correlations between the geography and the available taxa, and geography and the medicinal taxa.

Underused plant families in the two regions are shown in Table 5.5b and 5.6. It was no surprise that Orchidaceae and Poaceae were both underused in Mozambique and in KwaZulu-

Natal because they had the least number of taxa used in traditional medicine. However, it should be noted that Apocynaceae were underutilized in KwaZulu-Natal but overrepresented in

Mozambique, a trend that was also revealed by the least-square regression analysis.

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5.5. Conclusions

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal are in close proximity and share similar vegetation types as well as similar Bantu-speaking cultures. It was therefore plausible to expect that both the total floras and the medicinal floras would also be similar in these two regions. This assumption was proven to be true as the Spearman rank correlations showed that indeed the total available floras and the medicinal floras were similar. The total floras were similar because of the vegetation types. The top three largest families were the same, which were Fabaceae, Poaceae, and

Asteraceae. A different sequence was observed in KwaZulu-Natal. The most taxon-rich families in Mozambique were Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Asteraceae. In KwaZulu-Natal they were the

Fabaceae, Asteraceae, and Euphorbiaceae. It was expected for Fabaceae and Asteraceae to be widely used in traditional medicine because of their abundant availability, however it was surprising to see Apocynaceae as the second largest family to be used medicinally in

Mozambique as it was the 10th largest family in the total flora.

The Sorensen indices further revealed that the medicinal floras were similar, this was seen from the overlap percentages of the overall flora shared. However, it also showed that although the medicinal floras might be similar, some families were not similar thus suggesting that selection of medicinal plant families might be different between the two regions. The Bayes and IDM analyses further indicated that families that were overrepresented in Mozambique were not that were overrepresented in KwaZulu-Natal. The difference in the selection of medicinal plant species could be accounted for by random selection as was demonstrated by the regression analyses.

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Moreover, even though the medicinal floras were similar and had shared medicinal taxa on some families, the uses were different. There were only 20 species and infraspecific taxa that had the exact same uses out of a 171 shared species and infraspecific taxa. Additionally, the

Spearman rank correlation showed that there is a significant relationship between the medicinal- use categories, meaning that the ailments treated were mostly the same however, the species and infraspecific taxa used to treat those ailments were different.

Therefore, the floristic composition of the total floras and medicinal floras of

Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal are similar even though some medicinal plant families were specifically selected for their use in traditional medicine whilst others are avoided. The uses, however, are different. Furthermore, spatial autocorrelation in Chapter six showed that the selection of medicinal plants was mainly due to availability of taxa in the floristic environment.

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CHAPTER 6: SPATIAL PATTERNS AND SELECTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

6.1. Introduction

Culture is a mixture of abilities and habits that are obtained by members of a certain society, and it often represents a measure of how one group of people differ from others in terms of knowledge, morals, skills, beliefs, arts, law, and customs (Taylor, 1871). All acquired capabilities in a culture are usually passed down to the younger generations (Idang, 2005).

Traditional knowledge and practices passed down by indigenous people have played a significant role in forming a foundation for the development of modern science (Henrietta, 2019).

Traditional knowledge consists of the history of a certain culture based on observation, experiences, and experimentation. It relates to the specific geographic area in the natural environment that has been developed by its inhabitants over generations (Watanaba, 2008). New knowledge is continuously being added to the traditional knowledge systems, thus they are adapted and altered from time to time (Henrietta, 2019).

Alterations and adaptations in cultures may be due to a transfer of knowledge. The transfer of traditional knowledge can occur in one of two ways, either through horizontal transmission or vertical transmission (Guglielmino et al., 1995). Vertical transmission occurs as a result of knowledge being transferred from the ancestral to descendant culture, which is from generation to generation. Horizontal transmission involves the borrowing and selective diffusion of another culture’s traditional knowledge (Boyd et al., 2011). It modifies the local traditional knowledge and sometimes the knowledge of an entire ethnic group. The modifications that occur

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due to horizontal and vertical transmissions serves to keep and establish uniqueness in each culture yet, preserving the ancestral knowledge (Pagel and Mace, 2004).

The transmission of traditional knowledge therefore plays a vital role in the passing on of knowledge related to traditional medicine. Indigenous people help scientists to understand the use of medicinal plants as treatments of various illnesses, where the plants are located, how are they collected and prepared, and which plants parts are useful (Henrietta, 2019). The knowledge is probably the result of trial and error over many centuries.

Cultures that are in close geographic proximity are said to influence each other when it comes to the selection of useful plants. This phenomenon is referred to as Galton’s problem or spatial autocorrelation (Welcome and Van Wyk, 2020). However, a study in Nepal by Saslis-

Lagoudakis et al. (2014) revealed that it was the floristic environment that played a major role in the selection of medicinal plants by local cultures, rather than spatial autocorrelation (Welcome and Van Wyk, 2020).

Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to determine whether spatial autocorrelation is significant when it comes to the selection of medicinal plants in the south and south-eastern parts of Africa, or whether medicinal plants are selected based on the available flora. The regions studied in this chapter are Mozambique, Eswatini, Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Vhembe district of the Limpopo Province (the traditional home of the Venda people). These regions were selected based on the availability of data on the medicinal taxa (see Chapter 2). Due to population movements, there are small groups throughout Mozambique, South Africa, and

Swaziland that share Nguni languages such as Zulu and Swati (Ndedge, 2007), thus having similar cultural traits. Furthermore, these regions share similar vegetation types, which are

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grasslands, the Indian coastal belt and the savanna which covers most of the areas occupied by the Bantu-language groups except for Sotho (Welcome and Van Wyk, 2020).

6.2. Results

6.2.1. Spatial patterns

Table 6.1 illustrates the Pearson product-moment coefficient (r) and significance (p) of three correlations done between three different distance matrices. Table 6.2 is a representation of the statistics of the regression analyses done for all the five regions for the available flora versus the medicinal flora. According to Table 6.1, spatial autocorrelation was not significant for the correlation done for geography and the available taxa since the correlation coefficient was very low (r = -0.681). There was also no correlation between the geography and the medicinal taxa.

Table 6.1: The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) and significance (p) of three correlations done between three different distance matrices.

Distance matrix 1 Distance matrix 2 Correlation Significance

coefficient (r) (p value)

Available Medicinal 0.601 0.001

Geography Available -0.681 N.S.

Geography Medicinal -0.770 N.S.

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Table 6.2: Statistics of the regression analyses of the available flora versus the medicinal flora within the Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal, and Venda regions.

Region Regression R2 Standard error Significance

(p value)

Mozambique Available versus 0.7631 4 <.001 medicinal

Eswatini Available versus 0.6898 6 <.001 medicinal

Lesotho Available versus 0.7840 4 <.001 medicinal

KwaZulu-Natal Available versus 0.7849 4 <.001 medicinal

Venda Available versus 0.8945 2 <.001 medicinal

6.3. Selection of medicinal plants

Table 6.3 shows 20 plant families that were obtained from the regression analyses (each region showing 10 families with the highest residual values and 10 families with the lowest residual values). Families that are in bold are those whose residual values were greater or less than the standard error given in Table 6.2. All regression analyses showed a significant relationship between the available taxa and the medicinal taxa. The families that were mostly selected and preferred for medicinal use were not uniform across all five regions as the top three overused 220

families were remarkably different. The three most overused families in each region were

Apocynaceae, Capparaceae and Fabaceae for Mozambique; Euphorbiaceae, Asphodelaceae and

Asteraceae for Eswatini; Asteraceae, Rosaceae, and Fabaceae for Lesotho; Euphorbiaceae,

Fabaceae, and Asparagaceae for KwaZulu-Natal; and Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and

Asparagaceae for the Venda region.

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Table 6.3: Results of the regression analysis done of the medicinal families for Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal,

and Venda (Available taxa versus medicinal taxa).

Mozambique Eswatini Lesotho

All Medicinal

Family taxa taxa Predicted Residual Family A M P R Family A M P R

Apocynaceae 163 43 17 26 Euphorbiaceae 74 61 17 44 Asteraceae 347 91 73 18

Capparaceae 46 24 5 19 Asphodelaceae 58 34 14 20 Rosaceae 18 17 4 13

Fabaceae 763 93 77 16 Asteraceae 323 86 71 15 Fabaceae 102 34 21 13

Malvaceae 200 35 21 14 Solanaceae 29 21 8 13 Asparagaceae 58 23 12 11

Combretaceae 62 21 7 14 Apocynaceae 135 43 31 12 Lamiaceae 29 13 6 7

Anacardiaceae 49 15 5 10 Asparagaceae 81 31 19 12 Apiaceae 29 12 6 6

Vitaceae 52 14 6 8 Fabaceae 313 80 69 11 Proteaceae 7 7 2 5

Loranthaceae 53 14 6 8 Crassulaceae 32 17 8 9 Geraniaceae 30 11 6 5

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Rutaceae 38 10 4 6 Amaryllidaceae 38 18 9 9 Asphodelaceae 34 11 7 4

Meliaceae 22 8 3 5 Capparaceae 14 12 4 8 Euphorbiaceae 11 6 2 4

Crassulaceae 40 1 4 -3 Polygalaceae 22 3 6 -3 Brassicaceae 26 2 5 -3

Aspleniaceae 36 0 4 -4 Thelypteridaceae 9 0 3 -3 Orobanchaceae 27 2 6 -4

Pteridaceae 40 0 4 -4 Hypoxidaceae 24 3 6 -3 Pteridaceae 22 0 5 -5

Cyperaceae 110 7 11 -4 Aspleniaceae 11 0 4 -4 Ericaceae 26 0 5 -5

Convolvulaceae 108 6 11 -5 Ericaceae 12 0 4 -4 Rubiaceae 29 0 6 -6

Lamiaceae 185 13 19 -6 Lythraceae 12 0 4 -4 Campanulaceae 38 0 8 -8

Acanthaceae 214 13 22 -9 Acanthaceae 70 6 16 -10 Scrophulariaceae 99 10 21 -11

Rubiaceae 355 24 36 -12 Orchidaceae 94 9 22 -13 Orchidaceae 74 4 16 -12

Orchidaceae 227 1 23 -22 Cyperaceae 131 4 30 -26 Cyperaceae 80 4 17 -13

Poaceae 443 21 45 -24 Poaceae 266 13 59 -46 Poaceae 209 18 44 -26

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Table 6.3 …continued

KwaZulu-Natal Venda

Family A M P R Family A M P R

Euphorbiaceae 165 34 16 18 Fabaceae 64 50 43 7

Fabaceae 688 80 64 16 Euphorbiaceae 22 20 15 5

Asparagaceae 170 30 16 14 Asteraceae 29 22 19 3

Amaryllidaceae 95 21 10 11 Phyllanthaceae 6 6 4 2

Rubiaceae 173 28 17 11 Annonaceae 5 5 3 2

Asphodelaceae 145 23 14 9 Rosaceae 5 5 3 2

Solanaceae 64 15 7 8 Asparagaceae 7 6 5 1

Polygalaceae 47 13 5 8 Ebenaceae 7 6 5 1

Celastraceae 70 15 7 8 Loganiaceae 7 6 5 1

Asteraceae 830 85 78 7 Moraceae 10 8 7 1

Lythraceae 20 0 3 -3 Phytolaccaceae 2 0 1 -1

Onagraceae 23 0 3 -3 Amaryllidaceae 4 1 3 -2

Gesneriaceae 34 1 4 -3 Cyperaceae 3 0 2 -2

Aspleniaceae 35 0 4 -4 Cucurbitaceae 18 10 12 -2

Santalaceae 63 2 7 -5 Convolvulaceae 6 1 4 -3

Apocynaceae 355 29 34 -5 Urticaceae 5 0 3 -3

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Scrophulariaceae 156 8 15 -7 Solanaceae 20 8 13 -5

Ericaceae 73 0 7 -7 Malvaceae 30 14 20 -6

Cyperaceae 268 3 26 -23 Amaranthaceae 21 6 14 -8

Poaceae 530 9 50 -41 Poaceae 21 3 14 -11

Figure 6.1 illustrates a comparison of the most taxa-rich medicinal families according to the

number of available taxa in each region. The three largest families in all regions were the

same, namely, Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Asteraceae, although the rankings were different for

each region with exception of the Venda region, which did not have Poaceae amongst the

three largest families but had Malvaceae. Table 6.3 showed that the selected medicinal plants

were different. Fabaceae seemed to be the most used medicinal family in all the regions.

According to the comparisons in Figure 6.1, Mozambique, Lesotho, and KwaZulu-Natal

appear to illustrate a trend, whereby the number of taxa used medicinally decreases with the

number of available taxa, further adding to the notion that medicinal taxa were selected based

on availability.

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Eswatini

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Figure 6.1: Comparisons of the most taxon-rich medicinal plant families in the five regions

(Mozambique, Eswatini, Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal, and Venda), according to the number of available taxa.

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6.4. Discussions

Spatial autocorrelation did not influence the selection of medicinal plants used by the different cultural groups in the regions selected. The same was observed in Nepal, in a study done by

Saslis-Lagoudakis et al. (2014). It was shown that the close proximity did not influence the selection of medicinal plants between the different cultural groups; it was rather the floristic environment which played a role in the selection of medicinal plants. The same outcome was evident in Table 6.1, where the correlation between the available taxa and the medicinal taxa was high (r = 0.601; p = .001), thus making the result statistically significant and proving that the selection of medicinal plants between cultures is influenced by the floristic environment and not by geography.

The results in Table 6.2 further proved that medicinal plants were selected mainly due to the taxa that was available in a floristic environment. The R2 values between the available taxa and the medicinal taxa in all the five regions (Mozambique, Eswatini, Lesotho,

KwaZulu-Nata, and Venda) were all high, namely, 0.763, 0.690, 0.784, 0.785, and 0.895, respectively. Analyses for all the regions had p-values that were less than 0.001, which was further in agreement with the correlations in Table 6.1. The floristic environment also had a major influence on the selected medicinal plants in studies done in other parts of the world

(e.g., Inta et al., 2008).

It is noteworthy that the Malvaceae were overused in Mozambique but underused in

Venda; it was also observed that Apocynaceae were overused in Mozambique but underused in KwaZulu-Natal, thus families that were selected for medicinal by one culture might not be necessarily preferred by the other culture. The differences between the selected medicinal plants by the occupants of each region further showed that medicinal plants are selected based on what was available in the floristic environment. Even though vegetation types and cultural 228

types might be similar, they did not have a major influence on the selection of medicinal plants, because cultures were found to have adapted when exposed to new floristic environments and practices in traditional medicine. This suggests that some changes are due to horizontal transmission of indigenous knowledge (Mustafa et al., 2012; Medeiros et al.,

2012). Welcome and Van Wyk (2020) further illustrated that there was no significant relationship between culture and geography, suggesting that even cultural groups that were closely related had their own unique floristic and edible environments that they reacted to without being influenced by nearby cultures or language ancestral linkages. This was also now shown to be true for medicinal plants. Furthermore, this was evident in Chapter 4, although the Tsonga people of Mozambique and South Africa had ancestral linkages, they still selected medicinal differently. Despite the similarities in the total floras and medicinal floras between the people of Mozambique and the Zulu people of KwaZulu-Natal, there were still differences in the selection and use of medicinal plants. This can now be explained by

Galton’s problem, as it has been proved that each culture is unique in terms of medicinal plant use.

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6.5. Conclusions

The selection of medicinal plants in the southern and south-eastern parts of Africa was based on the floristic environment and thus spatial autocorrelation was not significant in these parts of Africa. Cultural similarities, ancestral linkages, and close geographic proximity were found to have no influence on the selection of medicinal plants. The distance matrices and the regression analyses showed a strong correlation for the available flora and the medicinal flora.

Even cultures that were closely related appear to be unique in terms of their use of traditional medicine. This was mostly seen in the pattern of plant families that were highly preferred in the different regions. Apocynaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae were the most overutilized medicinal families as they had the highest positive residuals in most of the analyses. The Tsonga people of South Africa and Mozambique had a different selection of medicinal plants even though they were ancestrally linked, thus further proving that the selection of medicinal plants is based on availability.

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CHAPTER 7: GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

7.1. Conclusions

This study presented a first comprehensive checklist of medicinal plants of Mozambique, which was compiled using all available literature sources. There were 758 medicinal taxa recorded for Mozambique, of which 27 were identified only to genus level. These medicinal taxa were from at least 6187 recorded taxa in the total flora of Mozambique, representing

1582 genera and 233 families. Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Asteraceae were found to be the most dominant families in the flora of Mozambique. However, the three largest families with the most medicinal taxa were Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, and Asteraceae. It was therefore noteworthy that Apocynaceae were the second largest medicinal family whilst they ranked

10th in the total flora. This thus proved that some medicinal plants were specifically selected for their use in traditional medicine. Even after the regression, Bayesian, and IDM analyses were done, Apocynaceae were still represented as the most overused family in traditional medicine in Mozambique.

In studying the flora of Mozambique, it was plausible to compare the use of medicinal plants by the Tsonga people of Mozambique and the Tsonga people of South Africa. The floristic compositions of the two Tsonga regions were similar, and the medicinal floras were also similar. This similarity was demonstrated by the positive and significant associations from the Spearman rank correlations done for available floras (0.706) and medicinal floras

(0.595) in the Tsonga regions. Regression analysis showed that the selection of medicinal plants between the two Tsonga populations was random, however it was more random in the

Tsonga-Mozambique population and less random in the Tsonga-South Africa population as revealed by the R-square values (0.65097 for Tsonga-Mozambique and 0.38620 for Tsonga-

South Africa). The regression and IDM analyses further showed that the selection of 231

medicinal plant was different. The Tsonga-Mozambique people mostly preferred medicinal plants from the family Fabaceae (probably due to its abundance) and the family Capparaceae, while the Tsonga-South Africa people selected most of their medicinal plants from the

Anacardiaceae family.

Moreover, of a total of 240 and 135 medicinal taxa recorded for the Tsonga-

Mozambique and Tsonga-South Africa populations, respectively, only 43 were shared between these two Tsonga groups. Results from the Sorensen index also demonstrated the difference in the selection of medicinal plants, the percentages of shared taxa were low.

Additionally, the absence of commercially well-known species in the medicinal flora, which were found in the total available flora revealed gaps in the medicinal ethnobotany of the

Tsonga people.

The close proximity, the similar vegetation types, and the similar Bantu-speaking cultures between Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal led to the notion that perhaps their use of traditional medicine was similar too in these two regions and that the floras were also similar.

The vegetation types were indeed similar as seen by the most abundant families such as

Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Asteraceae, which were common in the savannah and grassland biomes. Furthermore, the Spearman rank correlations showed that the rankings for families were similar for both the total floras (0.789) and the medicinal floras (0.502). The Sorensen indices also indicated similarity, although the overlap in the medicinal floras (0.248) was considerably less than for the total floras (0.312).

Even though the medicinal floras were rather similar, the regression, Bayesian, and

IDM analyses showed that the selection of medicinal plants between the two regions was different. Families that were overrepresented in Mozambique were not those that were overrepresented in KwaZulu-Natal. Regression analysis also demonstrated that medicinal 232

plants were selected randomly, although some families such as Apocynaceae were specifically selected. Additionally, the Spearman rank correlation showed a significant relationship between the medicinal-use categories therefore meaning that the ailments treated were similar, however, a direct comparison of the species and infraspecific taxa used to treat those ailments were different. There were only 20 taxa out of 171 shared taxa (only about one in 10) that had exactly the same uses. Only 29 species and infraspecific taxa had similar uses, and 114 had different uses.

The selection of medicinal plants is not only different for the Tsonga people, and the

Zulu people of KwaZulu-Natal but also for other Bantu-speaking cultures in the south and south-eastern parts Africa, namely the Venda people of the Limpopo Province of South

Africa, the Swazi people of Eswatini, and the Basotho people of Lesotho. The distance matrices and the regression analyses among these regions (including Mozambique) showed a strong correlation for the available flora and the medicinal flora. Therefore, cultural similarities, ancestral linkages, and close geographic proximity did not influence the selection of medicinal plants. Spatial autocorrelation was not significant in southern and south-eastern

Africa. The floristic environment seemed to be the most prominent influence when selecting medicinal plants across cultures, thus making the use of traditional medicine unique to each culture. It should be noted that this study was limited by the availability of data with regards to the total and medicinal floras that were studied. The number, and list of plant species that occur in the Mozambique provinces is not readily available such as the species lists available on the BOLDATA in the SANBI website for South African provinces.

The hypothesis that the selection of medicinal plants and the patterns of medicinal plant use in Mozambique are similar to those of the Zulu culture in the KwaZulu-Natal

Province of South Africa (and other Bantu-speaking cultures of South Africa) therefore has to

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be rejected. There does not seem to be a clear pattern of floristic similarities in the medicinal floras that will allow for a general description of the materia medica or a first broad characterization of Traditional African Medicine as a coherent and distinct healing culture.

7.2. Recommendations

Mozambique has a unique floristic composition and a unique use of traditional medicine due to the different cultures and ethnic groups that exist within the country. The flora of

Mozambique is not complete as more species are being discovered during botanical expeditions. The same can be said about the medicinal flora, as only a few ethnobotanical surveys have been conducted to date, and not all cultures have been studied in terms of medicinal plant use.

Ethnobotanical surveys should be conducted in Mozambique for each of the ethnic and cultural groups. This will help us understand the local people of Mozambique and how they interact with the plants in their environments. Additionally, such an ethnobotanical survey could help discover more species in the flora of Mozambique. Not only will the recorded medicinal knowledge be recorded and saved for future reference, but some species could have the potential to be commercialized and used in the development of new medicinal crops and pharmaceutical products. This will not only be of academic interest and beneficial to scholars and researchers but can also have broader socio-economic impacts.

Moreover, the differences in the selection of medicinal plants among the Bantu- speaking cultures in southern Africa that were found in this study indicate the need for ethnobotanical studies of all Bantu-speaking cultures and countries in Africa, as each culture

234

seem to have its own unique selection of medicinal plants. This extreme diversity presents an exciting challenge for future generations of medicinal ethnobotanists.

235

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