Gampong and Local Reform in Aceh

Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-117 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/komunitas.v8i1.4967 KOMUNITAS International Journal of Indonesian Society And Culture http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/komunitas

Mahmuddin 1, Laura M. Kolopaking1, Rilus A. Kinseng1, Saharuddin1, Sadu Wasistiono1

1Department of Communication Science and Community Development, Faculty of Human Ecology, Bogor Agricultural University

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/komunitas.v8i1.4967

Received : 30 January 2016 ; Accepted: 28 March 2016; Published: 31 March 2016

Abstract

The passage of Act No. 18, 2001 on regional autonomy and followed up with the issuance of Qanun No. 4, 2003 on mukim, and Qanun No. 5, 2003 on gampong and reinforced by UUPA No. 11, 2006 on Acehnese government is a history of social identity of Acehnese society, which has been neglected during the conflict. The regional government has made some breakthroughs and one of the breakthroughs was gampong revitalization through a program called “back to gampong”. The study aims to answer the dynamic of revitalization of gampong institution in the middle of special autonomy implementation and the implementation of Qanun gampong in the administration of gampong institution. The study shows that the implementation of program “back to gampong” encourages the strengthening process of gampong institution as well as weakens the institution itself. The development of gampong that focuses on physical aspect has created coordination gap among officials of gampong institution in planning system and financial management. The tug in the mechanism of financial development and management at gampong has created a space for the involvement and influence from gampong elite in gampong governance. Non- uniform honorary allocation for gampong governmental apparatus is one of indicators of weak role and function of gampong cultural institution because the previous inherent communal values have been calculated economically.

Keywords: revitalization; Gampong institution; back to Gampong

INTRODUCTION administration to self-governing communi- The fall of New Order government in 1998 ty is the manifestation of a radical change in has led to new development in governance the political development in several regions in Indonesia. One of these developments which is eagerly awaited by all regions, in- is the passing of the concept of local auto- cluding in Aceh. Aceh is a conflict-ridden nomy through Act No. 22 of 1999 on local region both in the era of independence and government which was subsequently re- post-independence. The conflicts of Islamic vised into Act No. 32 of 2004 replacing Act scholars (Ulama) and uleebalang which hap- No. 5 of 1974 on the Principles of Regional pened in the early independence era and the Governance and Act No. 5 of 1979 on Villa- emergence of Free Aceh Movement (GAM) ge Governance. The development changes in 1976 which became stronger in the new the orientation of government management order era until before the fall of the New Or- from centralized paradigm in New Order der in 1998 show social resistance from the Era towards decentralization and regional mainstream of the relation of central and lo- autonomy in reform era and it has automa- cal communities. tically put an end to the pattern of govern- Entering the reform era, the ongoing ment at the center (central government), conflict between GAM and RI finally found shifting to the pattern of autonomous local common ground when the peace agree- government (Eko 2005 , Kolopaking, 2011). ment through Helsinki agreement was sig- The format change of local self-government ned in 2005. The results of this agreement

 Corresponding author : © 2016 Semarang State University. All rights reserved Address: Jl. Kamper, Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor, West p-ISSN 2086 - 5465 | e-ISSN 2460-7320 Java Email : [email protected] UNNES JOURNALS Phone : +62-251-8629227 Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-177 103 are described within UUPA (Act of Aceh that upholds religion and customs. There- governance) as a form of manifestation on fore, it is justifiable if there are differences recognition on “special” Aceh (Djojosoekar- in understanding the concept of Gampong to, 2009), and the right to conduct its own which is conceived by central government government based on their specialization and people of Aceh. Darmawan (2006) as a result of the ongoing conflict betweendescribes sociologically there are funda- Indonesia and Free Aceh Movement (GAM). mental differences between institutions of One concrete manifestation that is imple- gampong with village. The differences are mented in the UUPA is that they try to res- visible in the following aspects: (1) the his- tore the institutional form of a lowest cus- torical development of social-cultural in a tomary village that has been stagnated and village is established based on the legitima- destroyed during the reign of the New Or- cy of the “upper village” engineered by the der. The collapse of local institutions in the power of technocratic to the interests of or- community happens not only in Aceh, but ganizing the construction, gampong is cul- also in some other communities, such as Na- tivated by indigenous and religious people gari in Padang which should be integrated generated from socio-religious associations in the form of state power through Act No. for the sake of socio-civic organization; (2) 5 of 1979 on village administration. The law a democracy that is grown in village is sown systematically upholds structural de-legiti- from “upper village” that does not always macy of gampong which unite them as the fit in with the spirit of the common people, smallest unit of administration. Local insti- while democracy that is built by gampong is tutions are removed; there is only village as a paternalistic democracy that respects the the smallest unit of the New Order govern- elements of indigenous elders or are known ment in implementing economic, social and in tuha lapan and tuha peut; (3) the integ- political aspects of rural communities in a ration/internalization of the concept of vil- comprehensive manner (Bebbington, 2006; lage of rural communities in the concept of Kolopaking, 2011). formal village is a “pseudo-internalization Such widely-opened democratic space (pretending)” because it does not fit with and autonomy exhibits a new scene of poli- the local culture, while gampong is part of tical development in Aceh. The enactment a growing indigenous institution since long of Act No. 18 2001 on Special Autonomy for time ago. Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD) is fol- In line with this view, Tripa (2003) also lowed by the issuance of Qanun 4/2003 on warns that gampong is not the same with vil- Mukim, and Qanun 5/2003 on Gampong go- lage. There are substantial differences bet - vernance. They are strengthened under the ween gampong and village administration legal umbrella of Act on Aceh Governance and its officers and customary institutions. (UUPA) No. 11 in 2006 which is the embo- Gampong must be seen as the unity of law diment of the reintegration of traditional and indigenous communities in the lowest values and religion in a social system that power structure and has its own territory was previously limited under the New Order and its own wealth or income source. Gam- government. pong is led by keuchik and teungku meuna- The special autonomy and Act of Aceh sah. Keuchik is responsible for public admi- governance (UUPA) No. 11 2006 have pro- nistration and implementation of custom vided space for social discourse on village law (adat), while teungku meunasah is res- formations which not only touch the exis- ponsible for implementation of the religio- tence of an institutional formality, but also us life of the community, Shari’a la, religious essential aspects of Gampong community. and moral education, and on other fields re - Considering the cultural identity of Aceh- lated to social life. While in the sociological nese people who believe in the principle of context with gampong government system, unity based on legal territory, gampong is the democratic system from the bottom essential as the image of Acehnese identity (bottom-up) can actually be implemented.

UNNES JOURNALS 104 Mahmuddin et. al., Gampong and Local Reform in Aceh

Therefore, the voice of the community will dictory with the emergence of new elite that be accommodated, and it is different from holds a strategic role in society, both in the the system of village administration which form of formal or political leadership and is really centralized. give wide impact of changes in social struc- There have been several previous stu- ture of a community. Still dealing with the dies that focus on gampong institutions, structure of the rural elite, Abdullah (1976) both from social science, politics and legal with the historical approach illustrates how standpoints. Warsidi (1977), in a study that relationships and institutional structure of observes the fundamental issues contained traditional administration in gampong is in gampong governance structure, views essential to unite people under the umbrel- that Gampong government functionaries as la of tradition and religion. Social change it is now are still quite difficult to be able to in a society run by the influx of money into carry out various functions of public admi- the village has indirectly undermined tradi- nistration efficiently. The institution itself tional institutional structures that exist in seems to have not given enough functiona- society. Abdullah (1988) in “Struktur Sosial lity in playing a role in the administration Pedesaan di Aceh” describes the function of the village and sub-district institutions. of Gampong is based on social structures in Especially with the idea of the local govern- governance of public life is the central po- ment which adopts the residential system as wer for integration of community in main- the village model in Java. The problem oc- taining integrity of a village. Social change curs when they do not consider a fairly di- or population dynamics are key variables to verse residential condition. see a shift in their roles and functions of the Kuahaty (1983) uses Weber’s concept gepong governance structure. Keuchik for of authority and power to see changes in the example, serves as the public protector, the structure and powers of keuchik in leading settlement of disputes to marital problems, gampong. The study illustrates that there are currently has expanding role. They are not some problem indications that develop in only responsible for the use of Gampong the governance structure of gampong where funds, harvesting, land and collecting taxes, the macro village does not have the right to but also for the implementation of govern- elect the head of village (keuchik) and they ment programs in Gampong, and win cer- are not entitled to have their own financial tain political currents in election activities. resources to organize and manage their own Mattugengkeng (1986) suggests a household. The change not only happens at form of fundamental differences between the level of gampong government, but it is Gampong with village administrations. He also in the structure of society itself. The li- also describes that the structure of Gam- ves of the people who rely on the value of pong comes from the community itself for togetherness and collective leadership on generations as a social heritage. That me- traditional values began to be degraded by ans, Gampong government structure is so- the institutional changes of gampong on the mething that has been patterned in society implementation of Act No. 5 of 1979 on vil- therefore, it becomes part of local culture. lage governance. And the structure of village administration Another study related to the institu- is from central government (the new order) tional structure of the village, although not as one of the state institutions in Indone- implicitly elaborates further on the gover- sia. With such fundamental differences, nance structure of gampong with govern- the change on social values within the go- mental aspect in it, is found in Kappi (1983) vernance of Gampong is slowly affecting on “ Kelompok Elite di Pedesaan” which gi- the Acehnese social structure which is full ves specific implications of construction in a of religious values and customs. Because of gampong society. The existence of groups of Act No. 5 of 1979, the issue of governance traditional elites who defend status quo and of local customs and religious values are not view any change as a threat is quite contra- stated implicitly and it would be difficult to

UNNES JOURNALS Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-177 105 bridge a variety of programs aimed at the the continuity of the tradition based on reli- welfare of villagers and residents of Gam- gious values and customs. pong in Aceh in particular. Through Act No. 18 of 2001 on Special Darmawan (ed. 2006), from the fin- Autonomy for Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam dings of several field research, portrays how (NAD) which was followed by the publicati- the diversity of local issues of regional auto- on of Qanun 4/2003 on Mukim, and Qanun nomy have given its own color in the institu- 5/2003 on gampong revitalization which are tional mechanism of villages in five different also strengthened by the Act on Aceh Gover- provinces (in Aceh, West Sumatra, West nance (UUPA) No. 11 2006 provide opportu- Java, Bali and Papua). This study shows the nity for the return of traditional values and village autonomy can be approached in se- religion that have long been integrated into veral stages; first, government must create society. Various breakthroughs follow up village autonomy that is better understood the new scene of political development. Not as functional independence (performing only have they touched the political aspect functions). Second, the expressional inde- alone, but also the economic development pendence stage (independence to initiate of the community which becomes a top pri- and realize a development initiative). Third, ority in terms of improving people’s welfare existential independence is a manifestation of society after suffering in several decades. of the independence ability of the village to One concrete manifestation developed by run their household and is able to perform local governments is to develop “back to negotiations with government institutions Gampong” program. The program is con- at the supra village level. This study also ducted as a breakthrough to strengthen the mentions village level autonomy as expected village in various aspects of society. The pro- by Act number 32 of 2004 which is in no way gram is conducted based on the impact of construed as an independent village from the ongoing conflict which indirectly gives relinquish power and central government tremendous effect in the social structure power. In reality, the village administration of Gampong. One follow-up program that will not be able to organize and develop their is outlined is also in the form of financial administration independently. Even, villa- aid peumakmue Gampong (BKPG) alloca- ge is highly dependent on the institutional ted from the province government. Then it structure in the hierarchy above it in terms is added by the respective districts / cities of funding and development initiatives. in the form of allocation of Gampong funds Gayatri (ed. 2008) through case- (ADG), based on the financial capacity of based qualitative approach carried out in the district / city. two different districts of Central Aceh and The programs is not only expected to North Aceh, illustrates the complexity of life lead the improvement of the economic as- which is not just a social institution and ref- pects of society but also d to fixGampong lects the relationships between units of the thoroughly. Therefore, the integration of lowest organizational structure. It concerns Gampong officials becomes the motor of the relation -social relationships of the va- Gampong. It is needed because there was in- rious characters in kinship system among stitutional paralysis during the New Order the people of Aceh. Gampong reflects the era. Gampong must not be separated from kinship system that supports the existence local institutional development model pro- of society. Despite undergoing the shifting posed by central government. Therefore, change because of the influence of moder- this program receives a positive response nization, elite interactions that exist in two from the various elements of society that research sites are still marked as genealogi- hopes to restore the identity of this Gam- cal bond to be their social basis. Therefore, pong that has been neglected. it is reasonable that Gampong can still be Nevertheless, the efforts to restore the seen in the pattern of elite relations based existence of mukim and Gampong as it was on traditional authority which guarantees in the past are not that easy. In addition to

UNNES JOURNALS 106 Mahmuddin et. al., Gampong and Local Reform in Aceh the regulatory issues that have not provi- gampong realized in the form of local go- ded detailed technical instructions on the vernment policy of “back to Gampong” pro- implementation of government at the village gram because there has not been any serio- level, there is also the issue of limited exis- us and in-depth study on it. Therefore, this tence which leads to a mere formal structu- research is directed to investigate; how the re. This means that some authorities are till institutional function of Gampong in the strongly influenced by the power of district. middle the implementation of special auto- Therefore, it is not surprising to see some nomy gampong Qanun No. 5 in 2003; how is studies which show complexity of Gampong the dynamic of back to Gampong program in terms of divisions of role, authorit,y and and its relationship with the institutional power relations between the Gampong with strengthening of village. These are the main district or provincial governments (Eko, focus in this paper. 2007). Empirical facts show there are decli- RESEARCH METHODS ning respects for the customs, waning of This study focused on a qualitative approa- traditional Gampong institutions, Gampong ch to analyze more deeply on how the dyna- misappropriation of funds and weak human mics of institutional revitalization of Gam- resources in Gampong which exhibits the pong amid the implementation of special problems of Gampong autonomy. And with autonomy and the implementation of Qa- no effective functioning institution and resi- nun Gampong in institutional governance of dents of Gampong, the entire village officials Gampong. The study focused on the District who regulate social order will also be even- Lamteuba Gampong Seulimeum Districts tually alienated. Shrinking the role and slow (agricultural area) and Mon Ikeun Gam- function of keuchik, waning function and pong (coastal areas) Lhoknga District, Aceh role of teungku meunasah, keujreun blang, Besar Regency. For areas that are close to the paglima laot, commander uteun handler gle, center of government administration, the peutua seunobok, Haria Peukan, tuha peut study was carried out in the village of Mon and also tuha lapan are fundamental issues Ikeun Lhoknga District. While the village that are still found today in spite legal pro- Lamteuba Seulimum was selected to repre- tection through Qanun 5/2003 of Gampong, sent a district far from central government No. 4/2003 on the habitation, local Govern- administration. In addition to the choice of ment Act No. 32 of 2004, with a special au- location was also made to facilitate the col- tonomous space that is opened widely and lection of data, where the existence of such incentive payroll each month for Gampong institutions keujreun blang Gampong can officers do not necessarily raise the function be found in the Lamteuba Gampong (agrari- of Gampong. Therefore, it is not surprising an). And vice versa, panglima laot Gampong if the task of keuchik, citing language Sujito can be found in the Mon Ikeun Gampong (2000), is only limited as a means of imple- (coast). Therefore, the keujreun blang Gam- menting “administrative” function. This is pong can be found in an agricultural area, as not stopped there, the leadership of keuchik well as the panglima laot Gampong can only better reflects the current leadership of the be found in coastal area. The site selection dual leadership. Due to the non-optimal was also based on institutional existence of function of Gampong, it is quite reasonable Gampong and community structures as a when Gampong is mentioned to face a se- result of the excesses of the conflict. There- rious problem of government effectiveness. fore, the site selection becomes important From the above reviews and existing to describe social reality institutional revi- reality, it shows that there is a need to ex- talization of Gampong within the frame of plore the dynamics of institutional revitali- special autonomy. zation of gampong through the elaboration The targets of the research were offi - on Act No 11. 2006 about UUPA, the special cials involved in the governance structure of autonomy as well as the Qanun 5 of 2003 on Gampong as a whole such as Gampong offi-

UNNES JOURNALS Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-177 107 cials, MAA districts, districts governements, men and women. Spatially, in the Sultanate local governments, and local communities. of Aceh, the village was a collection of oc- The data collection method used in-depth cupancy with one meunasah (or mosque). interviews, observation and documentation Generally, a village consists of several jurong study. The analysis was conducted through: (hallway), tumpok or collection of houses, the process of data reduction, data presen- and Ujong (or the end of the village) (Alfian, tation and conclusion (Miles and Huber- 1988). mas, 1994). Analysis of the data used was Gampong in Acehnese society is a qualitative analysis. Qualitative data analy- social system that can regulate themselves sis followed the view of Patton (Marvasti, and Gampong serves as a unit organized by 2004) in which the data was organized into people who live in the village administrative a pattern category and description of the or legal environment (Eko, 2007). Gampong basic unit. Therefore, the categorization of is also a social organization that is equipped data tailored to the formulation of the ques- with leadership structures and devices with tions asked in the study and was intended context functions in accordance with the to provide ease of interpretation, selection, social, economic and political aspects. Gam- and an explanation in the form of a descrip- pong reflects the identity of the occupants, tion of the analysis. In the stage of data ana- namely the people of Aceh who are original- lysis, data was collected through interviews, ly autonomous, and tend to be cosmopoli- observations and records or documents re- tan because of historical influence of inter- lating to the research theme. For data vali- action with the international capital power dity checking, clarifying or comparing the through trading lanes in the Strait of Ma- triangulation of data and information from lacca in the 15-16 centuries (Reid, 2005). The sources of information and different data word Gampong itself may be drawn from collection were conducted. Malay language words which means “kampong (villages)” or in Javanese spelling kam- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION poeng. This is not surprising as some historical writings during Sultan Fathahillah, in Gampong: A Historical Note a number of correspondences with foreign Gampong in the public’s understanding con- delegations visiting Batavia, would use the tains two different senses. First, Gampong word great kampoeng. The spelling of “K” is understood in the era of the Sultanate in Arabic javanese was the official language of Aceh as a territory for control of natural of the empire, when it was translated to the resources and citizens who inhabited it. The Acehnese language, Arabic Javanese spelling naming of Gampong was based on the name became “G” after being given full stop mark of place of origin and was visible from the (.) at the top of the letter “K” (Sharif, 2001). settled population. The various meanings of Therefore, it was changed from kampong to Gampong’s names depend on the territory be gampong. of the homeland and ethnic origin as well as When reading The Tale of the Kings the origin of arrival. Or in another perspec- Pasai in the book of Syech Bustanusalatin tive, it will always dealg with the context of Nuruddin Ar-Raniry for example, it con- power (territorial) and citizenship (civilian) tains many governance structures of sultan (Gayatri, 2008). of Aceh at around 13 s/d 17 centuries which Gampong is customary areas, where mentions Gampong as a smallest govern- there are figures likekeuchik, tuha peut or ment in that era. The meaning of Gampong ureueng tuha, and teungku or imam meuna- was very simple, only led by petua, a public sah. Each figure has its own function which figure who was entrusted asUleebalang and is associated as a combination of ‘father’ and appointed by the Sultan. Gampong Aceh ‘mother’ of the people of Aceh. So, it can sultanate era was important to sustain the be further said that Gampong contains the sultan or the uleebalangs when Gampong idea of a division system of labor between became the base of agricultural commodi-

UNNES JOURNALS 108 Mahmuddin et. al., Gampong and Local Reform in Aceh ties produced by a Gampong . since the time of independence and revolu- In the reign of the Sultanate of Iskan- tion, but also the days of the New Order. At dar Muda (1607-1636), it changed drasti- the time of independence and revolution, cally, Gampong became more dynamic and social structures and institution of Gam- democratic. This concept was maintained, pong changed. Gampong was weakened for in which Gampong is known as a territorial its role and function, particularly when the government after smallest residential area social revolution in the 1960s, which led to known as sagoe cut (small sagi) which is in the low political participation of the peop- the same level with the district. Gampong in le for political positions in Gampong gover- Sultan Iskandar Muda era was understood nance. The history of the village in the Old as a representation of society which were Order must not be separated from political represented and fully involved in the pro- power system constructed to derive Maliki’s cess of Gampong governance. A kheucik for central government (1999)-When the count- example, as the head of the village would be ry approached the people-not merely build assisted by tuha peuet and meunasah im- negarasisasi at local community level but munity in relation to indigenous issues and also a political ideology based power bure- worship. Similarly, several issues concerning aucratization as a mirror of the collapse of agriculture arrangement will be managed by identity community-based cultural and tra- keujreun blang, forestry issues with peteu ditional religious values. DI / TII in Aceh in uteun, marine issue with panglima laot, and 1953 led by the clergy who were members of plantation issue with peutua Seuneubok. PUSA was as logical form of scholars’ disap- All these Gampung officers until now arepointment when the abolition of Aceh pro- still maintained as a form of integration of vince and put it into part of North Sumatra religious values and customs in Gampong province, as well as eliminating the status of governance (Alfian, 1988; Umar, 2006: 1-8). Aceh’s autonomy in carrying religious laws. As an institution, Gampong is a resi- During the New Order (1965-1998), dential unity of individual / group based the lowest social structure of society such on territory. In the perspective of the law of as Gampong or mukim were only used as Gampong, it is a territorial unit of customa- a symbol of customary, since the instituti- ry law community. This means that the villa- on of substantive set the wheels of govern- ge is the unity of the community unit which ment, social and even economic life only in is bound by customary laws that have been the hands of Gampong and district admi- consensually agreed. From the physical as- nistration. In village government, military pect, Gampong is a settlement pattern the- bureaucratic structure in the form of Babin- rein lies the house (rumoh), paddy (blang), sa and Muspika indirectly holds an impor- Lampoh or seunobok (plantations), padang tant position in the development of society (open field) and forestsgle ( ) (Nyak Pha, that was attached. In fact, when we come 2000; Gayatri, 2008;). In addition, Gampong back to the social system, keuchik or imum is a social organization that is equipped with meunasah have an important role in the ma- leadership structures and officers that fun - nagement and administration as well as as- ction in accordance with the social, econo- pects of religious life. However, with strong mic and political aspects. Thus, as an insti- penetration power of the new order, custo- tution, Gampong is called a territorial unit mary institutions are just a mere formality which portrays the settlement pattern and and merely a tool for easy access control over is social organization that consists of indi- the construction of the new order (Harley, viduals/groups with social groupings based 2008). Social institutions paralyzed, kheu- on the roles and functions that already exist cik was limited to the administration of vil- and develop in accordance with the context lage government without further involved in of space and time. protecting society based on traditional va- In historical context, gampong social- lues and religion. ly was collapsed which not only happened Entering the reform period with con-

UNNES JOURNALS Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-177 109 cepts of democratization and decentraliza- of Gampong which then a few years later- tion, the state through legal protection Act despite the implementation of the idiosyn- No 22 1999 concern local government which crasies do not run maximum-released of accommodate Gampong government as part some of the Qanun 5 of 2003 on the gover- of political development and realization of nance of the Gampong became the starting democracy to the lower level. Normatively, point of the movement of local democracy Act no 22 1999 no longer puts the village as which previously had to be absolute subor- the lowest form of government under the dinate of the central government. The privi- sub-district head, but as a legal communi- leged Aceh continues to change in tune by ty unit which has the right to regulate and the peace agreement between RI and GAM, manage the interests of local communities through the agreement in Helsinki, August in accordance with the right of the origin of 15, 2005, a form of privilege Aceh once again the village (Eko, 2005). Nevertheless many renewed not only in the customs, cultures, parties considered this legislation incapable but also in the political field by being given of running effectively when state power was the opportunity to form local political par- still strong at the village level. ties and this indirectly manages the Gam- The issuance of Act number 44 of 1999 pong level which not only affects the institu- of the excellence in the province of Aceh, tional capacity of the village but also at the one of which is by restoring the privileges social structure of the village community as Table 1. Position and Role of Gampong Policy toward Position and role of Period remark Gampong Gampong The Sultan- coopted in royal Under the power of Gampong becomes part of low ate structure Being uleebalang in a king- territory structure in Acehnese under the rule of dom structure Sultanade. Functioned as insti- the kingdom tution which helps uleebalang The Dutch Transplantation Making benefit Some of policies of Dutch with Colonialism of gampong under uleebalang power to development model of modern colonial governe- control gampong. infrastructure, and force planta- ment Dutch politics open tion underwent social changes in the room for conflictgampong level between uleebalang and gampong people Japanese Becoming the ba- Balance politics be- Making benefit from Islamic Colonialism sis of Japanese tween uleebalang and scholar to mobilize gampong power in the prac- Islamic scholars in people in building infrastructure tice of romushha managing gampong Post Inde- Weakened role of Some policies weak- Function and role of gampong pendence gampong ened the position of were fading as government ntro- Era gampong duced modern system of bureaucracy New Order Lowest unit under De-legitimacy of The collapse of local structure district structural uniform with village model. The role and unit of government as function of gampong is replaced village under district by system of village government Post New Revitalization of Gampong is under Returning the collapsed local Order gampong mukim structure in new order. Revital- ization of gampong is not running as the expectation Adapted from several sources: Tripa, 2003; Gayatri, 2008; Harley 2008

UNNES JOURNALS 110 Mahmuddin et. al., Gampong and Local Reform in Aceh a whole. and also at the same time giving advice to Through UUPA number 11 2006 men- keuchik in running gampong government. tions the village or any other name is the In performing its duties, keuchik and ime- unity of the legal community who are under um meunasah (executive element) colla- Mukim and led by keuchik or the name of borate with ureung tuha (legislators). The any other right to conduct its own internal elements are aligned and scope of works affairs. With the UUPA number 11 of 2006, really is distinguished clearly. This system is gampong indirectly has wider autonomy in different with village leaders who are ex-of- the implementation of development. Howe- ficial executive as well as a legislative leader ver, citing Sutoro Eko (Gayatri, 2008) who (Nyak Pha, 2000, Dharmawan 2006, Eko, normatively describes autonomy, it still il- 2007). Gampong secretary helps keuchik in lustrates the ambiguity. First, the village carrying out the tasks associated with the placed in the position of autonomy, but they administration of the village. In the institu- are given the obligation to carry out a single tional structure of village, there is tuha la- principle of assistance. Secondly, the system pan (elements of public figures), keujreun of the authority of the district to the Gam- blang (responsible for the management of pong is subsidiarity. Third, the village is a paddy fields),panglima laot (responsible for mix of institutional self-governing commu- the management of marine resources), ha- nity within the institutional system of cus- rian Peukan (responsible traditional market tomary and local-state government through management which is usually done once a assistant task. week), peutua Seuneubok (responsible for In the past, gampong government ins- the management of the plantation), and titution consists of keIuchik, imam meuna- also syahbandar (regulating and responsible sah and tuha peut to the center of activities in terms of entry and exit of ships in harbor carried out in meunasah. Gampong posses- or path issues in marine transportation), ses leadership collective, meaning almost all who all became very urgent in the governan- matters concerning the interests of the villa- ce of social life. ge is brought to meunasah to be decided in All relationships of which are often li- consultation and consensus. The concept of kened to the proverb in Aceh hukom ngon power in the people of Aceh is not separated adat lagee zat ngon sifeut, adat angon hu- between customs and religion. This concept kom hana tom cre which means that cus- is then span the ‘hierarchy in village gover- tomary law as a like a substance with cha- nance structure with keuchik, imum meuna- racteristics, customary law is never broken. sah and ureng tuha. The structure power Although in practice not all traditional in- that is built in gampong is bound to one stitutions still exist in the people of Aceh, another and have their own tasks and func- following the introduction of other official tions. A village can be seen as part of the go- institutions that are modern in meeting vernance structure with countries involving community needs. government bureaucracy that puts keuchik as a government representative in gampong. Institutional Structure and Function of As representatives of the government, a Gampong keuchik will carry out the functions and du- Gampong is a social organization that ties delegated in accordance with the state comes with leadership structures and - offi laws and regulations that apply (Abdullah, cers in accordance with the social, econo- 1988; Gayatri, 2008). mic and political aspects. In a gampong, Besides keuchik, there is also imum the governance structure consists of go- meunasah, called the ma gampong (mot- vernment members, religious elements and her) that plays a role in carrying out reli- representative elements. Members of the gious activities as a whole. Tuha peuat or called ureung tuha (elder leaders) became government is represented by keuchik, re- the central figure in the decision on a caseligion by teungku meunasah and represen-

UNNES JOURNALS Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-177 111 tative member is represented by tuha peut structure from several elements involved and assisted by other traditional institutions based on consensual decision of its peop- that play an important role in turning the le. Gampong will consist of several officials wheels of gampong government. All of the who work and act in accordance with their officers are attached to the role and functi- respective duties. A keuchik for example is on in accordance with the authority vested responsible for the operations of the government. Or teungku meunasah is responsible in each of these institutions. With roles and for the implementation of religious life in functions carried out by each institution, society. Peut Tuha is responsible as an ins- the pattern of government of gampong is titution and advisor for keuchik conside- actually a system that is very democratic, ration in leading the village. Gampong as where all decisions and measures are taken well as some others are related to the liveli- by keuchik and should be discussed with hoods of Gampong communities. Basically, tuha peut, so the decision or policy has st- in Gampong government system there are rong authority. According to Qanun 5 In two equal leaders, with different duties and 2003, there is position and equal power bet- responsibilities: Keuchik as perpetrators of ween keuchik, imam meunasah, and tuha the government and teungku meunasah as peut in the administration system of gam- executor of religious life in society. Align- ment of these two institutions must not be pong government. Therefore, a keuchik can separated from the philosophy of society, not necessarily run the government without where customs and religion become the ba- the involvement of the other gampong ele- sic foundation of the social system in Aceh ments such as imam meunasah and tuha (Alfian, 1988; Umar, 2006). peut. Gampong administration is deter- Structurally, Gampong is a building mined by the involvement of Gampong ele-

Keuchik Peace judge of Tuha Peut ------gampong Imam Meunasah

Tuha lapan, keujreun blang, Gampong secretary keutua seunobok, panglima laot, haria peukan Helped by some head f divisions

Head of subvillage Head of subvillage Head of subvillage /jurong /jurong /jurong

Figure 1. Gampong Structure

UNNES JOURNALS 112 Mahmuddin et. al., Gampong and Local Reform in Aceh ments/officials. Implementation of autono- sue in the middle of efforts to restore the in- mous local government system with each stitutional identity of the village as it is writ- functions and roles are seen within the go- ten in the Qanun and UUPA. On one hand, vernment structure and become the basis of government makes the process of Gampong consensus in society to shape up social order institutional development programs for as agreed by the community over customa- Gampong, but on the other, social change ry and religious aspects. When the chain’s and the way people view are different with philosophy of integrating traditional and reality. religious are slowly eroded in the institutio- It is interesting to see the philosophy nal structure of Gampong, just like the ena- which is often pronounced the parents “ ctment of Act No. 5 of 1979 on Gampong go- umong meu ateung, lampoh meupageu, ru- vernment, the institution of local customs moh meu adat, peukat meu kaja “ (that is, which are rooted in the institutional sys- fields havepematang (line), gardens have tem of Gampong will be slowly fading due fence, houses have rules and trawls have to power relations on values and traditional signs). This understanding explains that the norms which are replaced with a system of positions and roles attached to the tradi- modern bureaucratization. tional institution of Gampong has its limits The institutional structure of Gam- and the role that should be done in accor- pong set on Qanun 5 2003 regulates the po- dance with their responsibilities, and no sition and equal power relations between one should interfere with the rights of ot- keuchik, imam meunasah, and tuha peut in hers. The linkage functions and responsibi- the administration system of Gampong go- lities attached to Gampong government of- vernment. The position of this alignment is ficials as mentionedQanun 5 Year 2003 and in accordance with traditional values and re- supplemented by Qanun 10 Year 2008 con- ligion in the social system of the Acehnese. cerning customs agency is a manifestation A keuchik cannot run the government wit- of the social order that has long been rooted hout the involvement of elements of imam and closely linked to the fulfillment of the meunasah and tuha peut. Relationships needs of the village community life which coordination could indirectly become an is not only about the cultural and economic important instrument of power and the role but also political aspects. The efforts taken of identity institutional apparatus of Gam- by the district / city in reviving and recrea- pong as a whole. ting the traditional institutions of gampong In fact, the efforts to strengthen the in - is developed through the program “back to stitutional structure of the village as a whole Gampong” which is running at the moment. are not easy within a changing community. Top-down system of the relation of Empirical facts show that even though Gam- state and local communities has long be- pong is legally given their identity through come a pillar of Gampong development. UUPA and Qanun, there is still structurally This will be a long process to change the and culturally found weaknesses in gam- development paradigm towards the bottom pong development. The fundamental prob- up society that comes from the bottom. Be- lems can be caused from two sides, the first, sides, accumulation of prolonged conflict internal factors such as the lack of human leading to the Gampong government to resources, or external factors which are also lose their trust. Renewal of Gampong has associated with support facilities and infra- put Gampong government as regional deve- structure that are still inadequate. Therefo- lopment agencies in one hand, but on the re, we reasonably can findGampong struc- other hand, reducing the Gampong model ture only in the memories of a keuchik, or development vis to vis of top down and bot- gampong which does not have a clear struc- tom up. That is, the authority and the right ture although the village officials who are of Gampong that is not accommodated as a involved receive an honorarium or incentive whole in Gampong Qanun,. every month. This is still a fundamental is- Reflecting at the philosophy of aGam-

UNNES JOURNALS Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-177 113 pong, it can be simply stated that Gampong velopment of physical infrastructure, and is must be seen as a customary law community still very weak in the non-physical aspects of unit and the lowest in the power structure development. and has its own territory and has its own Some efforts to strengthen the institu - wealth or income source. As explained pre- tional structure of the village as a whole are viously, a Gampong is led by keuchik and not easy. Despite the legal format of gam- teungku imuem meunasah. The ideal func- pong institutional identity that is returned tion of a keuchik is to serve in the field ofto the philosophy of Qanun and UUPA, in public administration and the passage of the fact, there are some gampong which are law (adat), while teungku is responsible for structurally and culturally weak in their de- implementation of the religious life of the velopment. Gampong government on one community, the passage of the law (Shari’a), hand is placed as a regional development implementation of education (religious and agency, but on the other, reducing the mo- moral), and on other fields related to social del gampong development vis to vis of top life and social beings. The philosophy of down and bottom up. the building at the level of the value system In fact, 90.47 percent of the people translates the symbols of identity of Aceh- want the traditional institutions in the vil- nese social life. lage can be used again. The loss of most of indigenous communities is closely related Dynamics of Implementation of “Back to the vagueness of the existence and role of to Gampong” Program traditional institutions in the society. Real Since its establishment of “back to Gam- data shows almost 93.58 percent of tradi- pong” program by local governments around tional institutions have been manifested in the beginning of 2009, various development every region, but the empowerment of tra- programs aimed at improving the welfare ditional institutions is still lacking. and empowerment of village communities are made. Various programs are created that “It used to be customary law that a keuchik do not just touch the economic aspect, but in Aceh must be 40 years old and under- also strengthening Gampong institutions in stands the religion and has authoritative figure. So if not yet 40 years old, they will various aspects of society. In 2012 for examp- not be chosen by the citizens because ac- le, the Government of Aceh channeled the cording to the law when the Prophet Mu- budget for Financial Assistance for Pemak- hammad was appointed when he was 40 mue Gampong (BKPG) to 6,451 villages with years old. Now, as long as the candidate total of Rp. 445 119 billion. Every village in 23 can influence his citizens and can build a districts / cities received Rp. 69 million. At relationship of power groups within a vil- the same time, there was also a rural PNPM lage community, it is certain that he will funding assistance from the central govern- be keuchik although he is not 40 years old ment in 2012 to 252 districts, in 18 districts yet”. with the total value reaching Rp.529,6 billion. The mechanism of the “back to gam- The target for Gampong development pong” program which mostly relies on as- through the allocation of the grant still has pects of physical development indirectly many problems related to system planning gives more space of disparities between and management of grants that have not coordination in the planning system and vil- been targeted, accountability, transparency lage development. This on-and-off gampong to the ability of human resources in the -fi planning process that involves elements of nancial governance of the village. In the re- gampong government officials have allowed gion of the village Lamteuba and Mon Ikeun, the emergence of elite gampong to be a big it shows that Gampong development funds influence on the governance and financial such as PNPM Mandiri and also BKPG or planning within a village. Implementation ADG tend to be used for infrastructure de- of the program peumakmu gampong shows

UNNES JOURNALS 114 Mahmuddin et. al., Gampong and Local Reform in Aceh

Table 2. Critical Issues Through Institutional Strengthening Gampong Development Area aspects Lamteuba Mon Ikuen Qanun NGO’s involvement, lacking involvement of local and district government Socialization Non-optimal socialization of Qanun implementation Low understanding of Qanun gampong and draft composition of Qa- nun gampong in gampong government Support of infra- Focus only on physical development and lacking of non-physical de- structures velopment No office for gampong government Appropriate office is there but the in conducting their administratiin public service is lacking Welfare im- honorarium provement Late honorarium and 2/3 months late Non-uniform honorarium Triggering social jealousy among people Custom imple- Low understanding of keujreun Involvement of panglima laot in mentation blang custom in agriculture resolving of marine conflicts is reduced The fading of custom-based agri- Lack of coordination between culture (farming season and live- customary institution in con- stock farming) ducting marine costum Lack of involvement from local governments in custom implementation Some conflicts are resolved using legal procedure as compared to customary law (although custom can still be used) Institutional co- Non-optimal coordination between customary institution in conduct- ordination ing administration Lack of coordination between mukim and district Opening the space for gampong elites in planning the gampong development that the program is to help the institutio- on and dysfunction on the other side of the nal governance and also has latent functi- middle of village development models that on for the elite village because of its asso- exist today. When the aspect of dysfuncti- ciated power and the struggle for economy. on for the whole system exists in the village Structural-functional perspective mentions community, it can be functional for others that if a phenomenon exists, it means that when it is able to seize the economic space the phenomenon has a positive function in and power in the governance of gampong. A society. That is, as long as the phenomenon phenomenon may serve to a certain group, exists and positive during the same function but can also be otherwise detrimental to a will persist in society (Turner, 1998, Merton, group or social system as a whole. Hence, 1969). the structure, according to Merton, will bear By understanding the meaning of the the manifest and latent functions. In that concept, a growing phenomenon in the go- position, Merton puts the officials as entity vernance structure of the village is still weak that has broad freedom to do what they want optimization of the role and functions at- and not just a robot that is automatically de- tached to the village of traditions which are termined by the structure. Integrated struc- closely linked to the mechanism of functi- ture and norms control the behavior of in-

UNNES JOURNALS Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-177 115 dividuals. Structure that exists within social tions through Qanun 5 2003 and Qanun 10 system is reality that is autonomous and in- 2008 that want to explain the identity of tra- terdependent. (Merton, 1969; Turner, 1998). ditional institutions in Aceh, it has become Weak public participation of gam- meaningless when the form of the authority pong over access to peumakmue gampong of traditional institutions are not integrated program, mechanism of direct aid “giving as a rule that. Therefore, it is just a cultural away money”, which in turn fosters depen- symbolism which can be seen from the exis- dence of poor families and concentration of ting Qanun, without being implemented physical development in infrastructure pro- well within the concept of empowering in- jects are the fundamental problems which digenous institutions. Routines that are not are still encountered in the field. In fact,fully demonstrated the identity of a form of what happens in the community is in cont- traditional institutions like the glory days rary with the desired expectations of the of Aceh, as teungku meunasah who only community development program. There serves as a priest in meunasah or a mosque are some cases of recurring budget fraud of without being involved in the decision ma- gampong or absorption of funds which are king for village development. Institutional- not effective. The amount of budget which ly, meunasah function has been reduced is always annually given apparently is not only as a venue for rituals, as well as celeb- able to realize the independence and solve rating Islamic holidays such as the Prophet’s the poverty in the gampong and household Birthday, while the role of customary inc- economic conditions of people in gampong reasingly weak. Meunasah is not developed (Acehpost, May 28, 2012; foyer Indonesia, fully like a mosque, but also is not comple- December 22, 2012). tely dysfunctional as balee. This is a form of With the bureaucratization of the sys- fundamental transformation in the village tem open up to the gampong level, gampong today. The gampong is slowly but surely has officials should be able to resolve all issues changed, thus indirectly affects the bonds of related to the gampong administrative, ma- community solidarity of gampong. This is a nufacturing and financial managers ofgam- fundamental form of social transformation pong planning development and policy for- that took place in the village. Similarly, the mulation in the future. This then becomes role and functions of tuha lapan is still not the fundamental problems in the governan- optimal in formulating or deciding a case ce structure of the village when the projected when gampong elites are more dominant in development is not managed properly in the policy formulation. It is caused when all of middle of weak resources and local poten- the functions and roles are till limited and tials, weakening traditional values of local just abstract narrative. They will not be able institutions is something that is inevitable to touch the original form of the traditional in the current format for gampong develop- institution itself. ment. Despite the various programs that are In the past, it is often described how directed in the ground the back the identity the position of keuchik for example, in the of indigenous communities gampong with structure of village government has a role their Qanun rules and other support, the is- and broad functionality of the power given sue of the basic problems that always appear to him. Keuchik was highly respected and in various views of a given society or the tra- honored on the decisions making. Snouck ditional leaders in the village, when the Qa- Hurgronje (1985) describes that keuchhi the nun gampong is not fully able to restore the Headman or father of the village, lends his identity of indigenous especially with the authority from uleebalang of the province. Acehnese people who are still lack of deve- As the father of the village and government lopment programs by the local governments representatives, he will determine keuchik in efforts to strengthen customs. gampong administration. This reality is still Reflecting to Aceh government efforts a fundamental obstacle in the government in reopening the existing traditional institu- structure in gampong when the role and

UNNES JOURNALS 116 Mahmuddin et. al., Gampong and Local Reform in Aceh functions attached to it are not able to be advisory body and accompany to keuchik in translated into social reality context to be determine decisions for gampong. In additi- more real. Their position in a village over a on to these three elements, the implemen- portrait of a symbol of culture is still “main- tation of village governance also involves tained” rather than included it as a subject elements of traditional institutions in direct for gampong development. contact with the system of people’s liveli- The Act No. 22 1999 and Law No. 32 hoods. 2004 as well as an explanation by the PP 72 Institutional empowerment of gam- 2005 on the village, and later is described pong which is outlined in the theoreti- through Qanun 5 of 2003 on the gampong cal implications and practical Qanun on government, does not automatically provide gampong administration and the program room for the return of traditional values that of “back to gampong” shows a quite weak had previously been paralyzed in the past. implementation in order to realize the st- Gampong is bound by formal law of Qanun rengthening of traditional values in insti- 5 2003 on the village administration and also tutional governance village. Gampong insti- Qanun 10 2008 concerning customs agency, tutional officials work based on economic remains tied by formal rules on through principles for getting honorarium every Act No. 32 of 2003 and PP No. 72 2005 on month and not based on the values of com- gampong that basically have a different phi- munalism as the philosophy of the people losophical framework in order to realize the of Aceh. The consequence is indirectly in autonomy of local institutions thoroughly. maintaining a system bureaucratization Observing the empirical fact, there will be which has been running for so long and an impact on narrowing space of traditional also the position of the village in this con- institutions. On one side, gampong is inten- dition could be in Mukim and subordinate ded to become self governing community by districts. The village development programs giving back the space of traditional values in will be bound on the power structure on it, the institutional arrangement village, but on so that the independence of gampong to be the other hand, the village cannot be sepa- realized through formal legal Qanun and rated with the concept of village institutions UUPA remains to be reconstructed. that is proposed by the bureaucratization of Implementation of the peumakmu central government. Moreover, the spirit of gampong program (back to gampong) turns reform has not been matched by reform of out t have some lacking aspect in its imple- local human resources (HR) and the provi- mentation, such as the planning system and sion of infrastructure at the village level as a the management of grants that have not whole to be able to run the new values accor - been conducted as target. It also has an is- ding to the rules and UUPA. sue on its accountability, transparency and ability of human resources in the financial CONCLUSION governance of gampong. Undervaluation of Gampong is a unit of community and tra- the customs and overlapping authority of dition of lowest power structure and has authority in the gampong governance struc- its own territory and has its own wealth or ture emerge as a result of shifting meaning income source. Gampong government sys- of the role and function of gampong gover- tem consists of three elements; government, nance. Sociologically, gampong program religion and representative elements. These can strengthen institutional governance for three elements are often referred to keuchik, village as a whole and also provide a latent teungku meunasah and tuha peut. Keuchik function for the elite gampong because of its serves in the field of public administrati- power and struggle for economic space. on and the passage of the customary law Listening from the previous descripti- (adat), teungku meunasah is responsible for on, there are some urgent steps to be done the implementation of the religious life of in gampong institutional revitalization ef- the community, while tuha peut serves as an forts. First, the government must do the

UNNES JOURNALS Komunitas 8 (1) (2016): 102-177 117 implementation and dissemination of Qa- JKMA. nun gampong thoroughly and continuous- Hurgronje, C.S. 1985. Aceh di Mata Kolonialis. Jakar- ly concerning the clarity of authority, role, ta: Jilid I.Yayasan Soko Guru. Kappi, A.B.D. 1983. Kelompok Elite di Pedesaan : and functions of traditional institutions of Suatu Studi di Gampong Keude Teunom dan gampong government. The regulation that Alue Ambang Kecamatan Teunom, Kabupaten has been included in the existing Qanun Aceh Barat. Laporan Penelitian. Pusat Latihan must be able to provide an integrated space Penelitian Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial, Banda Aceh. for traditional values and religion in a cli- Kuahaty, Y. 1983. Perubahan Struktur Pemerintahan Gampong dan Implikasinya : Studi di Empat mate of democratization and decentraliza- Gampong Kecamatan Suka Jaya Kotamadya tion that is currently running. Second, the Sabang. Laporan Penelitan. Pusat Latihan implementation of the program of “back to Penelitian Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial, Banda Aceh. gampong“ developed by local government Kolopaking, L.M. 2011. Peningkatan Kapasitas dan should not be measured only in terms of eco- Penguatan Struktur Kelembagaan Otonomi nomic growth rate of the micro and amount Desa”, dalam Arif Satria, Menuju Desa 2030, Pohon Cahaya, Yogyakarta. of money circulating in gampong commu- Maliki, Z. 1999. Penaklukan Negara Atas Rakyat Studi nity, but more importantly, local govern- Resistensi Petani Berbasis Religio Politik Santri ments should undertake social engineering Terhadap Negaranisasi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah to build the network by strengthening the Mada University Press. integrity of the existing traditional institu- Mattugengkeng. 1986. Pemasyarakatan Undang-Un- tions from provincial level to gampong le- dang No. 5 Tahun 1979 Tentang Pemerintahan Desa : Studi Kasus di Kecamatan Selimeum vel. Third, government must encourage the Aceh Besar. Laporan Penelitian. Pusat Latihan involvement of local governments and ot- Penelitian Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial, Banda Aceh. her institutions culturally and politically to Merton, R.K. 1969. Social Theory and Social Structure. realize the development of gampong-based The Free Press Collier Macmiller Publishers. welfare improvement in the frame of culture London. Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M.1992. Analisis Data identity of the people of Aceh. Kualitatif. Jakarta: UI Press. Nugroho, T. 2008. Pembangunan Desa dari Mod- REFERENCES ernisasi ke Liberalisme. Yogyakarta: Satunama. Alfian. 1988. Kelompok Elit dan Hubungan Sosial di Nyak-Pha, H. 2000. Adat dan Budaya Aceh. Banda Pedesaan. Jakarta: Grafiti Kita. Aceh: Balai Kajian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradis- Abddulah, H. 1976. Struktur Sosial Masyarakat Pede- ional. saan Kecamatan Seulimeum. Laporan Peneli- Reid, A. 2005. An Indonesian Frontier, Acehnese and tian. Pusat Latihan Penelitian Ilmu-Ilmu Sos- Other Histories of Sumatra, Singapore: Singa- ial, Banda Aceh. pore University Press. Abddullah, A. 1988. Struktur Sosial Pedesaan Aceh, Satria, A. 2011. Menuju Desa 2030. Yogyakarta: Pohon Pusat Pengembangan Penelitian Ilmu-Ilmu Cahaya. Sosial, Universitas Syiah Kuala Banda Aceh. Sujito, A. (ed.) 2007. Membangun Aceh Dari Gam- Bebbington, A.2006. Local Capacity, Village Gover- pong. Yogyakarta: IRE. nance, and the Political Economy of Rural De- Syarif, S.M. 2001. Menuju Kedaulatan Mukim dan velopment in Indonesia. World Development. Gampong : Riwang U Seuneubok. Banda Aceh: 34(11). YAPPIKA dan Yayasan Rumpun Bambu. Dharmawan, A.H. 2006. Pembaharuan Tata Pemerin- tahan Desa Berbasis Lokalitas dan Kemitraan. Turner, J.H. 1998. The Structure of Sociological Theo- Bogor: PSP3-IPB. ry. Sixth Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Com- Djojosoekarto .2009. Kebijakan Otonomi Khusus di pany. United States of America. Indonesia. Jakarta: Kemitraan Partnership. Tripa, S. 2003. Rekontruksi Gampong di Aceh. Banda Eko, S. 2007. Bergerak Menuju Mukim dan Gampong. Aceh: Aceh Institute. Yogyakarta: IRE. Umar, M. 2006. Peradaban Aceh Kilasan Sejarah Aceh Eko, S. 2005. Manifesto Pembaharuan Desa. Yogya- dan Adat. Banda Aceh: JKMA. karta: APMD Press. Warsidi, A. 1977. Pemerintahan Gampong dan Ma- Gayatri, I.H. 2008. Runtuhnya Gampong di Aceh Stu- salah-Masalahnya :Studi Kasus di Kecamatan di Masyarakat Desa Yang Bergejolak. Jakarta: Peusangan Matang Glumpang Dua Kabupaten Pustaka Pelajar. Aceh Utara. Laporan Penelitian. Pusat Latihan Harley .2008. Mukim Masa ke Masa. Banda Aceh: Penelitian Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial, Banda Aceh.

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