ISSN 1569-9986

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Journal of History 2(2) February, 2020

The Bukusu cultural practices before the introduction of

1Agnes S. Nabayi Degree of Master of Arts in History of Kibabii University

2Rev. Fr. Dr. Kizito Muchanga Department of Education and Social Science Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

Abstract: African cultural practices are as old as mankind. Following the introduction of Christianity among the Bukusu there has been a spontaneous mixing of Christianity and Bukusu Cultural practices. This has resulted into the problem66 of marginal faith, whereby the Bukusu Christians still uphold their traditional cultural practices. The current study sought to examine the impact between the Bukusu cultural practices and Christianity, to establishing the Bukusu cultural practices before the introduction of Christianity, to determine the Bukusu reaction to the introduction of Christianity and lastly to examine the mitigation strategies between Christianity and Bukusu cultural practices. The study was modeled on symbolic interaction theory. It was based on the ethnographic research design. The sample size comprised of 162 people in County. The target population comprised of Bukusu traditional specialists such as medicine men, circumcisers, rain makers, and witch doctors, Bukusu pastors, priests and church members and Bukusu Christian youths who include young people attending different churches in the study area were selected using snowball and random sampling techniques. Data was collected using interview schedules and Questionnaire. The collected data was summarized into themes and presented in narrative form. The findings of the study on Bukusu cultural practices were as follows: the Bukusu lived in fortified villages, the community members went without clothing until they got circumcised, believed in wele (God), they practiced male circumcision, marriage was polygamous, the dead were buried facing east. The Bukusu resisted the introduction of Christianity; they were pathetic and hostile to missionary because the missionaries preached against Bukusu culture. The Bukusu later they integrated Christianity after understanding the benefits of being converted. The Christian missionaries used the following strategies: Medical centers, western education, factories, Initiative in Agricultural features of evangelization pioneer were also introduced. The study has also indicated the intervention measures between the Bukusu cultural practices and Christianity was alleviated through the following cultural practices : child Birth in Bukusu and Christianity have thanks giving and welcoming of new born initiation was among the boys it was accompanied with ceremonies, Death was of a great concern, Christianity and Bukusu cultural practices used water for baptism and cleansing, Blood was valued by Christians the blood of Jesus Christ, the Bukusu slaughtered animals for sacrifice In this sense they were converted from their Bukusu religious heritage to Christianity. The study is expected to provide useful information to other aspiring researchers. It will also provide information to reconstruction of the history of Kenyan in regard to Christianity and traditional African religion and cultural practices. The findings of the study will be generalized to other modern religious groupings in that

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operate under similar structures. Lastly it will provide useful information to religious leaders to enable them moot strategies of deeper evangelization. The study recommends that: the government in conjunction with NCCK should give importance attached to Bukusu cultural values and practices and ethnic groups cultural practices, there is need to be integrated in the school curriculum especially in primary schools. The Christian church leaders to be tolerant and liberal and allow Bukusu to practice some of the cultural values and practices without condemnation.

Key Words: Bukusu cultural &Christianity.

1.1 Introduction and one via According to Namulanda (2011) The Bukusu are one the eastern side of Mount of the seventeen Kenyan tribes of Elgon. Those who went the Luhya Bantu people of East . Calling via the western side of themselves BaBukusu, they are the largest tribe of Mount Elgon included the Luhya nation, making up about 34% of the Luhya the Basilikwa, the population. They speak the Bukusu dialect. Banabayi, the Baneala, Namulanda (2011) further observed thatThe Bukusu the Bakikayi and the myths of origin state that the first man, Mwambu (the Bamalaba. The Mwalie discoverer or inventor), was made from mud cluster took the eastern by WeleKhakaba(Meaning God the Creator) at a side route and settled at place called Mumbo (which translates to 'west'). God the Mwalie hills. This then created a woman known as Sela to be his wife. area was already Mwambu and his descendants moved out of Mumbo inhabited by and settled on the foothills of Mount Elgon(known to some Kalenjin sub- them as Masaba), from where their descendants grew nationalities like the to form the current Bukusu population. Laku, the Sabiny, the Bongomek, and the Anthropologists believe that the Bukusu did not Sebei, who were hostile become distinct from the rest of the Luhya population to their new neighbuors. until the late 18th century at the very earliest. They To protect themselves moved into Central Ugandaas part of a much larger against these tribes the group of people, many forming the eastern extension Bukusu built fortified of the great Bantu migration out of central Africa. villages, an ancient art The Bukusu clan includes a subdivision called from their origin in Misri ekholo. This subdivision includes the Bakibeti, the (O.I WafulaOpicho Bakibumbi, the Batilu, the Bameme, Baloncha, 15/4/2019). Bayundo, Bakimweyi, Bakongolo, Babhichachi, the Baengele, the Batukuika, the Batecho, the Bachemai, The study further revealed that currently, the Bukusu the Bakoi, the Basekese and the Balunda community mainly inhabit Bungoma, Trans (Namulanda, 2011). Nzoia, Uasin Gishu, Kakamega and Busia Counties of Western region of Kenya. As per (http://immigrantnationusa.us/wp- The Bamasaba of are very closely related to content/uploads/2013/08/DER-20.pdf; retrieved the Babukusu, with many shared customs and closely 2019), Together with other Luhya sub-nations, the related dialects. Previously, the Bukusu were referred Bukusu are thought to have first settled north of Lake to as the Kitosh by the colonialists; this was a word Turkana at a place called Enambukutu. From there derived from the Nandi and Kwavi who used the they settled in the Cherangani Hills at a place called word derogatively to describe the Embayi, later to be known as Sirikwa. It was asserted Babukusu. Kitosh means 'the terrible ones'; they by an informant in at Kabula Chiefs office in called them this because the Bukusu warriors were December 2018 that; ruthless and decisive in battlefields. Following vigorous campaigns, the name Kitosh was eventually After evil and bad omens substituted by Bukusu in the mid-1950s. These befell them, they findings were supported by earlier findings by dispersed taking six Namulanda, F. (2011) who opined that; routes: five going around the western side of

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The Bukusu trace their origin from Muntu we Entebe, women were present not who lived in Tabasya of Misri. Muntu was a great only as child-bearers but warrior who was later deified by the people of Misri. also as an indication of His son Mwambu married Sera, the granddaughter of status. In addition, the Samba Ambarani, who is believed to be Abraham the practice of polygamy Hebrew. Mwambu founded the cities of Kush, meant more hands to Nabibia (Nubia), Namelu (Meroe), Rwa (Alwa) and work the fields, an others including Soba and Balana. Mwambu became advantage in a society the father of Mwaabini the inventor and discoverer. founded on agriculture. Mwaabini was the father of Kongolo and Saba. Children inherited the (Namulanda 2011). clan of their father, and were not allowed to Masaba, the father of Bukusu and Kisu, led the marry from either their people to Embayi which was later to become Sirikwa, own clan or their or the fallen kingdom. It fell after the people mother's clan. The first disobeyed their God Khakaba, so he sent a giant son of the first wife was boulder from the sky which hit the land of Mbayi, usually the main heir to causing an earthquake followed by swarms of his father, and he had a stinging insects, epidemics and other calamities special name denoting which forced the subjects of Sirikwa to scatter. They this status: Simakulu. dispersed and settled among the Kipsigis, the Nandi, the Samburu, the Marakwet, the Borana and further Bukusu elders emphasized further beyond. The main body of the population headed At birth, children were south east and west under the banners of Basirikwa, usually named after Banabayi, Bakikayi, Baneala, Bamalaba and grandparents or famous Bamwalie (ibid ). people, or after the weather. Male and The Bukusu lived in fortified villages, and did not female names were have a structure of central authority. The highest different: male names authority was the village headman, called Omukasa, frequently began with who was usually elected by the men of the village. 'W', while female names There were also healers and prophets who acquired usually began with 'N'. great status through their knowledge of tribal Thus, for example, a boy tradition, medicines, and religion. Elijah Masinde, a born during a resistance leader and traditional medicine man, was could be named revered as a healer in the early 1980s (Wafula, M. 'Wanjala', while a girl 2011). could be named 'Nanjala'. Both names II: Literature Review share the same root 2.1 The Bukusu Traditional Family word, 'njala', from The findings obtained from the Bukusu elders during 'eNjala', the Interview at Lumboka Village of Bumula Sub the Bukusu word for County in December, 2018 revealed that; hunger.

Bukusu family structure Older men formed the village's council of elders, and was traditionally resolved disputes. Punishment for crimes was usually modelled on the Luhya on an eye-for-an-eye basis, while petty crimes like structure; it was and still theft were punished by the perpetrators being is modelled on Bukusus expelled from the village, and their property culture itself. Families confiscated and redistributed to the wronged party. It were usually can be asserted from the above observation that the polygamous, with the Bukusu family was modelled from the general luhya first wife accorded a structure however what is being practiced now is the special status among her Bukusu culture re-invented from the luhya culture. co-wives. Society was Makila, F. E, (1975) observed that in the Bukusu entirely patriarchal: traditional families the staple dishes were made from

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millet, cassava, bananas, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, their fathers thus yams and arrowroots. Flour for ugali would be from accorded them a superior elusine millet, cassava and dry bananas. In case of status, there was a clear famine, green millet would be boiled. Grinding of division of labour cereals was done on a large grinding stone. between the sexes. Men Subsidiary dishes included pulses and green for instance, cleared vegetables with the general word for relish being virgin land and helped chinyeyi. This included escala, namasaka, lifafwa, women plant crops while khafululu and maokoe. Edible mushrooms were women would weed either cooked fresh or dried in the sun and preserved crops (O.IWalumbe15/4 for future cooking. Cattle were the most valued of all 2019 Kimilili). the domesticated animals and were slaughtered on special occasions such as circumcision, weddings and In essence, the duties carried out by men for other ritual sacrifices. Beef was basically roasted, complemented those done out by women which true cooked or dried up. Milk was drunk fresh especially to what is happening among the modern Bukusu by small children and it would be mixed with green families. Men and women needed one another’s traditional vegetables. Grown up people drunk some labour for social production. Table 2.1 graphically milk too. Kamalasile – cattle blood, was sometimes represents some of the gendered responsibilities on drunk fresh by men. In other occasions, it would be the sexes as was captured from an interview with mixed with traditional salt and milk. This mixture Bukusu adherents in Lumboka Sub Location on 17th could be stirred until a thick cake was formed. This April 2019. could be eaten as a full meal. Goats and sheep were used in ritual sacrifices. Sheep topped the list of III: Methodology sacrificial animals. Every home kept poultry. 3.1 Research design and Methodology Chicken relish was common for visiting relatives and This chapter highlights a description of the Research friends. Maternal uncles would present chicken to Design, research area and the target population. nephews and nieces who visited them. These dishes Sample size and sampling techniques, data have not charged overtime as most Bukusu collection procedures, the validity and reliability of traditional adherents still use these dishes. the data instruments and how the possible effects of these threats were precluded is also examined. Pilot Information obtained from interviews with Bukusu study was carried to test reliability of the research elders in Mabanga in November 2018 showed that instruments. Finally, this section presents the among the Babukusu, the individual family methods of data analysis and offers a justification constituted the basic social group that cooperated for the statistical methods that were ultimately most widely and intensely in their activities of adopted for the study. everyday life. It consisted of a husband, wife, and unmarried children. The elders asserted that; 3.2 Research Design This work adopted an ethnographic Research There was a clearly design, because it targeted the community as the defined division of duties basis of the study. This utilized both qualitative and within the family. Both descriptive research design. Descriptive is the men and women played a precise measurement and reporting of the significant role. characteristics of some of the population or However, this was only phenomenon under study (Mugenda, 2011). In possible if one was reference the study investigated the effect of married. The woman was Christianity on African Cultural Practices among the partly the co- owner of Bukusu Community of . the land that belonged to her husband. It may 3.3. Study Area appear that women did The study was carried out in nine Sub Counties of much of the domestic Bungoma County namely; Bumula, Bungoma work. This gave women Central, Bungoma North, Bungoma South, power over the home. Bungoma West, Kimilili, Mt. Elgon, East Although this was a and Webuye West; however, the study will be patriarchal society where confined to Bukusu Community, from September to men inherited land from

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December 2018. The County is predominantly after Being interviewed. To deal with the weakness occupied by the Bukusu community. of the snow-ball approach, random sampling was used which involved breaking linkages of the snowball approach after a series of four respondents. These respondents provided information on the effect of Christianity on African Cultural Practices among the Bukusu Community of Bungoma County. Therefore, the sample size comprised of 162 respondents.

3.6 Data Collection Instruments Oral Interviews A structured interview guide was used for oral interviews and the researcher tape-recorded the sessions where necessary besides note-taking. The questions were easily reframed to encourage free discussions other than just eliciting questions and answers.

Oral interviews provided an opportunity for cross checking of responses to avoid possible misinterpretation and to ensure the understanding of . the collected data and hence, validity. The method Figure 1: Map of the study area allowed the researcher to understand and capture the respondents' point of view through probing. 3.4 Study Population The target population refers to an entire group of In the course of oral interviews, discussions individuals, events or objects having common generated into informal group discussions especially observable characteristics from which a sample when dealing with male Christian elders. These which is a smaller group is obtained (Ahuja, 2001: provided information about similarities and Mugenda&Mugenda, 1999). It defines the universe differences in the respondents’ opinion and of the study. The target population of the study experiences on the research topic. This enabled the comprised of 162 respondents who were researcher to quantify the validity of the data to be appropriately distributed in the study area. According obtained. to Sarantakos (1998), a target population refers to all members of a real or hypothetical set of people, 3.7 Document and Archival Analysis Method events or objects which a research wishes to For library research, both published and unpublished generalize the research results. Hence the target materials in Kenyan libraries were be read and population comprised of all members of the Bukusu analyzed. Data was gathered from textbooks, Community in Bungoma County. The target Journals, periodicals, official government reports, population comprised of all Bukusu traditional provincial and district annual reports and legislative adherents such as medicine men, circumcisers, rain council debates from national libraries, the Kenya makers, witch doctors and Christian leaders and national archives and the county archives and youths totaling to a target population 162 documentation centre. These provided secondary data that was supplemented primary data on the impact of 3.5 Sampling Procedures and Sample Size Christianity on African Traditional Religion and The sample for the study consisted of 54 Bukusu Cultural Practices among the Bukusu Community of traditional specialists (medicine men, circumcisers, Bungoma County. They also provide information on rain makers, witch doctors) and 54 Bukusu Christian the Bukusu traditional beliefs and practices on elders and 54 Christian youths. The total sample size Christianity. The archival data was derived from was 162. The Bukusu traditional specialists, the provincial and district annual reports and legislative Bukusu Christian elders and the Christian youths council debates at the Kenya National Archives in were sampled through snow-ball approach and Nairobi. They provided information on the Bukusu random sampling. The snow-ball sampling approach Traditional religion and cultural practices in regard to were used where the already identified respondent Christianity. were introduce the researcher to the next respondent

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3.8 Pilot Study coefficient of 0.80. This correlation coefficient A pilot test was done which involved simulating the between the two sets of data was considered to be actual data collection process on a small scale to get acceptable for this study, because it was within the feedback on whether or not the instruments will 0.80 which Mugenda (2008) notes to be indicative likely to work as Expected in a "real world" situation. of a high degree of reliability of data obtained from A typical pilot test involved administering the instruments. instruments to a small group of individuals that had similar characteristics to the target population in 3.11 Data Analysis Procedures Busia North Sub County, which has similar Some data gathered was transcribed and translated interaction between Christianity and Teso Traditional into English since Kiswahili and Bukusu languages Religion and Cultural Practices and was done in a were used besides English. Data obtained from oral manner that simulated how data will be collected interview will be compared and contrasted. The data when the instruments are administered to the target was then be categorized, synthesized and projected population. Pilot test gave the researcher and into themes based on the objectives. The data was opportunity to make revisions to instruments and data interpreted within the articulation of the concepts of collection procedures to ensure that appropriate change and continuity and the Christianization questions are being asked, the right data being theory. Through description, comparison and collected, and that data collection methods will work. interpretation as methods of analytical discussion, conclusions from the data was made in respective 3.9 Validity of the Instruments stages. The test involved administering the same instrument twice to the same group of subjects with time 3.12 Ethical Consideration in the Study interval of one week. Gay (2007) defined validity as Prior to going to the field for data collection the the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, researcher obtained permission from the National which are based on research results. The study commission of Science and Technological applied content validity as a measure of the degree Innovation to go out and do the research. The to which data obtained from the research researcher was sent a self-introductory letter to the instruments meaningfully and accurately reflect the county education office in Bungoma County and the theoretical concept. deputy county commissioners in the Sub Counties explaining the purpose of the research and request To test validity of the designed and developed for their permission, co-operation and participation instruments, the instruments availed to the in the research. The researcher interviewed all the supervisors who then guided the researcher and selected respondents. advise accordingly on the ways of improving the research instruments before the researcher Care was taken to ensure strict observance of ethical commence data collection. principles, standards and codes in the study. As part of observance of ethical standards in the study, every 3.10 Reliability of the Instruments participant in the study was notified of the aims, Combo (2003), reliability is a measure of methods and benefits of the research and his/her right consistency, stability, predictability and accuracy of to refuse participation in the research or to terminate an instrument. They noted that the greater the participation at any time. Further, there was no consistency and stability of an instrument, the greater pressure or inducement of any kind to be applied to is its reliability. The researcher employed a test-retest encourage an individual to participate in the study. method of estimating reliability of the instruments to be used in this study. This is because of its advantage IV: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations of permitting the instrument to be compared with In summary, the study investigated the impact of itself, thus avoiding the sort of problems that arise Christianity on Bukusu cultural practice from 1902- when another instrument is used. 2010. The first objectives examined the Bukusu cultural practices from initiation, Birth, Marriage The study applied test-retest method to estimate the traditional life, social, economic and political reliability of the instruments. The researcher organization. It was evident that Bukusu cultural computed the Karl Pearson Coefficient of practices existed and were not interfered with until Correlation between the data to be obtained from the the introduction of Christianity by the missionaries. first set of administration and that to be obtained The mixed reaction by the Bukusu towards from the second session of administration of the Christianity was evident in this study. Some of the questionnaire and obtain overall correlation Bukusu resisted Christianity for fear of losing their

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culture therefore they refused to be converted. (foreign) cultural backgrounds which called for However, after they noticed the advantages the other mitigation between the two backgrounds. The next Bukusu converts were gaining such education, health chapter presents the research conclusion and care, white colour jobs and Clothes. Most of the recommendations. Bukusu surrendered the culture and the religion of white man which is Christianity. From the research Recommendations there was portrayed conflict between the Bukusu Based on the findings of the study the researcher cultural practices and the Christianity, this because recommends that;The Christian religious leaders the Bukusu Cultural practice is seen as “demonic”, working in the Bukusu community should take time especially polygamy, Initiation process and and study and understand the Bukusu cultural values requirement and naming process. It is in this friction and practices. This will make them have an insight between the two, that the study merged Christianity and perhaps an understanding of how valuable they and Bukusu cultural practices through their are in the day-to-day lives. similarities for mitigation purposes. The study assessed cultural aspects in both the Bukusu and References Christianity such as Blood, Water for baptism, Birth Abernethy, (2009). Renaissance Source Book. celebration, Circumcision and Marriage all those publisher: Herder, Freiburg. factors were important in Christianity and Bukusu Achebe, C. (1958). Things fall apart. London, cultural practices. England: Heinemann. Allan J. (1975). Church and Education in Tanzania. Conclusion Nairobi Kenya: East African Publishing House. In view of the observations made in this chapter, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign establishment of Christianity in Bukusu community Mission, 1875, p. 89 can be considered to have been a double-sided Arinze, F. A. (1974). Sacrifice in Igbo religion. process. On the other hand, there was conversion in Ibadan, Nigeria: University Press. which some individuals, having encountered Armellini, F. (2002) Celebrating the word: Year B, Christianity, chose to follow its new teaching and commentary on the readings. Nairobi: Pauline. adopt a new way of life. Catechetical instruction was Asadu, G. C. (2014). Christianity and national the main means through which the converts were development: Nigerian experience (Doctoral prepared for initiation into the fellowship of the new dissertation). Department of Religion and Cultural faith. They were taught new doctrines, and after Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. being tested, to ensure that they could at least recite Boer, H. C. (1976). A short history of the early them, the converts would be admitted into the full church. Ibadan, Nigeria: Daystar Press. membership of the Church. In this sense they were Barrett, D. B, (1968:76), “Schism and the Renewal in converted from their Bukusu religious heritage to Africa: An Analysis of Six Thousand Contemporary Christianity. On the other hand, the acceptance of the Religious Movements”,Oxford University Press. new doctrines in conversion implied the adoption of a Bode, M. (1969) “The missionary impact on modern new way of life, which would correspond to these Kenya”; Nairobi Kenya: KLB beliefs. The translation of Christian teaching into Bogonko, S.N (1992) “A critical analysis of the practical living could not be done without cultural history of western education in Kenya since 1895”. reference and cultural interaction-acculturation. It Nairobi; KLB. has been observed above that while Bukusu Bussell, (1910:346). Medieval Source Book: Council Christians accepted the basic Christian teachings of Chalcedon, New York. almost without debate, they did not necessarily Caglar, Sebnem; Alver, Fusun (2015). "The Impact of abandon their traditional values and ideas. Although Symbolic Interactionism on Research Studies about they may have publicly detached themselves from Communication Science". International Journal of traditional rituals and practices, the positive values Arts and Sciences. 8: 479–484 – via Proquest. and ideas embodied in those expressions remained Charles W. Forman, (1965). A Faith for the part of the Bukusu Christian experience. The Nations; (Layman's Theological Library); Amazon. establishment of Christianity in Bukusu community Com. was also a process of both conversion and Chidili, B. (1997). In-culturation as a symbol of acculturation. BukusuChristians, through encounter evangelization: Christian faith taking root in African and interaction with the new religion already soil. Jos: Mono Expression. expressed in terms of another culture, acquired and developed a new way of life which was distinct from, but also related to, both the old (local) and the new

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