International Approaches to Climate Change and Cultural Heritage

INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

George Hambrecht and Marcy Rockman

Anthropogenic climate change is increasingly threatening cultural heritage; cultural resource managers, communities, and archaeologists are confronting this reality. Yet the phenomenon is happening over such a wide range of physical and sociocultural contexts that it is a problem too big for any one organization or discipline to tackle. Therefore, the sharing of best practices and examples between the communities dealing with this problem is essential. This article presents examples from communities, cultural resource managers, and archaeologists who are engaging with climate change–based threats to cultural heritage. Our presentation of these international activities follows the US National Park Service (NPS) four-pillar approach to climate-change threats to cultural heritage: science, mitigation, adaptation, and communication. We discuss this approach and then present a number of cases in which communities or institutions are attempting to manage cultural heritage threatened by climate change through these four pillars. This article restricts itself to examples that are taking place outside of the USA and concludes with some general recommendations for both archaeologists and funding entities.

El cambio climático antropogénico amenaza cada vez más el patrimonio cultural; los gerentes de recursos culturales, las comunidades y los arqueólogos se enfrentan a esta realidad. Sin embargo, dada la ocurrencia de este fenómeno en tan amplia gama de contextos físicos y socioculturales, es un problema demasiado grande para una sola organización o disciplina. Por eso, es esencial compartir mejores prácticas y ejemplos entre las comunidades que hacen frente a este problema. Este artículo presenta ejemplos tomados de comunidades, gerentes de recursos culturales y arqueólogos quienes están respondiendo a amenazas al patrimonio cultural relacionadas con el cambio climático. Nuestra presentación de estas actividades internacionales sigue el enfoque del National Park Service de los Estados Unidos hacia la amenaza del cambio climático al patrimonio cultural, que identiﬁca cuatro pilares: ciencia, mitigación, adaptación y comunicación. Discutimos este enfoque y luego presentamos varios casos en los que comunidades o instituciones están tratando de administrar el patrimonio cultural amenazado por el cambio climático usando estos cuatro pilares. Este artículo se limita a ejemplos que están teniendo lugar fuera de los Estados Unidos y concluye con recomendaciones tanto para los arqueólogos como para las entidades ﬁnanciadoras.

Climate change–based threats to cultural heritage the phenomenon is happening at such a wide will do extensive damage to our shared human global scale and within so many contexts, both historical inheritance. Damage to a cultural her- physical and sociocultural, that it is a problem itage site can mean the loss of irreplaceable too big for any one organization or discipline to cultural, social, and economic assets to local, tackle. Therefore, the sharing of best practices national, and global communities. The multitude and examples between the myriad communities of uses that cultural heritage serves in society are dealing with this problem is essential. This threatened by climate change, from the formation article presents examples from communities, of community identities to the ﬁnancial returns cultural resource managers, and archaeologists of tourism (Markham et al. 2016; Scott et al. who are engaging with climate change–based 2016). Cultural resource managers, communi- threats to cultural heritage. This article restricts ties, and archaeologists confront this reality, yet itself to non-US examples, and is the product of

George Hambrecht Anthropology Department, University of Maryland, College Park, 0111 Woods Hall, 4302 Chapel Drive, College Park, MD, 20742, USA ([email protected], corresponding author) Marcy Rockman Climate Change Adaptation Coordinator for Cultural Resources, National Park Service, 1201 Eye St. NW, Washington, DC 20005, USA American Antiquity, page 1 of 15 Copyright © 2017 by the Society for American Archaeology doi:10.1017/aaq.2017.30

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collaboration between the University of Mary- Climate Change Strategies and Archaeological land College Park, Anthropology Department Resources Committee in 2016, of which the and the US National Park Service (NPS) Climate authors are members. Change Adaptation Coordinator for Cultural Major international organizations that have Resources. This collaboration aims to assist in cultural heritage within their remit were among the production of the NPS Cultural Resources the first to recognize the threats that climate Climate Change Strategy (Rockman et al. 2016, change poses to cultural heritage. UN-based and see Goal 4: Learn and Share). One facet of UN-affiliated organizations for cultural heritage, this collaboration was to look out towards the such as the World Heritage Centre of UNESCO rest of the world and take stock of what other (2017) have issued calls to action in regards national governments, non-governmental orga- to climate-change threats to cultural heritage nizations (NGOs), cultural resource managers, for the last decade. The World Heritage Com- and local communities were doing on the ground mittee’s 2006 Vilnius Declaration serves as a to help monitor, adapt to, mitigate against, and grand international statement of the problem, and communicate about climate threats to cultural subsequent managerial handbooks have further heritage. This article is a digest of these efforts. It defined the issue as well as approaches to han- highlights the dangers of climate change to cul- dling specific threats. UNESCO’s efforts have tural heritage by emphasizing its global context, focused on implementation through the Interna- and it encourages dialogue among and provides tional Center for the Study of the Preservation resources to cultural heritage stakeholders in the and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM). United States. ICCROM includes climate-change threats to cultural heritage within its Disaster and Risk Background Management focus (ICCROM 2017). Among international NGOs, the US chapter of the Inter- Climate-change threats to cultural heritage sites national Council on Monuments and Sites (US are increasingly recognized as a threat to society ICOMOS) has set Heritage and Climate Change at large (Cassar 2005; Erlandson 2008; Fitz- as one of its five major themes of knowledge patrick et al. 2015; Harvey and Perry 2015; exchange (US ICOMOS 2017). Markham and Wiser 2015; Marzeion and Lever- On a national scale, governmental organiza- mann 2014; Rockman 2015). Within the United tions have produced documents concerned with States, the NPS recognition of this threat is climate impacts on cultural heritage. Historic evident in its creation of the program for cul- England’s Assessment of Heritage at Risk from tural resources within the NPS Climate Change Environmental Threat (Historic England 2013), Response Program and subsequent development which is part of Historic England’s National of relevant policies and guidance (Markham Heritage Protection Plan, is an example. His- et al. 2016;Morganetal.2016; National Park toric Environment Scotland’s A Climate Change Service 2014; Rockman et al. 2016; Schupp et al. Action Plan for Historic Scotland 2012–2017 2016). An overview of major cultural heritage is another, as is the Australian Departments of and climate-change projects of other US federal Climate Change and of the Environment, Water, agencies and NGO partners is included in Rock- Heritage, and the Arts 2009 study, Implica- man et al. (2016). Within the larger scientific tions of Climate Change for Australia’s World community one of the most recent products in Heritage Properties: A Preliminary Assessment response to this threat is the Pocantico Call to (Australian Government Department of Climate Action on Climate Impacts and Cultural Heritage Change 2009; Historic Scotland 2012). Declaration by the Union of Concerned Scien- tists, formulated in 2015 (Union of Concerned The NPS Four-Pillar Approach Scientists 2015). Recognition is also manifest within the academic and cultural resources man- The NPS Climate Change Response Strategy agement communities, as evidenced by Society (National Park Service 2010) sets out four for American Archaeology’s formation of the primary pillars for management of protected

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areas: science, adaptation, mitigation, and com- (Rockman et al. 2016) through consultations munication. In this scheme, the science pillar with natural and cultural resources specialists, collects all work undertaken to gather climate- facilities managers, and climate-change special- relevant data (e.g., measurements, modeling, and ists within the NPS and with academic col- related techniques). Adaptation combines efforts leagues. The listed topics are not exhaustive, but to determine what to do about climate change, they do illustrate the impacts and information including policy, guidance, and approaches to approaches to each of the four pillars of climate- planning and decision making. Mitigation refers change response. to efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.1 As set out in this framework, there is science Communication incorporates efforts to share to identify and track impacts of climate change information in a meaningful and useful manner, on cultural heritage, and there is science that both among resource managers and with the learns from or works with cultural heritage for public. an improved and broader understanding of mod- For cultural resources speciﬁcally, the NPS ern climate change. Similarly, for adaptation, has created an approach in its 2014 Director’s there is adaptation of management approaches Policy Memo Climate Change and the Stew- to address the impacts of climate change on ardship of Cultural Resources (National Park cultural heritage, and there is learning from Service 2014): cultural heritage in order to assist in adapting resource management and society to modern cultural resource management must keep in climate change. For example, the impacts side mind that (1) cultural resources are primary of the science pillar focuses on methods and sources of data regarding human interactions data that characterize interactions of climate- with environmental change; and (2) changing change phenomena with components of cultural climates affect the preservation and mainte- heritage. Materials science compiled in the Atlas nance of cultural resources. of Climate Change Impact on European Cultural We refer to these two approaches as (1) Heritage (Sabbioni et al. 2012) is one example information and (2) impacts. of such work; social science research on the The impact approach recognizes that, while impact of climate change on intangible cultural environmental forces have always affected cul- heritage and indigenous peoples is another (e.g., tural heritage, effects of climate change are Nakashima et al. 2012). The information side already manifest and are projected to accelerate of the science pillar concentrates on cultural and intensify. Work within the impacts approach heritage’s links to paleoecology and paleocli- includes research and coordination to identify matic reconstruction (e.g., Sandweiss and Kelley and respond to these effects. The information 2012). It also includes use of cultural heritage approach recognizes that cultural resources pro- data to build deeper baseline data on keystone vide useful data and profound connections to the species and the recovery of paleogenetic data history of human interactions with climatic and that modern-day breeding programs could use environmental variability through time. Work (Hambrecht et al. 2017). within the information approach includes efforts The impacts aspect of the adaptation pillar to gather and foster relevant research and to addresses questions of what to do about the connect it to efforts to address modern climate impacts of climate change on cultural heritage change (Guedes et al. 2016; Rockman 2015). identiﬁed by work in the science pillar. Key parts Applying these two approaches, impacts and of this process include scenario planning (see information, to the four pillars of NPS climate- Rose and Star 2013) and development of cul- change response creates an eight-part concept tural heritage management options that address framework for cultural heritage and climate climate-change impacts and maintain historical change (Figure 1; Rockman 2015; Rockman integrity (Markham et al. 2016). Work on the et al. 2016). The NPS developed the concepts information side of adaptation engages with the listed within this framework iteratively for its dynamics of socionatural systems through time Cultural Resources Climate Change Strategy and seeks ways to use these behavioral datasets

SCIENCE MITIGATION IMPACTS INFORMATION IMPACTS INFORMATION Climate science at Paleoclimate/paleo- Integration of Past architectural culturally relevant scales ecology historic buildings and landscape Cultural resource (CR) Traditional into energy techniques suited to vulnerability assessments ecological efficiency plans local environments CR inventory/monitoring knowledge Resource Cultural heritage to techniques and protocols Social climatic conservation conserve/reestablish CR-integrated thresholds through historic or sense of place and databases/GIS Shifting baselines native landscapes community Preservation science Past land use and Reduction in carbon stewardship Documentation science human impacts on footprint of environments management Paleogenetics practices ADAPTATION COMMUNICATION IMPACTS INFORMATION IMPACTS INFORMATION Scenario planning Identifying examples Cultural resources Every Place has a Adaptation options of past social climate change (CR- Climate Story: Decision frameworks adaptability to CC) literacy Change in material Disaster risk environmental Dialogue between culture reduction/response change impacts and Change in connections Implementing information in all experience and Contexts/studies to traditional ecological pillars lifeways support decision knowledge CR-CC links Lessons in change frameworks Relating past between managers from past societies Policies and standards adaptability to (local-international- Origins of the current issues, tribal) modern climate methods, and CR-CC links to situation decisions public

Figure 1. US National Park Service Concept Framework for Cultural Resources and Climate Change.

as we confront the range of diverse pathways historic built environment and landscapes) into through the Anthropocene. Historical data are not energy efﬁciency planning (National Trust for oracular for modern contexts, but they can reveal Historic Preservation 2011), as well as reduc- the details and consequences of change and tions in the carbon footprint of cultural heritage adaptation for other communities who also had to management itself. On the information side, navigate rapidly changing climates (Cooper and cultural heritage offers diverse data on the idea of Sheets 2012; Guedes et al. 2016;Nelsonetal. operating with lower energy inputs. This aspect 2016; Rockman 2012; van de Noort 2013). As investigates how past cultures managed, for such, cultural heritage provides testing grounds example, climate control inside structures with- for questions about processes of social change out sophisticated carbon-based energy sources in relation to environmental conditions, as well (Burns 1982; Rockman 2015). as inspiration for alternative social, economic, Finally, for the communication pillar, the ecological, and other relationships (Rockman impacts side includes development of commu- 2012). nication pathways (between management practi- The distinction between impacts and informa- tioners at different scales, between management tion for the mitigation and communication pillars practitioners and the public, etc.), while the is less direct than in science and adaptation, information side supplies the content (Rockman but still relevant if impacts are understood to 2015; Rockman and Maase 2017). This article is, mean practical and technical approaches while of course, a product of the communication pil- information provides content and meaning. For lar, focusing on fostering communication within example, work on the impacts side of mitigation those communities concerned with cultural incorporates cultural heritage (particularly the heritage. The full scope and scale of the effort

needed to address climate-change threats to cul- products available for use and/or emulation. tural heritage is immense. No one organization or Methodologies or products must be or have been institution will be able to engage in all the work in use, and there must be some available literature necessary. A global effort with communication at addressing their efficacy. Finally, in each case its core is required for a majority of the issues to these methodologies and products are available be addressed (Rockman et al. 2016). This article free of charge on the web. contributes to this effort. We collected data primarily by networking The impacts/information approach to the four with colleagues and through literature and web pillars of climate-change response places the idea surveys using keyword searches. As we were that we can learn from and use the past to help familiar with a core group of the projects dis- us navigate the present and future as a central cussed here, inquiry began with these and led to part of how and why we value cultural her- a larger network of practitioners. Literature and itage. Concerned researchers increasingly oper- web searches also provided links to additional ate with an agenda that foregrounds how the projects. The iterative nature of the research past contributes to the present and future. In this process and bounding criteria suggests that, view, climate-change impacts to cultural heritage while the results are not exhaustive, they are threaten not only local communities and their substantially illustrative of the current state of intertwined multiscalar identities but also our the field around the world. ability to navigate present-day hazards generated We present examples here within the four- by climate change. One clear case in point is that pillar framework. Some of the organizations or rising sea levels now threaten to destroy our best projects discussed address concepts that fall into examples of how previous cultures negotiated the more than one of the pillars. To address one major impacts of rising sea levels (Erlandson 2008). area of overlap, science and communication, we As the NPS Cultural Resources Climate Change added the category of citizen science. In other Strategy recognizes, archaeology and cultural areas of overlap, we mention some organizations heritage threatened by anthropogenic climate in more than one section. However, inclusion in change are not just victims but part of the solution only one section does not mean that this is the (Hambrecht et al. 2017; Rockman et al. 2017; only area of activity for that organization; rather, Welling et al. 2015). it is only an indication of how that organization’s The NPS framework gives equal weight to the work intersected with our search criteria. impacts and information approaches, and there are many projects across the globe dealing with Science various aspects of each of the four pillars. Yet, to date, the majority of the work accomplished The science pillar focuses on the collection in this realm has focused on impacts. This is due of data and development of techniques that to the reality that we cannot learn from cultural address the broad questions of how climate heritage that no longer exists. The digest that change affects and will affect cultural heritage follows focuses on the impacts aspect in the hope resources. In this sense, science includes direct that it will be of immediate utility to resource data development, such as through measurement managers and scholars. and definition of impacts, and monitoring and surveillance, as well as analysis in the form of Methods vulnerability assessments and data integration, including geospatial analysis. Development of Here we illustrate a range of responses around the preservation science and treatments also can be world to the problem of climate-change impacts included in this pillar. on cultural heritage. As one of our priorities was to produce a digest of resources that could Climate-Change Impacts on Cultural Heritage be useful to on-the-ground cultural resource A number of projects based at academic managers, all the examples below have either a institutions work on understanding climate- well-defined methodology or a set of concrete change impacts on cultural heritage. The Noah’s

Ark Project, for example, based at University Catastrophic Hazards College London, seeks to define the parameters The effects of climate change on cultural heritage of climate impacts on cultural heritage, to manifest themselves across a variety of spatial influence European policy toward recognizing and temporal scales. One of the most obvious these threats, and to develop tools and mitigation and dramatic is the rapid and catastrophic scale. strategies for specific scenarios in which climate There are many instances of rapid and catas- change and cultural heritage intersect (Sabbioni trophic effects on cultural heritage having little et al. 2012). One very valuable and accessible to do with climate change, such as earthquakes, (though not free) product of this is the Atlas of tsunami, and volcanic eruptions. There are, how- Climate Change Impacts of European Cultural ever, others that are clearly related to climate Heritage (Sabbioni et al. 2012). The EU-funded change, for example, flooding and rapid erosion Climate for Culture (2009–2014) project mod- from extreme precipitation. The conjuncture of eled simulations of the possible effects of climate rising sea levels with more frequent and stronger impacts on cultural heritage sites in Europe. This storms is another. Hurricane Sandy and the project created software tools as well as syllabi resulting damage done to Ellis Island is a recent for a variety of training and practical purposes example of this sort of phenomenon. (Climate for Culture 2017). For example, the A long-standing program in the management online engine developed by the project, exDSS, of cultural heritage faced with catastrophic con- works as a vulnerability assessment generator ditions is the Institute of Disaster Mitigation and a source of adaptive measures. One can input for Urban Cultural Heritage at Ritsumeikan general data on a site of interest, along with data University in Kyoto, Japan (Ritsumeikan Uni- on local threats, and a variety of resources are versity 2017). Initially sponsored by UNESCO, generated. the Institute draws on Japan’s experience with The Archéologie, Littoral, et Reffauchement cultural heritage threats from earthquakes and Terrestre project (Archaeology, Coast and Cli- tsunamis. The Institute is dedicated to education mate Change, ALERT 2017) focuses on climate- and research centered on threats to urban cul- change threats to cultural heritage in Brittany, tural heritage. They host a number of research Lower Normandy, the Pas de Loire in France, and projects; for example, they have been building 3D Galicia in Spain. This project created a method risk maps of the historic city of Kyoto. The insti- for generating standardized vulnerability assess- tute also hosts an international training course ments of coastal cultural-heritage sites (Daire that each year focuses on different aspects of et al. 2012; Shi et al. 2012). Researchers tested disaster-based threats to urban cultural heritage. this method in several regions; it offers a robust In 2015, for example, the international train- example of data collection and processing for the ing course focused on “protecting cultural her- creation of vulnerability assessments. itage from disaster risks due to earthquakes and Focusing on the Nuuk region of Greenland, floods” (Ritsumeikan University 2015). While the REsearch and Management of Archaeo- not entirely focused on climate-change threats logical sites IN a changing environment and to cultural heritage, such programs substantially Society project (REMAINS) is a collaboration overlap with the priorities of those concerned between the Greenland National Museum and with climate threats to cultural heritage on the Archives, the National Museum of Denmark, and catastrophic scale. the Center for Permafrost (REMAINS 2016). Archaeological remains, especially organic, are under serious threat from thawing permafrost, Threat-Specific Science yet much of the evidence for this threat has been Several organizations and projects have investi- anecdotal. REMAINS measures the damage at a gated the effects of specific threats on cultural series of sites in a methodical way and generates heritage. In the following cases, these threats a variety of risk assessment tools for cultural result from phenomena that are or will be resource managers in similar climate contexts significantly exacerbated by anthropogenic cli- (Hollesen et al. 2016). mate change.

Most of the public would consider stone to be responses to the impacts identified by work in a very strong material and among the most resis- the science pillar, organizations working in one tant in the face of changing climates. Yet a num- area often also work in the other. This close ber of projects throughout the world examine the connection between adaptation and science is impacts of climate change, especially increasing reflected below. levels of moisture, on historic stone structures Both the Noah’s Ark project and the Climate and find that stone is not always so strong and for Culture project generate adaptive responses permanent. The Oxford Rock Breakdown Lab that arise directly out of their work in the (Goudie 2016; Goudie and Viles 2016; Viles realm of impacts science. Many of these are 2016; Wilhelm, Viles, and Burke 2016; Wilhelm directed at the needs of conservators and curators et al. 2016) studies potential impacts on stone, dealing with collections and archives. However, such as the impacts of increasing moisture and a number engage with climate threats to the the influence of external variables such as vege- built environment. Another excellent source for tation and graffiti on stone structures in changing classes and workshops that deal with adaptation climates. Given that so many of the most visible techniques is the International Centre for the world cultural heritage properties are made of Study of the Preservation and Restoration of stone, this area of study promises to focus the Cultural Property website (ICCROM 2017). impacts of changing climates onto some of the most visited and publicly valued cultural heritage TEK and TREM as Adaptation Pathways sites in the world. Unfortunately, this research One innovative adaptation to climate threats is revealing alarming vulnerabilities in what had to cultural heritage involves the use of tradi- seemed to be the most robust cultural heritage tional ecological knowledge (TEK) and tradi- sites. tional resource and environmental management Fire is a clear and increasing threat to cultural (TREM) techniques and strategies to inform con- heritage in both dry climates and in the Arctic temporary management (Goswami 2015). One (Kelly et al. 2013; Mallinis et al. 2016). One example comes from the management strategy of project dedicated to this problem is FIRESENSE Australia’s Kakadu National Park (a UNESCO (Salah et al. 2011), a three-year European col- World Heritage Site). While the use of fire in laboration (2009–2012) focused on the Mediter- the management of this area shares character- ranean. FIRESENSE created a suite of sensors istics with indigenous aboriginal use of fire as intended to predict conditions of high wildfire a landscape management tool, there are some potential in areas with high densities of cultural divergences. For example, current practice uses heritage (mostly Classical) sites. The project helicopters to fire specific areas of the landscape. tested the system in Greece, Turkey, Tunisia, The timing of the fires also differs from abo- and Italy. Training resources and deliverables riginal TREM (Petty, deKoninck, and Orlove describing the different facets of the project are 2015; Petty, Isendahl, et al. 2015). Nonetheless, available online. Given the increase in wildfires this project supplies a dimension to landscape across many different contexts, desert, arctic and management that brings the human and historical semi-arid, such a study could have applications ecological aspect to the forefront by gaining far outside the Mediterranean. inspiration from past indigenous uses of fire as a landscape management tool. Adaptation Another domestic example of such an approach is work being done in California, Adaptation is the process of answering the ques- which is included here because it is part of a tion of what is to be done about the specific larger project based at the Research Institute situations defined by the science. It requires one for Humanity and Nature (RIHN) in Kyoto, to identify a range of options and test them within Japan. This project, a collaboration between the a variety of hypothetical scenarios, from national RIHN, the University of California, Berkeley, policy to managerial on-site decision making. and the California State Parks, combines both the As adaptation approaches and techniques are impacts and information aspects of the adapta-

tion pillar. As part of a strategy to address climate a new energy-efficient building could consume hazards, a combined cultural anthropological and more energy, time, and resources than the orig- archaeological approach has recommended the inal building ever wasted. Carbon mitigation in reinstatement of TREM practices. This primar- cultural heritage outside of historic buildings and ily involves the introduction of anthropogenic landscapes appears to be a relatively unexplored fires that periodically clear the landscape of field. biomass and, in the medium-term and long- International organizations such as the World term, decrease the chances of potentially more Monuments Fund (WMF) and ICCROM are destructive wildfires. The recovery of TREM was discussing carbon mitigation in cultural heritage done through both archaeological investigations sites through the use of modern techniques as and ethnographic engagement with the ancestral well as through the use of historic passive envi- indigenous peoples of the area (Lightfoot et al. ronmental management methods and TEK. The 2013; Lightfoot and Lopez 2013). These projects United Kingdom’s Historic England and Historic reveal that indigenous peoples used fire as a Environment Scotland both include mitigation landscape management tool; understanding how within their national plans (Historic England they did so supplies alternative management 2013; Historic Environment Scotland 2012). In pathways that recognize human management each case, reduction of the carbon footprint of natural landscapes is not a solely modern and the increase of energy efficiency in cultural phenomenon. Given the changing conditions heritage sites are main themes. of today, such projects illustrate how we can In terms of projects focused solely on cli- mobilize the past, and TEK, to adapt to rapidly mate mitigation from the perspective of cultural changing conditions. heritage, one of the most interesting is the Reduced Footprints of Monumental Structures, Mitigation Landscapes, and Buildings project (ReFoMo 2017). Based in Utrecht, Netherlands, but with Mitigation addresses the reduction of greenhouse partners in Spain, Italy, and Hungary, and part gas emissions and the overall environmental of the private/public EU Climate-KIC initiative, footprint of cultural heritage. To date, activity ReFoMo investigates the carbon footprint of cul- in this area has focused on the historic built envi- tural heritage and generates strategies to reduce ronment and cultural landscapes, since historical such footprints. ReFoMo also examines the level buildings and landscape maintenance can be of demand for climate-based refurbishment of energy intensive, while archaeological sites are cultural heritage structures as well as the barriers generally not (although the carbon footprint of to achieving reduced carbon footprints within archaeological fieldwork does not appear to have these cultural heritage resources. The ReFoMo received much, if any, attention). In some cases, website contains many of the results of this cultural resource managers have recognized that ongoing project in publicly accessible form. The cultural heritage can assist carbon mitigation Climates of Culture project also engaged with efforts, given that historic houses and landscapes the task of mitigation in cultural heritage, though often had to incorporate passive environmental only within built cultural heritage. For example, controls that managers can identify and restore. the April 2014 Climates for Culture Report on Since they do not rely on modern fuels or elec- Minimizing Energy Consumption Needs of Typi- tricity, passive environmental controls, such as cal Historic Sites (Case Studies), Revitalization site location and orientation, airflow control, and and Enhancement of Historic Climatisation Sys- insulation, can reduce greenhouse gas emissions. tems, Use of Alternative Energy Sources (Vyh- Beyond the recognition and use of passive energy lidal and Brostrom 2014) describes a number management, there is the idea that often “the of approaches to lessening energy consumption greenest building is one that already exists” in historic structures. The report examines the (National Trust for Historic Preservation 2011). revitalization of original climate control systems This refers to situations in which the creation of (premodern and generally passive) as a way to

achieve carbon-neutral ventilation and tempera- tion. The following North Atlantic programs all ture systems in historic buildings. enlist public and local community stakeholders ReFoMo and Climate for Culture have as observers as well as active participants in addressed the carbon footprint of museum col- combatting threats to cultural heritage. lections as well. The Bizot Group, a collection of the world’s highest-profile museums, has also SCAPE addressed this issue through the 2015 Bizot The Scottish Coastal Archaeology and the Prob- Green Protocol, which provides guidance for lem of Erosion Trust (SCAPE 2017) is a charity the green management of museum collections based out of the University of St. Andrews, (National Museums Organization UK 2017). Scotland; its focus is research, promotion, and conservation of Scottish coastal archaeology. Communication Coastal archaeology is arguably on the front lines of climate-change threats to cultural heritage. Organizations focused on the sharing of knowl- Archaeologists are witnessing increasing levels edge about the impacts of climate change on cul- of destruction from storm surge, tidal erosion, tural heritage are appearing on the international and melting permafrost across the globe (Erland- stage, as they are in the United States. This article son 2012; Fitzpatrick et al. 2015; Hollesen et al. will not discuss the dialogue around cultural 2016), and organizations such as Weather Beaten heritage at the level of international climate- Archaeology are a testament to this problem. The change venues such as the UN Framework Con- SCAPE Trust is at the forefront of the devel- vention on Climate Change Conference of the opment of innovative and inclusive strategies Parties, but instead will discuss archaeology- dealing with this particular threat and serves as a based organizations engaged in knowledge shar- model for similar programs emerging elsewhere. ing via professional networks or public outreach. Among its many innovative projects is Scot- There are two examples at the level of pro- land’s Coastal Heritage at Risk (SCHARP 2017). fessional archaeology organizations. The first, In collaboration with Historic Environment Scot- Preserving Archaeological Remains in Situ land and Local Authority archaeologists, SCAPE (PARIS), started as an organization concerned did an extensive amount of background work to with the threats to archaeology and cultural assess existing archaeological site records and heritage from development and then moved into prioritize sites according to a combined met- a concern for climate change–based threats. ric of vulnerability and significance. SCHARP PARIS has hosted five major conferences since made this set of at-risk prioritized sites available 1996; its most recent, held in Switzerland in through a smartphone and tablet app and asked 2015, devoted substantial attention to climate for volunteer citizen archaeologists to use the app threats to cultural heritage. The second, Weather to assist with the monitoring of the at-risk sites Beaten Archaeology, has emerged solely in and identification of new coastal sites. SCHARP response to climate-change threats to archaeol- recruits local community members to become ogy and focuses on threatened coastal cultural surveyors as well as monitors of their own coastal heritage. At its first conference, held in Sligo, archaeological heritage. When they find a new Ireland, in 2015, examples of coastal cultural site, volunteers take a photo as well as a GPS heritage that were being destroyed by rising sea point, and write a short description of the site. levels dominated the conversation. For sites already recorded, volunteers keep watch and record the condition of the site through Communication and Citizen Science time. SCHARP curates and reviews these data Organizations and shares them with the National Monuments An increasing number of programs help com- Record of Scotland (NMRS) as well as Local munities monitor cultural heritage sites. Many of Authority databases. When assessed together, the these include outreach programs that incorporate data collected through the app record the strength the ideas of site adaptation and communica- and speed of the destruction of archaeological

resources on the Scottish coast. This process This project will also survey and examine the cost often leads to the reprioritization of sites based and effectiveness of current coastal protection on up-to-date information, thus ensuring better strategies employed throughout Newfoundland management of the resource. and Labrador, as well as other parts of Canada, Another arm of SCHARP is called ShoreDIG. with the goal of creating a database of best prac- Local communities can nominate a threatened tices. Ultimately, case studies of sites under threat site and then, if chosen, ShoreDIG works with will be gathered as a resource for cultural heritage the community to find the most appropriate managers across Canada (Pollard-Belsheim et al. way for the community to preserve some aspect 2014). of the site. Activities have ranged from public archaeological excavations to reconstructions of The Public and Prioritization site components, documentation projects, oral Common to these programs are databases that histories and films, and laser scanning used record the number of visits to specific sites by to build 3D interactive models. Professional community participants. Site visit data plus the SCAPE archaeologists lead these projects, but accompanying social media material that these members of the local communities (Dawson visits can produce serve as proxies of local 2015) largely staff them. community interest in cultural heritage sites. Any archaeologist or cultural heritage man- The number of threatened sites is staggering ager reading this will be considering all the and, given current climate change projections, ramifications of public access to site information will continue to increase. One reality of these and the issue of looting. By recruiting the public efforts is recognition that many of the most for survey and surveillance, SCAPE increases the threatened sites will be lost without our being visibility of sites but prevents looting by making able to retrieve any information from them. The the local community aware of and invested in the NPS 2014 Director’s Policy Memo (National sites. The SCAPE model is supposed to stimulate Park Service 2014:5) sets the stage for cultural local community protection of archaeological resources management in the US under these sites. Applying such an approach in other coun- conditions: tries would, of course, require its adaptation to the specific cultural, geographical, demographic, Recognize Loss: We will ensure that our and legal contexts involved. management options recognize the potential for loss. Responsible stewardship requires Other International Citizen Science Efforts making choices that promote resilience and taking sustainable management actions. A number of other citizen science projects Funding temporary repairs for resources that for coastal cultural heritage have begun in the cannot, because of their location or fragility, United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, be saved for the long term, demands careful many inspired by SCAPE. Coastal and Intertidal thought. Managers should consider choices Zone Archaeological Network in England (CIT- such as documenting some resources and iZAN 2017), Arfordir in Wales (Arfordir 2017), allowing them to fall into ruin rather than and Monitoring the Archaeology of Sligo’s rebuilding after major storms. Such deci- Coastline in Ireland (MASC 2017) all mobi- sions for loss cannot be made lightly nor lize the public in order to identify, monitor, without appropriate consultation and com- and prioritize coastal archaeological sites under pliance. They must incorporate interdisci- threat from increasing erosion from rising sea plinary research and should be coordinated levels. on a consistent and Service-wide basis. Canada’s Coastal Archaeological Resources Risk Assessment (CARRA 2017) project In this setting, one of the most important activ- in Newfoundland/Labrador identifies at-risk ities of cultural resource managers will be coor- coastal archaeological sites and investigates how dinating prioritization among local communi- to prioritize them for future adaptation efforts. ties, scientific and academic groups, the tourism

industry, and local governments to address ques- overall these efforts are not as well developed tions such as which sites can and should be saved, or integrated as approaches to impacts. The or at least recorded, and, which, regrettably, information approach addresses many of the can be written off. If the hazards facing only challenges climate change presents, from better a small fraction of threatened cultural heritage models and understandings of the processes of sites, especially coastal sites, can be addressed, human social change over time to the stories then creating fair and effective processes for and tangible heritage that support communities determining the sites to which limited resources, in maintaining identities and other important both ﬁnancial and human, should be applied is of connections in the midst of change. Although the utmost importance. National funding venues the impacts aspect of each of the four pillars is such as the US National Science Foundation are of the utmost importance in the effort to man- already seeing an increase in requests for funds age climate-change threats to cultural heritage, to save or at least record threatened sites and, the information aspect has perhaps the greatest in response, are asking that archaeologists cre- potential to supply ideas, stories, and data that ate prioritization strategies. The citizen science can assist in our species’ navigation through projects discussed in the previous section all contemporary anthropogenic climate change. generate data that are being used to prioritize Climate change–based threats to cultural her- threatened sites and should serve as a model for itage are not waiting on the horizon but are with understanding the levels of value local commu- us now, and their impacts are increasing in geo- nities see in their own cultural heritage. graphical range as well as intensity. More attention is being paid to this issue around the world, Conclusion as this article makes clear. Moving forward, priorities that will drive efforts to deal with climate- Taken together, these projects from around the change threats to cultural heritage should include world demonstrate that, in mobilizing to meet the the following: (1) greater knowledge sharing challenge of climate-change threats to cultural between stakeholders at an international level; heritage, the US and particularly the NPS are (2) more communication to the various publics joining a growing international community. This (local, regional, national, and international) on is a creative community that has established this issue; (3) the development of tools that local important baseline data and adaptive responses in communities and cultural resource managers can diverse areas, ranging from the effects of climate use to monitor and prioritize threatened sites; and change on heritage and approaches to man- (4) the allocation of more resources by funding agement and mitigation, to public engagement agencies, universities, governmental and non- in monitoring and decision making. The NPS governmental organizations, and private founda- stands to learn (and indeed has learned) from the tions toward projects dealing with the effects of experiences of this international community. climate change on cultural heritage. In turn, the US and the NPS bring com- The good news is that there is action on munity experience managing the effects of and all these priorities (though less so on the last initial responses to climate change within the one). Irrevocable losses of cultural heritage and great diversity of American cultural heritage and key environmental and archaeological data due environments (see case studies in Holtz et al. to the effects of anthropogenic climate change 2014). The NPS can contribute knowledge based are already taking place. Future generations will on its long experience in visitor interaction and judge us harshly if we do not engage seriously interpretation and can help improve the connec- and effectively to save our “burning libraries tions between the impacts of climate change of the past” (McGovern 2016). As this issue on cultural heritage and our capacity to learn increasingly moves to the front of both the from them. As noted above, this international public and policy consciousness and as archae- review has focused on impacts. Some work on ologists and cultural resource managers produce information was identiﬁed during the review that strategies to deal with this growing problem, led to this paper (Rockman et al. 2016), but we must realize that it is not one that can be

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1. Use of the term mitigation here follows the Intergov- Submitted November 20, 2016; Revised March 26, 2017; ernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to refer to the Accepted March 27, 2017