storical" fragments. The axis becomes an The Pedestrian Pocket aecommodates the Summary „ineident" within the grid. Thus the De- car as well as transit and walking. Parking fense as it exists today will assume a less is provided for all housing and commercial isolated meaning. space. The housing types are Standard low-rise, high-density forms such as three- Paris La Defense English translation: Hans Harbort story walk-up apartments and two-story Rem Koolhaas townhouses. Only the interrelationships (p. 44) and adjacent have changed. Peo- ple have a choiee: walk to work or to sto- We consider La Defense to be a kind of Pedestrian Poekets res within the Pedestrian Pocket; take the Strategie reserve which not only ensures Peter Calthorpe light rail to work or to shop at another Sta- that Paris will remain intact but also offers (p. 56) tion; car pool on a dedicated right-of-way; a privileged zone of expansion with enor- drive on crowded freeways. In a small Pe- mous potential. It serves as a stage for pro- Traffic congestion in the suburbs Signals a destrian Pocket, homes are within walking gress which will enable the and the strong change in the strueture of our cul- distance of a neighborhood Shopping cen- countryside to continue to develop with ture. The Computer and Service industries ter, several three-acre parks, day care, va- success. have led to the decentralization of the rious Services, and two thousand Jobs. If the idea of starting at point zero has work place, causing new traffic patterns Within four stops of the light rail in either become completely unfeasible today, the and „suburban gridlock". Where direction (ten minutes), employment is principle of tabula rasa proving impossible downtown employment once dominated, available for 16.000, or the amount of once and for all, then the duration of a suburb-to-suburb traffic now produces backoffice growth equivalent to that of „modern building" itself becomes much greater commuting distances and time. one of the nation's highest-growth suburbs more limited. Not just that the „modern Throughout the country, over forty percent over the last five years. building" consists of materials which are of all commuting trips are now between This mix of uses Supports a variety of hardly fit for eternity, it is also subjeet to suburbs. These new patterns have seriously transportation means: walking, bus, light the logic of the economy which deals with eroded the quality of life in formerly quiet rail, car pool, and Standard automobile. time frames of 20, 25 or, at the most, 30 suburban towns. In the Bay The goal is to create an environment that years, thus rendering it profoundly provi- area, for example, 212 of the region's 812 offers choiees. sional. miles of suburban freeway are regularly The Pedestrian Pocket is located on a de- Once we aeeept that the existence of all backed up during rush hours. That figure dicated right-of-way which evolves with modern buildings is highly precarious, it is projeeted to double within the next the development. Rather than bearing the becomes apparent that modern existence it- twelve years. As a result, recent polls have large cost of a complete rail System as an self follows the logic of an invisible tabula traffic continually heading the list as the initial expense, this right-of-way facili- rasa. It suffices to simply wait - quite a dif- primary regional problem, with the difficul- tates mass transit by providing exclusively ficult thing to do these days - for its mode ty of finding good affordable housing run- for car pools, van pools, bikes, and buses. of existence to reveal itself. ning a close second. As the cluster matures, transit investments In a limited way, this effect of renewal Moreover, the basic criteria for housing are made for light rail in the developed can be inscribed in a classical tradition of have changed dramatically as Single oecu- right-of-way. But the growth of this land- construetion, deconstruetion and recon- pants, Single parents, the elderly, and use pattern is not dependent on this invest- struetion. small double-income families redefine the ment; the system is designed to support In order to be able to solve this funda- traditional home. Our old suburbs were de- many modes of traffic and to phase light mental paradox - society's Obligation to signed around a stereotypical household rail into place when the population is continually transcend that which has pre- which is no longer prevalent. Over seven- great enough to support it. ceded and the impossibility of starting all ty-three percent of the new households in The Pedestrian Pocket System would over - we have used this competition to de- the 1980s lack at least one component of eventually act in concert with new light monstrate that it is quite possible to ima- the traditional husband, wife and children rail lines, reinforcing ridership and con- gine the critical mass of in model. Elderly people over 65 make up 23 necting existing employment centers, the shape of a strategy of modern urban- percent of the total number of new home- towns and neighborhoods with new deve- ism which would transcend the myths of owners, and Single parents represent an lopment. Light rail lines are currently un- tabula rasa and utopia and translate the astonishing twenty percent. Certainly the der construetion in many suburban envi- piain economic realities into new coneepts. traditional three bedroom, single-family re- ronments, such as, in alone, Sac- Based on the terrain that is available to- sidence is relevant to a decreasing segment ramento, San Jose, San Diego, Long Be- day we have analyzed what the additional of the population. The suburban dream be- ach, and Orange County. They emphasize Potentials would be - thinking in terms of comes even more complicated when one the economies of using existing right-of- five-year periods - and discovered a vast considers the problem of affordability. ways and a simpler, more cost-effective realm of theoretical possibilities. In addition to these dominant questions technology than heavy rail. In creating a We propose to conceptually extend the of traffic and housing, longer ränge conse- line of Pedestrian Poekets, the public sec- System of La Defense to this new field and quences of pollution, air quality, open- tor's role is merely to organize the transit to provide it with a new infrastrueture in- space preservation, the conversion of pri- system and set new zoning guidelines, lea- cluding freeways, high speed trains etc. me agricultural land, and growing infra- ving development to the private sector. The proposed grid is at the same time strueture costs add to the crisis of post-in- Much of the cost of the transit line can be practical and speculative without being dustrial sprawl. These issues are manifest- covered by assessing the property owners subjeet to the absolute of its extension. It ed in a growing sense of frustration - pla- benefiting from the increased densities. serves as a kind of fllter which on the one celessness - with fractured quality of our The light rails in current use provide pri- hand isolates the elements whose existence suburban megacenters. The unique quali- marily a park-and-ride system to connect is not questioned - Nanterre, the universi- ties of place are continually consumed by low-density sprawl with downtown com- ty, the prefecture, the part etc. - and on chain-store architecture, scaleless office mercial areas. In contrast, the Pedestrian the other hand proposes the most efficient parks and m onotonuous subdivisions. Pocket system is decentralized, linking orientation for an urban future in this area. The Pedestrian Pocket is defined as a many nodes of high-density housing with The omnipresence of this grid does not balanced, mixed-use area within a quar- many commercial destinations. Peak-hour imply a homogeneous density; rather, this ter-mile or a five minute walking radius of traffic is multidirectional, reducing conges- System serves to regulate the coexistence a transit Station. The funetions within this tion and making the system more efficient. between mass and void. 50- to 100-acre zone include housing, offi- Bus Systems, along with car-pool Systems, In order to attain coherence in the fu- ces, retail, day care, recreation, and parks. can tie into the light rail. Several of the ture, it lends an antieipatory identity to Up to two thousand units of housing and Poekets on a line have large parking facili- the still isolated fragments. All around the one million Square feet of office space can ties for park-and-ride access, allowing the new „injeetions" of infrastrueture, the grid be located within three blocks of the tran- existing suburban development to enjoy can be adapted to varying densities, achiev- sit Station using typical residential densi- the Services and opportunities of the ing a kind of fusion with the existing „hi- ties and four-story office configurations. Poekets.

110 Edge of a City and changing desires of restless popula- Dallas - Fort Worth Steven Holl tions. Steven Holl (p. 60) We do not call for a new disordered archi- (p. 64) tecture to match the disorder of culture; On the fringe of the modern city, displaced such duplication simply affirms the cha- Protected Texas prairie is framed by new fragments sprout without intrinsic rela- otic, and achieves no other dimension. sectors that condense living, working, and tionships to existing organization, other Rather, we propose experiments in search recreational activities. Future residents are than that of the camber and loops of the of new Orders, the projections of new rela- transported to new town sectors by a curvilinear freeway. Here the „thrown tionships. high-speed MAGLEV transit from the Dal- away" spreads itself outward like the nodal Consider the experience of reading a las-Fort Worth Airport. lines of a stone tossed into a pond. comprehensive morning newspaper, an or- A new hierarchy of public Spaces is sur- The edge of a city is a philosophical re- dering of life in society. The following un- rounded by armatures knotted in a continu- gion, where city and natural landscape tenable juxtapositions might be paralleled ous space-forming morphology. Various overlap, existing without choice or expec- in urban terms: an article describing a bil- public passages along the roof afford a tation. lion-ton floating island of ice that is drift- shifting ground plane, invigorating the in- This zone calls for visions and projec- ing around the North Pole is next to an ar- terconnected experience of the sector's tions to delineate the boundary between ticle about the construction of a twenty- Spaces. the urban and the rural. Visions of a city's four-foot-diameter water tunnel and a The coiling armatures contain a hybrid future can be plotted on this partially piece on the austerity program of a religio- of macroprograms: public transit stations, spoiled land, liberating the remaining natu- us cult. Alongside a column on insomnia health clubs, cinemas, and galleries, with ral landscape, protecting the habitat of and the sleep movement of plants is a horizontal and vertical interconnected tran- hundreds of species of animals and plants huge diagram of the „Pacific Rim" trade sit. Micro-programs of domestic activities that are threatened with extinction. What network. are in smaller adjacent structures. The remains of the wilderness can be preser- To precisely translate thoughts and feel- smallest spiroids form lowcost courtyard ved; defoliated territory can be restored. In ings sparked by incredulous relationships housing in experimental thin/thick wall the middle zone between landscape and ci- is as problematic as translating an English construction. ty, there is hope for a new synthesis of ur- word into all of the world's 2.796 lan- ban life and urban form. guages. Precision of the rational gives The exponential changes brought about ways to intuition; subjective dimensions by air travel over this Century exemplify establish physical dimensions. Unbound: how experiences of space and time change A spatial arrangement, an aroma, a mu- America's New City from city to city. Within hours we are sical phrase may be imagined simulta- Robert Fishman transported from one climate and time neously. Depending on the awareness and (p. 73) zone to another. Formerly, entering a city imagination of the perceiver, an initial vi- occurred along the earth via a bridge or a sual field can provoke subject matter and Since 1945, the relationship between the portal. Today we circle over, then jet down imply programs. The perceiver's angle of urban core and the suburban periphery has to an airstrip on a city's periphery. Conse- vision and preconception are potentially undergone a startling transformation - quently, in making plans and projections open to the adhesion of unforeseen associa- especially during the past two decades. for new city edges, it is necessary to dis- tions. Rather than allowing prejudice to be Where suburbia was once an exclusive ref- card old methods and working habits and a primary subjective determinant, one can uge for a small elite, U.S. Census figures begin with basic research. induce associations by increasing the possi- show that 45 percent of the American po- In the yet-to-be-built city, notions of ble number of programs to occupy an ur- pulation is now „suburban", up from only passage must be addressed. Consider the ban setting. 23 percent in 1950. Allowing for anoma- city as it might appear in a series of cine- Isolated buildings of a Single function, lies in the Census Bureau's methods, it is matic images: zoom shots in front of a per- the suburban norm, typical at the modern almost certain that a majority of Ameri- son walking, tracking shots along the side, city's periphery, give way in these projects cans live in the suburbs. About one third the view changing as the head turns. At to hybrid buildings with diverse programs. remain in the central . Even more dra- the same time, the city is a place to be feit. An effort toward programmatic richness - matic has been the exodus of com- Notions of space, shifting ground plane, an open association of Spaces to program merce and industry from the cities. By plan, section, and expansion are bound up suggestions (action images) - is fertilized 1980, 38 percent of the nation's workers in passage through the city. Consider by gathering and juxtaposing a variety of commuted to their Jobs from suburb-to- movement through the city framed by ver- activities. suburb, while only half as many made the tical buildings. Each change of positions stereotypical suburb-to-city trek. reframes a new spatial field. This parallax Manufacturing has led the Charge from of overlapping fields changes with the an- the cities; the industrial park, as it is so bu- gles of the sun and the glow of the sky. Cleveland colically dubbed, has displaced the old ur- Premonitions of unknown means of com- Steven Holl ban factory district as the headquarters of munication and passage suggest a variety (p. 63) American manufacturing. Commerce has of new urban Spaces. also joined the exodus. Where suburban- In the modern city the voids between Five Xs spaced along the inland edge of ites once had little choice but to travel to buildings, not the buildings themselves, Cleveland (the northern edge is formed by downtown Stores for most of their clothing hold spatial inspiration. Urban space is Lake Erie) define precise crossover points and household goods, suburban Shopping formed by vertical groupings, terrestrial from new urban areas to a clarified rural malls and Stores now ring up the majority shifts, elongated slots of light, bridges, and region. These newly created urban Spaces of the nation's retail sales. vertical penetrations of a fixed horizontal. are girded by mixed-use buildings. During the last two decades, the urban Urban space has a vertical Z dimension At one X the crossover is developed into peripheries have even outpaced the cores equal to, or more important than, the hori- a dam with hybrid functions. The urban in that last bastion of downtown economic zontal X-Y plane. section contains a number of buildings in- clout, office employment. More than 57 The experience of parallax, the change cluding a hotel, a cinema, and a gymnasi- percent of the nation's office space is now in the arrangement of surfaces defining um. The rural section contains public pro- located outside the central cities. And the space due to the changing position of the grams related to nature, including a fish landscaped office parks and research cen- viewer, is transformed into oblique planes hatchery, an aquarium, and botanical gar- ters that dot the outlying highways and in- of movement. Spatial definition is ordered dens. terstates have become the home of the by angles of perception. The incredible The artificial lake formed by the dam most advanced high-technology laborato- energy in such cities as New York, Milan, provides a large recreational area and ex- ries and factories, the national centers of and Paris is related to programmatic diver- tends the crossover point into a boundary business creativity and growth. Inc. maga- sity and juxtaposition. Modern metropoli- line. Taken together, the Xs imply an ur- zine, which tracks the nation's emerging in- tan life is characterized by fluctuating acti- ban edge. dustries, reported in a survey earlier this vities, turbulent shifts in demographics, year that „growth is in the ,edge cities'."

111 Topping its list of „hot spots" were such Low-density development tends to gain employment. The „office park" became the unlikely locales as Manchester-Nashua, an inevitable monumentum, as each exten- locale of choice for many businesses, new New Hampshire; West Palm Beach, Flori- sion of a region's housing and economy and old. Jaded New Yorkers looked on in da; and Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina. into previously rural areas becomes the stunned disbelief as one major Corporation The complex economy of the former sub- base for further expansion. When one suc- after another pulled up stakes and depart- urbs has now reached a critical mass, as cessful area begins to fill up, land values ed for former commuter towns like Stam- specialized Service enterprises of every and taxes rise explosively, pushing the less ford, Connecticut, or more distant sunbelt kind, from hospitals equipped with the lat- affluent even farther out. During the past locations. By the 1980s, even social scien- est CAT Scanners to gourmet restaurants to two decades, as Manhattans „back Offices" tists could not ignore the fact that the who- corporate law firms, have established them- moved 30 miles west into northern New le terminology of „suburb" and „central ci- selves on the fringes. In all of these ways, Jersey along interstates 78 and 80, new ty", deriving from the era of the industrial the peripheries have replaced the urban co- subdivisions and town-house communities metropolis, had become obsolete. As Mum- res as the heartlands of our civilization. began sprouting 40 miles farther west ford had predicted, the Single center had These multi-functional late-20th-century along these growth corridors in the Poco- lost its dominance. „suburbs" can no longer be comprehended no Mountains of eastern Pennsylvania. Not urban, not rural, not suburban, but in the terms of the old bedroom communi- „By the time we left New Jersey," one new possessing elements of all three, the new ties. They have become a new kind of city. resident of eastern Pennsylvania told the city eludes all the conventional terminolo- The „new city of the 2Oth Century" is New York Times, „there were handymen gy of the and the historian. not some fantastic city of towers out of Specials for $ 150.000 you wouldn't put Yet it is too important to be left in concep- Fritz Lang's celluloid Metropolis (1926) or your dog in." Now such formerly de- tual limbo. The success or failure of the the visionary architect Paoli Soleri's honey- pressed and relatively inexpensive areas as new city will affect the quality of life of combed Arcology. It is, rather, the familiär Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley are gaining the majority of Americans well into the decentralized world of highways and tract population, attracting high-tech industries 2 Ist Century. In a few scattered locales to- houses, Shopping malls, and office parks and office employment, and thus stimula- day, one can discern the promise of a de- that Americans have built for themselves ting further dispersion. centralized city that fulfills its residents' since 1945. From coast to coast, the sym- Indeed, as the automobile gives rise to a basic hopes for comfortable homes in syl- bol of this new city is not the jagged sky- complex pattern of multi-directional travel van settings with easy access to good scraper Skyline of the 1920s metropolis but that largely by-passes the old central ci- schools, good Jobs, and recreational facili- the network of superhighways as seen ties, the very concept of „center" and „peri- ties of many kinds. More ambitiously, one from the air, crowded in all directions, uni- phery" becomes obsolete. might hope for a decentralized civilization ting a whole region into a vast super-city. Although a few prophets like Wright fo- that finally overcomes the old antithesis of Familiär as we all are with the features resaw the downfall of the old city, no one city and countryside, that fulfills in daily of the new city, most of us do not recog- imagined the form of the new. Instead, it life the profound cultural need for an envi- nize how radically it departs from the ci- was built up piecemeal, as a result of mil- ronment that combines the machine and ties of old. The most obvious difference is lions of uncoordinated decisions made by nature in a new unity. scale. The basic unit of the new city is not housing developers, shopping-mall Opera- But are the sprawling regions cities? the street measured in blocks but the tors, corporate executives, highway engi- Judged by the Standards of the centralized „growth corridor" stretching 50 to 100 mi- neers and, not least, the millions of Ameri- metropolis, the answer is no. As I have sug- les. Where the leading metropolises of the cans who saved and sacrificed to buy sin- gested, this „city" lacks any definable bor- early 20th Century - New York, , or gle-family homes in the expanding sub- ders, a center or a periphery, or a clear dis- Berlin - covered perhaps 100 Square miles, urbs. The new city's construction has been tinction between residential, industrial, the new city routinely encompasses two to so rapid and so unforeseen that we lack and commercial zones. Instead, Shopping three thousand Square miles. Within such even a commonly-accepted name for what malls, research and production facilities, „urban regions", each element is correspon- we have created. Or, rather, we have too and corporate headquarters all seem scat- dingly enlarged. „Planned unit develop- many names: exurb, spread city, urban vil- tered amid a chaos of subdivisions, apart- ments" of cluster-housing are as large as lage, megalopolis, outtown, sprawl, slurb, ment complexes, and condominiums. It is townships; office parks are set amid hun- the burbs, nonplace urban field, polynu- easy to understand why urban planners dreds of acres of landscaped grounds; and cleated city, and (my own coinage) techno- and social scientists trained in the clear malls dwarf some of the downtowns they burb. functional logic of the centralized metropo- have replaced. Building on their growing base of popu- lis can see only disorder in these „nonpla- These massive units, moreover, are ar- lation and Jobs, suburban entrepreneurs ce urban fields", or why ordinary people rayed along the beltways and „growth cor- duing the 1950s and 1960s began transfor- use the word „sprawl" to describe their ridors" in seemingly random order, wit- ming the new city into a self-sufficient own neighborhoods. hout the strict distinctions between resi- world. „We don't go downtown anymore," Nevertheless, I believe that the new city dential, commercial, and industrial zones became the new city's motto. Shopping has a characteristic structure - one that de- that shaped the old city. centers displaced downtown department parts radically not only from the old me- The new city, furthermore, lacks what Stores; small merchants and repairmen de- tropolis but from all cities of the past. gave shape and meaning to every urban serted Main Street for Stores „along the To grasp this structure we must return form of the past: a dominant Single core highway" or folded up shop under the com- to the prophetic insights of Frank Lloyd and definable boundaries. At most, it con- petitive pressure of the growing national Wright. From the 1920s until his death in tains a multitude of partial centers, or „ed- chain Stores. Even cardiologists and corpo- 1959, Wright was preoccupied with his ge cities", more-or-less unified clusters of rate lawyers moved their Offices closer to plan for an ideal decentralized American malls, office developments, and entertain- their customers. city which he called Broadacres. Although ment complexes that rise where major By the 1970s and 1980s, the new city many elements of the plan were openly highways cross or converge. found itself at the top of a whole ränge of utopian - he wished, for example, to en- Even some old downtowns have been re- national and even international trends. sure that every American would have ac- duced to „first among equals" among the The movement from snowbelt to sunbelt cess to at least an acre of land so that all edge cities of their regions. Atlanta has meant a shift toward urban areas that had could reap the economic and psychologi- one of the most rapidly growing been „born decentralized" and organized cal benefits that he associated with part- downtowns in the country. Yet between on new-city principles. The new city, more- time farming - Wright also had a remarka- 1978 and 1983 - the years of its accelerat- over, moved quickly to dominance in the ble insight into the highway-based world ed growth - the downtown's share of regio- most rapidly expanding sections of the in- that was developing around him. Above nal office space shrank from 34 percent to dustrial economy - electronic, chemicals, all he understood the consequences of a 26 percent. Midtown Manhattan is the pharmaeeuticals, and aircraft - leaving the city based on a grid of highways rather greatest of all American downtowns, but old city with such sunset industries as tex- than the hub-and-spokes of the older city. northern New Jersey now has more office tiles, iron and steel, and automobiles. Instead of a Single privileged center, there space. Finally, during the 1970s, the new city would be a multitude of crossings, no one If no one can find the center of the new successfully challenged the old downtowns of which could assume priority. And the city, its borders are even more elusive. in the last area of their supremacy, office grid would be boundless by its very natu-

112 re, capable of unlimited extension in all di- ums, and various kinds of retirement hous- tus and high rents where the movers-and- rections. ing, from golf-oriented communities to shakers can rub shoulders and meet for Such a grid, as it indeed developed, did nursing homes. There are more places to power lunches. By contrast, the old factory not allow for the emergence of an „imperi- socialize. The same mall that caters essenti- zones have not found a funetion in the al" metropolis to monopolize the life of a ally to families on weekends and evenings new environment. As a result, the central region. For Wright, this meant that the fa- may also serve as an informal Community city has reverted to what it was before in- mily home would be freed from its fealty center for older people in the morning, dustrialization: a site for high-level admin- to the city and allowed to emerge as the while its bars and restaurants play host to istration and luxury consumption, where real center of American life. As he put it, a lively Singles scene after the Stores close. some of the wealthiest members of society „The true center, (the only centralization al- The network of consumption - Mallopo- live in close proximity to many of the lowable) in Usonian democracy, is the indi- lis, in economist James Millar's phrase - poorest. vidual Usonian house." (Usonia was comprises essentially the Shopping centers The recent boom in downtown office Wright's name for the United States). and malls which, as Wright predicted, construetion should not conceal the fact In the plans for Broadacres - a city he have located themselves at the Strategie that downtown prosperity rests on a much said would be „everywhere or nowhere" - crossroads of the highway System. It also narrower base than it did in its heyday dur- Wright foresaw what I believe to be the es- includes movie theaters, restaurants, ing the 1920s. Most of the retail trade has sential element in the structure of the new health clubs, playing fields and other re- fled to the malls; the grand old movie pa- city: a megalopolis based on time rather creational facilities, and perhaps a second laces and many of the nightspots are gone. than space. home 30 to 100 miles away. Only the expansion of corporate headquar- Even the largest of the old „big cities" Although this network serves much the ters, law firms, banks and investment hous- had a firm identity in space. The big city same funetion as the old downtown, it is es, advertising agencies, and other corpora- had a center as its basic point of orienta- scattered, and each consumer is free to te and governmental Services has kept the tion - the Loop, Times Square - and also a work out his particular set of preferences downtown towers filled, and even in these boundary. Starting from the center, sooner from the vast menu of offerings presented fields the re have been major leakages of or later one reached the edge of the city. by Mallopolis. back-office employment to the new city. In the new city, however, there is no Finally, there is the network of produc- Nevertheless, this employment base has en- Single center. Instead, as Wright suggested, tion. It includes the place of employment abled most core areas to retain an array of each family home has become the central of one or both spouses. It also includes the specialized shops, restaurants, and cultural point for its members. Families create their suppliers - from computer-chip manufac- activities unequaled in their region. This in own „cities" out of the destinations they turers to janitorial Services - which these turn encourages both the of can reach (usually travelling by car) in a enterprises rely upon. Information comes surrounding residential neighborhoods and reasonable length of time. Indeed, distance instantaneously from around the world the „renaissance" of the core as a tourist in the new cities is generally measured in while raw materials, spare parts, and other and Convention center. terms of time rather than blocks or miles. necessities are trucked in from the firms Yet only blocks away from a thriving The supermarket is 10 minutes away. The that cluster along nearby highways. core like Baltimore's Inner Harbor one can nearest Shopping mall is 30 minutes in This network minimizes the traditional usually find extensive poverty, decay, de- another direction, and one's Job 40 min- distinetion between the white-collar world industrialization, and abandonment that utes away by yet another route. The pat- of administration and the blue-collar Stretches out to encompass the old factory tern formed by these destinations repre- world of production. Both funetions co- zone. The factory zones have found no sents „the city" for that particular family exist in virtually every „executive office new role. Their working-class populations or individual. The more varied one's desti- park". Its most successful enterprises are have largely followed the factories to the nations, the richer and more diverse is those where research and development and new city, leaving a supply of cheap, old one's personal „city". The new city is a specialized techniques of production are in- housing which has attracted poor black, Hi- city ä la carte. timately intertwined: pharmaceuticals, for spanic, and other minority migrants with It can be seen as composed of three over- example, or electronics. Conversely, its no other place to go. If the industrial city lapping networks, representing the three most routinized labor can be found in the in its prime brought people together with basic categories of destinations that define so-called „back-offices", data-processing Jobs, cheap housing in the inner city now each person's city. These are the household centers that perform tasks once done at a lures the jobless to those areas where em- network; the network of consumption; the downtown corporate headquarters. ployment prospects are dimmest. The old network of production. Each of these networks has its own spa- factory zone is thus doubly disadvantaged: The household network is composed of tial logic. For example, primary schools The jobless have moved in, the Jobs out. places that are part of family and personal are distributed around the region in respon- Public transportations retains its traditio- life. For a typical household of two parents se to the school-age populatioh; Shopping nal focus on the core, but the inner-city and two children, this network is necessari- malls reflect population density, wealth, population generally lacks the education ly oriented around childrearing - and it and the road System; large firms locate to compete for the high-level Jobs that are keeps parents scurrying frantically in Sta- where their workers and their suppliers available there. By contrast, the new city tion wagons and minivans from one place can easily reach them. But because the net- usually has an abundance of entry-level to another. Its set of destinations include works overlap, the pattern on the ground Jobs, many of them already going begging the homes of the children's playmates is one of juxtaposition and interpenetra- as the supply of women and students seek- (which may be down the street or scattered tion. Instead of the logical division of ing Jobs diminishes. Unfortunately, resi- around a country), the daycare center, the funetions of the old metropolis, one finds dents of the new city have generally resis- schools, a church or synagogue, communi- a post-modern, post-urban collage. ted attempts to build low-income housing ty centers, and the homes of the parents' When Frank Lloyd Wright envisioned in middle-class areas and have discour- friends. Although this network is generally Broadacre City, he failed to consider the aged public transportation links. They more localized than the other two, it is al- role of the old centralized industrial cities want to keep the new city's expanding tax most always wider than the traditional ur- in the new world of the future. He simply base for themselves and to avoid any di- ban neighborhood. assumed that the old cities would disap- rect fiscal responsibilty for the urban poor. The two-parent family with children is pear once the conditions that had created The new city has thus walled itself off the archetypical household, but, especially them were gone. The reality has not been from the problems of the inner city in a since 1970, the new city has made a place so simple. Just as the industrial metropolis way that the Social Darwinists of the 19th for others. For Single or divorced people, grew up around the older mercantile city, Century could only envy. Single parents, young childless couples or so the new city of our time has surrounded older „empty nest" couples, widows and wi- the old metropolis. What was once the sole dowers, the new city offers a measure of fa- center is now one point of concentration miliarity and security that many find lack- among many. ing in the central city. Its housing is increa- In general, the skyscraper cores of the singly diverse. No longer confined to sing- central cities have adapted to this change le-family homes, it now includes apart- and prospered. Even a decentralized region ment towers, town homes and condomini- needs a „headquarters", a place of high Sta-

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