ISSN 2026-5611 Nature & FauneVolume 32, Issue 2

AFRICA'S INLAND AQUATIC HOW THEY CAN INCREASE FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION

Nature & Faune Enhancing natural resources management for food security in

Volume 32, Issue 2

Africa’s inland aquatic ecosystems: how they can increase food security and nutrition

Editor: Ndiaga Gueye

Deputy Editor: Ada Ndeso-Atanga

FAO Regional Office for Africa

Regional Office for Africa FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Accra, 2019 Required citation:

FAO. 2019. Africa’s inland aquatic ecosystems: how they can increase food security and nutrition. Nature & Faune journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2. Accra. 108 pp. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.

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ii NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Board of reviewers

Mafa Chipeta Philippe Tous Food security adviser Small scale marine and inland fisheries specialist Limbe, Malawi Montpellier, France

Michiel Christiaan Laker Felix Marttin Emeritus-Professor of Soil science Fisheries and Aquaculture specialist Pretoria, South Africa ,

August Temu Olivier Mikolasek Agroforestry and forestry education expert Fishery Management and Aquaculture specialist Arusha, Tanzania Montpellier, France

Kay Muir-Leresche Victor Mamonekene Policy economist/specialist in agricultural and Hydrobiologist / ichthyologist natural resource economics Rooiels Cape, South Africa Université Marien Ngouabi. , Magnus Grylle Natural resources specialist Niklas S. Mattson Accra, Ghana Fisheries and Aquaculture specialist Mangochi, Malawi Jeffrey Sayer Professor - Forest landscape conservation, Dismas Mbabazi University of British Columbia, Fisheries and Aquaculture specialist Vancouver British Columbia, Canada Accra, Ghana

Fred Kafeero Lionel Kinadjian Natural resources specialist Fisheries and Aquaculture specialist Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Libreville, Gabon El Hadji M. Sène Forest resources management & dry zone forestry Szilvia Lehel specialist Gender, Environment and Development Specialist Dakar, Senegal Rome, Italy

Advisers: Atse Yapi, Martinus VanDerKnaap, and René Czudek

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 iii Contents

MESSAGE TO READERS...... 01 ARTICLES

Abebe Haile-Gabriel Economic value of small-scale fisheries in the Victoria -Lake Albert Delta, Uganda: Implications for nutritional food EDITORIAL security...... 30 Dismas Mbabazi, Herbert Nakiyende, Elias Unleashing the potential of Africa Muhumuza, Samuel Bassa, Fredrick Kato and inland fisheries for food and nutrition James Kizza security...... 03 Eshete Dejen, Hamady Diop, Mohamed Seisay, and Bernice McLean Poor management of Lake Victoria fisheries (Kenya); a threat to sustainable fish supplies...... 38 SPECIAL FEATURE Nicholas Gichuru, Chrisphine Nyamweya, Monica Owili, David Mboya and Robert Senegal delta: wetland Wanyama management with local populations...... 09 Patrick Triplet, Seydina Issa Sylla and Babacar Lake Turkana can support food security Faye in Northern Kenya and beyond...... 44 Diida Karayu Wario A proposed transboundary approach to improve the quality and supply Invasion of the tapeworm Ligula of freshwater to for food intestinalis in the Usipa fishery production in : A Sierra in Lake Malawi/ Niassa/ Nyasa: Leonean case study...... 17 implications for food security and Zebedee N Feka, Nouhou Ndam, Tiega Anada, nutrition...... 51 Adewale Adeleke and Michael B. Balinga Nestory Peter Gabagambi and Arne Skorping

OPINION PIECE

Understanding wetlands and the food security nexus in Africa...... 24 Samuel Dotse

iv NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Sustainable Services of Lake FAO ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS Bosumtwi, Ghana – Implications for Livelihoods and Food Security...... 58 Gender in community management of Adelina Mensah, Peter Sanful, Yaw Agyeman, mangrove ecosystems in Cameroon: Dennis Trolle, Francis Nunoo and Amos Asase some lessons to ensure that no one is left behind...... 84 Fidèle L. N. Tchinda, Gordon N. Ajonina, and Fish conservation issues in protected Jean-Claude Nguinguiri areas in the ...... 62 Jean-Claude Micha

LINKS...... 89 Factors undermining inland river freshwater quality and supply to estuaries for food production in Sierra Leone...... 68 NEWS...... 92 Zebedee N Feka, Nouhou Ndam, Tiega Anada, Adewale Adeleke and Michael B. Balinga ANNOUNCEMENT...... 95

COUNTRY FOCUS: Republic of Cameroon THEME AND DEADLINE FOR NEXT ISSUE...... 97 What does the future hold for fish farming in Cameroon?...... 80 Junie Albine Atangana Kenfack, Christian GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS, Ducarme, and Jean-Claude Micha SUBSCRIPTION AND CORRESPONDENCE...... 99

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 v ©Wassie Antenh and Eshete Dejen Fisher inLakeTanaWetlands, Ethiopia Message to readers Abebe Haile-Gabriel1

Inland aquatic ecosystems are diverse and are part of 42 wetland types recognized by the Ramsar Convention Annex B2, including lakes, oases, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands, peatlands, estuaries, deltas and tidalflats, nearshore marine areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and human-made sites such as fish , rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.

This special issue which resource management received very little study and aims to enrich knowledge challenges. furthermore deserves special of the sector all over the attention given the African , covers The sequencing of articles and future pressures on Lake the value and contributions in this issue prioritizes at the Turkana itself. of diverse aquatic systems beginning those which inform to food security, nutrition readers on what and how This special edition in addition and livelihoods. The editorial big Africa’s inland aquatic includes several papers that quantifies the significance ecosystems are and what their highlight the fact that fishing of the potential of Africa potential contributions are techniques and pollution inland fisheries for food and economically, socially, and threaten the continent’s fish nutrition and goes significantly environmentally. resources. Nestory Peter beyond food security as Gabagambi and Arne Skorping narrowly perceived to view it The article contributed report on another type of also beyond direct provision by Gitchuru et al on poor threat by their observation of of food to include through management of Lake Victoria infestation by the tapeworm income and employment. fisheries in Kenya being a Ligula intestinalis in Lake threat to the nation’s food Nyassa/Malawi, and its possible The core issues relevant security fits with that of Dismas effect on Usipa production. to successful management Mbabazi et al. on the economic of Africa’s inland aquatic value of small-scale fisheries Africa has a large number ecosystems resources in the Victoria Nile-Lake of projects with potentially include the biological realities Albert Delta in Uganda and substantial positive outcomes of insufficiency and its implications for nutritional regarding improved invasion by water weeds but food security, one from the management of the continent’s are also about community ecological and the other from inland aquatic resources. participation. The experience the economic perspective. Case studies of some of these of the Senegal River Delta Diida Karayu Wario gives a projects give an overview of and its wetland management peek view into Lake Turkana actions and lessons learned with local populations attests in the Kenyan Rift , in with a view to encouraging to this. Jean-Claude Micha northern Kenya, with its far interested people elsewhere also stresses the importance northern end crossing into in the world to connect with of involving communities in Ethiopia, the world’s largest kindred efforts in the . Protected Areas of the Congo permanent desert lake and A few examples include the Basin in decision-making about the world’s largest alkaline “Building Resilience of Lake resources they depend upon. lake. This article presents Bosumtwi to climate change Similarly, a Sierra Leonean information on a lake in a (RELAB)” project in Ghana study exposes transboundary geographical area that has reported by Adelina Mensah

1 Abebe Haile-Gabriel. Assistant Director-General and Regional Representative for Africa, Regional Office for Africa, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, P. O. Box GP 1628 Accra. Ghana. Tel.: (233) 302 675000 ext. 2101/ (233) 302 610 930; Fax: 233 302 668 427 Email: [email protected]

2 http://archive.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-guidelines-strategic-framework-and/main/ramsar/1-31- 105%5E20823_4000_0__#B

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 01 et al., which shares knowledge Cameroon is the country under Read about the current and and especially gaps in the focus in this special edition, emerging debates and issues implementation of an integrated through a combination of on Africa’s inland aquatic management approach. The papers. Junie Albine Atangana ecosystems and how they article offers suggestions for et al reflect on what the can increase food security the adaptive management future holds for fish farming in and nutrition. This edition of Lake Bosumtwi in the Cameroon. Tchinda, Ajonina is as much about “practice” context of climate change and and Nguinguiri present some as “theory”. Pore over the anthropogenic pressure. Another lessons learned and an analytical assessments, and example is a review by Feka analytical assessment of gender peruse intriguing stories and et al. of factors that undermine in community management experiences of smallholder inland river freshwater quality of mangrove ecosystems in resource users and much more. and supply to estuaries for food Cameroon. production in Sierra Leone.

Boats docked at Wichlum Beach on Lake Victoria. Bondo District, Kenya ©FAO/Ami Vitale

02 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 EDITORIAL

Unleashing the potential of Africa inland fisheries for food and nutrition security Eshete Dejen1, Hamady Diop2, Mohamed Seisay3, and Bernice McLean4

Africa has extensive inland from both natural and artificial , lakes, and ponds, swamps, mangroves, salt marshes, coastal lagoons and reservoirs. These water bodies contain fish resources and a wealth of other aquatic and other biodiversity. For local populations in Africa, inland water fisheries contribute significantly particularly in terms of nutrition and food security, economic development, as as cultural and recreational aspects. Fish is by far Africa’s most important protein source at 36% of all animal protein. The percentage contributions of fishery subsectors to the overall protein supply are as follows: inland fish 11%, marine fish 21% and aquaculture 5%.

Despite these benefits, economic development of The African continent has insufficient attention is given many countries. Despite extensive water bodies, to proper management so the importance of fish and both internal to individual that fish can be sustained aquatic products in food countries and (quite often) as a key element in food and nutrition security, on the borders of two or security and nutrition existing challenges provide more countries. These strategies at the regional and a barrier to maximising their water basins contain large national levels and in wider contribution to livelihoods fisheries resources and a development discussions. and wellbeing. wealth of aquatic and other The fisheries and aquaculture biodiversity (AU-IBAR, 2018). governance issues, together Improved management These inland water bodies with the prevalence of and responsible use and and their catchment areas poverty and increased development of inland water provide goods and services populations around water bodies and their associated for other human activities bodies, contribute to catchments, is critical to the such as hydroelectric power excessive pressure on the health and wellbeing of those generation, agriculture, inland fisheries resources who are most dependent on urban development and and their basin ecosystems. them for livelihood. A greater transportation. Africa has Multiple and often conflicting emphasis is therefore approximately 80 inland use of inland water bodies needed by decision-makers water basins that serve has exacerbated over- on strengthening the multiple functions. The inland exploitation and degradation governance of these valuable water basins cover around of these ecosystems. assets to continue providing 64% of the continent’s land Furthermore, decreasing the goods and services they area, contain 93% of the aquatic resources in inland supply. water resources, and are waters are exacerbating inhabited by 77% of Africa’s the threats to the social and population. Of these, water 1 Eshete Dejen, Senior Fisheries Officer, Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Djibouti. Eshete. [email protected]

2 Hamady Diop, Head of Programme “Natural Resource Governance Food security and Nutrition” NEPAD Planning and Coordination Agency, 230 15th Road, Randjespark, Midrand, South Africa. [email protected]

3 Mohamed Seisay, Senior Fisheries Officer, African Union Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR), Nairobi-Kenya. [email protected]

4 Bernice McLean, Senior Programme Officer: Fisheries, NEPAD Planning and Coordination Agency, 230 15th Road, Randjespark, Midrand, South Africa. [email protected]

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 03 bodies shared by more than one The importance of that are particularly necessary country include Lake Victoria, during the first 1000 days of life , Lake Albert, fishery and other (Longley et al. 2014). Lake Nyasa/Malawi, the functions of inland River, and the Nile River. Fish is by far the most important water bodies animal protein source at 36% Although most fish and aquatic of all animal protein sources. As resources from inland water Fish production and illustrated in Table 1 below, the bodies are consumed locally, consumption contribution of the different fish products from inland water production subsectors to this fisheries are also important Africa’s total annual fish total include: inland fisheries export commodities. An example production is estimated at 11.3 11%, marine fisheries 21% and of this economic importance million tons (FAO, 2018) to which aquaculture 5% (AU, 2014). In is evident in the value of the marine fisheries contribute several African countries and catch from Lake Victoria that 57% (6.4 million tons), followed particularly among riparian alone was estimated at USD 589 by inland fisheries (2.9 million communities along major rivers million, with a further USD 400 tons) and aquaculture (2.0 and lakes, fish is the principal million generated by the export million tons). These totals protein source. The per capita of Nile perch (LVFO, 2015). are considered conservative annual fish consumption for estimates of actual landings, Africa in 2018 was estimated A review article of published as they are based on official at 9.9kg, less than half of the reports and secondary data reports to FAO, given that many global average of 20.2kg from different sources at countries lack appropriate data (FAO, 2018 Table 1). While regional and continental levels collection and management demand for fish continues to and experiences from fisheries systems for inland fisheries grow, fish consumption on projects (“Strengthening and some fishing may be the continent is projected to institutional capacity to enhance unregulated, unreported and /or decline further to 9.6 kg by governance of the fisheries illegal. The average contribution 2030 due to insufficient supply sector in Africa”, commonly of the inland fisheries subsector to meet growing populations referred to as the Fisheries to national GDPs is estimated at (FAO, 2018). In most rural Governance or Fish-Gov Project; 0.33%and to Agricultural GDP at areas, particularly in landlocked “Strengthening Policies and 1.62% (de Graaf, G. & Garibaldi, countries, inland fisheries are Development Strategies for L. 2014) and it is of immense critical for food security and Inland Water Bodies in Africa”; importance to rural communities income generation. and “The Fisheries Governance in Africa, particularly concerning Project” food and nutrition security.

implemented by AU- in Fish contribution to food collaboration with NEPAD and nutrition security Planning and Coordination Agency with support from the There is growing recognition European Union from 2014 of the nutritional and health- to 2018) have led to much of promoting qualities of fish. Fish following analysis and discussion and fishery products represent a into which elements have also valuable source of nutrients that been integrated from several are fundamental for diversified other papers in this special and healthy diets. Regardless of edition of Nature & Faune journal its origin, fish is a good source of protein and essential nutrients

04 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Table 1. Inland Fisheries contribution to fish production and socio-economic indicators

Parameters Inland fisheries Marine fisheries Aquaculture Production (tonnes) (FAO 2018) in thousands (‘000) 2 864 6 416 1 982 Employment (de Graaf and Garibaldi, 2014) in 4 958 6 391 920 thousands (‘000) % National GDP (de Graaf and Garibaldi, 2014) 0.33 0.79 0.15 % Agricultural GDP (de Graaf and Garibaldi, 2014) 1.62 3.44 0.96 % Contribution to protein intake of animal protein 11 21 5 source (AU, 2014) Average Per Capita Consumption for Africa (FAO, 2018) 9.9 kg/yr

Ecosystem services from Inland fisheries and management. Biodiversity of freshwater environments biodiversity fish and aquatic organisms together with inland capture serve as important indicators of fisheries, contribute to human Aquatic ecosystems (both ecosystem health. Freshwater wellbeing by alleviating poverty inland and marine), represent biodiversity is threatened and and contributing to food and the most biodiverse sources has declined in many areas as a livelihood security. Inland of food consumed by humans. result of the above-mentioned capture fisheries and their These include vascular plants impacts. ecosystem services provide and algae, and such a broad range of benefits for as crustaceans, molluscs, Many freshwater are development and contribute reptiles, amphibians and finfish. important to the aquaculture directly to the Sustainable Freshwater ecosystems cover industry as sources of brood Development Goals (SDGs) only about 1% of the earth’s stock for spawning and early life (SDG 1- no poverty and SDG surface, but provide habitat history stages (e.g. eggs, larvae), 2- zero hunger). These benefits for over 40% (13 000) of the and for out-growing. Non-native deserve but do not get matching world’s fish species. Another aquatic species also contribute attention both at regional and 2 000 species of fish can significantly to the production national levels or in wider also live in brackish water. In and value of inland fisheries development discussions. general, the level of knowledge and aquaculture, if managed Despite this, the inland fisheries on freshwater biodiversity correctly. The potential impacts sector is typically neglected (i.e. species richness, of introducing non-native or overlooked in policy and endemism, production, level species on biodiversity needs global debates on food security of endangerment and value), to be mitigated through the (Funge-Smith, 2018). Debates particularly in Africa, is poor or use of precautionary measures have centred more on questions outdated (Funge-Smith, 2018). and effective environmental of biological sustainability and Freshwater ecosystems and assessment. on the economic efficiency their surrounding catchment of fisheries. These debates areas are most heavily impacted Employment in inland are important, but fail to by humans. Major causes of fisheries recognise the contribution adverse impacts on aquatic of fish in reducing hunger biodiversity include pollution, Inland capture fisheries employ and malnutrition, as well as in habitat loss, degradation and an estimated 5 million people. A supporting healthy development, transformation, deforestation recent estimate of employment improved livelihoods and and draining of wetlands, river and income of seven major river wellbeing. fragmentation and poor land- basins, found that in West and

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 05 alone fisheries to rely on transactional sex for water bodies however, rarely provides livelihoods to more preferential supply of fish. adopts a holistic governance than 227 000 full-time fishers mechanism that captures this and yields an annual catch The Policy Framework and interconnectivity. It is important of approximately 570 000 Reform Strategy for Fisheries therefore, to stimulate efforts tons with a first-sale value of and Aquaculture in Africa towards achieving a balanced USD 295 million (Eyiwunmi, (PFRS), as well as the Voluntary governance of these diverse 2018). Inland fisheries are Guidelines for Small-scale sectors and user interests. characterised by predominantly Fisheries, identified the rural, small-scale fisheries with empowerment of women and Challenges facing the limited commercial large-scale youth as major strategic policy effective management of fisheries. While inland fisheries reform areas to ensure the inland fisheries originate both are generally considered less recognition of the importance from within and external to dangerous as an activity than of women and youth. The the fisheries. For instance, marine capture fisheries, the establishment of a continental invasive species such as exotic poverty levels of small-scale network of women fish traders aquatic weeds like the water inland fishers, contribute to and processors (AWFishNET) hyacinth, among others, affect concerns around child labour in 2017, is a significant oxygen levels in the water and unsafe working conditions development towards and cause habitat changes. within the subsector. strengthening their participation Irresponsible construction of in the sector through improved interferes with natural The involvement of coordination and advocacy processes in and adjacent to women and youth in capacity. the water bodies, changing turbidity levels, temperature inland fisheries Other multiple uses and water levels and reducing the health of ecosystems. Women represent an estimated of inland waters and Moreover, excessive use of 27% of the workforce in threats fresh water from these inland inland fisheries (de Graaf water bodies to promote and Garibaldi, 2014). The The living resources as well agriculture through irrigation, engagement of women in as use of water for power as well as the use of pesticides inland fisheries is often invisible generation, transport etc. in agricultural lands riparian to despite their significant role are all often developed the inland water bodies, may in many fisheries. Women are and implemented without result in serious threats to fish often narrowly associated appropriate Environmental and other aquatic species. primarily with post-harvest Impact Assessment (EIA) Nowadays, climate variability processing and marketing procedures. As a result, and change have added to activity, despite the fact that there is a lack of reasonable challenges to the productivity they do also engage in fishing consideration to fisheries and of ecosystems. These among and aquaculture production. fish production or to non- other factors negatively affect The access of women to fishing functions of water fish recruitment and thereby income from fish processing bodies that rely on the healthy fish supply. It is important such and marketing may have a functioning of the ecosystems factors are taken into account stronger and more beneficial to deliver at full potential. and a balance is achieved impact on household incomes Notwithstanding, African Union between uses of these water than income from fishing by Member States recognize the bodies and their catchment men. Despite their dependence importance of understanding areas, rather than emphasizing upon the fishery, this may be the multiple-use nature of these selected uses at the expense poorly reflected in fishery water bodies and the need of the others which are equally management decision-making to balance the interactions of important. processes. Vulnerable women fisheries and aquaculture with the other economic functions engaged in post-harvest Many inland water bodies in for achieving sustainable marketing of fish are often Africa are shared water bodies. exploitation of these aquatic dependent upon male fishers Fish species in these bodies are resources. Management of for access to fish, some having not restricted to the national

06 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 borders. The management compared to those for marine organizations, fishing companies challenges facing inland fisheries, proportionately or fishing communities. They fisheries management are also focused on redressing the issues provide some security towards compounded by this reality. in inland fisheries. A notable access to fishing areas, and to These includes factors such as few instruments represent the the use of an allowable set of movement of fish species across exception, such as the FAO inputs, or harvest levels of a territorial boundaries, pollution, Code of Conduct for Responsible quantity of fish. If access rights illegal fishing and habitat Fisheries (FAO, 1995), the are well established, fishers degradation. Voluntary Guidelines for Securing know who may access the Sustainable Small -Scale fishery resources, the size of the Management issues Fisheries (FAO, 2015) and the catch allowed, and time period Policy Framework and Reform within which these rights are Current management Strategy for Fisheries and applicable. Aquaculture in Africa (AU, 2014). approaches and In general, however, where A well-defined and implemented challenges inland fisheries management set of fishing or aquaculture measures are included, the rights also protects vulnerable Inland water bodies are focus is mainly on technical user groups such as women, the highly productive natural measures which include youth and other marginalised capital assets which must seasonal or area closures to groups. In the wake of increasing be effectively managed to fishing activities, fishing gear demands for development both maintain existing goods restrictions and mesh size in tourism, housing, minerals and services (food security, regulation, annual registration extraction and energy-related livelihoods and income), and of fishing gear and vessels, developments, agriculture, to significantly increase the licensing, catch assessment and other sectors, fishing sustainable contribution of the surveys (including annual frame communities often face evictions sub-sector to the blue economy surveys and collection of data and marginalisation. This is of countries and . The on catches and fishing effort in particularly true where fishers do current benefits from inland few cases). Amidst low catches, not have written, registered titles water bodies are however under high poverty levels and weak to the lands that they occupy threat from a variety of sources. surveillance and a lack of or the waters that they exploit. Key management challenges alternative livelihood options, Subsequently this threatens include poor governance these regulations are seldom their livelihoods. It is therefore frameworks, incoherent policies enforced or adhered to. important to secure and protect and legislative frameworks and rights to secure the livelihoods weak institutions. The underlying Access rights for fishers of inland fishers on a long-term challenges include the open basis. access nature of inland fisheries, Fishery management in small weak capacity for governance scale fisheries focuses mainly on Conclusions and under these circumstances, issues of access, harvesting and recommendations threats from climate variability management approaches itself and change, receding water (i.e. use rights and management While many of the fish and levels, extractive industries with rights). Access rights, which aquatic resources from inland resulting and habitat permit the rights holder to fisheries and aquaculture are degradation, hydroelectric participate in a fishery (limited consumed locally, revenues development, invasive species entry), or to fish in a particular from the sale of part of the invasion, and declines in species location (territorial use rights or catch are also used to purchase diversity, coupled with the ‘TURFs’), are among the most other types of food. Despite the associated taxonomic and life important management tools importance of fish in food and history challenges. (FAO, 2015). Clear access rights nutrition security, challenges therefore improve management still persist. Acceptable fish and Invariably the existing national by identifying the stakeholders aquatic products for use as and regional instruments for in a certain fishery. Clear access supplementary foods for young inland fisheries and aquaculture rights also assist stakeholders children are as yet undeveloped management have not, as - whether fishers, fishers’

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 07 in Africa. Furthermore, efforts develop new ones to ensure FAO, 2012. The State of World by countries to strengthen consultative and clearing- Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012. aquaculture and fisheries house mechanisms for Rome. 209 pp. programmes by mainstreaming utilisation, investment and nutrition in their community- management interventions FAO, 2015. The Voluntary led projects, have not resulted in such water bodies. Guidelines for Securing in a common approach or Sustainable Small-Scale well-implemented initiatives. The improved management Fisheries. Consequently, if African and responsible use and countries wish to optimise the development of inland water FAO 2016. The State of World role of fish in food and nutrition bodies and their associated Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016. security, it is critical to: catchments is critical to the Contributing to food security health and wellbeing of those and nutrition for all. Rome. 200 • Undertake research to gain who are most dependent on pp. (Also available at http://www. a better understanding of them for livelihood and for local fao.org/3/a-i5555e.pdf). the role of fish in decreasing and national economic security. malnutrition and improving A greater emphasis is therefore, FAO. 2018. The State of World the health of the sick; needed by decision-makers on Fisheries and Aquaculture strengthening the governance, 2018 - Meeting the sustainable • Deepen the understanding including financial and human development goals. Rome. of the value/benefits of resource allocations, of these fisheries and aquaculture valuable assets and the goods de Graaf, G. & Garibaldi, resources to livelihoods and and services they provide. L. 2014. The Value of African food security and to ensure fisheries. FAO Fisheries and that reforms are undertaken References Aquaculture Circular. No. 1093. within the context of food Rome, FAO. 76 pp. and nutrition security African Union, 2014. African considerations; Union Policy Framework and Funge-Smith, S.J. 2018. Reform Strategy for Fisheries Review of the state of world • Support member states and Aquaculture in Africa (PFRS). fishery resources: inland to adopt or implement AU-IBAR, Nairobi, Kenya. fisheries. FAO Fisheries and measures for trade-off Aquaculture Circular No. C942 between fish export and AU-IBAR, 2018. Strategy for Rev.3, Rome. 397 pp. local fish landings as a Rational Management of Inland means of maintaining Fisheries in Africa. AU-IBAR, Longley C, Thilsted SH, adequate fish supplies in Nairobi, Kenya. Beveridge M, Cole S, local markets; Nyirenda DB, Heck S &Hother Eyiwumni, A.F.F., 2018. A-L. 2014. The role of fish in the • Strengthen consideration Assessment of fisheries first 1 000 days in Zambia. IDS in a balanced manner of management and development Special Collection September marine, inland fisheries issues of selected inland water 2014. Brighton, UK: Institute of and aquaculture in national bodies in Africa. West and Development Studies. and regional policies and Central Africa. A consultancy actions on food security and report for AU-IBAR. LVFO 2015. Inland Fisheries nutrition; and Co-Management in Africa. Lake FAO, 1995. Code of Conduct Victoria Fisheries Organization. • Given that many water for Responsible Fisheries. Rome: Annual Report, Jinjia-Uganda. bodies are transboundary in FAO. nature, implement already existing agreements or

08 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 SPECIAL FEATURE

Senegal river delta: wetland management with local populations Patrick Triplet1, Seydina Issa Sylla2 and Babacar Faye3

that rice cannot be grown This analysis is based on Introduction everywhere because it is two studies conducted necessary to leave space to develop management The Senegal River delta is for fish production. This plans for these two sites generally associated with evidence justifies initiatives (Sylla et al., 2017; Triplet the Djoudj Birds National to conserve natural areas et al., 2018), as part of Park, one of the easiest to where renewable natural two projects (Figure 1). access national parks where, resources can be exploited The first one on the Ndiaël without effort, any visitor in one way or another, rehabilitation was supported can admire hundreds of whether through fishing, by the African Development thousands of water birds subsistence farming, and received technical (Triplet et al., 2014). But wildlife tourism or even support from IUCN and the the delta is actually rich hunting. In this context, “Office des Lacs et Cours in other protected areas two neighboring sites have d’eau”. The second, on the with very different statuses. different trajectories but are “Trois Marigots”, is part of a Within the delta biosphere based on the same need study on the understanding reserve, which also extends to conserve or restore the and experimentation of to Mauritania, there is, for integrity of natural areas. management measures to Senegal alone, a marine These are the special bird be carried out on a pilot site. protected area, two national reserve of Ndiaël, which was It is funded by FAO as part parks (Djoudj and Langue reactivated in 2018 and the of the “RESSOURCE” project de Barbarie), two special “Trois Marigots”, a site with aimed at strengthening of wildlife reserves (Gueumbeul no current conservation expertise in the south of the and Ndiaël), a community status but whose isolation on birds and their reserve (Tocc Tocc) and a from Saint-Louis has so far rational use for the benefit regional heritage area (Les made it possible to maintain of communities and their Trois Marigots) created in habitats that have not been environment. The authors 2007, at the initiative of the exploited by humans. have been involved in Saint-Louis Regional Council both projects since their (Triplet et al., 2018a). This These two sites have inception. conservation system is the particular characteristics that second most important explain their value but also asset of the delta after their fragility, which makes rice farming. Harmonious it necessary to carry out coexistence of these two major interventions in order modes of exploitation to restore their ecological of local resources is not functions and the ecosystem implicit, as shown by services provided to local (Triplet et al., 2018b). Local populations. common sense indicates

1 Patrick Triplet, consultant, European Institute for the Conservation of Migratory Birds and their Habitats (OMPO), [email protected]

2 Seydina Issa Sylla, consultant, European Institute for the Conservation of Migratory Birds and their Habitats (OMPO). Email : [email protected]

3 Babacar Faye, consultant, Office des Lacs et Cours d’eau du Sénégal (OLAC), [email protected]

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 09 Figure 1: Location of the two sites (Le Ndiaël, and Les Trois Marigots”) in the delta Source: OMPO / European Institute for the Management of Wild Birds and their Habitats

Description and while its banks were favorable and is based on strong site discussion of the Ndiaël for grazing. The Ndiaël basin was values. put out of reach of since depression 1965 by reinforcing the road The problems of water supply linking Saint-Louis to Richard- were therefore known and Ndiaël is a depression of about Toll and filling in the marigots, were even the subject of one 10 000 ha that was cut off from i.e. channels, that led to of the articles of Presidential its water supplies in the early the basin, as well as by silting Decree No. 65 053, signed on 1960s by the partial blocking up the “Nieti-Yone marigot” the 2 February, 1965, creating of its link with Lake Guiers and that connected the lake Lac de the reserve. Since 1985, there by the construction of the road Guiers to Ndiaël. Inevitably, the have been successive attempts linking Saint-Louis to Richard-Toll site dried up. It hosted large to restore the water levels, (Sylla and al., 2018) (Figure 1). numbers of birds until the early with various types of funding Before it dried up, Ndiaël offered 1970s that enabled it to acquire and involving various non- an environment comparable Ramsar site status, but since governmental organizations. to that of Djoudj National Park then it has lost most of its value. The water supply was restored today. It was rich in numerous In 2005, UNESCO integrated in 2018 after an unprecedented and diverse animal populations, the Ndiaël Reserve as one of operation to clean the supply particularly for birds, whose the core areas of the Senegal- from Lac de Guiers, by numbers were in the thousands Mauritania Transboundary the “Office des Lacs et Cours (Morel and Roux, 1973). Its more Biosphere Reserve (RBTDFS), d’eau”, with a loan from the or less brackish water resources which shows that the objective African Development Bank (ADB) harboured large quantities of fish of restoring the site is not new and a grant from the World for the surrounding populations, Environment Fund (WEF).

10 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 ©Patrick Triplet Figure 2: The Nieti Yone which allows the arrival of water on the Ndiaël

The reserve is managed by committee composed of three to water and fodder, with a coordinator based at the representatives per village. the creation of tusks (large Regional Water and Forest The Executive Board consists enclosures) allowing a high Inspectorate. With the support of four men and three women. production of plant biomass of the Mauritania-Senegal The work is done on a voluntary that can be used by herds when Biodiversity Project, the basis and is essentially based all vegetation has been grazed populations living on the on the Ndiaël basin watering everywhere else. In addition, in periphery of the reserve have project to restore the site’s its work program, it provides for been organised to do the bio-ecological and economic the development of fishponds work required to maintain the functions. The association has to compensate for the fishing reserve (Bos et al., 2015). Thus thus contributed to the success ban resulting from the protected the Inter-Village Association of the water-release project, by area status of the site. The (AIV) of Ndiaël was created in itself clearing part of the water development of ecotourism is 2004 and includes 32 villages. supply routes on a pilot basis. It based on the creation of a camp Its headquarters are in Ross- also supports local populations and the organization, in the long Béthio and it has 800 members. in the improvement of pastoral term, of discovery trips to the Its structure is based on a activities by facilitating access reserve, in addition to other

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 11 sites already offering this type lakes fed with water from the to drain the water supply in of service in the delta. All these southwest by a marigot (river) Saint-Louis. The Trois Marigots initiatives are intended to benefit called the Ngalam. The Trois thus became its outlet and the local populations for whom Marigots are also a reservoir had a limited quantity of water, vocations should emerge, such of biodiversity in the delta sometimes not available, on as managers of rangelands, and are complementary to the needs of Saint-Louis. For fish farms or protected birdlife the nearby Ndiaël, with which much of the year the site was areas, as well as visitor reception they are linked by a series of dry and when it was supplied staff, ecoguides, managers of depressions. Unlike Ndiaël, the with water by the overflow from reception facilities, etc. Trois Marigots are inundated the Saint-Louis water supply, it with water every year, and offered vast open water bodies Description and therefore have diversified frequented by thousands of discussion of the “Trois surrounding vegetation. ducks (Anas querquedula Garganey and Anas acuta Marigots” Thirty years ago, the Three Pintails, in particular). Marigots were only supplied with The “Trois Marigots” are a water when it was necessary parallel series of interdunary ©Patrick Triplet

Figure 3.Typical landscape of the “Trois Marigots” in the foreground, an area of water free of cattails occupied by the water lilies. In the background, the strong presence of cattails.

The optimal functioning of the the banks of the Senegal River Although the harmful impact Diama from 1992 onwards Cattail (Typha domingensis), of the lack of periodic drying resulted in a more frequent a wetland plant commonly of the Trois Marigots is now filling of the Saint-Louis water known as bulrush in Britain, known, water outlet gates are reserve, thus increasing the Canada, USA and , opened at any time according to volume and duration of flooding has established itself and has individualized needs, particularly in the Trois Marigots. As along gradually invaded water bodies. agro-business, to the detriment

12 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 of the general interest that quantity of fish caught (catches difficult to access, has been resides in biodiversity and the of 5 kg per day have become forgotten for decades, but what utilization of natural resources. regular). Access is no longer was previously a handicap could easy in marigot, and only Tilapia turn into a huge advantage as Although it does not (Tilapia spp) and (Silurus long as it is well managed. conservation status, the Trois spp) are caught. In addition, Marigots can be sustainably invasive plants (Typha and This “Lost Paradise”, in the words utilized in different ways. Ceratophyllum) provide shelter of Jean Larivière (2008), was Subsistence fishing, market for fish that take refuge in them the only major natural site in gardening and hunting have and prevent the nets from the delta not to benefit from long been practiced here, while spreading. management measures. In bird tourism is in its infancy but 2018, a management plan was seems promising and visits by Moreover, without hosting drafted (Triplet et al., 2018a) tourists are increasing. such large bird numbers as and the goal is now to have the the Djoudj Bird National Park, Three Marigots designated as Until the 1990s, the Trois the Ndiaël Avifaune Special a Ramsar site. The ambition is Marigots supplied Ross Béthio Reserve or the Diawling National also to restore the ecological with fish. Each fisherman caught Park in Mauritania, the Trois functioning of yesteryear, an average of 20 kg of fish per Marigots are home to some when periods of drought day (Triplet et al., 2018) and thus very rare species (crowned prevented the development managed to satisfy his financial Crane Balearica pavonina, of cattails, in order to allow a needs with the sale. Now, due to Denham’s Bustard Neotis better production of the natural the presence of aquatic plants denhami, Temminck Courser resources and an improvement invading the marigot, and the Cursorius temminckii, Quail- of the well-being of the local decreasing the volume of open Plover Ortyxelos meiffrenii for populations. The management water, and with fishing pressure example), which is a delight for plan also provides for the remaining constant, there is a ornithologists looking for rare organization of the various decrease in the number of fish bird sightings. activities so that they remain species such as Lates niloticus compatible with the ecological (the Nile Perch locally called Thus, this site, away from the functioning of the site and do Captain) and a decrease in the national road and therefore not compete with each other. ©Patrick Triplet

Figure 4: Industrial crops (agro-business) are set up on the edge of the “Trois Marigots” and are likely to have a significant impact on their functioning without the adoption of management rules.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 13 Management of the two terms of biodiversity, in terms of has significantly altered their sites economic development through ecological functions, which can the exploitation of natural now only be restored by major We can, here, draw a parallel resources and the development operations, but necessary to between the two sites (Table 1). of tourism. They also show maintain the well-being of the Both sites show their value in that poor water management inhabitants of the site.

Table1: Characteristics of the two studied sites

Descriptive item Ndiaël Trois Marigots Protected area Wildlife Reserve Regional heritage area Administrator Regional Water and Forestry Lack of organization, management Service. carried out by the farm owners through a set of specifications under the control of the Water and Forests Department. There is no manager with resources available as they are only made available for protected areas such as reserves or national parks Biodiversity In the process of being restored by In the process of becoming the impoundment. commonplace and with numbers of different species decreasing due to the development of typhoons Hunting and fishing Prohibited by the decree creating Authorized with bag limits. the 1965 special bird reserve Ecotourism To be developed, but the material Under development. The tours are resources are in place, with a tourist organized by a few eco-guides and camp and boats. Eco guides still to are very successful because of the be trained beauty of the landscapes and rare species found here. Ramsar Site On the so-called Montreux list of In the process of being created. threatened wetlands from 1977 to Ramsar site designation is expected 2018, now included in the list of in 2018 wetlands Role of local populations Inter-village association with A village association without premises and resources made premises or resources, created as available at the time of the site’s part of the FAO RESOURCE project, watering project and still requiring strong support to be decisive in management decisions Partners Rehabilitation provided by the Search for a partnership, based on Office of Lakes and Rivers through the management plan. Ongoing PREFELAG, a project of the State of initiatives at the Office des Lacs et Senegal carried out on a loan from Cours d’Eau with the development the African Development Bank and of a request for funding for a project a grant from the Global Environment for the Trois Marigots Facility Management Plan For the Period 2018-2022 For the Period 2019-2023

The management plans of both objectives, improved ecosystem knowledge of ecosystem goods sites share the same vision services and economic and services, which will help to of forming an ecological and development for the benefit guide the management to be socio-economic complex of local populations. Both still applied even more precisely. that combines conservation lack the quantified and detailed This aspect was initiated in 2019

14 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 in the Trois Marigots in order tourism and hunting). This action Delta offers the ideal framework to have quantified data on the will have to be followed by a for the effective management of different modes of exploitation new water management, so these two central cores, taking of natural resources. as not to lose the benefits of into account their specificities restoration, with the installation and for the benefit of local The challenges and of diversion channels to allow populations and biodiversity. To opportunities are immense. farmers to continue to use this end, the Biosphere Reserve Rehydration of Ndiaël will the land. This is a key factor must develop governance improve the socio-economic because if they do not have methods that take into account functioning of the site, by water, farmers will oppose any the specificities of each site and improving the production of ecological management initiative stimulate the search for ways natural resources, including for for the site. This error made at to finance actions that promote simple contemplation, and thus the Trois Marigots should not the conservation of natural by a possibility of creating many be repeated at Ndiaël, even if, resources. jobs for the utilization of these sometimes, it can be tempting to resources. The Trois Marigots put water back in to extend the Thus, the management of must find a water management period of presence of the birds protected areas, according to regime that will limit the and therefore the tourist visits of a well-established program and development of invasive aquatic the water body. taking into account local needs, vegetation, or even utilize it. can simultaneously conserve Fishing is prohibited on Ndiaël, On the other hand, the biodiversity, generate revenue but the natural production of experience of fruitful relations and improve the well-being fish induced by re-watering between the administrations of local populations through should, if water management and the populations of Ndiaël an increase in renewable allows regular connection with must serve as an example to resources and the creation of peripheral wetlands, lead to the Trois Marigots, where the ecotourism products. The way is spreading of fish into the waters Inter-Village Association does therefore open to management surrounding the reserve, which not have, unlike that of Ndiaël, approaches that more closely will increase the possibilities sufficient resources to set up combine conservation, meeting of fishing in these unprotected projects by itself. Developing the needs of local populations waters. a partnership between the and respecting natural biological IVA, the administrations and all cycles. This is a major challenge Lessons to be shared the structures that carry the for the proper balance of message of the restoration of the delta, which must not be Lessons can be learned from the Trois Marigots, launched as transformed into a vast rice each of the two sites to improve part of the RESOURCE project, monoculture but must maintain management of the other. In as was the case for Ndiaël, is its status as a world center of such sites, the excess and a guarantee of the projects’ bird biodiversity. permanence of water is as success. The association dramatic as its lack. In Ndiaël, representing the villagers must References to avoid the development of be involved in the management invasive aquatic vegetation, of water supplies, vegetation and Bos D., Davids L., Mawade P., effective management, with even activities based on the use Sow A. & Gueye Y. (2015) The regular drying, is necessary to of natural resources. Ndiael, a former at the conserve the various natural brink of change from dry to wet. productions. For the Trois For the global vision for the two A&W-rapport 2105. Altenburg Marigots it means that, from now sites to become an achievable & Wymenga ecologisch on, for the local populations to goal, it will be necessary to onderzoek, Feanwâlden. continue to live from the site, consider common governance, it is necessary to carry out a with appropriate tools. Larivière J. (2008) L’aire du strong intervention aimed at Management plans are one of Patrimoine régional des Trois eliminating cattails or restricting them, especially when both sites Marigots mise en œuvre them to limited areas in order to are designated for the Ramsar par l’association pour le allow the other uses of the site Convention. The Biosphere développement des Trois to survive (fishing, ornithological Reserve of the Senegal River

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 15 Marigots. Conseil Régional de Sylla S. I., Fall S., Dodman T., Triplet P., Sane N. A., Wade R., Saint-Louis, 68 p. Triplet P. et Calamel L. (2018) Ndoye N. B., Manga D., Larivière Le Ndiaël : Histoire d’une J., Faye B., Sylla S. I. (2018a) Plan Morel G. J. & Roux F. (1973) remise en eau au bénéfice de de gestion des Trois Marigots Les migrateurs paléarctiques la biodiversité et des humains. 2019-2023. A la reconquête au Sénégal : notes UICN, DEF, OMPO, OLAC, 20 p. d’un paradis perdu. OMPO, complémentaires. Terre et Vie DEFCCS, 86 p. 27 : 523‐550. Triplet P., Diop I., Sylla S. I., Schricke V. (2014) Les oiseaux Triplet P., Pernollet C., Gueye Sylla S. I., Baldé Y. Gueye I., d’eau dans le delta du fleuve I et Kane A. S. (2018b) Le Niang O., Faye B., Diouf M. Sénégal (rive gauche). Bilan de développement de la riziculture et Triplet P. (2017) Réserve 25 années de dénombrements et la conservation des oiseaux Spéciale d’Avifaune du Ndiaël, hivernaux (mi-janvier 1989- d’eau sont-ils compatibles dans Plan de gestion 2018-2022. 2014). OMPO, ONCFS, DPN, le delta du Sénégal. Nature et OLAC, DEFCCF, UICN. 87 p. SMBS, 125 p. Faune 32 : 51-53.

Gelgufishers, Northern Gondar, Ethiopia © Abebe Getahun and Eshete Dejen

16 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 A proposed transboundary approach to improve the quality and supply of freshwater to estuaries for food production in West Africa: a Sierra Leonean case study Zebedee N Feka1*, Nouhou Ndam1, Tiega Anada1, Adewale Adeleke1 and Michael B. Balinga1

Summary

Across developing countries, coastal communities depend on water supply from river networks from upstream to the coast for various livelihood activities, including food production. However, the ability of these rivers to ensure food security to coastal communities is increasingly challenged by human activities, weak policies and poor governance system.

This paper proposes the application of a coordinated approach in planning policy development and reforms at the landscape scale to improve upstream to downstream water quality and flows and ensure food security in West Africa. Elements of the proposed strategy comprise an ecological landscape-watershed combination that could guarantee the quality of rivers, ensure connectivity, avoid conflicts between institutions/nations and subsequently reduce human and climate induced risks to river systems. The strategy also recognizes the role of river ecosystems as important assets for poverty reduction and food security and calls for adoption of a cross- sectoral approach to the management of water resources in the context of achieving development whole including the vulnerable poor.

Introduction

Inland rivers are essential habitats in the world (NOAA, (Dandekar,2012). for food production and the 2028). Considering the significant sustainability of ecosystems role of estuaries as (Nguyen et al., 2015). Inland Human activities, “nurseries of the sea” rivers flow from upstream to including, population (Nagelkerken et al., 2008) the coast, with some forming growth, establishment of it is urgent that effective estuaries as they extractive industries along actions are taken to ensure into the sea. The mixing of and within rivers, large that the ecological balance sea water and fresh water scale farming and the between inland rivers and provides important levels of effects of climate change estuaries is maintained to nutrients both in the water undermine the connectivity, enable inland terrestrial column and in , water quality and flow of and freshwater bodies to making estuaries one of the rivers to estuaries, with maintain reasonable levels of most productive natural implications on livelihoods quality and flow to estuaries and food security for (Lopoukhine et al., 2012). coastal communities 1 West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change Program (WA BiCC) Accra, Ghana. *Zebedee N Feka is the corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 17 Various strategies have been maintaining ecological balance threatened by various human proposed to support the from upstream to estuaries. induced activities such as mining management of water resources or poor agricultural practices for food security (Willemen et The proposed and therefore, there is need to al.,2014; HLPE, 2015; Nguyen et transboundary understand human behavior, al., 2015). This paper argues that values, culture, beliefs, norms an ecological and landscape- landscape-watershed and governance systems as well watershed approach, might management approach ecological systems to inform and not only guarantee fresh water build resilience (Nguyen et al., quality and supply to estuaries Various policy and legislative 2015). but would also boost the provisions have been developed contribution of these systems to by many developing counties. Most rivers in Sierra Leone are food security. To enhance inland However, the continuous transboundary in nature and and coastal food production, it degradation of inland rivers’ do not align with jurisdictional is therefore essential to ensure water quality and reduction boundaries. For instance, some ecological connectivity between of water volumes flowing to of the major rivers namely Great upland and downstream coastal areas, as exemplified by Scarcies, Little Scarcies, Rokel, coastal systems, which calls the case of Sierra Leone (Feka Taia or Jong, Sewa, Moa and for urgent need for a holistic et al, forthcoming), probably the Mano (Figure 1) originate and transdisciplinary approach implies that the legislative from neighboring , that embrace the principles of and policy provisions are Liberia or from highlands within social-ecological systems at the failing. In recognition of these the country and activities landscape scale (Nguyen et al., failures, various activities have happening up stream impact 2016). been undertaken by multiple the quality of water in the Sierra stakeholders to implement Leone estuaries. The extended This paper reviews available holistic actions that could geographical and political scope information and suggests guarantee the management presents the greatest challenges strategies to sustain food of water from upstream to to any landscape watershed- security for coastal communities downstream (See DAI, 2013- Pp management approach in terms in Sierra Leone and other 32-37). of stakeholder engagement. coastal West African countries. To facilitate an ecological Specifically, it (1) proposes A watershed is a management landscape-watershed approach, some strategic orientations on unit within which “all water” it is critical to bring together key elements for developing flows to a single river system all stakeholders within a given an ecological transboundary and whatever happens in watershed unit and beyond, landscape-watershed approach, a watershed, regardless of to understand ‘how human and (2) highlights practices location, can affect the river wellbeing depends on the to ensure food security for basin receiving the flow. River products and services of riverine coastal communities through catchments in Sierra Leone, ecosystems’ (GWP, 2012). and West Africa in general are

18 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Figure 1: Map of Sierra Leone, showing political boundaries and rivers Source Sierra Leone (http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/sierrale.pdf)

A watershed could be confined for the stakeholders where wood harvesting and cultural or extent beyond a landscape, governments will be required to practices like the preservation depending on the defined understand the socio-ecological of mangrove forest shrines management unit. For this vulnerabilities to be able to practices at the local level. Local paper a Landscape refers allocate the various human government levels will require to the visible features of an activities such as mining, logging support to invest in the creation area, resulting from either the or agricultural concessions and maintenance of green integration of manmade (e.g. appropriately (Nguyen et infrastructure1 to protect river settlements, dams) and natural al.,2016). At the community banks and limit evaporation of features or a variety of natural level, governance will imply water from water bodies using geographic features such as that both individuals and local customary or regulatory hills, mountains, estuaries, community-based institutions laws and policies on natural valleys etc. At the landscape will be involved in making resource use. level, governance will require choices about priority activities multiple level considerations such as farming, fishing and Beyond country boundaries, a coordinated regional or sub- 1 Green Infrastructure refers to natural and semi-natural artifacts (such as tree planting, water-bank restoration, developing urban green spaces etc) designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 19 regional approach which strives implementing the recommended of their activities. At country to bring countries together for actions from the assessments is level, such a Directive could the common goal of sustainably not always effective (Gormallyn prescribe the need for essential managing inland rivers will be and Tahsildar, 2017). Moreover, information and clearing- bear numerous advantages. these provisions often need to house mechanisms to ensure For instance, in 2013, the Mano be supported by research. It is, all stakeholders know the River Union (MRU) countries for instance, often challenging river basin/watershed’s water (Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, to know the quantity of water abstraction, retention, discharge and Cote d’Ivoire)1, pursued that might be needed by rates on based on which water resources management downstream systems to maintain licensing or other government within the Mano River basin minimal ecological functions, control can be exercised (Prefecture of Faranah—Guinea). like reproduction for fish or and adjusted as net situation Similarly, the International Water rice production. However, changes. Similarly, between Management Institute (IWMI) has in the absence of scientific country initiatives need to be promoted food security through evidence that a given action coordinated both at the country analyzing the factors that enable will undermine the quality of and sub-regional scale to ensure adoption for different farming water or reduce water flow, that plans, policies and field technologies at the basin-scale. the precautionary principle interventions are not conflicting Additionally, the IWMI has should take precedence. at the landscape scale. An developed decision-making tools The burden of proof and effective delivery of this that promote the protection subsequent follow up must approach is likely to guarantee of ecosystem services in West be placed on the developer the quality of rivers and ensure Africa (DAI, 2013) under the strict supervision connectivity, avoid conflict of a designated ministerial between institutions/nations The success of such an agency. The challenge in most and hence reduce human and approach depends on West African countries is that climate induced risks to river collaboration among follow up on mitigation actions systems. This coordination stakeholders at various levels to guarantee water quality and between countries is critical within a watershed and beyond. flow during implementation of because the causes of water A recent report (Feka et al., extractive industry activities quality decline at the landscape forthcoming) highlight how poor is scant because of lack of level can be both local and coordination and collaboration qualified personnel or financial external (Figure 2). For instance, can threaten the system. At the resources. Considering the poorly implemented agricultural landscape level therefore, it is ecological landscape-watershed expansion and mining practices critical to promote integration approach, therefore, there is in Liberia continuously among all water and water-using need for neighboring countries deteriorate quality and quantity sectors that offers a timely in West Africa to develop a in Sierra Leone (Figure 3). To opportunity to view, value, and sub-regional water management overcome some of these poor manage aquatic ecosystems as framework like the European practices the Directive could an integral part of water security Water Framework Directive (EU, institutionalize incentives that planning (GWP, 2016). 2018). This could guarantee promote responsible behavior that companies and other such as the polluter-pays tax In the case of Sierra Leone, stakeholders protect and ensure amongst others along the river existing provisions to do that fresh water bodies remain basin/watershed between and environmental impact in good ecological and chemical within both countries. assessment is often followed but status within a specified period

1 The MRU is an international organization established in 1973 between Liberia and Sierra Leone and later joined by Guinea in 1980. Its aim is to foster economic cooperation between the member countries. Joined the Union in 2008 to benefit from its development objective and secure its political boarder because of the fragile nature of the region. The Mano River begins in the Guinea highlands and forms a border between Liberia and Sierra Leone.

20 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Figure 2: Socio-ecological dimensions to be considered in a watershed approach. Source culled from Nguyen et al., 2015 ©WA BiCC Accra, Ghana ©WA BiCC Accra, Ghana

Figure 3: Un-regulated activities across borders effecting water quality and quantity for food security in Sierra Leone / MRU Estuaries. a- Mining in Fulah camp river in Liberia leading to Moa and Manor River flowing through Liberia and Sierra Leone and b-Swamp rice farming in Gola forest area by communities in Sierra Leone

Trade-offs disparities in socio-economic complexities at a watershed needs and targets, including scale. For this reason, it is critical In applying the ecological governance challenges that for development purposes to landscape watershed approach, might contradict the way natural understand the interactions at there will always be a need for resources are managed across the landscape level, through tradeoffs between maintaining borders. Regardless, most of in-depth research to get the big a viable ecological system and the externalities that undermine picture (Figure 2) within and meeting economic and social the quality and quantity of beyond the watershed unit. This development needs (Nguyen et water develop because of will give a better understanding al.,2015). However, within, and poor understanding of the of the value of ecosystem between countries, there are socio-ecological systems’ (SES) services, how they contribute to

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 21 functionally supporting aquatic a sustainable and equitable landscape approach; a ecosystems, as well as the distribution of provisioning combination of principles symbiotic relationships between ecosystem services that are that results in coordinated upstream water provisioning of direct importance to human efforts in the development to the natural environment, health and well-being, (2) and implementation of plans, downstream systems and promoting reduced risk and policies and legislative reforms sustainable economic growth severity of impacts from shocks at the landscape scale. The (GWP, 2016). The reconciliation on lives and livelihoods, using approach further recognizes the of people’s development needs appropriate risk mapping tools; need for governance efforts to with conservation objectives and (3) promoting alternative transcend country to improve poses the question of whether opportunities for livelihood upstream to downstream water a win-win outcome is practically diversification and income quality and flows to attain full possible and specific to generation. potentials in ensuring food situations. The win-win outcomes security in West Africa. The therefore must be characterized Building resilience approach also recognizes the by trade-offs and strategies role of river ecosystems as to offset the developmental Building resilience of important assets for poverty implications of such trade-offs depreciated ecological systems reduction and food security and through viable alternate income at the watershed scale (i.e. calls on stakeholders to adopt a schemes (Senaratna Sellamuttu returning them to their original cross-sectoral approach to the et al, 2008). And because of the state) becomes imperative to management of water resources disparities in socio-economic ensure their sustainability in that emphasizes securing needs and targets between terms of quality and quantity of services countries, it is essential to water that flows from upstream in the context of achieving institutionalize an arbitration to downstream and neighboring development. system between and within countries. This can be done a country because conflicts by promoting best practices References will arise where shared water at the landscape level. In this resources are concerned (See regard, WA BiCC has been Dandekar, P. (2012) Damaged DAI,2014). promoting sustainable forest rivers, collapsing fisheries: management practices and Impacts of dams on riverine Maintaining equity for the implementation of green fisheries in India – India the vulnerable infrastructure1 at both the Water portal http://www. forest landscape and coastal indiawaterportal.org/articles/ When extractive industries landscape levels across Sierra damaged-rivers-collapsing- undermine water quality and Leone, Guinea, Liberia, and Cote fisheries-impacts-dams-riverine- flow of fresh water to estuaries, d’Ivoire (Tetra Tech, 2018) fisheries-india-article-sandrp the immediate impact is on the vulnerable and less powerful Conclusion DAI (2013) West Africa Threats coastal communities that are and Opportunity Assessment. threatened by polluted water Managing fresh water resources This publication was produced and food insecurity. According at the landscape level across for review by the United to Willemen et al., (2014), national boundaries to guarantee States Agency for International there are three pathways water flow and quality for food Development. It was prepared through which vulnerable security in coastal estuaries is an by DAI http://www.usaidgems. people in the landscape can increasingly daunting task, but org/Documents/FAA&Regs/ be considered to benefit from various emerging concepts have FAA118119/WestAfrica2013.pdf a good ecological watershed been proposed on how such management approach in challenges can be addressed. Feka Z N, Ndam N, Tiega line with development goals. A,, Adeleke A, & Balinga B These include (1) developing a This paper proposes an M (forthcoming). Factors management plan that promotes ecological watershed- Undermining Inland river quality and supply to estuaries for food 1 Green Infrastructure refers to natural and semi-natural artifacts (such as tree planting, water-bank restoration, developing urban green spaces etc) designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services

22 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Ppoduction in Sierra Leone, Lopoukhine, N., Crawhall, N., inlandfisheries.org/wp-content/ West Africa. Nature & Faune Dudley, N., Figgis, P., Karibuhoye, uploads/2015/02/Nguyen_ journal vol. 32, No. 2 C., Laffoley, D., MirandaLondoño, Drivers-FAO-Rome-2015.pdf J., MacKinnon, K., & Sandwith, Global Water Partnership (GWP) T., (2012). Protected Areas: Nguyen, V.M., Lynch, A.J., (2016) Linking ecosystem Providing Natural Solutions Young, N., Cowx, I.G., Beard services and water security – to 21st Century Challenges. Jr., T.D., Taylor, W.W., & Cooke, SDGs offer a new opportunity 5. Surveys and Perspectives S.J. (2016). To manage inland for integration Global Water Integrating Environment and fisheries is to manage at the Partnership (GWP) ToolBox: Society, pp. 117–131. social-ecological watershed www.gwptoolbox.org scale. Journal of Environmental Nagelkerken I, Blaber SJM, Management 181 312-325. Global Water Partnership (GWP) Bouillon S, Green P, Haywood M, (2012) Water in the Green Kirton LG, Meynecke J–O, Pawlik Tetra Tech. (2017). USAID/ Economy. Perspectives Paper. J, Penrose HM, Sasekumar A, West Africa Biodiversity and GWP, Stockholm, Sweden. & Somerfield PJ. 2008. The Climate Change (WA BiCC), Year Available at: www.gwptoolbox. habitat function of mangroves 3 Semi-Annual Progress Report, org for terrestrial and marine fauna: 2nd Labone Link, North Labone, a review. Aquatic Botany. 89(2): Accra – Ghana. 59p High Level Panel of Experts 155–85. on Food Security and Nutrition Willemen, L., & ... [et al.],(2014). (HLPE) (2015). Water for food Nguyen, M V A.J. Lynch, N. CGIAR research program on security and nutrition. A report Young, D.T. Beard, W.D. Taylor, water, land and ecosystems by the High-Level Panel of I.G. Cowx & S.J. Cooke (2015) (WLE). Colombo: International Experts on Food Security and When water is more than Water Management Institute Nutrition of the Committee on water: using a social-ecological (IWMI). http://www.iwmi.cgiar. World Food Security, Rome watershed framework for inland org/Publications/wle/corporate/ 2015. fisheries management. http:// ecosystem_services_and_ resilience_frame work.pdf

Gelegu River, Northern Gondar, Ethiopia © Abebe Getahun and Eshete Dejen

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 23 OPINION PIECE

Understanding wetlands and the food security nexus in Africa Samuel Dotse1

Summary

Nearly 27.4% of Africa’s population are currently food insecure. The continent is vulnerable to hunger because 65% of its labour force is involved in agriculture which is predominantly -fed. The predominance of rain-fed agriculture results in food systems that are highly sensitive to rainfall variability. Local farmers with limited options to increase food production in times of weather and rainfall variability rely on wetlands for their food security and income for sustaining their livelihoods. While the environmental importance of wetland ecosystems is widely documented, its contribution to food security is overlooked in global and national economic and sustainable development planning. This article aims to bring to the fore the interconnections and interdependencies between wetlands, water security and food security. It provides useful information to the national and international community on the need to integrate inland aquatic ecosystems into discussions on sustainable ocean and sea development if they earnestly want an opportunity to reduce food insecurity. The paper further recommends that though the goal for protection of wetlands should continue to be conservation of endangered and fragile sites, greater efforts should be focused on the concept of “wise use” to harness their contribution to food security.

Introduction projected to increase to is involved in agriculture 9 billion by 2050, the FAO which is predominantly Acknowledged as the (2014) recommends an rain-fed. The predominance foundation for human and increase in food production of rain-fed agriculture in economic development by 60% to be able to feed Africa, and especially Sub- (Lisa et al, 2006), food the diverse population. Saharan Africa, results in is the basic human need food systems that are highly for survival, health and Ensuring food security sensitive to rainfall variability productivity. Food security is depends on sustainable food (Jones, 2006; FAO, 2006 therefore a universal goal to production, which further cited in Nelson et al, 2013). ensure that “all people, at all relies on human capital, land The effect of the amount times, have physical, social and water resources. But of rain during the critical and economic access to as it stands now, the erratic period of rain-fed crops is sufficient, safe and nutritious and unreliable precipitation illustrated by the results for food that meets their dietary in critical periods of rain-fed the 1980/81 and 1981/82 needs and food preferences crops (Laker, M.C. 2008) seasons in an on-farm field to live an active and healthy threatens food security in trial in Ottosdal district, life” (FAO,2001). Therefore, Africa for the reason that Northwest Province of South as the world population is 65% of Africa’s labour force Africa in Table 1.

1 Samuel Dotse. A Climate Change Policy Expert; PhD student, Sustainable Development and Diplomacy; Former Deputy Presiding Officer, Africa Union Economic, Social and Cultural Council; Member-AU African Scientific Research and Innovation Council; Chief Executive Officer, HATOF Foundation; Box SKM DTD 6038 Sakumono, Tema. Ghana; Email: [email protected]; Tel.: +233506679055/+233207360517

24 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Figure 1. Wetland Distribution in Africa Source: World Resources Institute, 2002

Table 1 – Maize yields in an on-farm experiment in Ottosdal district, South Africa

Season Maize yield (t.ha-1) 1978/79 7.1 1979/80 5.4 1980/81 7.4 1981/82 1.1 1982/83 1.3 1983/84 NY* 1984/85 NY

Source; Fertilizer Society of South Africa, 1995 (Note: *NY = No yield, i.e. total crop failure due to drought)

Although 1980 was the only dry (only 39.5 mm rain) after good cropping area, because the year (423 mm rain) in the wet planting in November (83 abnormally high rainfall (1074 cycle and the 1980/81 crop mm), the season had a fantastic mm) year 1981 started with had to survive a dry December yield (7.4 t.ha-1) for this marginal 218.5 mm in January and 75

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 25 mm in February. In contrast, to give a yield of 5.4 t. ha-1 in Nearly 27.4% of Africa’s the 1981/82 season started the 1979/80 season, far above population are food insecure promising, with 112 mm rain in the average for that area (Laker, (FAO, 2017) as it was in 2002 December after good planting M.C. 2008). (FAO, 2004). For the Central rains (72 mm) in November. It sub-region of Africa, the figure all went wrong when the dry To preserve food security and at that stage was 55% (FAO, (402 mm) 1982 started with provide income-generating 2004), mainly due to the fact only 60 mm rain in January and options, livelihood strategies that 71% of the population of 28.5 mm in February, resulting may need to change. As Africa the DRC, the biggest country in in a yield of only 1.1 t. ha-1 and becomes increasingly marginal the sub-region was at that stage starting the five-year drought for crop production, livestock undernourished (AU, 2006). and sequence of low yields and and fishing may provide an Africa compares very poorly with crop failures. Although the total alternative to cropping. Unless the rest of the developing world rainfall in 1980 was almost as strong measures are taken to regarding undernourishment low as in 1982, it started with find new means to reverse the (Sanchez & Swaminathan, 2005; adequate rain in January (96.5 trend, the quest for zero hunger FAO, 2012), mm) and February (74.5 mm) in Africa and the world will be a mirage.

Table 2 – Trends in undernourishment in different regions from 1990-92 to 2010-12

Number (millions) and prevalence (%) of undernourishment

1990-92 1999-2001 2010-12 World 1 000 919 868 18.6% 15.0% 12.5% Developed regions 20 18 16 1.9% 1.6% 1.4% Developing regions 980 901 852 23.2% 18.3% 14.9% Africa 175 205 239 27.3% 25.3% 22.9% 739 634 563 23.7% 17.7% 13.9% and the 65 60 49 14.6% 11.6% 8.3% Sub-Saharan Africa 170 200 234 32.8% 30.0% 26.8% Southeast Asia 134 104 65 29.6% 20.0% 10.9%

Source: State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2012, FAO.

Susceptible to hunger in times wetlands to increase food meet sustainable development of environmental crisis, most production (Bernard D. & Kurt needs is enormous in terms of smallholder farmers (63.6% in A.R., 2016; Douglas Golin, productivity, purchasing power Sub-Saharan Africa) who also 2014) Consequently, Africa has from income and employment; lack financial capital to venture lost about 43% of its wetlands but only if they can be wisely into large scale irrigation, since 1900 (Davidson, 2014). used. This article aims to bring move into fragile areas like The potential of wetlands to to the fore, the interconnections

26 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 and interdependencies between the livelihood of large human 6 million (39.1% of the total wetlands, water security and populations is very clear. value) and USD18 7 million food security. It addresses the Although wetlands constitute (88.7% of the total value) per need to integrate and include only around 1% of Africa’s total year (Kirsten,2002). Besides the inland aquatic ecosystems into surface area they are home economic benefits, wetlands the discussion on sustainable to around 100 000 aquatic guarantee food supply for ocean and sea development species, including 3200 of all humans who consume about if the international community fish species belonging to 94 19 kg of fish each year on earnestly want to create an families, among nearly 11 000 average, and livelihood support opportunity to reduce food fresh water species in the world to the 61.8 million people who insecurity. (Nelson, 1994; Froese et Pauly, directly earn their living from 2000; Ramsar Convention; Food fishing and aquaculture (Ramsar Why wetlands matter to and Agriculture Organisation). Convention). FAO (2014) food security Recognised as the most diverse revealed that the fisheries and area in Africa for its fishes, in aquaculture sector employs While the international the Basin (formerly about 12.3 million people in community recognises the Zaire River Basin) over 1 200 the African continent. Half role of oceans and seas within fish species have been identified of the 12.3 million people the context of blue economy (Harrison et al, 2016), of which employed (6.15million) are to improve livelihood and 560 are endemic to the basin. fishers (50.1percent), 4.9 million to address the problem of (42.4 percent) are processors food security, inland aquatic Whilst the Congo basin is and 0.9 million (7.5 percent) ecosystems such as wetlands, estimated as having a potential are fish farmers. More than half which guarantee livelihoods for catch of 520 000 tons/year, of the fishers (55 percent) are the majority of Africans, have with a value of USD 208 million/ employed in inland fisheries received little commitment year (Neiland and Béné 2008 whereas the largest share of if not having been left out. cited in Harrison et al, 2016), processors (42 percent) is One very important means to the total economic value of in marine artisanal fisheries ensuring food security is the the Zambezi Basin, and the followed by 30 percent in inland understanding of the value Lake Chilwa within the SADC fisheries and 28 percent in or contribution of wetlands. region are both estimated at industrial fisheries (FAO, 2014). The potential contribution over USD 201 million per year, Table 2 Summarizes the total of wetlands to food security with their respective fishing figures and shares by subsector and their role in support of values estimated at USD 78 and within subsectors.

Table. 3 Employment by subsector

Source: FAO, 2014, Employment in Fisheries in the Whole Africa

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 27 Also, in the Inner Delta of the other very important resources of endangered and fragile , over 550 000 mostly used by the very poor sites, greater efforts should people with about a million people whose lives the world be focused on the concept sheep and a million goats use seeks to improve, must be taken of “wise use” to harness their the for post- dry into consideration. Sustainable contribution to food security. season grazing (Kabii, Undated) ocean and sea economy should The fact that many wetlands and the region also provides be integrative and inclusive function do not have a market annual catches of around 75 of inland aquatic ecosystems, price and as such are not 000 tons of fish (FAO, 2007- such as wetlands, for a holistic recognized as having an 2018). The most interesting discussion. The interconnections economic value by decision- feature of wetlands is that and interdependencies between makers, its contribution to they provide conditions that wetlands and food security can food security and livelihoods enable a wider range of crops no longer be underestimated. for local communities in Africa than dry lands, and therefore cannot be underestimated. provide ready food supplies Conclusion and Economic valuation and trade- to wetland fringe communities recommendations off analysis tools should be used during unfavourable conditions as justification for continues (Mwakubo & Obar, 2009 cited With rain-fed agriculture being investment in wetlands to in Nelson et al, 2013). Crops the primary food production maintain its food production commonly grown at the edge of option for Africa, local farmers function. wetlands include: yams, beans, with limited options to increase maize, sweet potatoes, cassava, food production in times of Reference vegetables, sugar cane and low weather and rainfall variability, land rice. Till date, rice is the will continue to rely on wetlands AU 2006. Report on AU staple diet of more than half of for their food security and Ministerial Conference of humanity, “nearly three billion income for sustaining their Ministers of Agriculture on Status people”, and accounts for “20% livelihoods, which in most cases of Food Security and Prospects of the world’s nutritional intake” are not sustainably carried for Agricultural Development (Ramsar Convention). out. Therefore, understanding in Africa. African Union, Addis the degree to which wetlands Abeba. Despite the contribution of contribute to food security may wetlands to rural livelihoods, the be vital in steering decisions Bernard D. and Kurt A.R. (2016). resource has been overlooked that minimize negative impacts Agriculture and Food Security in global and national economic or enhance the benefits in Ghana. 2016 ASABE Annual and sustainable development that wetlands contribute to International Meeting . Orlando, planning. For instance, whilst communities. Florida: Iowa State University SDG 14 only seeks oceans Digital Repository. and seas based sustainable Planning for food security and development, the mention wetlands management needs Davidson,N. (2014). How much of wetlands under Goal 6 deliberate harmonisation of wetland has the world lost? (Target 6.6) concentrates on efforts of different policies and Long-term and recent trends conservation of endangered legislations at all levels. However, in global wetland area. Marine and fragile sites, overriding the if the current consideration on and Freshwater Research, 65. quest to ensure food security. oceans and seas for sustainable 936-941. Meanwhile, of the 19.7 million development continues to tonnes of fish produced every underestimate the significance Douglas G. (2014). Smallholder year (excluding fish caught by of wetlands, the world and Agriculture in Africa: An foreign fishing vessels) inland especially Africa will miss the overview and implementations fisheries produce 6.2 million opportunities for reducing for policy IIED Working Paper. tons fish, second to marine (10.2 food insecurity and sustainable London: IIED. million) (FAO, 2014), an account management of wetland that cannot be overlooked. If systems. Although the goal for FAO. (2014). FAO Statistical the global goal is to eradicate protection of wetlands should Yearbook 2014 on Africa Food poverty, improve livelihoods continue to be conservation and Agriculture. FAO, Accra. and ensure food security, then

28 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 FAO. (2009). The State of Food Adaptation and Vulnerability. Expenditure Surveys. Insecurity in the World. FAO, IPCC. Washington, DC: International Rome Food Policy Research Institute Jones, P.G., Thornton, P.K. (IFPRI). FAO. (2006). Food Security and (2008). Croppers to livestock Agricultural Development in Sub- keepers: livelihood transitions Mariam K.A., Ania G. (2016, Saharan Africa: Building a Case to 2050 in Africa due to Climate November). Women’s Roles in for More Public Support. Rome: Change. Environmental Science Managing Wetlands. Retrieved FAO. and Policy . September 28, 2018 (https:// www.thesolutionsjournal.com/ FAO 2004. State of food security Kabii, T. (Undated). An Overview article/womens-roles-managing- in the world, 2004. FAO, Rome. of African Wetlands. Switzerland: wetlands/) Ramsar Bureau. https://www. FAO.(2001). The State of Food oceandocs.org/bitstream/ Mwakubo SM, Obare GA. (2009). Insecurity in the World. FAO, handle/1834/457/Africa_ Vulnerability, livelihood assets Rome. Wetlands_1.pdf?sequence=1 and institutional dynamics in the management of wetlands FAO. (n.d.). Inland aquatic Kirsten S. (2002). Land and in Lake Victoria watershed ecosystems. Retrieved from Water Use of Wetlands in basin. (Wetlands Ecology and http://www.fao.org/fishery/ Africa. Austria: International Management) , pp. 17:613–626. ecosystems/inland/en Institute for Applied System Analysis. Retrieved Septeber 28, Nelson T..,Willy K., Mnason T., FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and 2018 from https://core.ac.uk/ David M.T. (2013). Contribution WHO. 2017. The State of download/pdf/95644255.pdf of wetland resources to Food Security and Nutrition household food security in in the World 2017. Building Laker, M.C. 2008. Challenges to Uganda. Food Security and resilience for peace and food soil fertility management in the Agriculture. security. FAO, Rome. “Third Major Soil Region of the World”, with special reference Ramsar Convention on Wetalnds FAO 2007-2018. Fishery and to South Africa. pp 309-350 of International Importance. Aquaculture Country Profiles. in: Fertilizers and Fertilization (n.d.). Wetlands: Why Should I (2007). Country Profile for Sustainability in Agriculture: care? Retrieved from https:// Fact Sheets. In: FAO Fisheries The First World meets the Third www.ramsar.org/sites/default/ and Aquaculture Department World – Challenges for the files/documents/library/ [online]. Rome. Updated 1 Future. Proc. 15th Int. Symp. of factsheet1_why_should_i_ November 2017. [Cited 6 the Int. Sci. Centre of Fertilizers, care_0.pdf December 2018]. http://www. September 2004, Pretoria. fao.org/fishery/ Lisa LC., Alderman H., Aduayom IPCC. (2014). Fifth Assessement D. (2006). Food Insecurity ssessement Report.Imapcts, in Sub-Saharan Africa:New Estimates from Household

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 29 ARTICLES

Economic value of small-scale fisheries in the Victoria Nile-Lake Albert Delta, Uganda: implications for nutritional food security Dismas Mbabazi1*, Herbert Nakiyende2, Elias Muhumuza3, Samuel Bassa4, Fredrick Kato5 and James Kizza6

Summary

Despite the enormous worldwide contribution of small-scale fisheries in terms of nutritional food security, employment and poverty reduction, they are often marginalised because their economic value is poorly quantified. The study provides an analysis of the levels, methods and profitability of small-scale fishing in a remote area in the Victoria Nile-Lake Albert Delta, Uganda. The study also looks at both the legal and illegal methods of fishing and the impact of fishing on the diversity of the fish stocks. The highest value per kg was found to be for Alestes baremose (Angara) and forskahlii (Ngassia/Ngassa) although the biggest contribution to the total annual catch was Brycinus nurse. The study clearly illustrates how the above contributions are realised, estimates the quantity and value, the fish assemblages that dominate the fishery, fishing costs, net value (benefit), profitability and return on investment for the different fishing methods or gears. The study revealed the management implications of the results for fisheries managers, fishers and sustainability of the small-scale fishery benefits.

Introduction

In this paper, small-scale to some of the world’s most Poos, Marchal, Vermard fishery refers to traditional vulnerable populations (FAO, & Rijnsdorp, 2013), they fishing households, using 2016; Funge-Smith, 2018). are often marginalised relatively small amounts because their economic of capital and energy, and Despite the world-wide value is poorly quantified. making relatively short contribution of small- The purpose of this study fishing trips, close to the scale fisheries in terms was therefore to contribute shore, mainly for local of nutrition and food to filling the above gap by consumption. Small-scale security, employment and determining the economic fisheries contribute to poverty reduction in fishing value of the small-scale affordable quality nutrition communities (Batsleer, fisheries at beach level in

1 Dismas Mbabazi*, Corresponding author, Fisheries and Aquaculture specialist, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Africa, P.O Box GP 1628, Accra, Ghana. Telephone: (+233) 302 610930 ext. 41643; Email: [email protected] / [email protected].

2 Herbert Nakiyende, National Fisheries Resources Research Institute, P.O. Box 343, Jinja, Uganda.

3 Elias Muhumuza, National Fisheries Resources Research Institute, P.O. Box 343, Jinja, Uganda.

4 Samuel Bassa, National Fisheries Resources Research Institute, P.O. Box 343, Jinja, Uganda.

5 Fredrick Kato, Faculty of Business and Information Communication Technology, University of Kisubi, P.O. Box 182, Entebbe, Uganda

6 James Kizza, Faculty of Business and Information Communication Technology, University of Kisubi, P.O. Box 182, Entebbe, Uganda

30 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 a remote area in the Victoria on a Frame Survey (FS) of 2016 seven landing sites, and 14 Nile-Lake Albert Delta (Figure (MAAIF, 2016). In this study, the other stakeholders (02 beach 1), using a mixed method, fishing vessel represented the leaders; 05 fish buyers, and 07 namely the multi-stage stratified sampling unit and was defined as government employees). The random sampling technique and “a group of fishers in one fishing Catch Assessment Survey (CAS) snowball/theoretical procedures vessel and the overall leadership focused on costs of fishing, (Levitt, Creswell, Josselson, of the owner” (Penello et al., catch and value and lasted Bamberg, Frost & Suarez-Orozco, 2017). Due to the limited three months between April 2018). finance and time resource, this and June 2018. The study used study focused on two landing the observed market economic A total of 1780 fishers, operating sites, including a total of 224 valuation approach to measure 689 active fishing vessels individuals, comprising 210 the monetary value that in seven landing sites in the fishers operating in 105 fishing societies or communities attach vicinity of the delta (Figure 1) vessels, representing 12% of to small-scale fisheries (Chiwaula were active in the area based the population of fishers in the & Witt, 2010).

Figure 1: A map showing the studied landing sites in the Victoria Nile-Lake Albert with an inset map of Uganda showing its location. Source: Dismas Mbabazi 2019

The small-scale fisheries in the abundant in most rivers in West same or different times of the delta comprise a multispecies Africa (Dumont, 2009). The delta year, to target a wide variety of Western Africa fisheries fauna is a major spawning ground for fishes that are highly cherished which is rare elsewhere in many economically important by communities near the delta Uganda (e.g. Citharinus latus, fish species (Achere & Mwene- and in the various districts Hydrocynus forskahlii, Alestes Beyanga, 1990). The fish is surrounding Lake Albert and baremose, Lates macropthalmus harvested using multiple gears Albert Nile (Mbabazi et al., 2012). and Neobola bredoi) but is and fishing strategies, at the

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 31 The key challenges to successful development of appropriate The fishing capacity, management of small-scale management strategies for quantity and value of fisheries have been that most the small-scale fisheries in the regulatory strategies focus Victoria Nile-Lake Albert Delta small-scale fisheries by on protection of the resource to ensure their sustainable fishing method base and rarely consider the benefits. It specifically, estimated economic losses of the fishers. the quantity and beach value The study confirmed that the Successful management is also of the landed fish catch per small-scale fisheries in the impeded by lack of information year by fishing method or gear; study area was a multispecies on reasons for failures of most identified the fish assemblages fishery. Fishing was done using management interventions and that contribute to the value of multiple fishing methods/gears lack of the necessary data and/ the small-scale fisheries and (Figure 2), operated throughout or information to determine estimated the fishing costs and the year and provided full optimal management (Eaurastat, determined the net economic time employment to at least 2018). This study generated benefit or income to the fishers 1780 fishers (15% women) as economically valuable data/ (Profitability and Rate of Return indicated by an average of 7 information on the resource on Investment) in the Victoria fishing days for most fishing base and harvesting methods Nile-Lake Albert Delta methods (Table 1). required to contribute to

Table 1: Selected indicators on fishing capacity in the small-scale fisheries of the Victoria Nile-Lake Albert Delta 2016.

Boat-Gear Legality of usage No. of fishing No. of Average boat ± sd Average of ± sd combination vessels fishers length (m) No. of crew

CB-BES Illegal 41 321 6.4 1.0 7.8 2.6 CB-CN Illegal 60 120 8.2 2.5 2.0 0.0 CB-GN Legal 460 974 6.3 2.0 2.1 0.3 CB-LL/HL Legal 39 78 7.7 2.4 2.0 0.0 CB-SS Not defined 66 241 7.0 2.2 3.7 1.0 CB-TR Illegal 23 46 5.8 2.3 2.0 0.0 Grand Total Multi gear 689 1780 6.9 2.2 2.6 1.6

Source: (MAAIF census survey data for 2016); CB-BES (Congo barque using beach seine nets); CB-CN (Congo barque using cast nets); CB-GN (Congo barque using gillnets); CB-LL/HL (Congo barque using hooks); CB-SS (Congo barque using small seines and light) and CB-TR (Congo barque using basket traps) © Dismas Mbabazi © Dismas Mbabazi A. Congo barque (CB) and the only type of fishing B. nets (GN) and netted fish (Dominant vessel used in the study area fishing method and recommended)

32 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 © Dismas Mbabazi © Dismas Mbabazi C. Basket trap (TR) and trapped electric fish D. Long line hooks (HL or LL), a common fishing (Illegal fishing method) method in the study area © International-Alert.org © Dismas Mbabazi E. Cast net fishing (CN) F. A typical fish catch in the study area Figure 2: Selected fishing inputs and outputs from small-scale fisheries of Victoria Nile-Lake Albert Delta

The study further estimated that in 2017 the annual quantity of fish landings from the small-scale fisheries at beach level in the study area was 8 413 metric tons, worth a gross value of USD 11.5 million. The fish landings were 95% dominated by the fish catch from the gill net fishery, while other fishing methods combined contributed less than 5% (Table 2).

Table 2: The quantity ± SD (tons), percentage contribution and value ± SD (USD) of the various -gear combinations in the small-scale fisheries of the Victoria Nile-Lake Albert Delta (2017)

Boat gear combination Legality of usage Quantity (tons) ± sd % Value (USD) ± sd

CB-BES Illegal - - - - -

CB-CN Illegal 164 66 1.9 249 343 94 328

CB-GN Legal 8 043 7 047 95.6 10 995 571 9 614 781

CB-LL/HL Legal 185 32 2.2 263 364 44 165

CB-SS Not defined - - - -

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 33 Boat gear combination Legality of usage Quantity (tons) ± sd % Value (USD) ± sd

CB-TR Illegal 22 12 0.3 32 243 17 982

Overall Multi gear 8 413 7 157 100 11 540 521 9 771 256

CB-BES Congo barque using beach seine nets; CB-CN Congo barque using cast nets; CB-GN Congo barque using gillnets; CB-LL/HL Congo barque using hooks; CB-SS Congo barque using small seines and light and CB-TR Congo barque using basket traps. Source: This study through examination of fishers catch landed at selected landing sites between January and April 2018 and frame survey census data for MAAIF 2016.

The contribution of fish (Angara) (Table 3). A further were therefore the species assemblages/groups to analysis based on value per that mature at large sizes such kg revealed that A. baremose as Distichodus spp, B. bynn, the value of the small- (Angara) and Hydrocynus A. baremose and H. forskahlii. scale fisheries forskahlii (Ngassia/Ngassa) were The study indicated a shift from the most valued fish species dominance in abundance of Despite the dominancy of the followed by B. bynn. The high large sized fishes to the small silver fish Brycinus nurse in value of these groups of fish was sized species, but noted that the Victoria Nile - Lake Albert likely due to high demand by dominance in value was still with Delta small-scale fish catch by consumers in the area, driven the large sized species. Further quantity, it was only the fourth by a high preference for the analysis showed a similar trend valuable species. In order of species but also due to their over the past five decades up to importance the most highly scarcity evidenced from their the collapse of the Citharianus valued fish being the D. rostrus, low overall quantities (Table 3). citharus stock (Cadwalladr & D. niloticus, Barbus bynn (Kisinja/ The largest contributors to the Stoneman, 1966). Oshoi) and Alestes baremose value of the catch in the delta

Table 3: The contribution of the various fish taxa/group, CPUE, Mean value (Shs/kg) to the estimates of annual quantity ± sd (tons) and value ± sd (USD) of the small-scale fisheries in the Victoria Nile- Lake Albert Delta.

Fish taxa/group CPUE ± sd Mean Price Quantity ± sd Value (USD) ± sd (Shs/Kg) (tons) Alestes baremose 2.8 3.5 8430 462 569 1 062 792 1 307 951 Alestes macrolepidotus 1.4 0.2 6400 187 75 325 703 130 280 Auchenognalis 0.9 1.6 3500 249 521 237 207 497 027 occidentalis Barbus bynni 2.5 1.9 6766 731 609 1 348 513 1 122 995 Brycinus nurse 8.3 10.0 3559 1 352 640 1 312 211 1 591 896 Clarias gariepinus 3.2 1.3 5375 333 200 488 406 293 352 Distichodus niloticus 5.9 6.0 5200 955 984 1 353 974 1 395 569 Distichodus rostratus 6.5 - 5000 1 061 - 1 446 553 - Hydrocynus forskahlii 2.7 2.4 7467 448 391 912 782 796 817 Labeo coubie 1.8 1.5 5357 299 238 462 402 367 526 Labeo horie 1.0 0.8 5667 222 179 324 536 262 044 Lates niloticus 2.8 0.5 5358 335 238 493 867 351 121 Mormyrops anguilloides 1.4 1.1 5125 230 185 321 778 257 948

34 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Fish taxa/group CPUE ± sd Mean Price Quantity ± sd Value (USD) ± sd (Shs/Kg) (tons) 2.0 0.8 4250 26 11 30 642 12 223 Oreochromis niloticus 2.5 1.7 5358 367 284 535 795 415 189 Protopterus aethiopicus 1.1 0.8 2667 184 124 133 726 90 052 Polypterus senegalis 2.2 1.1 500 351 173 47 848 23 605 Synodontis frontosus 2.2 3.8 4400 359 628 430 850 753 320 intermedius 1.0 - 4000 163 - 178 037 - Other 0.4 0.4 3426 99 110 92 898 102 342 Overall 2.6 2.0 4893 8 413 7 157 11 540 521 9 771 256

Source: This study through examination of fishers catch landed at selected landing sites between January and April 2018.

The fishing costs, net incomes (benefit) and profitability in small-scale fisheries

The fixed, investment, variable and salary costs varied across the fishing methods in the study area (Table 4).

Table 4: Estimates of the annual fishing costs (USD) by the various -gear combination in the small- scale fisheries of the Victoria Nile-Lake Albert Delta Area.

Fishing input/cost indicator CB-CN CB-GN CB-HL/LL CB-TR Overall Fixed costs (Depreciation) Opportunity cost (TR*R) 730 19 857 726 384 21 697 Fishing boat 1 249 22 456 1 026 727 25 458 Propulsion (Oars/Paddles) 38 588 39 16 681 Fishing Gear 475 44 869 180 439 45 963 Sinkers/Floats - 7 585 - - 7 585 Total 2 492 95 353 1 971 1 565 101 382 Investment costs (TC) Fishing boat 6 938 77 117 7 330 2 854 94 239 Propulsion (Oars/Paddles) 229 3 526 235 94 4 083 Fishing Gear 949 124 823 498 1 317 127 588 Sinkers/Floats - 15 169 - - 15 169 Total 8 116 220 634 8 063 4 265 241 079 Variable costs Bait - - 8 561 - 8 561 Fish advance to fishers (laborers) 19 457 1 316 752 18 487 45 792 1 500 488 Total 19 457 1 316 752 27 048 45 792 1 509 049 Salaries and wages Salaries 29 455 795 065 7 036 16 937 848 493 Wages 245 6 626 59 141 7 071

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 35 Fishing input/cost indicator CB-CN CB-GN CB-HL/LL CB-TR Overall Total 290 701 801 690 7 095 17 078 855 564 Overall costs (A+C+D) 178 612 2 213 507 41 180 79 806 3 213 106

CB-BES- Congo barque using beach seine nets; CB-CN- Congo barque using cast nets; CB-GN- Congo barque using gillnets; CB-LL/HL-Congo barque using hooks; CB-SS-Congo barque using small seines and light and CB-TR- Congo barque using basket traps.

Source: This study through examination of fishers catch landed at selected landing sites between January and April 2018 and frame survey census data for MAAIF 2016.

Table 5: Estimates of revenue, fishing cost, net benefit or income (USD), profitability (%) and Rate of Return on Investment (ROI) from the small-scale fisheries by -gear combination in the Victoria Nile- Lake Albert Delta.

Boat gear type Per individual fishing boat Total fishing Victoria Nile-Lake Albert total Profit ROI vessels Revenue Cost Net Revenue Costs Net CB CN 4 156 2 977 1 179 60 249 343 178 612 70 731 0.28 (60)

CB GN 23 903 6 334 17 569 460 10 995 571 2 913 507 8 082 064 0.74 177 CB HL/LL 6 753 1 056 5 697 39 263 364 41 180 222 184 0.84 440 CB TR 1 402 3 470 (2 068) 23 32 243 79 806 (47 563) (1.48) (160) Overall 36 214 13 836 22 378 582 11 540 521 3 213 106 8 327 415 0.72 159

CB-BES (Congo barque using beach seine net)s; CB-CN (Congo barque using cast nets); CB-GN (Congo barque using gillnets); CB-LL/HL (Congo barque using hooks); CB-SS (Congo barque using small seines and light) and CB-TR (Congo barque using basket traps).

Source: This study through examination of fishers catch landed at selected landing sites between January and April 2018 and frame survey census data for MAAIF 2016.

Tables 4 and 5 confirm that justify them not being permitted tend to be over-exploited, and the fishery was profitable and to operate in the system. therefore empirical measures registered a return of investment of compositional control should of about 38%. Using legal fishing Conclusions and be useful to fisheries managers, methods was more economically implication for scientists, policy analysts, profitable, e.g. gill nets giving working on management of 40% and hooks 28.4% return management multiple species fisheries. on investment, compared to the Further research is required to The small-scale fisheries in illegal fishing ones such as cast establish how best to ensure the study area were based on nets (12.3%) and traps (-7.3%). the sustainability of the higher a multispecies fishery (>30 Overall the gill net fishery valued species in ways that the fish species), dominated in contributed over 97% to the fishers themselves agree with quantity by the low value fish net income (benefit) or to the such as Brycinus nurse. The value of the Victoria Nile-Lake It was apparent that the main study noted the continuous Albert small-scale fisheries and factor limiting the fish available reduction of high value was estimated at about 9 million for sale was on advance species such as Distichodus USD. It is also important to note payment for fishers in form spp., B. bynni, A. baremose the ROI supports the ministry’s of fish food as part payment and H. forskahlii due to their recommended gears in the Lake for salaries and wages. differences in market prices. Albert and Albert Nile and the The observation confirmed The study further noted that low ROI of cast nets and traps the contribution of small- the highly priced fish species

36 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 scale fisheries to nutritional Community Service Katikiro, R., Ashoka, Deepananda, food security and full time Organisation, EAFFRO Supp. K. H. M., & Macusi, E. (2015). employment. The study also Publ. No: 19p. Interplay between perceived found that fishing small- changes in fishery and social scale fisheries was profitable, Chiwaula, L., & Witt, R. (2010). structures in Tanzanian coastal especially using the legal Technical Guidelines for fishing communities. Fisheries fishing gears such as gill nets the Economic Valuation of Research, 164, 249–253. http:// and hooks. The study also inland small-scale fisheries www.academia.edu/11133068/ provides some justification that in developing countries, with regulations on fishing modes/ input from Béné C., Ngoma Levitt H.M., Bamberg M., gears could form part of the P., Turpie J. & H. Waibel. Creswell, J.W., Frost, D., development of cost effective Report for the project “Food Josselson, R. Suárez-Orozco, C. management measures to security and poverty alleviation (2018). Journal Article Reporting ensure sustainable utilization through improved valuation and Standards for Qualitative of the fishery. However less governance of river fisheries Primary, Qualitative Meta- than 5% of the fish catch Table in Africa” (WorldFishCenter), Analytic, and Mixed Methods 2 uses illegal methods so it Penang, Malaysia, 40 p. Research in Psychology: would not have a significant https://www.researchgate.net/ The APA Publications and impact. Furthermore, it is profile/Christophe_ Bene / Communications Board Task unclear why fishers would publication/227642768 Force Report. American use the illegal methods if the Psycholohist, 77 (1), 24-46. legal methods were so much Dumont, Henri J. (2009). (Ed.). http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ profitable and further research A description of the Nile Basin, amp0000151 to understand why some fishers and a Synopsis of its History, using illegal methods do not Ecology, Biogeography, Mbabazi D., Taabu-Munyaho A., switch is needed. This research Hydrology and Natural Muhoozi L.I. (RIP), Nakiyende H., showed the profitability and Resources. In The Nile: Origin, Bassa S., Muhumuza E., …... & its importance to the fisher Environments, and Balirwa J.S. (2012) The past, population in the Victoria Nile- Human Use. Monographiae present and projected scenarios Lake Albert region. Biologicae, Springer Science in the Lake Albert and Business media B.V. 2009. Albert Nile fisheries: Implications References Economic valuation of for sustainable management. biodiversity, Publisher:Helmholtz- Uganda Journal of Agricultural Achere, T.O. & Mwene- Zentrumfür Umweltforschung Sciences, 13 (2): 47-64. https:// Beyanga, P. (1990). Lake Albert GmbH – UFZ Permoserstr. 15 www.ajol.info/index.php/ujas/ fisheries Resources and their 04318 Leipzig.ISSN 1436-140X article/view/126207 management Strategy. Technical Consultation meeting on lakes Eurostat. (2018). Fishery Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Edward and Albert/Mobutu statistics/Statistics Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) of between Zaire and Uganda, 21- explained. Uganda. (2016). Frame survey 26 May 1990, Kampala, Uganda, http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ census data for MAAIF 2016 pp. 29. statisticsexplained/-07/06/2018 Pinello, D., Gee, J. & Dimech, M. Batsleer, J., Poos, J.J., Marchal, FAO. (2016). Definition of Small- (2017). Handbook for fisheries P., Vermard, Y., Rijnsdorp, Scale Fishery. FAO Fisheries socio-economic sample survey A.D. (2013). Mixed fisheries Glossary. Entry 98107. principles and practice. FAO management: protecting the http://www.fao.org/faoterm/ Fisheries and Aquaculture weakest link. Marine Ecological en/?defaultCollId= 21 Technical Paper No. 613. Rome, Progress Series, 479, 177-190. FAO. Funge-Smith, S.J. (2018). Review Cadwalladr, D.A. & Stoneman, J. of the state of world fishery (1966) A review of the fisheries resources: inland fisheries of Uganda waters of Lake Albert FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture (East Africa, 128-1965/66, With Circular No. C942 Rev.3, Rome. catch Data Mainly From 1953). 397 pp.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 37 Poor management of Lake Victoria fisheries (Kenya); a threat to sustainable fish supplies Nicholas Gichuru1*, Chrisphine Nyamweya2, Monica Owili3, David Mboya4 and Robert Wanyama5 Summary

The Kenyan portion (6% of surface area) of Lake Victoria provides 80% of the nation’s annual fish landings from both marine and freshwater bodies. The fishery provides employment, food and income to lake-edge communities. Fish is highly perishable and needs to be consumed as soon as it is caught or preserved for later use. Currently in Lake Victoria, post-harvest losses are estimated at between 20% and 40%. In addition, the fishery is facing unnecessary human induced pressures like overfishing, pollution, illegal fishing, lack of policy to guide and coordinate cage farming, and conflicting roles of the three institutions managing the same resource: the beach management units (BMUs), county government and national government. This is causing confusion and vested interests in fisheries management. The prior factors have contributed to a decline in fish stocks, aggravating poverty and reducing nutritional food security. The most recent fisheries resource evaluation revealed that Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) fishery has declined by 31% from 2014 to 2016, Dagaa (Rastrineobola argentea) and Haplochromines/other species have declined by 40% and 72% respectively. Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) declined by 38.2% in the same period. The number of fishing crews slightly increased from 41 912 in 2010 to 43 799 in 2016. Based on these findings, the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) for Nile Perch and Tilapia is estimated at 86 096 tons and 27 892 tons respectively. This calls for a reduction of 40% fishing effort for Nile Perch and Tilapia and an annual review and update of the appropriate fishing capacity. Equally important is to increase the overall fish available to consumers through use of cost effective post-harvest technology to minimize post-harvest losses.

Introduction supports the largest inland species are Rastrineobola freshwater fishery in the argentea (Omena/Dagaa/ Lake Victoria, the second world. The Kenyan portion Mukene) 53%, Lates largest fresh water lake is about 4 128 km2 (6%) niloticus (Nile Perch) 33% in the world, covering producing 80% of all annual and Oreochromis niloticus an area of about 68 800 fish landings from Kenyan (Nile Tilapia) 4% (Kimani km2 (Kimani et al., 2017, waters, both marine and et al., 2017). Fish is highly Natugonza et al, 2017), fresh waters (Kimani et al., perishable and needs to 2017). The main commercial be utilized immediately or

1 Nicholas Gichuru*, Corresponding author Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) Email: nkunjag@ yahoo.com Mobile +254 726 963 330. KMFRI, Kisumu Research Centre, P.O Box 1881, Kisumu 40100, Kenya

2 Chrisphine Nyamweya, Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), Kisumu Research Centre, P.O Box 1881, Kisumu 40100, Kenya

3 Monica Owili, Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), Kisumu Research Centre, P.O Box 1881, Kisumu 40100, Kenya

4 David Mboya, State department of fisheries, P.O Box 327, Siaya, Kenya

5 Robert Wanyama, Kenya Fisheries Service (KeFS), Regional Office, P.O Box 1084, Kisumu, Kenya

38 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 properly preserved (Odoli et et al., 2016). The lake provides around Lake Victoria in 2007 al., 2013). The Lake’s fishery is services like water for domestic by ‘BOMOSA’, a EU (European faced with high post-harvest and industrial use, transport, Union) funded project, while losses, a nutrient and economic hydro-power generation and commercial cage farming in loss that renders the commodity food to about 40 million people the lake started in 2012, with unavailable or nutritionally (Nyamweya et al., 2016) 5 cages. This attracted great deficient to humans (Tesfay interest, resulting in the current and Teferi, 2017), especially The fishing gears used are 3 696 cages deployed in the for Omena fishery (Bengwe and gill nets, small seines, beach lake. Some cages are located in Kristofersson, 2012). Post- seines, boat seines, cast nets, fishing and breeding grounds harvest losses of fish caught monofilament nets, handlines, as well as navigation routes in Lake Victoria are estimated longlines and traps. The total (KMFRI, unpublished report, at 20-40%, translating into number of gill nets decreased by 2018). Increased demand for 32 million USD annually (IOC, 10% from 2010 to 2016. During aquatic resources threatens 2012). This needs to be reduced this period, the proportion of sustainability of the resource (Mgawe and Mondoka, 2008; undersize gill nets (below 5 inch but can also stimulate wise use Bengwe and Kritofersson, 2012). mesh) increased from 22% to of the resource. Food security The other factor affecting the 40%. The legal mesh size for is considered achieved “when fishery is the use of undersize catching Nile Perch is 6 inches all people at all times have gears, which catch immature and for tilapia is 5 inches, Dagaa physical and economic access fish species of commercial is caught using a 10 mm small to sufficient, safe and nutritious importance, especially the big seine at night, with light being food to meet their dietary predator fish, the Nile Perch. used to attract fish. Beach/ needs and food preference Nile Perch was deliberately boat seines nearly doubled in for an active healthy life” (FAO, introduced in the 1950s to the same period, monofilament 2014). Lake Victoria Fisheries 60s (Ogutu-Ohwayo, 1990a, gill nets increased almost 14 Organization (LVFO 2016) Welcomme, 1967). This predator fold. The number of hooks, observed that ecologically fish changed the fisheries used as hand-line and longlines and economically important scenario in the 1990s into a decreased by 75% and 7.5% fish stocks are declining at an multimillion-dollar commercial respectively. alarming rate, a situation that fishery, accounting for 90% of could exacerbate poverty and the fish exported by the East The lake currently faces a food security problems in the African countries, Kenya, Uganda myriad of problems of increased Lake Victoria region. The impact and Tanzania (Odongkara et fishing pressure, eutrophication of fishing pressure and post- al., 2005; Yongo et al., 2005). (excessive nutrient loading), harvest losses on available fish This windfall came with an excessive water abstraction, stocks is vital in drawing an ecological price to pay, the fish sedimentation due to , effective fisheries management is blamed for the disappearance environmental degradation, plan to sustain the fishery. The of more than 200 species of climate change, invasive aim of this study is to explore Haplochromines, and decline species, loss of biodiversity and ways of reducing fishing of other native species like ecological alteration (Nyamweya pressure and post-harvest O. esculentus; O. variabilis; et al., 2016). The lake has losses. Bagrus docmak; Alestes spp, become highly eutrophic, Barbus spp; mormyrids (Ogutu- leading to ‘algal blooms’ and Preliminary results Ohwayo, 1990a, Witte et al., invasion by Eichhornia crassipes 1992). Haplochromines were (Water hyacinth). A hydro-acoustic survey showed substituted by the pelagic R. that Nile Perch biomass in the argentea and the freshwater Cage farming is a new challenge Kenyan portion of the lake has shrimp, Caridina nilotica (Marshall that needs to be regulated been declining steadily since & Mkumbo, 2011). The two to protect fish breeding and 2014. The biomass declined species today form an important nursery grounds. Trials on by about 31% from 58 374 diet for Nile perch. The fisheries cage farming started in 2005 tons in 2015 to 40 173 tons provides employment, income at Dominion farm ltd. The in 2016 (Table 1) with Nyanza and export earnings to the lake- first commercial trials were Gulf registering the highest edge communities (Nyamweya done in small water bodies decline (50%). Similarly, Dagaa

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 39 and Haplochromines/other recorded since 1992 (Table and 27 892 tons respectively. species biomass declined by 2). Considering biomass, catch To achieve the desired MSY, 40% and 72% respectively. The and fishing effort results, the would immediately require about contribution of Nile Perch to maximum sustainable yield 40% reduction in fishing effort the total catches in 2015 was (MSY) for Nile Perch and Tilapia (Table 2) 26 293 tons, the lowest ever was estimated to be 86 096 tons

Table 1: Estimated fisheries potential within the Kenyan part of Lake Victoria

Standing stock and biomass estimates of Nile Perch Dagaa Haplochromines/others fish species and Caridina nilotica from the last three acoustic surveys by locality Nile Perch Year Littoral zone Inshore Nyanza Gulf Total 2014 33 207 31 152 1 402 65 761 2015 16 424 38 596 3 354 58 374 2016 9 661 28 827 1 685 40 173 Dagaa 2014 30 621 34 907 14 285 79 813 2015 43 457 51 654 11 478 106 589 2016 16 595 18 890 28 578 64 063 Haplochromines and others 2014 3 863 13 416 4 806 22 085 2015 10 432 29 186 9 092 48 710 2016 1 545 7 968 4 058 13 571 Caridina 2014 772 1 230 82 2 084 2015 1 554 2 234 410 4 198 2016 5 409 23 135 22 737 51 281

*other species includes Nile Tilapia, whose catches had drastically decreased. Currently, most Tilapia is being imported from China to cater for the deficit estimated at 80 % (Ntiba pers. com)

The current reference points and the current effort and catch levels for the commercial fish species are shown in (table 2). The maximum sustainable yield (MSY) was calculated using the Schaefer Model.

40 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Table 2: Exploitation status of commercial fish of Lake Victoria, Kenya.

Species Exploitation Ccurrent CMSY Ecurrent EMSY Proposed reduction rate in effort (%) L. niloticus 0.45 26 293 86 096 7 714 4 474 40 Dagaa 0.63 67 457 - 3 189 2 047* 36* Tilapia 0.50 3 203 27 892 2 672 1 499 44

Legend: C = Catch in tons MSY = Maximum Sustainable Yield E = Effort (no. of crafts, gears& fishers)

*uncertain parameter due to the schooling behavior of the species, hence Catch Per Unit Effort is not accurate representation of abundance.

**Catch per person per year in kg

*The most recent MSY for the Caridina nilotica, but Nile policy and regulations to guide entire lake using hydro-acoustic, perch is known to feed on its investment (Aura et al. 2018). catch assessment survey and the shrimps in the absence of frame survey data estimates Haplochromines (Katunzi, Van Conclusions the available fish stock for Densen, Wanink, & Witte, 2006; 2019 to be 138 448 tons, a Ogutu-Ohwayo, 2004; Outa, The fish stock is currently 16% reduction from that of Yongo, & Jameslast, 2017). overexploited and suffers high 2015. It is suggested that if we Future studies should clarify the post-harvest losses of 20-40% can maintain fishing pressure reasons behind this scenario. and a further 40% lost through at that level for 2 to 3 years, Previous studies had shown illegal fishing. This is as a result a sustainable MSY of 260 000 a direct relationship between of poor management strategies tons will be achieved for Nile Nile perch increase with a and lack of cost effective Perch fishery (LVFO report corresponding Haplochromine technologies for preserving under review). decrease in population. This landed fish. Only 5 out of 32 was attributed to predation (15.6%) sub counties account Illegal use of gillnets (catches pressure on Haplochromines for almost 70% of the illegal immature fish) is prevalent in 5 by Nile perch (Ogutu-Ohwayo, fishing, an issue that needs to be sub counties: Rachuonyo North 1990a, 1990b, Goudswaard, addressed objectively. (23%), Rarieda (14%), Kisumu Witte, & Katunzi, 2008, Downing West (13%), Seme (12%) and et al., 2014, Kishe-Machumu, Recommendations Mbita (7%). In total, the 5 sub Nkalubo, Chapman, & Muyodi, counties are responsible for 2014 ). Equally complex are • Post-harvest losses 69% (almost 70%) of all the the ecological processes that should be reduced illegal fishing in the lake. govern ecosystem structure by employing cost and function as the inherent effective technologies Discussion variability in biophysical to preserve landed fish processes and the interactions and keep PAH levels low The current analysis relied on between ecological, economic for improved health and single species models that do and social processes (KMFRI, for facilitating export to not capture other drivers of unpublished stock assessment premium markets. ecosystem change. The decline report). Understanding this in Dagaa biomass appears to complexity is a prerequisite • To allow fish stocks to have favoured an increase in for effective management. In recover and maintain biomass of freshwater shrimp addition, cage farming needs ecological health, a

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 41 reduction of fishing dynamics as key to the LVFO, 2016. Regional Catch effort by about 40% is sustainability of Lake Victoria’s Assessment Survey. Lake recommended. ecosystem services. Ecology and Victoria Fisheries Organization, Society, 19(4), 31. https://doi. Jinja. • Haplochromines and org/10.5751/ES-06965-190431 the freshwater prawn, Marshall, B. E., Mkumbo, O. C. Caridina nilotica needs to FAO 2014. The role of seafood 2011. The fisheries of Lake be protected as they are in global food security http:// Victoria: Past present and future. prey for the Nile perch www.un.org/Depts/los/general_ Nature and Faune, 26, 8–13. (the only inland fish assembly/contributions_2014/ exported to and FAO%20contribution%20N%20 Mgawe, I.Y. Mondoka, E. M. ). SG%20OLOS%20report%20 2008. Post-Harvest Fish Loss Part%20I%20FINAL.pdf (site Assessment on Lake Victoria • There is need to set visited in September, 2018) Sardine Fishery in Tanzania – allowable catch and Rastrineobola argentea: Report effort annually for a Goudswaard, K., Witte, F., & presented at the FAO Second particular fishery. Katunzi, E. F. B. 2008. The Workshop on Fish Technology, invasion of an introduced Utilization and Quality Assurance • For timely and prudent predator, Nile perch (Lates in Africa Agadir, Morocco, 24–28 management of niloticus, L.) in Lake Victoria (East November 2008. the fishery, regular Africa): Chronology and causes. monitoring of fish stocks nvironmental Biology of Fishes, Natugonza, V., Ogutu-Ohwayo, and improvements in the 81(2), 127–139. R., Musinguzi, L., Kashindye, provision of evidence- B., Jonsson, S., Valtysson, H. T. based advice for Katunzi, E. F. B., Van Densen, 2016. Exploring the structural fisheries is critical and W. L. T., Wanink, J. H., & Witte, and functional properties of highly recommended. F. 2006. Spatial and seasonal the Lake Victoria food web, patterns in the feeding habits of and the role of fisheries, using References juvenile Lates niloticus (L.), in the a mass balance model. Journal Mwanza Gulf of Lake Victoria. of Ecological modeling Elsevier Aura, C.M., Musa, S., Yongo, E., Hydrobiologia, 568, 121–133. 342 pp 161-174 Okechi, J.K., Njiru, J.M., Ogari, Z., https://doi.org/10.1007/ Wanyama, R.,Charo-Karisa, H., s10750-006-0033-3 Nkalubo, W., Chapman, L., Mbugua, H., Kidera, S., Ombwa, & Muyodi, F. 2014. Feeding V., Oucho, J.A., 2018. Integration Kimani, E. N. Nina, W., Aura, C. ecology of the intensively fished of mapping and socio-economic M. Okemwa, G. Omukoto, J. Nile Perch, Lates niloticus, status of cage culture: towards O. Odote, P. Nyamweya, C.S. in Lake Victoria, Uganda. balancing lake-use and culture Werimo, K. Malala, J. Ongore, Health & fisheries in Lake Victoria, Kenya. C. Owiti, H. 2017. The Status of Management, 17(1), 62–69. Wiley Aquaculture Research Kenyan Fisheries. Kenya Marine https://doi.org/10.1080/146349 and Fisheries Research Institute, 88.2014.880639 Bengwe, L. Kristófersson, D. M., Mombasa, Kenya. 2012. Reducing Post-harvest Nyamweya, C. Sturludottir, E. Losses of the Artisanal Dagaa Kishe-Machumu, M. A., Witte, Tomasson, T. Fulton, E.A. Taabu- Fishery in lake Victoria Tanzania : F., Wanink, J. H., & Katunzi, Munyaho, A. Njiru, M. Stefansson, A cost and Benefit Analysis, (Fdd E. F. 2012. The diet of Nile G. 2016. Exploring Lake Victoria 2009), 1–12. Retrieved from Perch, Lates niloticus (L.) after ecosystem functioning using the http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/ resurgence of haplochromine Atlantis modeling framework. xmlui/handle/1957/34602. cichlids in the Mwanza Gulf of Environ. Model. & Softw. 86, Lake Victoria. Hydrobiologia, 158–167. Downing, A. S., Van Nes, 682(1), 111–119. https://doi. E., Balirwa, J., Beuving, J., org/10.1007/s10750-011- Odoli, C. Oduor-Odote, P. Bwathondi, P., Chapman, L. J., 0822-1 Onyango, S. Ohowa, B., 2013. … Janse, J. H. 2014. Coupled ‘Evaluation of fish handling human and natural system techniques employed by

42 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 artisanal fishers on quality and the variations in the Nile Hashenge fishery associations, Lethrinids and Siganids fish perch and other fish stocks of Northern Ethiopia. Agriculture genera at landing time using Lake Kyoga and the northern and Food Security 6(1), 1–12. sensory and microbialogical waters of Lake Victoria https://doi.org/10.1186/ methods’, African Journal of (Uganda). Journal of Fish s40066-016-0081-5. Food, Agriculture, Nutrition amd Biology., 37, 55–63. https://doi. Development, 13(5), pp. 8167– org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.1990. Welcomme, R. L. 1967. 8186. tb05926.x Observations on the biology of the introduced species of Odongkara, K., Abila, R. O., Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. 2004. Tilapia in Lake Victoria. Revue nyango, P. O. 2005. Distribution Management of the Nile de Zoologie et de Botanique of economic benefits from the perch, Lates niloticus fishery Africaines, 76, 249–279. fisheries. In The state of the in Lake Victoria in light of fisheries resources of Lake the changes in its life history Witte, F., Goldshmidt, T., Ligtvoet, Victoria and their management characteristics. African Journal W., Oijen, M. J. P., & Wanink, J. H. (pp. 124–31). Jinja, Uganda: of Ecology, 42, 306–314. (1992). Species extinction and Lake Victoria Fisheries https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- concomitant ecological changes Organization Secretariat. 2028.2004.00527.x in Lake Victoria. Netherlands Journal of Zoology, 42, 214–232. Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. 1990a. The Outa, N. O., Yongo, E., & decline of the native fishes Jameslast, A. K. 2017. Ontogenic Yongo, E., Keizire, B. B., Mbilinyi, of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga changes in prey ingested by Nile H. G. 2005. Socioeconomic (East Africa) and the impact of Perch (Lates niloticus) caught impacts of trade. In The state of introduced species, especially in Nyanza Gulf of Lake Victoria, the fisheries resources of Lake the Nile perch, Lates niloticus Kenya. Lakes & Reservoirs: Victoria and their management. and the Nile tilapia, Oreochromis Research & Management, Proceedings of the Regional niloticus. Environmental Biology 2017(20), 1–5. Stakeholders’ Conference pp. of Fishes, 27, 1–96. 132–142. Jinja, Uganda: Lake Tesfay, S. Teferi, M., 2017. Victoria Fisheries Organization Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. 1990b. Assessment of fish post-harvest Secretariat. Changes in the prey ingested losses in Tekeze dam and Lake

Gelgu River, Northern Gondar, Ethiopia © Abebe Getahun and Eshete Dejen

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 43 Lake Turkana can support food security in northern Kenya and beyond Diida Karayu Wario1

Summary

Lake Turkana is a lake in the Kenyan Rift Valley, in northern Kenya, with its far northern end crossing into Ethiopia. It is the world’s largest permanent desert lake and the world’s largest alkaline lake. Marsabit County is located in northern Kenya, bordering the shore of Lake Turkana. It is the largest inland water mass in Kenya, with a total length of 265 km and a width of 48km. The Chalbi Desert makes up much of the center region of the county, and mount Marsabit is a major feature in the eastern section of the county. The county’s main sources of livelihoods are pastoralism - 81%; agropastoralism - 16%; others, including fishing - 5%. Despite the lake Turkana being home to many fish species, not many residents of Marsabit County consume fish. Instead, the residents, who are mainly pastoralist communities, prefer animal-based protein. For this reason, this paper discusses the opportunities that exist to upscale fish consumption and marketing. The paper concludes that Lake Turkana has a huge potential for fish production. Further, the paper recommends that Kenya’s Government increases investment in a project to increase consumption and marketing of fish products from Lake Turkana.

Introduction meat as part of their main Turkana occurs in two diet. Yet, there is increased northern counties of The aim of this article is demand for food as the Kenya, namely Turkana and to emphasize the huge population of Marsabit keeps Marsabit Counties (Figure unexploited potential of on growing. Climate change 1). More than half of the lake Lake Turkana in terms of and the arid nature of the is in Marsabit County. It is a increasing food security for environment continue to saline lake surrounded by the residents of Marsabit affect food availability to an arid, desert environment County and other parts of meet the demand of the and has been supporting Kenya. Marsabit County is growing population. Youth human life from pre-historic located in northern Kenya, unemployment is also high time. Geographically, the bordering on Ethiopia in the county. At the time of lake starts from the Ethiopian (Figure 1). Lake Turkana is collecting information for border southwards in Kenya the most saline lake in East this article, a young man along the . Africa and the largest desert (Figure 2) was among the Its length is 249 km from lake in the world. Despite fishermen at the lake. Fishing north to south with a width the huge potential of this time happens early in the of 44 km at its widest point lake, which can provide morning and extends late and a depth of 30 meters. alternative diet in the form in the evening as shown The lake supports numerous of fish products, most of the in Figures 3 and 4. There aquatic life like fish. The lake pastoralist population do not is urgent need to identify is the main source of fish in consider fish as an essential alternative sources of food in the county, supporting food commodity. The order to meet the increased 1 400 fishermen and 400 majority of the pastoralists food and nutritional demand fish farming families. The prefer consuming livestock of Marsabit County. Lake main species of fish available

1 Diida Karayu Wario - Social development, Environment and Natural Resource Management specialist. Email: [email protected] ; [email protected] ; Cell; +254 720 23 96 21

44 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 are tilapia ( Oreochromis), and 20 canoes (Marsabit County lake was sold in that year or on labeo (Labeo rohita) and Nile Integrated Development Plan average 1 104 kg of fish sold perch (Lates nilotidus). The lake 2013-2017). The data recorded per month (Table 1). About has 10 landing beaches, but by the Kenya government’s half of the fish was sold by only four are gazetted. There fisheries department in 2017 cooperatives1 and half by private are 2 000 fishing nets, 500 shows that 13 244 kg (13.244 fisheries 2 longlines, 10 motorized boats metric tonnes) of fish from the

Figure 1 Map of Kenya showing the boundaries of Turkana County, Marsabit County, and position of Lake Turkana Source: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2009)

1 Cooperative is a formal group registered under Kenya Cooperative Societies act, cap 490 of 2012, with the aim of promoting the welfare and economic interest of members. In the case of cooperative dealing in trade of fish, they are registered to carry out fish business as their main economic interest.

2 Private fisheries are private traders or companies dealing with trade of fish

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 45 © Diida Karayu Wario

Figure 2: A young boy with his catch of Fish at the shore of Lake Turkana © Diida Karayu Wario

Figure 3: Sunset over Lake Turkana

46 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 © Diida Karayu Wario

Figure 4: Fishermen carrying out their fishing activities in Loyangalani at sunset

Table 1 – Amount of fresh fish sold per month from Lake Turkana in 2017

Month Nile Perch fillets (kgs) Tilapia (pieces) Cooperative Fisheries Cooperative Fisheries January 75 214 0 49 February 291 0 76 0 March 197 17 111 19 April 334 81 261 17 May 210 203 170 0 June 130 0 90 0 July 63 209 243 589 August 220 309 193 539 September 97 112 912 969 October 68 202 724 1 088 November 233 95.5 708 494 December 424 596 807 805 TOTAL 2 342 2 038.5 4 295 4 569

(Source: County government of Marsabit, Department of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries status report 2017)

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 47 The upsurge in the amount of Marsabit County has a total of population growth. Studies fresh fish sold from the month of land area of 70 961.2 sq km show that fish protein is very September to December were (7 096 120 ha), excluding the important to human nutrition. due to a number of factors: Lake Turkana, making it the Sarvenaz & Sabine (2017) noted spirited fish-eating campaign largest county in Kenya in terms that fish are considered to be by the county government of land area1 The proportion a nutritionally valuable part of of Marsabit; improvement of of the population that practise human food. They recommend Loyangalani road to an all- farming during favourable eating of fish at least two times weather road; and relocating seasons is a paltry 2% out of a week. Justification given and posting of fisheries officer to the projected population of 322 is the content of long chain the area to work with fisher folks 567 in 2018, which is normal polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids on good fishing practices. in such arid environment. The in fish. These fatty acids are said total area under cash and food to be very essential in human Discussion crop production in Marsabit nutrition and have proven to County is only 5 060 ha (CIDP be involved in many metabolic Increase in the frequency of 2013-2017). Expansion of land functions. Other benefits noted droughts have a considerable under crop cultivation is mainly are anti-inflammatory effects, impact on the livelihood of hindered by water scarcity and decrease platelet aggregation pastoral households, especially pastoralists’ lack of passion for which are essential parts in the those households with fewer cultivation of land as opposed to cell membranes, cardiovascular animals than the threshold livestock rearing. In this context, system, brain, and nervous considered as a viable herd. this is sustainable land use tissue. Droughts affect herd recovery practice in the arid lands. and induce food insecurity. In The county government of northern Kenya, food security The main ethnic groups in Marsabit has in the recent past continues to deteriorate due Marsabit who pastoralists are tried to support fisher folks with to recurrent regional droughts. predominantly are Borana, a view of producing fish for Historically, Marsabit county Rendille and Gabra. The Burji both domestic and commercial experiences refugee influx community have farming purposes. This intervention, from neighbouring countries knowledge and practise farming plus the improvement of the like Ethiopia, South and in the Mt. Marsabit and Moyale Loyangalani road to an all- Somalia. Kenya hosts over areas. Protracted droughts and weather road, has opened 595 000 refugees, one of the conflicts in northern Kenya, the area for traders and thus largest refugee populations especially in the 1980s and opened access for fish to new in the world (WFP 2016b). In 1970s, led to loss of livestock markets. Perhaps, this is why early 2017, some refugees among different pastoralists. there is a very sharp increase from Ethiopia crossed over to Some of these became destitute in the sale of fish since July Marsabit to flee from conflict in pastoralists who then began 2017 (Table 1). The county, their country. To date, there is to settle around newly created furthermore, constructed two an informal short-term refugee agricultural schemes. The fish cold storage facilities in camp in Dambala Fachana Turkana and Elmolo people, Loiyangalani and Ileret. This in Moyale Sub-county of who are the minority in Marsabit intervention will enhance the Marsabit county. The people County, are the only known preservation of fish products flee politically induced conflict groups who regularly consume in readiness for marketing and in their country. Due to the fish as part of their diet. It is thus increase the sale of fish. In prevalent arid and semi-arid important to note that currently order to promote sustainable conditions, the economic more and more people in fishing along this development investment opportunities in Marsabit County are increasingly aspiration, the county northern Kenya are limited adopting fish as a supplementary government has also bought mainly to herding of livestock food. This is because livestock two motor boats that help in such as cattle, sheep, goat based protein is decreasing monitoring fishing activities and and camels, and retail trade due to increased droughts and also in eliminating illegal fishing. (Barrow & Mogaka, 2007). increasing demand as a result Prior to this intervention, the

1 County fact sheet; Commission on Revenue Allocation (CRA) 2013

48 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 fishermen were using traditional Service (KWS) and the National that limit the potential ways of fishing without attending Museums of Kenya (NMK). harvest. to conservation, thus threatening These interventions are a good the fish population. Inappropriate sign that the area will receive • Unreliable market access use of fishing nets and other prominence and increase and poor access to gears endanger fish populations. consumption of fish. The county information on fish. Access There is a recommended still needs to do more providing to credible information on fishing net type for use in such data on fish stocks, catch and fish data is very important. environment. They were also traded volumes. using crude methods of gutting Recommendations and and drying fish, thus rendering Conclusions suggestions for further a significant proportion of research the fish unsuitable for human Lake Turkana has great consumption. unexploited potential for Government of Marsabit County enhancing food security, not should promote eating of fish The government of Kenya has only for the people living in through rigorous campaigns also set up one Museum at the Marsabit County, but the rest of and cooking demonstrations. shore of Lake Turkana. Perhaps Kenya. It is endowed with a huge A good example is to run “eat this sets a good roadmap for fish population that can feed the more fish” campaigns to change conserving important heritage people. However, the proportion the attitude of pastoralist around the Lake. Scientific of people who eat fish is very communities studies done in the area low. Therefore, this article makes produced physical evidence as the following conclusions; There is a need for identifying habitation of flora and fauna of fish marketing opportunities diverse species over millions • Clearly, plenty of fish is for fisher folks, which will not of years to the present around available in lake Turkana that only create employment for the the Lake and surroundings. The can support the growing unemployed youths but also adjacent Mount Kulal Biosphere population but there is low increase the revenue stream for Reserve serves as a water consumption of fish among Marsabit County Government. shed for the Lake Turkana the communities in Marsabit Basin and as a wildlife dispersal County. The government should improve area. The museum enjoys legal the infrastructure required for protection from the government • Marsabit county has poor fish development, such as cold of Kenya. Kenya Wildlife Act cap infrastructure to support store facilities and refrigerated 376 as well as the Antiquities development of fishery in trucks, good roads, etc. and Monument Act cap 215 the county for domestic (currently the National Museums consumption and export. The government of Kenya and Heritage Act of 2006) under There is a huge need to should fund Research on Lake Kenyan legislation has helped in develop roads in the area Turkana and come up with how the legal recognition of the area. and other infrastructure to sustainably manage long term Sibiloi National Park was legally that is needed to support sustainable production of fish. designated as a national park in development of the fishery 1973 whereas South and Central resource. Thorough training should be Islands were legally designated introduced for fishermen on in 1983 and 1985 respectively. • Fish harvesting methods how to carry out legal fishing These properties are co- are commonly traditional activities. managed by Kenya Wildlife rudimentary fishing methods

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 49 References Livestock and Fisheries status Reviews in Fisheries Science & report 2017 Aquaculture, DOI:10.1080/2330 Edmund Barrow and Hezron 8249.2017.1399104 Mogaka (2007). Kenya’s Marsabit County Integrated Drylands – Wastelands or an Development Plan (CIDP) 2013- WFP Kenya. 2016a. “Bridging Undervalued National Economic 2017. Relief and Resilience in the Arid Resource and Semi-Arid Lands: Standard Sarvenaz Khalili Tilami & Sabine Project Report 2016.” Single County government of Marsabit, Sampels (2017): Nutritional Country PRRO – 200736. WFP Department of Agriculture, Value of Fish:Lipids, Proteins, Kenya. Vitamins, and Minerals,

Lake Burera, northwestern Rwanda ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

50 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Invasion of the tapeworm Ligula intestinalis in the Usipa fishery in Lake Malawi/ Niassa/ Nyasa: implications for food security and nutrition Nestory Peter Gabagambi1 and Arne Skorping2

Summary

This article reports the invasion of a deleterious parasite infecting an economically important fish species, the Usipa, in Lake Malawi/Niassa/ Nyasa, hereafter Lake Nyasa. Most of the available knowledge on this parasite comes from small lakes in , where the parasite has been reported to cause almost complete crashes in fish populations. In Lake Nyasa, however, where ecological conditions are markedly different from these European lakes, our results indicate that the infection level is more stable and that the transmission of the parasite varies at different localities. The research has also indicated the parasite to have an effect of fish behaviour, that makes it more vulnerable to predation by fish-eating birds. The research concludes that to date, there are no indications of population crashes of the Usipa, suggesting that the infection dynamics of the parasite may be markedly different in a large lake in a tropical area, like the Nyasa, as compared to much smaller lakes the earlier studies were based on.

Introduction

Tanzania is well endowed per capita fish consumption and micronutrients. Lake with water resources, having estimated to be 7.6 kg per Nyasa, also known as Lake a viable fisheries sector annum (United Republic of Malawi in Malawi and Lago contributing around 2.5% of Tanzania, 2015b). In terms Niassa in Mozambique, is the national Gross Domestic of animal protein availability, an African Great Lake and Product (GDP) and 10% by fish contributes 30% of the the southernmost lake in value of the total national total national animal protein the Valley exports (United Republic intake (United Republic system, located between of Tanzania, 2015a). Fish of Tanzania, 1997). Fish Malawi, Mozambique and remains the main source of is a highly nutritious food, Tanzania (Fig. 1). protein to about one third of providing proteins of high the country’s population at a quality as well as minerals

1 Nestory Peter Gabagambi is the corresponding author. Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute (TAFIRI), P.O BOX 98, Kyela, Mbeya, TANZANIA. Tel.: (+47) 55 58 44 00; E-mail: [email protected]

2 Professor Arne Skorping, University of Bergen,Department of Biology Postbox 7803; N-5020 Bergen, NORWAY.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 51 Fig.1. Map of Malawi showing the location of Lake Malawi/Niassa/Nyasa and the administrative riparian states of Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania. (Source: http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/malawi.pdf)

In Lake Nyasa, landings of and are therefore landed in large employment particularly to the small pelagic fish species quantities. women and youth who make up Engraulicypris sardella, locally the majority of the people in the known as Usipa (the name used Usipa is a species in the carp post-harvest sector and in the hereafter, another common family (a cyprinid) endemic supply of the fish along the value name being Lake Malawi to Lake Nyasa (Rufli and Van chain. The Kyela District Council sardine), provides >80% of the Lissa, 1982), which can be records for the northern part of harvested fish. Due to their found locally abundant in open the Lake Nyasa indicate mean nutritive value and affordability, and inshore waters of the lake annual landings at the Kyela these small fishes are found to (Allison et al., 1996). The fishery district of 11 574 tonnes.The be preferred by poor people of Usipa in Tanzania contributes Tanzanian part of the Lake Nyasa around the coastline of the lake, significantly to the livelihood basin is a home to over of local people, by providing 1 260 000 people with a growth

52 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 rate of the population of 2.4% Can a recently introduced in Lake Nyasa by per year (United Republic of established parasite migrating infected fish-eating Tanzania, 2013). Because of L. intestinalis birds such as white-breasted this high population growth ( ) threaten cormorant (Phalacrocorax rate, the demand for Usipa has the fisheries of Usipa? carbo) which is one of the final increased drastically each year. hosts (i.e. a host where parasite Currently the consumption of In 1996, a milkish white worm reproduction takes place) of animal protein in the daily diet of was first discovered in the body L. intestinalis and therefore people in this part of the basin cavity of Usipa by Mwambungu an important organism for the is about 56 gram of protein per et al., (1996) during long-line completion of the parasite day. research surveys in Lake Nyasa life cycle. White-breasted (Fig.2). The worm was identified cormorants are among the most to be the tapeworm Ligula abundant fish-eating birds in intestinalis (L.) (Dubinina, 1980). Lake Nyasa (Linn and Campbell, This parasite is believed to be 1992). © Nestory Peter Gabagambi

Fig.2. Laboratory picture of the tapeworm Ligula intestinalis and its host fish Usipa Source: Courtesy of Nestory Peter Gabagambi (2015)

The parasite attains its maturity host sterile even if they harbour in Usipa in Lake Nyasa raises in fish-eating birds, and only a single worm (Kennedy public concern in terms of produces eggs which are spread et al., 2001; Cowx et al., 2008; food security and nutrition. We into lakes. Here, the eggs hatch Hoole et al., 2010). The studies therefore started a research and the parasite larvae develop, further suggest that the parasite project in order to find out how first using planktonic copepods distresses fish behavior in a this parasite might affect the as hosts and thereafter cyprinid way that makes infected hosts Usipa population in the northern fish species. The establishment more vulnerable to predation part of Lake Nyasa. of this parasite in Usipa in Lake (Loot et al., 2001; Loot et al., Nyasa gives some cause for 2002). These combined effects The tapeworm Ligula concern. Earlier studies have have been shown to have a intestinalis in the Usipa shown that the tapeworm major effect on other cyprinid suppresses the development of species, sometimes leading In our research project, we the fish reproductive organs and to a complete crash in the explored the distribution of the thereby significantly reduces fish population (Burrough and tapeworm Ligula intestinalis in reproduction, sometimes Kennedy, 1979; Wyatt and its fish intermediate host Usipa towards more or less complete Kennedy, 1988) and therefore, in Lake Nyasa, which is the third castration, rendering the fish the establishment of this parasite

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 53 largest lake in Africa. Despite ecosystem like the Nyasa. In our et al., 2018), we investigated the global distribution of L. recent field study (Gabagambi the effects of the tapeworm L. intestinalis (Kennedy, 1974), and Skorping, 2018), we found intestinalis on behaviour of Usipa most studies on the species that the tapeworm L. intestinalis and found that this parasite have focused on common is widely distributed throughout has the ability to make the host cyprinid hosts in small lakes in the northern part of the lake, sluggish enough for fish-eating northern Europe; for example but show large differences in birds to catch it more easily. If in roach (Rutilus rutilus) in infection levels at different lake this parasite tends to become England (Wyatt and Kennedy, habitats (i.e. littoral zone (zone persistent for a long time in Lake 1988), in Eurasian minnow close to the coastline) and Nyasa, we would also expect (Phoxinus phoxinus) in Norway pelagic zone (the deep water the fish host to adapt to this (Museth, 2001) and in silver zone)) (Fig. 3). This suggests situation by changing its life bream (Blicca bjoerkna) in that transmission differs at history strategy, for example to France (Vanacker et al., 2012). different localities, which could become selected towards earlier However, our study system is result in the parasite becoming reproduction. This could reduce markedly different from all of persistent, rather than the the total fish biomass, and these earlier locations, and we typical epidemic waves seen in therefore have a negative effect know very little about how a smaller lakes found in northern on the fisheries. parasite like L. intestinalis could Europe. In addition, in another affect a fish population in a large experimental study (Gabagambi

Fig.3. Prevalence (±SE) of L. intestinalis in Usipa depending on lake habitat (littoral zone vs pelagic zone) and station (Matema, Lupingu and Mbamba Bay) in Lake Nyasa, 2015. Source: Gabagambi and Skorping (2018).

54 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Consequences of 1996). Therefore, Usipa forms Nyasa basin in terms of fish food infection in the Lake a vital ecological link between availability cannot be met if the top predators and lower trophic Usipa biomass will decline due Nyasa ecosystem levels in this ecosystem (Rusuwa to the L. intestinalis infestation or et al. other factors like unsustainable The effects of L. intestinalis , 2014). The lake food L. fishing levels. on the reproduction capacity web could be disrupted if intestinalis of Usipa could have serious infestation in Usipa Records of the landed Usipa implications for the Usipa fishery will continue and this may during the past decade (Fig. 4) because infected Usipa may consequently lead to the decline suggest that the yields remained have significantly reduced of the fish species that depends very stable at high level up to fecundity. Furthermore, the on Usipa as a prey. 2012, then the yields crashed stock of Usipa in the Lake dramatically, especially in Nyasa could also be negatively Discussion and the last years, which are also influenced by selective conclusions the years when the parasite predation by the final host as prevalence were reported by the parasitized Usipa could be The vision 2025 for United Msafiri et al., (2014) and Rusuwa an easy prey for the predators. Republic of Tanzania, sets one et al., (2014) to be relatively The invasion of the tapeworm of the development goals as high of over 30 and 50% L. intestinalis in Lake Nyasa may quality livelihood for all (United respectively. However, other also affect the . Republic of Tanzania, 2000) and factors that can also be linked Usipa forms an important part raising the living standard of to the decline of this fish host in of the food web of Lake Nyasa. any nation including Tanzania is that period could be increased They are primary consumers of closely related to food security fishing pressure, environmental zooplankton but they are also (Godwin and Fellowes, 1999). degradation and/or climate an important native prey of the Achieving food security for the change. cichlids in the lake (Allison et al., rural poor inhabiting the Lake

20000

18000

16000

14000

12000

10000

Landings (Tonnes)Landings 8000

6000

4000

2000

0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Year

Fig.4. Landings of Usipa from Kyela District (northern part of the Lake Nyasa) from the year 2007 to 2016. Source: The Kyela District Council Annual Report (2018).

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 55 The problem of infestation of before consumption because Burrough, R. & Kennedy, C. L. intestinalis in Usipa can be consumption of raw and (1979). The occurrence and addressed by using biological undercooked fish meat could natural alleviation of stunting in control strategies. For instance, present a fish-born parasitic a population of roach, Rutilus by increasing populations of zoonoses including ligulosis rutilus (L.). Journal of Fish Biology native predatory fish, because (Ljubojevic et al., 2015). 15, 93-109. previous studies (e.g. Lafferty and Morris, 1996; Loot et Recommendations and Cowx, I. G., Rollins, D. & al., 2002) suggest that fish suggestion for further Tumwebaze, R. (2008). Effect infected with a manipulating of Ligula intestinalis on the parasite like L. intestinalis are research reproductive capacity of more vulnerable (i.e. easy prey) Rastrineobola argentea in Lake In a huge natural ecosystem to predation. The parasite Victoria. Journal of Fish Biology like Lake Nyasa it’s unlikely prevalence will therefore 73, 2249-2260. to use anti-parasitic drugs to expected to decline if a higher reduce parasite abundances proportional of parasitized Dubinina, M.N. (1980). as can be done in aquaculture. Usipa will be removed from Tapeworms (Cestoda, Ligulidae) It is therefore important to the Usipa population by the of the fauna of the USSR. New have more, longer and wide- native predators of Usipa. Delhi: Amerind Publishing Co.Pvt. covering biological control However, less availability and Ltd; 1980. measures that will help us thus inadequate intake of to understand the ecology, Usipa could pose a problem Gabagambi, N. & Skorping, A. dynamics and life-style of this with respect to food security (2018). Spatial and temporal tapeworm and its potential and nutrition, especially for distribution of Ligula intestinalis impacts on the productivity of women in reproductive age (Cestoda: Diphyllobothriidea) in Usipa in Lake Nyasa. One of the and for young children. Small usipa (Engraulicypris sardella) biological control strategies fishes like Usipa are usually (Pisces: ) in Lake that can be taken is by using eaten whole without de-boning Nyasa. Journal of helminthology the native predators of Usipa and this provides different 92, 410-416. such as Copadichromis sp, minerals such as calcium and Diplotaxodom sp, Opsaridium fluorine that are rare in other Gabagambi, N. P, Salvanes, michrolepis, O. michrocephalus types of food (Kawarazuka A.G.V, Midtøy, F & Skorping, A. and Raphochromis sp. to reduce and Béné, 2011). Therefore, (2018). The tapeworm Ligula the infection level of the parasite increased consumption of intestinalis manipulates the in the host population. These the Usipa will consequently behavior of the fish intermediate native predators will selectively enhance the nutritional and the host Engraulicypris sardella, remove the parasitized Usipa socioeconomic status of the but only after it has become and consequently the infection vulnerable groups. infective to the final host. level in the Lake Nyasa Behavioural processes 158, ecosystem will decrease. The The invasion of the tapeworm 47-52 . number of native predators of L. intestinalis in Lake Nyasa could Usipa could be increased in also affect the income of the Godwin, D. M. & Fellowes, A.M the lake by practicing a closing people who depend on Usipa as (Eds) (1999). Food Security season for these predator fish their sole source of income. For Agriculture and Trade: Some species. many decades Usipa has been a Local and Global Linkages. valuable source of income that Agriculture and Trade: Some can be used to acquire of other References Local and Global Linkages. TEC basic household necessities. Kurasini, Dar es Salaam.152pp. Allison, E., Irvine, K., Thompson, Finally, this parasite has not A. & Ngatunga, B. (1996). Diets Hoole, D., Carter, V. & Dufour, been reported to pose a public and food consumption rates S. (2010). Ligula intestinalis health concern when consumed of pelagic fish in Lake Malawi, (Cestoda: Pseudophyllidea): an with its fish host. However, we Africa. Freshwater Biology 35, ideal fish-metazoan parasite would like to advise people 489-515. model? Parasitology 137, 425- to properly prepare Usipa 438.

56 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Kawarazuka, N. & Béné, C. Rutilus rutilus (L.), induced by a Malawi Journal of Science and (2011). The potential role of parasite, Ligula intestinalis (L.). Technology 10, 8-14 small fish species in improving Canadian Journal of Zoology 80, micronutrient deficiencies in 738-744. United Republic of Tanzania developing countries: building (2013). The 2012 Population evidence. Public health nutrition Loot, G., Brosse, S., Lek, S. & and Housing Census for United 14, 1927-1938 Guegan, J. F. (2001). Behaviour Republic of Tanzania, Tanzania of roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) National Beural of Statistics Kennedy, C., Shears, P. & altered by Ligula intestinalis 1-264pp. Shears, J. (2001). Long-term (Cestoda : Pseudophyllidea): a dynamics of Ligula intestinalis field demonstration. Freshwater United Republic of Tanzania and roach Rutilus rutilus: a study Biology 46, 1219-1227. (2015a). The Economic Survey of three epizootic cycles over Report. Ministry of Finance and thirty-one years. Parasitology Msafiri, A., Kwendwa, K., Economic Affairs, Dar es Salaa, 123, 257-269. Nestory, P. G. & Alistidia, M. Tanzania. (2014). Assessment of the Kennedy, C. R. (1974). A effects of plerocercoid larvae United Republic of Tanzania checklist of British and Irish of Ligula intestinalis (Cestoda) (2015b). The Fisheries Statistics freshwater fish parasites with on Engraulicypris sardella Report, Ministry of Agriculture, notes on their distribution. (Cyprinidae) from northern Lake Livestock and Fisheries. United Journal of Fish Biology 6, 613- Nyasa/Malawi/Niasa. Aquatic Republic of Tanzania, 1-59pp. 644. Ecosystem Health & Management 17, 90-96. United Republic of Tanzania Lafferty, K. D. & Morris, A. K. (2000). The Economic Survey (1996). Altered behavior of Museth, J. (2001). Effects of Report. Ministry of Finance and parasitized killifish increases Ligula intestinalis on habitat use, Economic Affairs, Dar es Salaa, susceptibility to predation by predation risk and catchability Tanzania. bird final hosts. Ecology 77, in European minnows. Journal of 1390-1397. Fish Biology 59, 1070-1080. United Republic of Tanzania (1997). The National Fisheries Linn, I. & Campbell, K. Mwambungu, J., Ngatunga, sector Policy and Strategy (1992). Interactions between B.P., Kihedu,K.J. & Mlay,M.K.L Statement, Ministry of Natural white-breasted cormorants (1996). Development of longline Resources and Tourism, Phalacrocorax carbo (Aves: fishery in the Tanzania coast of Government Printer, Dar es Phalacrocoracidae) and the Lake Nyasa. Tanzania Fisheries Salaam, Tanzania. 25pp. fisheries of Lake Malawi. Journal Research Institute Bulletin, 1-12. of applied ecology, 619-634. Vanacker, M., Masson, G. Rufli, H. & Van Lissa, J. & Beisel, J. N. (2012). Host Ljubojevic, D., Novakov, N., (1982). Age and growth of switch and infestation by Ligula Djordjevic, V., Radosavljevic, V., Engraulicypris sardella in Lake intestinalis L. in a silver bream Pelic, M. & Cirkovic, M. (2015). Malawi. Biological studies on (Blicca bjoerkna L.) population. Potential parasitic hazards for the pelagic Ecosystem of Lake Parasitology 139, 406-417. humans in fish meat. Procedia Malawi, FAO Technical Report 1 Food Science 5, 172-175. Wyatt, R. J. & Kennedy, C. R. Rusuwa, B., Ngochera, M. (1988). The Effects of a Change Loot, G., Aulagnier, S., Lek, & Maruyama, A. (2014). in the Growth-Rate of Roach, S., Thomas, F. & Guégan, Ligula intestinalis (Cestoda: Rutilus-Rutilus (L), on the Biology J.F. (2002). Experimental Pseudophyllidea) infection of of the Fish Tapeworm Ligula- demonstration of a behavioural Engraulicypris sardella (Pisces: Intestinalis (L). Journal of Fish modification in a cyprinid fish, Cyprinidae) in Lake Malawi. Biology 33, 45-57.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 57 Sustainable ecosystem services of Lake Bosumtwi, Ghana – implications for livelihoods and food security Adelina Mensah*1, Peter Sanful2, Yaw Agyeman3, Dennis Trolle4, Francis Nunoo5 and Amos Asase6

Summary

Lake Bosumtwi is one of the six meteoritic lakes in the world and enlisted among the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Current limnologic evidence indicates changing physical and chemical lake conditions that affect ecosystem functions. The cycles of overturn, where anoxic and nutrient rich bottom waters seasonally mix with surface waters, have not occurred since 2008, resulting in lower fish catch and changes to the lake ecology. With heightened effects of a warming climate, coupled with diminishing fish catch, livelihoods of the fishing communities are becoming increasingly vulnerable. This is also stimulating harmful adaptive actions, including the use of agrochemicals for fishing,indiscriminate clearing of vegetation for farming and tourism. These activities are expected to have serious negative feedback on the lake’s functionality through increased siltation and pollution. Although there are a number of watershed management programmes in place, the fisheries and associated livelihoods will continue to be threatened by individual and synergistic effects of a changing climate and increasing anthropogenic stressors on the lake’s ecosystem services. Based on the synthesis of current evidence, this paper summarizes the current state of knowledge on lake productivity. It asserts that sustainable management requires a far more comprehensive framework for assessing the impacts of multiple stressors on the lake’s unique ecology towards supporting livelihoods of the 24 surrounding fishing communities. This can be supported by integrated research models such as that of the ongoing RELAB7 project which is assessing lake function, fisheries productivity, land use change and livelihood responses to meteorological trends and lake functionality. Scientific data generated will provide better information to inform sustainable management of the lake and maintain its economic, historical and cultural values.

1 Adelina Mensah*, Corresponding author. Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, LG 209, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana Email: [email protected]

2 Peter Sanful, Department of Fisheries and Water Resources, Box 214, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana

3 Yaw Agyeman, Department of Ecotourism, Recreation and Hospitality, Box 214, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana

4 Dennis Trolle, Department of Biosciences, Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark

5 Francis Nuno, Department of Marine and Fisheries Sciences, LG 99, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana

6 Amos Asase, Department of Fisheries and Water Resources, Box 214, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana

7 RELAB (REsilience of LAke Bosumtwi to climate change)

58 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Introduction to the anoxic conditions, and T. discolour, Sarotherodon the lake became fertilized with galilaeus multifasciatus, and The Lake Bosumtwi (also spelled accumulated nutrients from the Hemichromis fasciatus. There is Bosomtwe in other publications), deeper waters which sustained observable seasonal variation the only natural lake in Ghana, the fisheries throughout the in species dominance. The is one of six major meteoritic growing season. However, fishes are generally small in size, lakes in the world. The lake according to the fishermen, between 8.5-12.7 cm in length lies within a meteorite impact this overturn has not occurred and 11.9 – 30.8 g in weight crater, a circular depression of during the last decade (2008 (Dassah & Agbo, undated). Since 11 km diameter formed 1.07 – 2018), resulting in no fish the study of Whyte (1975), who million years ago (Figure 1a), kills, nutrient deficiency and reported nine genera of fish with an area of about 52 km2 disruption to the onset of the belonging to five families, no and maximum depth of 81 fish growing season. These other comprehensive studies m. As a hydrologically closed dramatic changes to the lake monitoring fish population have basin, inputs are restricted are strongly believed to be been carried out. to rainfall, and consequently caused by climate warming (e.g. lake level fluctuates in Russell et al., 2003), which is Due to recurring low fish catch, response to variations in the affecting the temperature-driven communities are exploring balance between the rates physical structure of the lake other options to increase fish of precipitation (80% direct that controls other important catch, for example, through the precipitation on the lake surface ecological functions. use of non-selective gears and area) and evaporation (Turner agrochemicals. Observing these et al. 1996). Well-stratified A dense human population unsustainable practices, the layers of water masses differing resides within the catchment, Government of Ghana through in temperature establish with a total of 241 communities the Ministry of Fisheries and the physical structure and comprising about 150 000 Aquaculture and the Fisheries basic ecological operating people in 2010. Subsistence Commission, in 2016 planned to mechanisms of the lake that are farming and fishing are the restock the lake with fingerlings. important for fish productivity predominant livelihoods. However, the gains of such an (Turner et al. 1996; Otu 2010). Traditionally, 18 foot wooden initiative will not be achieved planks are used to navigate with continued pressure on fish Historically, seasonal increases the waters (Figure 1b) and fish stocks and use of prohibited in fish productivity have been are collected from rudimentary fishing practices. In addition, linked to predictable changes in fishing gears such as wire increasing encroachment and the lake’s physical and chemical mesh traps, gill nets and cast farming activities within the core conditions. Important ecological nets. Typically, fishing is by of the lake’s basin, expanding cycles of overturn, where anoxic males, whilst females process tourism facilities and poor and nutrient rich bottom waters and market the produce. Fish sanitation practices are driving seasonally mix with surface catch is currently very low, less sedimentation and pollution of waters, were well-known and than 5 kg per fisherman per the lake. These have adverse understood by fishermen and net or trap (Dassah & Agbo, effects on the lake’s recovery local communities. Seasonal fish undated) (Figure 1c). The lake with negative implications on fish kills marked these events due supports four principal fish food security and animal protein species, Tilapia busumana, availability.

1 Many documents refer to 24 communities in the catchment, however, reference is made to 22 communities by community members during interviews.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 59 © RELAB project © RELAB project © RELAB project Figure 1 – (a) Figure 1 – (b) Figure 1 – (c)

Figure 1 – (a) Aerial view of Lake Bosumtwi, (b) Fishing planks used by fishers for navigation, and (c) typical fish landing of a fisherman at Lake Bosumtwi. Source: Building REsilience of Lake Bosumtwi to climate change (RELAB) project

Sustainable lake’s tourism potential, and informed decisions and develop management of the lake building local capacity for a long-term plan. For example, sustainable management of the as new livelihoods emerge in As a unique socio-ecological natural resource. One noted response to poor fish harvest, system, maintaining the lake’s initiative is the designation altered land use patterns due functionality is critical to the of the lake as a Community to clearing of forests and local food security and cultural Resource Management Area increased pollution within the identity of those living in the (CREMA) which empowers watershed will have unknown lake’s catchment. Cultural values the communities to engage implications for lake health and have been maintained through in co-management of the its ability to recover. There is various practices of rites, rituals, natural resources with the need for comprehensive customs and taboos, although the Wildlife Division of the scientific tools of sustainability these have declined over the Forestry Commission. The that rigorously assess ecological, years. Moreover, the lake is CREMA is legalised by the social and economic factors, globally significant as it contains District Assembly by-law both individually and in various the vulnerable endemic species and encourages community combinations, over space and T. discolor and an archival decision making structures and time. Models that are able to link system of well-preserved processes. Women are also part meteorological changes with historical records of past climate of the management structure the hydrodynamics of the lake, change and ecological change with administrative support fish productivity, and land use in terrestrial regions of tropical from all regulatory and research activities in the watershed can West Africa (Beuning et al., 2003; institutions, and the Water provide managers with accurate Shanahan et al., 2009). Resources Commission as the information to help understand coordinating institution. the resilience of the lake under Over the years, local and different scenarios. Such international1 institutions have Despite various successes processes can lead to innovative initiated different programmes of these programmes, practices developed, even at to change the local attitudes sustainable management the community level, that will and unsustainable practices of the watershed and fish enhance adaptation and support within the lake basin. These resources, however, requires ongoing management of the initiatives cover community a much more comprehensive lake’s natural resources. environmental education, understanding of the synergistic provision of alternative effects of climate change and livelihoods, enhancement the anthropogenic stressors to make

1 In 2016, Lake Bosumtwi was enlisted among the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) comprising 669 reserves in 120 countries. In Ghana, it became the third reserve after the Bia Biosphere Reserve in the Western Region and the Songhor Biosphere Reserve at Ada in the Greater Accra Region

60 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Research and way projections, will contribute to a com/2015/02/lake-bosomtwe- forward comprehensive dataset that will fisheries-threats.pdf be disseminated to stakeholders Many research projects and in user friendly formats through Otu, Megan. “The origin, management programmes have several mechanisms, such as transformation and assessed individual elements hands-on workshops3. The of in Lake Bosomtwe/ of the lake and its watershed. training of scientists, students Bosumtwi (Ghana, West Africa)”. For example, the NSERC/ and managers will promote PhD Thesis. University of LBRP project1 assessed the sustainable fisheries, livelihoods Waterloo, Ontario. 2010. Print influence of climate on primary and watershed management productivity but not on fish towards building ecosystem Russell, James, Michael R. production; and baseline studies resilience and reducing Talbot, & Brian J. Haskell. of fisheries, socio-economics, vulnerability of the communities “Mid-holocene climate change and land use land cover change, in the Lake Bosumptwe. in Lake Bosumtwi Ghana.” among others, carried out to Quaternary Research 60.2 nominate the lake as a UNESCO References (2003): 133-141 Biosphere Reserve, were all evaluated separately. To date, Beuning, Kristina R. M., Shanahan, Timothy M., there has been no integrated Michael R. Talbot, Daniel Jonathan T. Overpeck, W.E. research to understand the A. Livingstone, & Glenn Sharp, Christopher A. Scholz, pathways and combined effects Schumuker. “Sensitivity of & Justice A. Arko. “Simulating of multi-stressors on water carbon isotopic proxies to the response of a closed-basin quality, fish productivity and palaeoclimatic forcing: A case lake to recent climate changes influence on livelihoods. The study from Lake Bosumtwi, in tropical West Africa (Lake Building REsilience of LAke Ghana, over the last 32 000 Bosumtwi, Ghana).” Hydrological Bosumtwi to climate change years.” Global Biogeochemical Processes 21.13 (2007): 1678– (RELAB) project2 will, however, Cycles, 17 (2003): 1121-1132. 1691. Wiley Online Library. Web. contribute towards resolving Agupubs Online Library. Web. 01 01 October 2018 knowledge gaps on the complex October 2018 interactions at the ecosystem Turner, Benjamin F., L.R. . “The and watershed scale and Dassah, A.L., & Agbo, W.N. Gardner, & W.E. Sharp hydrology of Lake Bosumtwi, linkages to socioecological Web. “Lake Bosomtwe Fisheries: a climate sensitive lake in dynamics. Since early 2018, The threats to biodiversity Ghana, West Africa”. Journal of high frequency data is being and livelihoods in the Hydrology 183.3-4 (1996): 243- obtained by state-of-the-art Bosomtwe Basin”, Department 261. instruments until the end of the of Freshwater Fisheries and project’s five year period (2022). Watershed Management, Whyte, S. A. “Distribution, High resolution monitoring of Institute of Renewable Natural tropic relationship and breeding lake physics, biogeochemistry, Resources, Kwame Nkrumah habits of the fish populations primary production, fisheries, Univesity of Science and in a tropical lake basin (Lake land use changes, sedimentation Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, Bosomtwe-Ghana)”. Journal of and livelihood adaptive (undated). Retrieved from Zoology London 177 (1975): mechanisms, all linked to climate https://foegh.files.wordpress. 25–56.

1 Canadian Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) and Lake Bosumtwi Research Project

2 RELAB is funded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark and involves a collaboration of Danish, German and Ghanaian scientists and students.

3 Up-to-date information will also be disseminated to the wider public through the project’s website www.relabproject.uenr.edu.gh

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 61 Fish conservation issues in protected areas in the Congo Basin Jean-Claude Micha1

Summary

This review of wetlands in five Protected Areas (PAs) in the Republic of Congo and in the Democratic Republic of Congo indicates that their fishery resources are almost overexploited in and around these PAs and that fishermen enter Parks where fishing is supposedly prohibited to catch fish. These environments must therefore be taken into consideration by carrying out an accurate and rigorous taxonomic inventory, evaluating the exploited resources with the participation of fishermen and leading them to define and respect, by means of co-management, a certain number of rules inspired by the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing and provided for in the new fisheries laws to exploit the resources in a sustainable manner. The appropriate approach would be to develop in a participatory way a Sustainable Development and Management Plan for these wetlands that would be integrated into the Global Development Plan for the Protected Area, as was recently the case, particularly in the Lac Télé Community Reserve.

Introduction

Protected Areas (PAs) are, sustainable management savannah in the dry season rightly, numerous in Central of PAs in the Republic of (cf. RCLT) to facilitate access Africa but their conservation Congo (RC) and in the to residual ponds. As a result, is unfortunately limited to Democratic Republic of the activities of fishermen large mammals, landscapes Congo (DRC), we met all add to the risk which, in and exceptional flora, which the stakeholders in these the future, may cause makes them very precarious, PAs with particular attention the total disappearance particularly because the to their wetlands and the of the Status of the Park wetlands they include are fishing world within which or Reserve concerned too often ignored or even we reviewed the situation. (Pictures 1 and 2 below). ignored by their managers. In almost all cases, we have For the future of PAs, the These wetlands (WL), which been struck by the negative fishing world must be taken are often the basis for the and even aggressive attitude into account and involved existence of these PAs, of fishermen towards in the development of a contribute significantly their Protected Areas and management plan for their to their biodiversity and Local Authorities that have wetlands (Cochrane, 2005, ecosystem services (ICCN the attitude to manage FAO, 2003) with an emphasis PNVi, 2015; Van de Voorde them, obviously in an on training in conservation et al., 2018). During various unsustainable way, without and sustainable use based consultancy and supervision the involvement and support on a set of biological and missions of student briefs of local populations. In the socio-economic indicators aimed at assessing the end, it is not poachers but (yield and income) accepted importance of fishermen’s fishermen who, in particular, by all stakeholders (Balole- interactions with the set fire to the wooded Bwami and al., 2018; 1 Jean-Claude MICHA : Professor at the Ecole Régionale post universitaire d’Aménagement et de gestion Intégrés des Forêts Tropicales et de Territoires Tropicaux (ERAIFT), UNIKIN, , Democratic Republic of Congo and Professor Emeritus, Université de Namur, Unité de Recherche en Biologie Environnementale (URBE). Namur, Belgium. [email protected]

62 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Bongeba and al., 2013, Kolding Parks and Reserves, this article guards and finally proposals for and al., 2016; Stamatopoulos, examines the fishery resources, solutions. 2003). After a brief inventory of exploitation techniques, the locations of the WLs in five fishermen’s relations with eco- Micha Micha ©Jean-Claude ©Jean-Claude

Figure 1: Landscape before bush fires Figure 2: Landscape of Figure 1 after bush fires

Source: Jean-Claude Micha

Inventory: and Kisale lakes) according to include administrative and Ichthyological the 2012 exceptional framework police harassment, distance survey carried out thanks to from markets, inadequate biodiversity and the the Katanga Artisanal Fisheries means of transport and lack of fishing world and Aquaculture Development adequate cold storage facilities. Project (PRODEPAAK), pers. The consequences for parks From the outset, we observed comm. A. Mahunina]. How can and reserves are and will be in all the PAs visited in the we effectively manage the increasingly damaging as local Democratic Republic of Congo: biodiversity and ecosystem populations, mainly fishermen, Virunga National Park (VNP), services of a protected area come to exploit (wood, game, Yangambi Biosphere Reserve without knowing the aquatic minerals, etc.) in protected areas (YBR), Upemba National Park species and their interactions or even develop subsistence (UNEP), Okapi Forest Reserve with terrestrial flora and agriculture (PNVI, PNU), (OFR) and the Republic of fauna and without knowing jeopardizing their long-term Congo: Nouabale Ndoki the populations (fishermen, maintenance. National Park (PNNN), Lac Télé processors) who exploit Community Reserve (RCLT), them? Finally, poor fishing However, the inventories differ an ignorance or at least a lack practices (including mosquito significantly from one site to of knowledge of the aquatic nets) prevent good natural another. In PNVi, there is a fairly biodiversity of PA wetlands, recruitment of exploited fish good basic knowledge of Lake most of which do not even have stocks, which inevitably leads Edward (ICNN PNVi, 2015), its a complete list of fish species to a decrease in their biomass, fishery resources (except for inhabiting their waters, although the yield of fishing units small Cichlidae of the genus they are very often exploited, and therefore the standard Haplochromis) which include 9 overexploited or even extinct of living of fishermen. The families and 44 species including (Luhusu and al., 2013). As for consequences are therefore 6 commercial species. However, the number of fishermen likely to negative both from the point for the Yangambi Biosphere fish, even illegally, in the PA, it is of view of fishing and from the Reserve (YBR), the buffer, the rarely known, but it is estimated social and economic point of peripheral and the conservation that it would be much higher view, following the reduction zones’ boundaries are not even than the number of poachers in the profitability of the fishing clearly demarcated, nor the regularly inventoried [example effort and the development of number of shoreline fishermen, in PNU: 180 families of known illegal and irresponsible fishing. mainly Lokele. Furthermore, poachers and 73 210 fishermen Additional negative factors they are not at all aware of in the Kikondja area (Upemba

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 63 their overexploitation of the identified so far on 40% of its 52 fish species belonging to 15 fish resources with decreases hydrographic network. However, families. The dominant family being attributed to a temporary the field observation indicates is that of Mormyridae (20%) divine curse. Decreases include that most of the species caught for which some determinations a decrease in catches per unit of are smaller in number, have seem erroneous (Marcusenius effort from ± 25 to ± 5 kg/day/ a smaller size than the first spp.) followed by that of canoe between 2010 and 2015 maturity size and the Catch Per (12%), followed by and a decrease in the average Unit of Effort (CPUE) is barely 2 Distichodontidae and Cichlidae size of large commercial kg/d/fisherman, which is much (9%). At first glance, there species below the length of first lower than what older fishermen are about twenty commercial maturity (LM50). In contrast the reported fishing a few years ago species. On the other hand, if fishermen of the Kamalondo (± 5 years : ± 10 kg/d/p). we take into account the Lac depression (PNU annex) are fully Télé landscape which extends aware of their overexploitation In the Republic of Congo, in the as far as the Oubangui, the and have organized themselves Nouabale Ndoki National Park ichthyological diversity is strongly and spontaneously, (PNNN), the survey conducted much greater since Gosse in without PNU support, into as part of a former WCS Congo 1968 listed 274 fish species associations constituting a project supported by UNESCO, in the Oubangui basin alone. Territorial Federation with a the Central Africa World Heritage As for the 17 890 inhabitants well-structured committee that Forest Initiative (CAWHFI) and registered in the 27 villages of organizes workshops with all the French Global Environment the RCLT (Botakowa, Mokomba stakeholders on the protection Facility (FFEM) from 2006 to and Foulungu basins) in 2007, of fisheries resources, tries 2011 on the Sangha River, they all consider themselves as to develop co-management indicates the presence of subsistence fishers (men and and organizes monitoring 160 fish species (including women) from the very early age patrols on the various water species that do not exist in this of 6 to 7 years. It is therefore not bodies. This approach should watershed!) and without any surprising that the fish resources be the driving force behind specimen in collection, which of the Likouala aux Herbes an approach to bring about makes taxonomic verification are seriously decreasing, as a change in mentality and impossible and demonstrates indicated by the link fishermen strategy everwhere, but the the authors’ poor rigour. It would of the 3 fishing basins and the will and means to do so are be desirable to correct, update survey fishermen in charge of mostly lacking. It should be and continue this inventory and sampling fishing statistics by noted, however, that given the extend it to the other rivers of village. soaring demography of the the NNNP (Ndoki and Motaba) fishing population, their numbers and even eventually to the Ichthyological have increased sharply, leading Trinational Sangha Landscape, resources them to develop subsistence but by constituting a reference agriculture on the shores of collection. According to our In general, the potential fish the lake in order to survive, interviews (10 focus groups of 9 yields of wetlands in all these thus demanding more and fishermen and 1 fisherwoman), Parks and Reserves, with the more hectares to be cultivated fish catches in recent years exception of Lake Edward in the at the expense of PNU. In the in the periphery of/and in VNPi (Balole and al, 2018), are Okapi Forest Reserve (OFR), the NNNP, where fishing is neither assessed (no application ongoing research (pers. comm. theoretically prohibited, are in of morpho-edaphic indices or A. Walanga and MRAC) in the general decline. The number other models) nor estimated (no rivers of the OFR reports 64 fish of fishermen, on the other statistical data on catch efforts, species belonging to 13 families, hand, is constantly increasing, number of fishermen unknown). including about ten commercial as is the number of huts in the Nevertheless, according to species. There are probably villages of Ndoki 1 and 2. In the the fishermen interviewed in new species to discover and Lac Télé Community Reserve each place (focus group and describe, not only in the OFR, (RCLT), an inventory carried individual questionnaire), their but also and especially in out by Mamonekene during catches per unit of fishing the Ituri-Epulu-Aru landscape the 2004 flood but without a effort are decreasing in all sites where 130 species have been reference collection indicates

64 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 and some perceive that they arrival of new foreign fishermen Operating techniques are becoming poorer. It could (in the case of the RFO) while the be expected that recruitment resource is already under very Harvesting techniques are quite will increase again naturally strong pressure since catches similar in all sites: surface and (Kolding and al, 2016) following Per Unit of Effort are decreasing depth gillnet fishing, beach- heavy flooding at least in significantly everywhere, which seine fishing in particular and large floodplain floodplains translates into a decrease in unfortunately with mosquito (LTRC) sites, but this does not everyone’s income. There is nets (Figures 3 and 4), longline compensate for the increase therefore a need to regulate, and trap fishing and RCLT and in fishing pressure. Indeed, raise awareness and also RFO fishing, harpoon and fish the number of fishermen is diversify the livelihoods of local toxicity fishing and all this with increasing in an intrinsic way populations, including fishermen, free access to the resource, (average of 6 children/CTLR for sustainable and responsible with the more theoretical than fishermen who only see fishing fishing (FAO, 1995). real exception of Lake Edouard as an activity) but also by the (PNVi). ©Jean-Claude Micha ©Jean-Claude Micha

Figure 3 : Beach seine nets Figure 4 : Larvae and fry

Source: Jean-Claude Micha

In addition, in all cases, existing no brine, poor hygiene), the means of survival that would regulations (Fisheries and smoked fish is charred and lead fishermen, especially Aquaculture Codes in RD of contains carcinogenic Polycyclic young people, to other 2010 and DRC of 2013) are Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). income-generating activities in not respected, leading to agriculture, livestock, integrated overexploitation and the risk Eco-guard relations and fish farming, etc. These efforts of collapse of exploited stocks. fishing populations to raise awareness and As for the management of provide conservation training this exploitation, it is deficient, The strategy of repression by (community conservation) could confused and contentious given armed eco-guards is rejected even extend to schools as early the large number of actors and by the fishing population, which as primary school. their lack of coordination, the may eventually no longer multiplicity of state services, recognize and voluntarily accept Proposals for the conflicts of competence this authority. This repressive stakeholder solutions between different services strategy should be transformed and institutions. Finally, the into a positive approach to During numerous participatory quality of the preserved fish conservation awareness and workshops of all stakeholders, is poor: the dried salted fish is training, accompanied by we have tried to develop a non-compliant (too little salt, efforts to create alternative Sustainable Development and

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 65 Management Plan (SDMP) generations. But these PAGDs Conclusion for Wetlands (HZs) as part of for the Wetlands of Parks and the Global Protected Area Reserves imply a substantial In conclusion, for the true Development Plan where it budget that well-meaning sustainable conservation of PAs, exists, which is far from being fishermen’s associations or even it is essential that Local and the general case. The most federations have great difficulty National Authorities, Regional sustained and consistent efforts in obtaining. However, in the Bodies (COMIFAC, etc.) and have resulted in a PAGD ZH that cases mentioned above, the Technical and Financial Partners takes into account the Code Agence Congolaise de la Faune make it possible to really of Conduct for Responsible et des Aires Protégées (ACFAP) and concretely increase the Fisheries (FAO, 1995) and and the Wildlife Conservation participation of riparian rural is based on the ecosystem Society (WCS) effectively funded populations and in particular approach to fisheries (FAO, and organized the development fishermen in the planning and 2003). This PAGD of the PA of the GAPZH of the PNNN sustainable management of HZs is then officially validated and the RCLT. In addition, the wetlands they use for all, by all stakeholders. In each the European Development including park and reserve case, stakeholders defined their Fund XI (FED XI) plans to managers who must finally general and specific objectives support the Institut Congolais open their eyes to this reality, and developed a four-point de Conservation de la Nature so that this contributes to action plan: (ICCN) and to support a number their well-being, while making of actions aimed at improving progress towards achieving • return to sustainable the situation of fishermen in the Sustainable Development exploitation through the PNVi, RBY and probably PNUD. Goals. But this implies targeted application of appropriate It should be noted that a resources that are still very measures, by setting Development and Management difficult to attribute to this cause. biological (minimum sizes Plan (DMP) is being prepared of the main commercial for Lake Edward, but it would be References species), economic beneficial to implement it for the (fishermen’s income) and entire lake in collaboration with Balole-Bwami E., Mumbere social (number of fishermen) Uganda’s neighbours. JC., Matunguru J., Kujirakwinja indicators accepted by all D., Shamavu P., Muhindo E., stakeholders, We can therefore see that Tchouamo IR., Michel B., Micha the future of PA wetlands is JC., 2018. Production et impacts • strengthen the operational becoming somewhat clearer, de la pêche sur le Lac Edouard capacities of co- particularly in the DRC, Burundi en République Démocratique du management bodies, and RC because the Royal Congo, Tropicultura vol. 36 no 3, Museum of Central Africa p. 539-552. • enhance the value of fish (RMCA), with the collaboration products through better of 6 African Universities and Bongeba Christian, Jean- conservation, processing Institutions, has been leading Claude Micha, 2013 – Etat and marketing, and finally the Mbisa-Congo project since de la pêche au Sud du Lac 2013, which aims to study fish Maï- Ndombe. RIFFEAC, Revue • diversify the livelihoods from ten Protected Areas (1 Scientifique et Technique Forêt of small-scale fishermen in the Republic of Congo, 2 in et Environnement du Bassin du by promoting alternative Burundi and 7 in DR Congo) Congo, Volume 1, 46-55. activities such as agro-fish whose rivers are all part of the farming. Congo Basin. But this initiative Cochrane K. L., 2005 – Guide du does not come from Protected gestionnaire des pêcheries. Les This bottom-up participatory Area managers who should think mesures d’aménagement et leur strategy better integrates about following this approach application. Doc. Techn. Pêches, these grassroots actors into in all other PAs in continental 424, FAO, Rome, Italie, sustainable use and aims Africa. to better strengthen the .FAO. 2003 - Aménagement maintenance of these Protected des pêches. 2. L’approche Areas for present and future écosystémique des pêches. FAO

66 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Directives techniques pour une en République Démocratique Stamatopoulos C., 2009 - pêche responsable. No. 4, Suppl. du Congo. Geo-Eco-Trop, 37, 2 : Prospections halieutiques 2. Rome. 120 p. 273-284.- par échantillonnage. Manuel technique. Doc. Techn. Pêches, Gosse J.-P., 1968 – Les poissons Manonekene V., 2006 – Les 424, FAO, Rome, Italie, 142 p. du bassin de l’Oubangui. Musée ressources halieutiques de la R. Afr. Centr. Tervuren, Belgique, réserve communautaire du Van de Voorde Jonas, Jos 13, 56 p. lac Télé/Likouala aux Herbes. Snoeks, Emmanuel Abwe, Diversité et exploitation. Rapport Gaspard Banyankimbona, ICCN PNVi, 2015 - Lac Edouard de consultation, 34 p. Auguste Chocha Manda, en République Démocratique du Célestin Danadu, Benjamin Dudu Congo. Leçons pour la gestion Mbadu Zebe V., 2010 - Akaibe, Armel Ibala Zamba, de la pêche. IUCN, Comité Diversité des espèces du genre Bauchet Katemo Manda, Victor National Pays-Bas, 69 p. Distichodus du Mamonekene, Pascal Masilya (Fleuve Congo) et mécanismes Mulungula, Paul Nlemvo, Kolding Jeffe, Nis S. Jacobsen, d’exploitation de leurs niches Vénant Nshombo Muderhwa, Ken H. Andersen, and Paul A.M. trophiques. Thèse doctorat Gaspard Ntakimazi, Kisekelwa van Zwieten, 2016 - Maximizing UNIKIN, inédit, 352 p. Tchalondawa, Soleil Wamuini fisheries yields while maintaining Lunkayilakio et Emmanuel community structure. Can. j. Fish Micha Jean-Claude, 2017 – Quel Vreven, 2018 – Mbisa-Congo. Aquat. Sci. 73 : 644_655. avenir pour les aires protégées Vers une meilleure connaissance (AP) aux zones humides oubliées des poissons de dix aires Luhusu Kutshukina Francine en Afrique continentale / protégées d’Afrique centrale. et Jean-Claude Micha, Wetland management plan, a Science Connection, 56, 18-22. 2013 – Analyse des modes hope for sustainable artisanal http://www.belspo.be/belspo/ d’exploitation des ressources fisheries in protected areas, (PA). organisation/publ_science_ halieutiques du lac Maï-Ndombe Tropicultura, 35, 4, 235-236. fr.stm

Smoked fish ready to be taken to the local market ©FAO/Pietro Cenini

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 67 Factors undermining inland river freshwater quality and supply to estuaries for food production in Sierra Leone Zebedee N Feka*1, Nouhou Ndam1, Tiega Anada1, Adewale Adeleke1 and Michael B. Balinga1

Summary

Sierra Leone’s coastal communities depend on water supply from river networks from upstream for food production. The continuity of these inland rivers to supply water to coastal communities is increasingly challenged by various human activities along and within these river systems that undermine water quality and flow into estuarine systems. While there may be an increasing bulk of literature on the value of inland water bodies to food security, information on how anthropogenic activities influence the river water quality and supply to coastal estuaries is scarce.

This review reveals that current anthropogenic activities along or within river systems in this country might be undermining riverine water quality and flow to estuaries because of poor legislative frameworks. This outcome is the result of poorly enforced rules, coupled with weak governance systems. We suggest legislative reforms that will strengthen the enforcement of existing rules for food production in coastal estuaries in Sierra Leone.

Introduction partially enclosed coastal estuaries among the most body of brackish water productive natural habitats in Inland aquatic ecosystems with one or more rivers or the world (NOAA. 2018). are diverse and are part of streams flowing into it, and 42 wetland types recognized with a free connection to the Water is a critical element by the Ramsar Convention open sea. According to the for the development of Annex B2, including lakes, Free Encyclopedia, estuaries ecosystems and human oases, swamps and marshes, form a transition zone life, because it is needed in wet grasslands, peatlands, between river environments many aspects of life and the estuaries, deltas and tidal and marine environments. environment (GWP, 2012). flats, nearshore marine They are subject both to Over 50% of the world’s areas, mangroves and coral marine influences—such as population today live less reefs, and human-made tidal waves, and the influx of than 3 km from a surface sites such as fish ponds, saline water—and to riverine freshwater body (Small and rice paddies, reservoirs, and influences—such as flows of Nicholls, 2003., Kummu, salt pans. Our focus is on fresh water and sediment. et al., 2011). Most flowing the interactions between The mixing of sea water freshwater bodies originate rivers and coastal marine and fresh water provides from inland, upstream ecosystems, with a special important levels of nutrients and flow to discharge emphasis on estuaries. For both in the water column downstream at the coast this article, an estuary is a and in the sediment, making through estuaries. As the

1 West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change Program (WA BiCC) Accra, Ghana. *Zebedee N Feka is the corresponding author .Email: [email protected]

2 http://archive.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-guidelines-strategic-framework-and/main/ramsar/1-31- 105%5E20823_4000_0__#B

68 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 rivers flow downstream to the connectivity of the river with its This paper analyses the effect estuaries, they bring along associated coastal ecosystems, of industry and other human important nutrients and fresh especially when exacerbated activities on the quality and water, essential for the survival by climate change and quantity of fresh water flow from and development of coastal and deforestation in the catchment upstream to the coast in Sierra marine organisms. Moreover, areas. While development Leone. A companion paper in estuaries can arguably be interventions such as dams can this issue of Nature & Faune termed the “nurseries of the have adverse impacts on river (Feka et al., in press), proposes sea” as many marine animals systems and estuaries, they solutions to enhance and reproduce and spend the also bring along various socio- sustain food security for coastal early part of their lives in this economic opportunities such communities. We (1) examine habitat (Nagelkerken et al., as energy production, water for drivers undermining the quality 2008). Consequently, estuaries irrigation, fresh fish production of fresh water and flow volume contribute to about 80% of the and tourism development from upstream to the estuaries world’s fish catch (Schultz and opportunities. A trade-off is in Sierra Leone and (2) review Ludwig, 2005). But information therefore often required to make available literature and policy on the contribution of African the right decision that better considerations to understand Estuaries to fisheries production supports overall development what is done by the government is scarce (Lamberth and Turpie, needs. of Sierra Leone to address 2003). these issues. This paper will be Regardless, it is clear that human useful for political authorities, An ecological balance between interferences on inland fresh the extractive industry and inland aquatic and coastal water systems are harming researchers, to emphasize how systems is needed to ensure the health of estuaries, and human actions on inland riverine maintenance of adequate levels hence undermine food security systems disrupt contribution of nutrient and water flow to in the estuaries. Further, the to food security for coastal estuaries (GWP, 2012 and ability of estuaries to continue communities in Sierra Leone. Lopoukhine et al., 2012). The providing vital ecosystem challenge, however, is that as services is undermined by The Sierra Leone, rivers from upstream the combined effects of coastal and riverine to the coast, various human water pollution from industry, activities take advantage of the abstraction and diversion of context ecosystem services of both the water and reduction of flow to Sierra Leone’s coastline rivers and their surrounding the estuaries. Addressing the stretches for about 402 km environment (Oyebande, challenges that undermine the from its border with Guinea to 2001; GWP, 2016). Increasing supply and quality of water for the North West to its border demands to meet human needs fish and agricultural production with Liberia to the South East. for consumption and industry in coastal estuaries or adjacent The population is estimated as from inland river systems is environments, will require cross seven million people, 60% of affecting net water quality and cutting interventions. Various whom live within or close to the availability for supply to coastal authorities recognize these coast (Feka and Morrison, 2017). systems (NOAA, 2018). These challenges and advocate for This coastline is characterized shifts in resource use patterns the sustainable management by a variety of coastal habitats, and consequent pressures on of waters systems to ensure from which various stakeholders inland river systems have led continuous supply of ecosystem derive their socio-economic to significant transformations services as a reasonable course and developmental needs. in the availability and quality of action from upstream to Sierra Leoneans are primarily of West Africa’s water systems. downstream (GWP, 2012;2016). dependent on rice (cultivated Damming for irrigation and However, for varying economic around estuaries or along river power generation, pollution, and political reasons some sources), and fish from inland urbanization and intensification policy makers continue to water bodies, estuaries and the of resource use patterns take decisions that undermine marine environment. are examples of factors that the ability of these freshwater favor economic development, systems to flourish. but ultimately cut off the

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 69 Sierra Leone is bordered to mouths resulting from the are vital for maintaining healthy the West by the Atlantic Ocean deposition of silt and clay-where and functioning coastal/marine that forms the basin the river meets the sea. The ecosystems, in addition to the of the numerous rivers. Many rivers enable the existence socio-economic and cultural of these rivers originate in and flourishing of the estuarine values they have to the local upstream neighboring countries, systems that form major coastal populations and the economy namely Guinea to the North and wetland. These estuaries are of this country (Kassam et al., Liberia to the South East (Figure the repository of mangrove 2017). However, the ability 1), and cross Sierra Leone to habitants, mudflats, and swampy of these estuarine systems discharge downstream into the grass land that support some of to function properly is highly Atlantic Ocean (Table 1). On their the largest numbers of coastal dependent on the supply of transition to the Atlantic Ocean, and marine life in West Africa, fresh nutrients and water from these rivers form four major including migratory birds, the country’s river systems estuaries: Scarcies, Sierra Leone, aquatic mammals, reptiles, (NOAA, 2018). Yawri Bay and Sherbro. These amphibians, and fish (EPA, estuaries are tidal 2015). These coastal wetlands

Table 1: Water catchments, links to estuaries and connection to countries of origin

Estuaries Rivers Where rivers originate Catchment area Catchment area connecting from/sources in Sierra Leone outside Sierra Leone inland to coast (in Square (Km2) Kilometers) Scarcies Little Scarcies Originates in Guinea 13 383 5572 Estuary Great Scarcies Takes its rise in Guinea 2 979 5323 where it is known as the Kolenté. Over a long distance forms the border between Guinea and Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone Bankasoka River Combines with the Rokel No data Estuary and Kumrabai River to the south to form Creek the Sierra Leone River

Rokel The Rokel rises from 8 236 No data the plateau of the Loma Mountains, in the Guinea Highlands

Yawri Bay The Ribi, Kukuli and Originate respectively 3 670 0 Kargboro rivers in from… Kafuta and Moyamba District Ngagboli empty into this Bay Sherbro Waanje Takes its rise from 610 0 Estuary Kenema, Eastern Sierra Leone Taia or Jong It originates from a 8 288 0 of the Pampana and Teye River at Sedden Sewa Originates in the No verifiable data 0 Northeastern part of Sierra Leone near the border with Guinea

70 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Figure 1: Map of Sierra Leone, showing political boundaries and rivers Source: Sierra Leone (http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/sierrale.pdf)

Rice production of agricultural Gross Domestic However, this increase was Product (GDP) (Neiland et through expansion of rice Rice is an important staple al.,2016). The production growing area and not due to food in Sierra Leone, with an of rice is dependent on the increased yields per hectare. annual per capita consumption river systems for irrigation At the community levels, estimated at 104 kg. Rice is and increasingly on rainfall. rice farming efforts have grown mainly by small scale The production of rice has increased while yields per farmers from upland to lowland increased from 1960, with a unit land cultivated seem to (Table 2), and accounts for 42% significant decrease during the have declined1. While farmers civil war during the 1991–2002. point to lack of land and poor 1 personal observation from the field because communities continue to clear mangroves to plant rice, but their harvest is barely enough to feed their families.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 71 variety of planting materials are typified by the strong Leone is complementing its as the principal challenges for reliance on the rainy season shortfall by importing about 70% the declining yields, aspects for cultivation in both coastal of rice from elsewhere (GOSL, of water quality and availability and upland areas. Today Sierra 2009).

Table 2: Major categories of land use for Rice production in Sierra Leone

Ecotype Arable area (ha) Cultivated area under Percent of total area rice (ha)* under rice Upland 4 300 000 363 894 55 Inland valley Swamp 630 000 170 000 26 Mangrove Swamp 540 000 70 000 11 Riverine Grassland 110 000 5 593 1 Boliland1 120 000 50 000 8 Totals 5 700.000 659 487 100

Source: Adapted from GOSL, 2009 *Rice area in 2007

Fisheries production either directly or indirectly in al., 2017). According to officials the fisheries-related sector. Fish of the Ministry of Fisheries and The fisheries industry in Sierra is also the most affordable and Marine Resources (MFMR), the Leone is derived from both widely available protein source sharp decline of fish production riverine and marine water and constitutes 75% of the in 2010 as per figure 2b bodies. Fishing is carried out by animal protein consumed in the was probably due to drastic numerous small-scale artisanal country (Neiland et al. 2016). withdrawal of fishing effort and fishers and a plethora of under-reporting by the foreign industrial fleets using complex Over the years however, fish industrial fleets because of fishing technology. About 90% production has been varying enhanced enforcement of fishing of fish production in Sierra because of various levels regulations when the World Bank Leone is derived from the of industrial and artisanal funded West African Regional marine or coastal environment fishing efforts (Figure 2 a and Fisheries Project (WARFP) (Jalloh, 2010). Fisheries b). A series of studies have started in Sierra Leone. None of represent around 10% of Sierra highlighted that the variation in the studies seem to explicitly link Leone’s gross domestic product fisheries production in Sierra changed river water quality and and directly employ over Leone is mostly linked to both flow to this variation as a key 40 000 fisherfolk with a total of illegal industrial and artisanal element that could undermine 500 000 of people employed harvesting (Arnason, 1993; fish production. Neiland et al., 2016; Kassam et

1 Boliland is a Temne (tribe in Sierra Leone) word for those lands that are flooded in the rainy season

72 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 300000

250000

200000

150000

100000

50000

Fish production (tonnes) 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Year

Figure 2 (a): Trends of Fisheries production Figure 2 (b): Trends of Total fishery in Sierra Leone. production in metric 2000-2010 Source Unpublished Data from Professor Percival Source MFMR, 2013 A.T. Showers Professor, Inst. of Marine Biol. & Ocean-FBC, Univ. of Sierra Leone

Factors affecting river of human drivers (Table 3). deforestation will exacerbate system quality and flow Many factors influence fresh the effects of climate change water systems, and hence the by enhancing evaporation of In Sierra Leone, the production production of rice and fish in water during the dry season, of fish and rice at the coastal Sierra Leone, but we will narrow while flash floods and increased realm depends on a network of down on the extractive activities intensity of rainfall events during inland water systems that supply and policy development/ the rainy seasons will increase fresh water to coastal estuaries enforcement that influence runoff and sediment loads into (Blinker, 2006). The country quality and volume of water flow rivers (Döll and Zhang, 2010). is richly endowed with water from upstream to the estuaries. Consequently, water quality in resources and is one of the rivers will be affected all the way most humid countries of Africa To the suite of challenges down to the estuaries. with a mean annual rainfall of 2 outlined in Table 3, climate 526 mm/year (Irish Aid, 2017; variability is anticipated to affect The extractive industry (Table 4), Fileccia et al., 2017). both availability and quality of including massive deforestation water. Because of seasonal of river banks, and related Despite these water resources variability, variations in the flow human activities, are also and their contribution to the of rivers are significant, with threatening the ability of these country’s food security, their minimal discharges occurring rivers to continue providing vital collective quality and flow during the dry season, thus ecosystem services to humans from upstream to the estuaries affecting water availability for and other ecosystems. is threatened by a variety food production (Irish Aid, 2017).Furthermore, uncontrolled

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 73 Table 3: Direct threat to Sierra Leone’s water systems from upstream to the estuaries and sea

Water system Some threats undermining the ability of water systems to continue providing categories essential ecosystem services in Sierra Leone

Rivers Pollution of water sources and courses by e.g. from mining operations, agriculture, dumping of industrial and municipal solid and liquid waste in watersheds and in sources Conversion of wetlands/swamps for rice production Over-exploitation of inland water resources Climate change Invasive species (e.g. water hyacinth proliferation) Coastal estuaries Infrastructure development, e.g. building of roads, houses and tourism infrastructure and mangroves of Pollution, e.g. dumping of untreated and other liquid and solid waste by hotels Sierra Leone and households Climate change, especially due to increased evaporation from water bodies Impacts of mining industry that impacts flows and flushes of fresh water into the estuaries Over-exploitation of mangrove resources, e.g. harvesting of mangrove wood for firewood, construction and over-fishing using unconventional harvesting methods Beach sand mining, e.g. extraction of sand for the building industry around Freetown, Lungi and Waterloo Marine environment Over fishing by international fishing fleets Unmanaged and poor enforcement of existing policies and regulations- poor governance Off-shore oil and gas exploration Illegal fishing methods by local community members, e.g. use of mono filament nets, use of chemicals etc Pollution from poor up-stream fishing and agricultural practices

Souce: Adapted from DAI, 2013

Table 4: Extractive industries and how they match with the four estuaries of Sierra Leone

Name of Wetland Type of extractive industries

Scarcies River Estuary Sand, mangrove logging, agricultural expansion

Sierra Leone Estuary Sand, mangrove logging and agricultural expansion

Yawri Bay Zircon (gemstone/ nesosilicates mineral), mangrove logging and agricultural expansion

Sherbro Estuary Rutile, zircon, mangrove logging and agricultural expansion

Rokel River and Gold and sand

Sewa River and tributaries Gold, diamond, sand

Jong or Taia River Gold and sand

74 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Impacts of human fish production at the coastal A recent study reveals that activities on the quality and marine interface with the concentrations of three implications for food security trace metals, i.e. arsenic (As), and flow of rivers to and nutrition. Diminishing chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) in estuaries riverine volumes will also reduce sub-tidal sediment samples from water for irrigation, mangrove this estuary exceed the level In addition to the factors swamp1 rice cultivation at the where toxicity may begin to be listed above Sierra Leone’s coast and biodiversity (Niasse et observed in sensitive fauna and inland water systems are also al., 2004). flora species (Clark et al., 2018). threatened by deforestation The bioaccumulation of heavy from unplanned agricultural Studies on the direct impact metals, e.g. zinc and copper in development (DAI, 2013). of the extractive industry on samples of oyster flesh exceeds Blinker (2006) estimated that river systems, and consequent the median recommended up to 2006, Sierra Leone had impacts on estuaries, for Sierra levels for human consumption lost about 70% of its original Leone are scarce (Akiwumi in at least one sampling station forest cover. In addition, over and Butler, 2008; SLEITI, (SLEITI, 2016) a 26-year period (1990-2016) 2016). However, aspects of the country also lost 26% of its soil contamination and water mangrove forest cover to wood Efforts to improve pollution from extractives riverine management extraction and the conversion to is a problem that is already rice farms (Mondal et al.,2017). affecting biodiversity and water by the government of Forests are usually lost along systems in coastal Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone with the vital ecosystem services For instance, rutile (titanium that sustain river systems’ mineral), mining operations The government of Sierra ability to reduce adjacent to the Sherbro Estuary Leone has taken various steps evaporation from the soil, favor directly impacted over 66 km2 to improve the management and regulate the water of forested land from 1967 of water and wetland systems in the air through transpiration. to1995 (Akiwumi and Butler, in general. These efforts have 2008). A recent study reveals focused on developing policies, On the other hand, anticipated that mangrove habitat lost to legislation and institutions benefits from climate change mining activities is currently to support and regulate the such as increases in carbon estimated to be 1.25 km2 or activities of extractive industries dioxide, may enhance primary 0.18% of the mangrove forest (Table 5). Despite the existence productivity. (Explanatory area in the Sherbro Estuary, and of these provisions, there are note: The low carbon dioxide this is anticipated to increase still implementation challenges concentration in the atmosphere with planned additional mining due to overlapping mandates is the biggest limiting factor operations (Clark et al., 2018). and conflict of interest among to crop production but this These very conservative values relevant Ministries Departments anticipated benefit could be do not consider the broader and Agencies (MDAs). There cancelled by widespread impacts on the landscape are some challenges that agricultural expansion (rubber such as biodiversity loss, exacerbate the proper and palm oil) and food crops flooding of alluvial lowlands, management of the impact across the country (USAID, and the creation of of extractive activities on the 2012). Hence, given the and stockpiles over mined-out environment and water systems irregularity of freshwater portions and pollution of the (Table 6). The legislative flushes into estuaries caused by estuary. Mining activities in provisions and policy guidance deforestation, and the projected this region are causing rapid tend to focus more on creating sea level rise, increased sea sedimentation of the estuary, an enabling environment for surface temperature and with prospects for heavy metal business development, with little acidification of the ocean at accumulation in fish and other or no stringent measures to the coastal interface, will alter costal agricultural produce. incentivize effective corporate

1 The cultivation of rice in mangrove swamps depends significantly on the salinity of the water system. Communities in across coastal Sierra Leone usually wait for the raining season to ensure that salinity levels are low before planting. However, when there is adequate supply of enough fresh water from inland mangrove swamp rice cultivation can be done more than once a year.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 75 social responsibility (CSR) vis- further complicated by the justify this lack of monitoring and à-vis the environment- in this “non-disclosure” clause in the enforcement of legislation to case water management. For mining companies’ contracts inadequate funding and qualified example, the mining legislation (SLEITI, 2016). In addition, there personnel (field observation). in the 1994 Act does not is no provision for water and soil sufficiently detail environmental, pollution prevention and control, Furthermore, some of the social development, health, although legislation states legislative and policy frameworks safety and community issues. that this must be considered for environmental and water Some effort has been invested to the extent possible during resources management in into developing different mining the environmental impact Sierra Leone are outdated and legislation in Sierra Leone, assessment as per the revised formats have not been unlike the other sectors like Environmental Protection promulgated into law. Attempts forestry and water resources, Agency Act Sierra Leone to review and update these and soil or river remediation for (FAO,2010). Follow up and tools are constrained by lack of instance, where efforts have monitoring and evaluation of financial resources and political been very scant (SLEITI, 2016). the mitigation or off-set actions instability. Hence, there is a need The challenges of managing as promised in environmental to review and reform existing the exemplified sectors under impact assessment reports are provisions conform them to an environment context are often lacking. Most of the MDAs contemporary extractive and water management issues.

Table 5: Legislative and policy efforts by the government of Sierra Leone to manage wetlands

Legislation/policy/strategy Remarks

The Forestry Act (2011) These are the main instruments for the forestry sector in Sierra Leone and both are alleged to be under review. The Conservation and Wildlife Policy and Act, of 1972 was reviewed into the draft 2011 act-still a draft. Draft Conservation and Wildlife Policy and Act, 2011 The 1994 Mines and Minerals The Minerals Act 1927 was amended and revised into the Minerals Act in Decree, which was enacted as 1960 and later replaced by the 1994 act law in 1996 (1994 Act) Mines and Minerals (Fees) The 1994 Act was amended in 1999 and 2004 and supplemented by the Regulations 2008. Mines and Minerals Regulations in 2008 Mineral and Mines Act (2009 Act) This replaced the 1994 Act. National Biodiversity Strategy and This is an international convention signed by Sierra Leone to enhance the Action Plan, 2003 management of biodiversity. A Wetlands Strategy Developed in 2015 but still a draft document Environment Protection Agency Environment Protection Agency was established under this act Act 2008 (EPA Act) The National Minerals Agency Act The National Minerals Agency was established under the mineral act 2012 Wetlands Act- Draft Draft

Source: Assembled by authors from FAO (2010), EPA, (2015)

76 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Table 6: Governance issues and how they threaten water quality and ecosystem integrity in Sierra Leone

Poor governance drivers Direct links to threats that undermine ecosystems integrity

Lack of information for decision making on services Poor valuation of ecosystems services favors extractive provided by healthy ecosystems to policy makers, industry over conservation (Land use conversion), corruption and lack of incentives for corporate social degradation and loss of species, pollution and responsibility contamination of firewater, unsustainable harvesting

Mining Infrastructure development

Insufficient resources for natural resource and Not Known biodiversity conservation

Inadequate coordination to protect high-conservation- Conversion, degradation, loss value habitats

Ineffective integrated planning for climate change and Over exploitation and degradation of habitats loss biodiversity management because of infrastructure development, indiscriminate expansion of the extractive industry and climate (forests/mangroves, watersheds, estuaries and change biodiversity) in national and sub-regional development plans

Poor governance in the practice of corporate social Pollution, environmental degradation, loss of water responsibility as most industries do not often practice quality and disrespect for environmental and social promises carried in their EIAs safeguards

Inadequate coordination and corporation between Transboundary pollution, possible conflict between agencies and countries to sustainably manage critical Guinea and Sierra Leone on water resources, fresh water habitats degradation and loss of fresh water resources

Source: Assembled by authors from FAO (2010), EPA, (2015)

Conclusion rivers that regularly combine contaminants respectively with rainwater-run-off to form (Feka and Morrison, 2017). In Guaranteeing appropriate river a mixture of contaminants that addition, lack of water in river flow and quality to ensure food discharge downstream in the systems flowing to the estuaries security in the estuaries of estuaries. If left unmanaged, will increase dependency Sierra Leone is an increasingly these will irreversibly harm on already variable rainfall daunting challenge under the heath of these estuaries patterns for rice farming in this unsustainable human practices and disrupt their ability to country. To overcome some of and climate change. Ongoing provide food security services these challenges, we suggest extractive industry, forest to coastal communities and reforming existing legislation exploitation and agricultural ultimately jeopardize the health that will promote improved food activities within and around river of the dependent populace as production in coastal estuaries systems flowing into the four reported elsewhere (Parineeta- in Sierra Leone, and strengthen estuaries of Sierra Leone bring Dandekar, 2012). The eventual the enforcement of existing in a lot of pollutants and the impacts of inland activities on rules in Sierra Leone. receiving estuaries are widely these estuaries will therefore opened to sea. The combined bear far reaching environmental References action of unsustainable human and societal challenges to actions in and within river biodiversity, food insecurity Akiwumi AF, Butler, RD (2008) systems inland, coupled with the and community health at the Mining and environmental effects of climate change results coastal interface due to decline change in Sierra Leone, West in reduced flow of water in the in fish production and increased Africa: A remote sensing and

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 77 hydrogeomorphological study. EPA Act (2009). The GWP, Stockholm, Sweden. Environmental Monitoring and Environmental Protection Available at: www.gwptoolbox. Assessment 142(1-3):309-18 Agency Act of 2009. org DOI: 10.1007/s10661-007- Government of Sierra Leone 9930-9 Government of Sierra Leone FAO. 2018. Fishery and (GOSL) (2009) National Rice Arnason, R. (1993). Fisheries Aquaculture Statistics. Global Development Strategy. A Management Regime for production by production technical report Prepared for Sierra Leone: a report for the source 1950-2016 (FishstatJ). In: the Coalition for African Rice Government of Sierra Leone and FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (CARD), MAFFS SL the World Bank. Department [online]. Rome. Freetown. Accessed December 2018. Blinker, L (2006) Country Irish Aid (2017) Sierra-Leone- Environmental Profile, Sierra FAO (2010) Sierra Leone Country-Climate-Action- Leone https://europa.eu/ National Wildlife Policy 2010. Reports-2016. https://www. capacity4dev/file/32962/ http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/ irishaid.ie/media/irishaid/ download?token=49VpV7Nw pdf/sie149515.pdf allwebsitemedia/30whatwedo/ climatechange/Sierra- Clark, B Hutchings, K Moster B Feka Z N, Nouhou Ndam N,Tiega Leone-Country-Climate-Action- & Brown E (2018) Sierra rutile A,1, Adewale Adeleke A, Balinga Reports-2016.pdf project area 1 environmental B M (in press ) A Transboundary and social and health impact Model to Improve the Quality Kassam L, Lakoh K, Longley C, assessment: Specialist and Supply of Freshwater to Phillips MJ and Siriwardena SN. estuarine study. © Anchor Estuaries for Food Security: A 2017. Sierra Leone fish value Environmental Consultants Management Perspective for chain with special emphasis https://iluka.com/docs/default- and from Sierra Leone, West on Tonkolili District. Penang, source/default-document- Africa. Nature & Faune Journal Malaysia: WorldFish. Program library/515234_srl_area_1_ vol. 32, No. 2 Report: 2017-33. geochemistry_specialist_report- final-20180223.pdf?sfvrsn=2 Feka, Z. N., & Morrison, I. (2017). Lamberth S. J. & J. K. Turpie Managing mangroves for coastal (2003). The Role of Estuaries DAI (2013) West Africa Threats ecosystems change: A decade in South African Fisheries: and Opportunity Assessment. and beyond of conservation Economic Importance and This publication was produced experiences and lessons for and Management Implications, for review by the United from west-central Africa. Journal African Journal of Marine States Agency for International of Ecology and The Natural Science, 25:1, 131-157. Development. It was prepared Environment, 9(6), 99-123 I., by DAI Kummu, M de Moel, H, Ward, J Fileccia, A., Teatini, P., Walther, P., Varis, O. (2011) How close Döll, P., Zhang, J., 2010. Impact C., and Mastrocola, P. (2017). do We live to water? A Global of climate change on freshwater Hydrogeology of Sierra Leone: Analysis of Population Distance ecosystems: a global-scale Ministry of Water Resources, to Freshwater Bodies PLoS One.; analysis of 507 ecologically Freetown, Sierra Leone 6(6): e20578. Published online relevant river flow alterations. 2011 Jun 8. doi: 10.1371/ Hydrology and Earth System Global Water Partnership (GWP) journal.pone.0020578 PMCID: Sciences, 14(5): 783- (2016) Linking ecosystem PMC3110782 799 services and water security – SDGs offer a new opportunity Mondal P., Trzaska S, de Environmental Protection for integration Global Water Sherbinin A (2017) Landsat- Agency (EPA) (2015) Sierra Partnership (GWP) ToolBox: Derived Estimates of Mangrove Leone - State of the Marine www.gwptoolbox.org Extents in the Sierra Leone Environment. Accessed Coastal Landscape Complex September 2018. http://www. Global Water Partnership (GWP) during 1990-2016. Sensors grida.no/publications/163 (2012) Water in the Green (Basel). 2017 Dec 21;18(1). pii: Economy. Perspectives Paper. E12. doi: 10.3390/s18010012.

78 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Nagelkerken I, Blaber SJM, Nguyen, M V A.J. Lynch, N. Estuarine Fish Habitat, its Bouillon S, Green P, Haywood M, Young, D.T. Beard, W.D. Taylor, Evaluation and Protection Kirton LG, Meynecke J–O, Pawlik I.G. Cowx and S.J. Cooke (2015) by Federal Fisheries Law” J, Penrose HM, Sasekumar When water is more than (2005). EEB Articles. 35. http:// A, Somerfield PJ. 2008. The water: using a social-ecological digitalcommons.uconn.edu/ habitat function of mangroves watershed framework for inland eeb_articles/35 for terrestrial and marine fauna: fisheries management. http:// a review. Aquatic Botany. 89(2): inlandfisheries.org/wp-content/ SLEITI (2016). Sierra Leone 155–85. uploads/2015/02/Nguyen_ Extractive Industries Drivers-FAO-Rome-2015.pdf Transparency Initiative Report National Oceanic and of 2013. Government of Sierra Atmospheric Administration Nguyen, V.M., Lynch, A.J., Leone. (NOAA) (2018) Estuary habitat Young, N., Cowx, I.G., Beard accessed September 2018 Jr., T.D., Taylor, W.W., & Cooke, Small C, Nicholls J. A (2003) https://www.fisheries.noaa. S.J. (2016). To manage inland Global Analysis of Human gov/estuary-habitat accessed fisheries is to manage at the Settlement in Coastal September 2018 social-ecological watershed Zones. Journal of Coastal scale. Journal of Environmental Research. 2003; 19:584–599. Neiland AE, Cunningham S, Management 181, 312-325. Arbuckle M, Baio A, Bostock T, USAID. 2012. USAID: Coulibaly D, Gitonga NK, Long R Oyebande Lekan (2001) Environment: Biodiversity and Sei S. 2016. Assessing the Water problems in Africa— Report . https://www.usaid. potential contribution of fisheries how can the sciences help? gov/documents/1865/ to economic development: The Hydrological Sciences usaid%E2%80%99s-biodiversity- case of post-ebola Sierra Leone Journal, 46:6, 947-962, DOI: conservation-and-forestry- Natural Resources 7:356–76. 10.1080/02626660109492888 programs-2012-report Accessed http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ September 2018. nr.2016.76031 Schultz, E T. and Ludwig, M (2005) The Essentials on

1995, Ghana - Fish is sun-dried prior to sale in the local market. ©FAO/Pietro Cenini

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 79 COUNTRY FOCUS: REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

What does the future hold for fish farming in Cameroon? Junie Albine Atangana Kenfack1, Christian Ducarme2, and Jean-Claude Micha3

Summary

Introduced in Cameroon in 1948, fish farming was somewhat successful and then collapsed after the 1960s. One of the causes of this failure was the implementation of inappropriate policies. More recently, in 2003, the development of the national aquaculture strategy, followed in 2009 by an action plan, was not enough to revive the aquaculture sub-sector. The lack of land tenure, limited access to credit and inputs, often poorly constructed fish ponds, and proposals for unprofitable production techniques all continue to hamper the development of the activity. However, the country has many assets and significant investments are being made in the sub- sector. The conditions for the development of aquaculture activity could not yet be guaranteed, but there is hope and concrete recommendations are made for the sector to produce sustainably.

Introduction MINEPIA, 2013). To fill this with some success. After gap, 212 000 tons of fish independence in 1960, World fish production (fish, products were imported in most of the ponds built shellfish) reached 170 2012 (Isolina et al., 2013). were abandoned. Among million tons in 2016 (90.9 However, the country has a the reasons given was an MT for fishing and nearly 80 dense hydrographic network inappropriate development MT for aquaculture) (FAO, that offers a much diversified policy. Since then, the fish 2018). Aquaculture is thus potential of fish species, farming sub-sector has the fastest growing livestock with 542 fish species over developed little, although the production in the world more than 40 000 km2 of country has had a national (EESC, 2017). freshwater surface area aquaculture strategy since (MINEPAT, 2013). Unlike 2003 with an action plan In Cameroon, national China, where fish farming is since 2009 (MINEPIA, 2009). fisheries production is 180 an activity that dates back It therefore appears that all 000 tons/year with less nearly 3 millennia (Micha, the elements are in place than 1 000 tons/year from 2013), fish farming was to develop sustainable and aquaculture. This remains introduced in Cameroon profitable aquaculture, but low for an estimated in 1948 by the French the difficulties persist and annual demand of 400 colonial administration (Satia, development does not 000 tons (ACP Fish, 2011; 1992; Tangou, 2009), as a follow. food subsistence activity

1 Junie Albine ATANGANA KENFACK: PhD student at the University of Yaoundé I, Department of Geography, Laboratory of Environmental and Risk Dynamics. Cameroon. [email protected] Tel: +237 699215280

2 Christian DUCARME, international aquaculture consultant, past director of Piscimeuse, Tihange, Belgium. [email protected]

3 Jean-Claude MICHA : Professor at the Ecole Régionale post-universitaire d’Aménagement et de gestion Intégrés des Forêts Tropicales et de Territoires Tropicaux (ERAIFT), UNIKIN, Kinshasa, DR Congo and Professor Emeritus, Université de Namur, Unité de Recherche en Biologie Environnementale (URBE), Namur, Belgium. [email protected]

80 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Status of fish farming in intervene in the economic and Fish consumption (9 kg/ Cameroon social sectors, thus contributing inhabitant/year) remains below to the modification of the the expected value of 11.57 kg/ Decades of landscape of local development inhabitant/year (MINEPIA, 2013). actors. In the rural sector, The supply of inputs remains unsuccessful attempts there has been a decline in difficult. Access to land and between 1960 and 1994 agricultural production, which credit is still not guaranteed. has been exacerbated by the The lowlands, privileged areas Between 1948 and 1954, the disappearance of farmers’ for aquaculture, are in the French colonial administration management structures. In public domain. The majority tried to promote the cultivation 1996, poverty had increased of sustainable fish farming of Tilapia in dam ponds and sharply in Cameroon and systems that have shown some fresh water in the south- affected more than 50.5% of profitability are of the extensive central and western regions the population (ADB, 2009). or semi-intensive type in ponds of the country (Satia, 1992). In this context, the approach (Efolé and al., 2017; Bogne and From 1954 to 1960, twenty- developed in aquaculture policy al., 2013; Brummett and al., two (22) aquaculture stations (Coopération française: 1995- 2004). The Ministry of Livestock, and an extension service 1998; World Fish Center: 2000- Fisheries and Animal Industries were created. After a period 2005) took greater account of (MINEPIA) supports projects of withdrawal of support, the the profitability and autonomy aimed at promoting intensive Cameroonian government of production systems and fish farming systems in above- subscribed to several enshrined the principle of the ground basins (IFAD, 2016 - multifaceted interventions: participation of promoters at http://www.ppea-cameroun.org ) international organizations such the various stages of projects with varying degrees of success as UNDP/FAO (1960 to 1968), (Tangou, 2009; MINEPIA, 2009). because they are not always the Peace Corps (1969) and Profitability was still not there, profitable. Vocational training USAID (1980 to 1984); and activities stopped as soon as the is provided by two Universities national organizations such as projects were completed. (Dschang, Douala) and a national the Société d’expansion et de zoo technical and veterinary modernisation de la riziculture Since 2003: an training Centre (Foumban). (SEMRY) in 1987. The multiplicity aquaculture activity Despite these investments of these actions has not been in training and projects, sufficient to stimulate a dynamic that has stagnated management structures are development of fish farming. despite promises of new insufficient and staff are poorly The objectives have rarely been initiatives qualified. The results of the achieved (Tangou, 2009). The aquaculture policy are still not lack of basic infrastructure, The implementation of the forthcoming and the activity is limited access to inputs and the Poverty Reduction Strategy stalled. Many constraints persist proposal of inefficient policies or Paper (PRSP) in 2003 did not and concerned institutions, inefficient technical routes have significantly reduce poverty financing, site development and led the sector to a situation of in Cameroon. The economy management techniques, have stagnation or even regression. remained fragile and constrained little impact on production. by structural deficiencies related A reorientation to the low competitiveness of Challenges and of the role of the the productive sector (Mikolasek perspectives administration et al., 2009). As a result, the Cameroonian government Aquaculture remains subject in aquaculture undertook to prepare in 2009 development after the to administrative, financial, the Strategy Document for technical, socio-economic and 1987 economic crisis Growth and Employment (DSCE), marketing constraints that hinder which integrates the plan for the sustainable development of The economic crisis that the sustainable development the sub-sector. The performance affected the country from of aquaculture. However, the of aquaculture policy would 1987 onwards reduced the results of the implementation not be sufficient to boost the capacity of public authorities to of this plan are not conclusive.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 81 sustainable development of the in the conduct of the In China, the introduction activity. Domestic aquaculture activity. The selection of high-value species has production is stagnating at of appropriate sites stimulated the development around 1000 tons/year while should take into account of large food production the demand for fish continues proximity to markets, Companies (FAO, 2000). to grow. Fish ponds located environmental and socio- in isolated areas are often economic conditions (IUCN, In conclusion, far from being an still small in size, partially 2009). Thus, integrated easy equation, the development drained and often far from production systems (Efolé of fish farming requires a unique markets (Kriesemer, 2009). et al., 2017; Oswald et al., combination of social, economic, The socio-economic feasibility 2013), agriculture (rice, fish political, environmental and of fish farming projects is not farming, market gardening, cultural conditions to ensure sufficiently considered. fish farming, etc.) or that it is integrated into the livestock (poultry, fish, pork local economy and that, sites The increase in aquaculture and fish), as is the case in are selected and managed in a production will depend on: Asia (FAO, 2000), are to be concerted, cost-effective and in preferred, while respecting an environmentally appropriate • Coherence between public the environment. manner. policies: a clear, concerted and shared aquaculture • Quality of fish feed: the References policy, in harmony with high price of granulated policies on finance, fish feed in Cameroon BAD. (2009). Document land registries, public (1200 to 1500 CFA/kg) is De Stratégie Pays 2010- works, agriculture, water currently incompatible with 2014. Banque Africaine management, etc., would the economic profitability De Développement Fonds improve the effectiveness of Tilapia breeding in an Africain De Développement. and efficiency of intensive above-ground Département Régional Centre interventions for aquaculture system (floating cages). In (ORCE). 42 p. development. Incentives the case of Clarias, in view of such as land security, its higher selling price (2000 CESE. (2017). Les fermes reducing the tax rate, setting to 2500 CFA/kg compared aquacoles marines et up funds for aquaculture, to 1500 to 1800 CFA/kg for continentales : enjeux et raising awareness among Tilapia) and low conversion conditions d’un développement banking institutions of the rates (0.8 to 1 for the durable réussi. Avis du profitability of fish farming, best fish farms), profitable Conseil Economique, Social et reframing aquaculture production is possible (FAO, Environnemental. Section de development in the context 2017). l’agriculture, de la pêche et de of ongoing competition l’alimentation. 98 p. ww.lecese.fr from all meat products, • The organization of the including frozen fish, beef, profession, which should FAO. (2000). Développement pork and poultry (Lacroix facilitate the transfer of de l’aquaculture ne and Paquotte, 1999) would good technical practices ; rôle des politiques promote the indispensable and also contribute to better gouvernementales. http://www. and inevitable development marketing of fish products fao.org of the activity ; (IUCN, 2009). FAO. (2016). Situation mondiale • The adoption of a global • In the longer term, des pêches. Possibilités et défis. and integrated approach research should offer E-ISBN 978-92-5-208276-7. 275 at the strategic and local species with high added p. levels. Indeed, the measures value: snakehead fish to be designed to develop (Parachanna), river sole FIDA. (2016). Programme de aquaculture must consider (Schilbe), freshwater giant Promotion de l’Entreprenariat the social, environmental shrimp (Macrobrachium), Agropastoral des Jeunes. and economic implications (Micha, 2006) and food of Rapport de Supervision 05 of the proposed changes good nutritional quality. au 19 avril 2016. Rapport

82 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 principal et appendices. Division 52, 4, 433-457. MINEPIA. (2009). Revue Afrique de l’Ouest et du Centre sectorielle du secteur Département de Gestion des Micha J.-C. (2013). La aquaculture. Mise en place d’un Programmes. Rapport : 4095- pisciculture dans le bassin du plan de développement durable CM. 55 p. Congo : passé, présent et futur. de l’aquaculture au Cameroun. USTHB‐FBS‐4th International 44 p. Isolina Boto, Suzanne Phillips Congress of the Populations et Maria Eleonora D’Andrea. & Animal Communities MINEPIA. (2013). Recensement (2013). Pisciculture : le nouveau “Dynamics & Biodiversity des fermes piscicoles dans moteur de of the terrestrial & aquatic les zones à fort potentiel au Ecosystems””CIPCA4”TAGHIT Cameroun (Centre, Est, Ouest, l’économie bleue? Briefings (Bechar) – ALGERIA, 19‐21 Nord-Ouest et Sud). Rapport N0 32 de Bruxelles sur le November, 2013, 85-101. principal. 32 p développement rural Une série de réunions sur des questions Mikolasek Olivier, Blandine MINEPIA. (2013). Diagnostic de développement ACP-U. 51 p. Barlet, Eduardo Chia, sur la situation de référence du Victor Pouomogne, Minette Cameroun. Vol 1. 246 p. Lacroix Denis et Paquotte Tomedi Eyango Tabi. (2009). Philippe. (1999). L’aquaculture Développement de la petite Satia, N.B.P.1991. Historique et les marchés : tendances, pisciculture marchande au du développement de la produits, opportunités. Cameroun : la recherche-action pisciculture au Cameroun. en partenariat. Cah Agric, vol. Journées aquacoles de l’Océan 18, n° 2-3, 270-276. Tangou Samuel. (2009). Indien - Ile de la Réunion 31 mai- Evaluation des réglementations 3 juin 1999. 15 p. Mikolasek Olivier et Oswald et des programmes aquacoles Marc. (2013). Intensification au Cameroun. Projet SARNISSA Micha J.-C. (2006). Pas d’avenir écologique de la pisciculture en 2009. 44 p. www.sarnissa.org. sans pisciculture : le big bang paysanne. Exemple du piscicole. Bull.Séanc. Acad. R. Cameroun. Démarche et cadre Sci. Outre-Mer, conceptuel. 62 p.

Fishponds with outlets ©FAO/Ch. Errath

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 83 FAO ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS

Gender in community management of mangrove ecosystems in Cameroon: some lessons to ensure that no one is left behind Fidèle L. N. Tchinda1, Gordon N. Ajonina2 and Jean-Claude Nguinguiri3

Gender mainstreaming in development projects is a concern shared by all development support organizations. Practical guides are developed and direct action aimed towards inclusive and gender sensitive approaches. Observations made in a community management project of mangrove ecosystems in Cameroon have shown that the implications of the gender approach depend partly on the level of participation observed for each social category. As far as women are concerned, this level of participation has been determined mainly through the perceptions they had of the expected benefits for each technical or organizational project proposal. In other words, women did not participate effectively in the project until they were convinced that the action being promoted was likely to be beneficial and help improve their well-being.

Introduction Fendoung & al. 2017). The project “Conservation The government, with the and Community Management In Cameroon, mangroves support of its development of Mangrove Ecosystems cover an area of 2700 partners, is implementing in Cameroon4”, funded by km², or 1.5% of the forests, projects to reverse the the Global Environment distributed between Rio Del trend. Nearly one million Facility has been one Rey (1600 km²) and the people in Cameroon depend of the most important Cameroon Estuary (1100 on mangrove ecosystems for actions undertaken by the km²). These mangrove their livelihood. In addition government over the past ecosystems have lost about to the non-timber forest five years. This project was 30% of their surface area products collected there- implemented by the Ministry over the past 25 years in for food, medicinal use of Environment and some (Moudingo & al. 2015). The and sale, local/indigenous/ national NGOs (CamEco, causes of this deforestation resident populations also OPED and CWCS) with are mainly linked to human depend on mangroves technical support from FAO. activities (Ajonina & Usongo for agricultural and fishing The gender dimension was 2001; Din & al. 2008). In activities. They are equally therefore taken into account addition to anthropogenic considered as sacred sites according to the guidelines threats, mangrove for traditional ceremonies, of the FAO, the implementing ecosystems are not immune recreation and tourism agency that ensured the to climate change (Mbevo (Ndjebet, 2017). technical quality control of the support mechanism.

1 Fidèle L. N. Tchinda, Cameroon Wildlife Conservation Society, Email: [email protected] , Tel: +237 697637349/ 668009096

2 Gordon N. Ajonina, Cameroon Wildlife Conservation Society, Email: [email protected]

3 Jean-Claude Nguinguiri, Forestry Officer, Social Forestry Team, FAO, Rome. Email: [email protected]

4 Project GCP/CMR/030/GFF “ Sustainable Community Based Management and Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystems in Cameroon “

84 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 The analysis of the gender project’s activities and the women and men was dimension in this project has gender-disintegrated data, variable throughout the shown that participation cannot classified into seven activity process. Women, for be decreed, as Olivier (2011) or areas figuring in the three example, were not very Buttoud and Nguinguiri (2016) entries mentioned above, active in the collection of have already pointed out. After were manually analyzed. The biophysical data needed recalling the methodology encoding was done in Microsoft to develop the simple used and the level of gender Excel software. Inferential management plans for participation as reflected in the statistical analyses using SPSS V. community forest. . They statistical analysis results, we 20.0 software (Pearson and Chi- were almost absent will try to understand the logic square test) showed the degree during the carrying out underlying women’s participation of correlation between gender of inventories and the in the project. and the different activities installation of ecological carried out by the project. The monitoring plots. Women’s participation conclusions of this analysis are in the project: as follows: • The number of women participating in project methodology and first • The project activities increased results implementation strategy rapidly during the is participatory and subsequent phases, The exercise was conducted at inclusive. Women, like which were dedicated the end of the project, the ideal men and other social to strengthening time to review the achievements. groups, are stakeholders the technical and Three inputs were explored: in the community-based organizational capacities participation, capacity building management process of of local communities. and institutions born from the mangrove ecosystems. Men, although more project’s action. An approach, As such, the project numerous during partly based on the indicators has endeavoured to sessions devoted to the proposed by FAO (2017) guarantee the same identification of income- for gender mainstreaming in benefits to women and generating activities forestry projects was therefore men while avoiding that (IGAs) and planning, used. its action generates were outnumbered inequalities between by women during The methodology here the two categories of trainings on appropriate consisted of the use of primary stakeholders. local production and and secondary data; a pre- processing techniques established questionnaire was • It appeared that the and organizational submitted to the technical level of participation of capacity building. partners implementing the

Figure 1: Distribution of participants in project activities by gender Source: Fidèle L. N. Tchinda

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 85 It is clear from Figure 1 that been characterized most often processing: its scope is no women were more or less by passivity, or even evasion; longer limited to smoking, undecided during the planning behaviours that have often been but also covers this particular phase but later developed justified by pointing to customs aquaculture system. Women also more motivation during the and its rules for the distribution conducted tests of improved technical and entrepreneurial of tasks and responsibilities smoking rooms aimed at capacity building support phase. between the sexes. In this reducing the workload, difficulty, Generally, men were involved logic, it was normal to see processing time and wood at 60% and women at 40%. But men carrying out, for example, energy consumption rate (40% women’s participation seems inventory works in mangrove to 60% less firewood than in to have a greater impact on ecosystems, a tedious and regular smoking rooms). Instead income-generating activities. unhealthy task. Beside these of limiting themselves to the tool avoidance strategies, women and techniques popularized by Strategies that underlie also deployed strategies to the project, they have shown women’s participation control resources of all kinds ingenuity by drawing from local offered by the project. The knowledge to integrate another The division of labour between massive participation of women fuel into the technical package, women and men in the project in the trainings on income- namely fish scales, which gives area has also been described generating activities and an exceptional colour to the (Ajonina et al. 2015). In the organizational capacity building finished product. fishing sector for example, is part of this “hidden agenda”. men control the production In the absence of an exhaustive The second example concerns segment, while women are description, two examples will organizational aspects. Women more active in processing and illustrate these remarks. did not remain on the sidelines marketing, a practice fairly during the establishment or common to all West African The first refers to innovation setting up of community forest coastal Countries (Benett, in the fisheries sector. The management committees 2005). The project never women were very interested created with the support of intended to challenge these in the campaign to popularize the project or grassroots/base standards through capacity the floating cage for the growth communities (economic interest building activities for women and of crayfish. With the support groups, cooperatives and men. Despite efforts to make of the project, they tested and associations), as shown in Table the support system inclusive, contributed to giving this tool a 1. Several of them were elected the level of participation of more adapted form to the local in the offices of community women was not constant. The context. By investing in the forest management entities or low participation of women growth of crayfish, women are grassroots communities. Some observed during the preparation positioning themselves in a new economic interest groups have of simple management plans segment of the sector that could only women as members; this for the community forest is well be part of the extension of is the case, for example, of the more likened to an avoidance fishing; an activity traditionally women’s savings and credit strategy than a real lack of reserved for men. Women’s cooperative called “ndokohi interest in the project. It has appropriation of this innovation progress”. gives a new dimension to

86 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Table 1: Gender distribution of members of community management organizations

Relative frequency Year of Absolute frequency Total of (%) members Organisations establishment Women Men Women Men Mangrove platform Rio Ntem 2014 12 13 25 48 52 Cameroon Estuary 2013 15 17 32 47 53 Rio Del Rey 2014 10 16 26 38 62 Londji Cooperative 2014 18 12 30 60 40 « La mangrove » Association of 2015 11 13 24 46 54 Manoka « Mintin N’Zangwa » 2015 8 11 19 42 58 Association GIC PAFCAM 2007 9 7 16 56 44 GIC the Progress of Ndokohi 2010 14 0 14 100 0 GIC PPRM 2012 9 8 17 53 47

The choice of a strategy resources. This positioning in by the beneficiaries through (avoidance or adhesion/control community organizations is also forms of hidden participation, of the resources offered by explained by the concern to if we want to use the terms of the project) cannot be justified secure their economic activities. Lavigne Delville (2011). The solely on the basis of cultural identification of the causes considerations. On the contrary, Conclusion underlying the gender division the decision to participate or of labour in fisheries or forestry not in a project activity was In this experiment, the effects research is an entry that remains made taking into account the of the project are more marked unexplored, as recalled by expected benefits/outcomes. in the economic role of women Béné et al. (2016) and Mai et In the first example mentioned than in the questioning of al. (2011) respectively. This above, the innovations to which possible discrimination. The lesson learned in Cameroon the women adhered responds good performances observed therefore deserves to be to current needs. The growth of here are due to the mobilization further documented and crayfish in floating cages allows of women. The level of taken into account in project women to sell the product at adherence to one activity or management and the facilitation all seasons and thus obtain a another was influenced by the of participatory processes so more attractive gain. The same discovery of the resources of that no one is left behind. goes for improved smoking all kinds offered by the project. rooms, which make it possible Women and men are above all References to reduce charges, particularly social actors with resources for fuelwood, improve product and behaviours that are not Ajonina, G.N. & Usongo, L., 2001. quality and increase profit always controllable by external Preliminary Quantitative impact margins. Women also attached actors. From this perspective, assessment of wood extraction more importance to activities the effectiveness of the “Gender on the mangrove of Douala- that enabled them to be Approach” does not only Edea forest reserve Cameroon. integrated into the decision- depend on the technical aspects Tropical Biodiversity 7(2)3: 137- making sphere. By participating related to the integration of 149 in office of the management the gender dimension into the entities, they are now among project’s action; it also results Ajonina P.U., Ajonina G. U., those who decide on the future from the way in which it is Jin E., Mekongo F,, Ayissi I., of the community and its natural appropriate and renegotiated Usongo L. 2005. Gender roles

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 87 and economics of exploitation, pouvoirs. FAO - CIFOR: Libreville- Mbevo Fendoung Ph., processing and marketing of Bogor. P. 225-235 Fomgzossie Fedoung E. et bivalves and its impacts on Tchindjang M. 2017. Analyse par forest resources in the Sanaga Din, N., Saenger, P., Jules. P.R., télédétection de la vulnérabilité Delta region of Douala-Edea Siegried, D.D. & Basco, F. 2008. de la réserve de mangrove Wildlife Reserve, Cameroon. Logging activities in mangroves de Mabe face au changement International Journal of forests. A case study of Douala climatique entre 1986 et 2014. Sustainable Development & Cameroon. Africa Journal in Territoire d’Afrique N. 9. P. 53- World Ecology, 12:2, 161-172. Environmental Science and 65. Technology, Vol. 2, no 2, pp. Béné, C.; Arthur, R.; Norbury, H.; 22-30. Moudingo J-H E. Ajonina G. Allison, E.H.; Beveridge, M.; Bush, N. and Diyouke E.M. 2015. S.R.; Campling, L.; Leschen, W.; FAO, 2017. How to mainstream Mangrove Social and Ecological Little, D.; Squires, D.; Thilsted, gender in forestry. A practical resilience geared in the S.H.; Troell, M.; Williams, M. 2016. field guide. Available at (http:// Cameroon Estuary. Pyrex Journal Contribution of fisheries and www.fao.org/3/a-i6610e.pdf). of Ecology and The Natural aquaculture to food security and Environment, Vol. 1(4), pp.037- poverty reduction: Assessing Lavigne Delville Ph. 2011. Du 044 the current evidence. World nouveau dans la participation ? Development, Vol. 79. 177-196. Populisme bureaucratique, Ndjebet C., 2017. Engager les participation cachée et impératif communautés dans la gestion Bennett E. 2005. Gender, délibératif. In Jul-Larsen E. et durable des écosystèmes de fisheries and development, al. (éds). Une anthropologie Mangroves. In Rapport du Forum Marine Policy, 29 (2005), pp. entre pouvoir et histoire : sous régional sur la gestion 451-459 conversations autour de l’œuvre communautaire des mangroves de Jean-Pierre Chauveau. APAD- en Afrique Centrale. Enjeux et Buttoud, G. & Nguinguiri, JC., IRD-Karthala. perspectives. FAO et COMIFAC 2016. L’avenir des modes de gestion inclusive en Mai, Y.H.; Mwangi, E.; Wan, M. Olivier L. 2011. La participation Afrique centrale. In Buttoud, Gender analysis in forestry ne se décrète pas, elle se G. & Nguinguiri, JC (éds). La research: looking back and construit, en équipe. Santé gestion inclusive des forêts thinking ahead. International conjuguée – N. 56, P. 82-85. d’Afrique centrale : passer de Forestry Review, Volume 13, la participation au partage des Number 2, June 2011, pp. 245- 258(14)

Panoramic view of Burera Lake in northwestern Rwanda ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

88 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 LINKS

Inland waters biodiversity - What is it? Water itself, as a physical resource, is not “biodiversity.” Biodiversity is the life associated with it. Human impacts upon water (whether through pollution or the use of water directly to meet human needs) have impacts on inland water biodiversity – and biodiversity underpins the ecosystem services water provides to humans. “Water” and “inland water biodiversity” issues cannot be separated.

Read more: https://www.cbd.int/waters/inland-waters/default.shtml

Credit: United Nations Environment Programme - https://www.cbd.int/copyright/ Global overview of inland aquatic ecosystems Inland aquatic ecosystems include a variety of natural (streams, rivers, floodplains, lakes, swamps, etc.) and manmade (reservoirs, rice fields, irrigation , etc.) inland water bodies. In spite of only covering about one percent of the total land surface inland waters are home to around 100 000 aquatic species, including for instance 10 000, or 40 percent, of all fish species.

Production cycles in inland aquatic ecosystems closely track seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation in the surrounding terrestrial environment which create a dynamic environment, where the availability of aquatic habitats are constantly changing and where nutrients are released in pulses; for aquatic organisms this divides the year into a period of intense production and a time of high mortality. The close linkages with the terrestrial ecosystems also imply that inland aquatic ecosystems are strongly affected by land use practices and are vulnerable to human activities. Since water is needed for a range of purposes, human settlements have always been located near inland water bodies.

These water bodies have, however, provided much more than just water, for example food, medicine and building materials are easily available because of the ubiquitous presence of living aquatic resources. But water is increasingly needed for a range of competing purposes and because people comprise an integral part of these ecosystems, many human activities have a direct or indirect impact on inland aquatic ecosystems which are under much more pressure from these activities than their marine counterparts. Fish and other living aquatic resources from inland waters nevertheless continue to constitute an essential role in people’s livelihoods on rural areas in many parts of the world, especially in developing countries.

However, human activities have also created new aquatic habitats such as irrigation canals, rice fields and reservoirs, which to varying degrees supplement the services provided from the natural ecosystems.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 89 Linkages between inland and marine ecosystems

Marine and inland aquatic ecosystems are interconnected. Some inland aquatic ecosystems are linked to the ocean ecosystems which they affect for example through nutrient inflows that causes the high productivity in many coastal fisheries, but also negatively by pollutants carried by the water. In addition, a number of marine fishery resources (anadromous and catadromous species, salmons, eels, sturgeons and shrimps) need inland water ecosystems including estuaries and lagoons to complete their life cycles.

Status

In developed countries, industrialization has led to increased pressure on inland waters and aquatic habitats degraded with negative consequences for the associated ecosystems. Many developing countries are now following the same path. Drainage, flood protection and extraction of water have led to the disappearance and fragmentation of aquatic habitats. It is likely that around 50 percent of the inland water area (excluding large lakes) has been lost globally. The reduction in area, combined with pollution and eutrophication, have caused the disappearance of species and changed the species composition in many places. The biodiversity of inland waters now appears to be in a worse condition than that of any other ecosystem. Land-based sources of pollution and degradation are also among the main sources of negative changes in the coastal zone. Excess fertilizers and livestock wastes in the runoff from farmland have caused eutrophication and harmful algal blooms. Deforestation in coastal mountains is a major source of excess sedimentation in the coastal areas, affecting coral reefs and seagrass beds.

However, the situation is gradually changing and many developed countries are trying to reverse the long standing adverse impacts and the international community and FAO with the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries have acknowledged the value of understanding ecosystem processes, the bio-physical-chemical qualities of aquatic habitats, nutrient cycling and the interactions of non-target species in maintaining the productivity of fisheries.

Bibliographic citation © FAO 2001-2019.

Fisheries and Aquaculture topics. Inland aquatic ecosystems. Topics Fact Sheets. Text by Peter Manning. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online]. Rome. Updated 2006 15 09. [Cited 24 March 2019]. http://www.fao.org/fishery/

Source of Information http://www.fao.org/fishery/ecosystems/inland/en

This document is provided and maintained by the “Fisheries and Aquaculture Department (FI)” under the ownership of “FAO” and is part of the “Fisheries Topics: Ecosystems” data collection.

90 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Inland water ecosystem, complex of living organisms in free water on continental landmasses. Inland waters represent parts of the biosphere within which marked biological diversity, complex biogeochemical pathways, and an array of energetic processes occur. Although from a geographic perspective inland waters represent only a small fraction of the biosphere, when appreciated from an ecological viewpoint, they are seen to be major contributors to biospheric diversity, structure, and function.

The Origin of Inland Waters

Only a relatively small fraction of the total amount of water in the biosphere is found as free water on continental landmasses. The oceans contain about 97.6 percent of the biosphere’s water, and polar ice, groundwater, and water vapour take up another 2.4 percent. Thus, less than 1 percent exists as continental free water, which is generally referred to as inland water. In spite of this small percentage, inland water is an essential element of the biosphere. It occurs in a wide variety of forms and is inhabited by a diverse set of biological communities, quite distinct from the communities of marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

All inland waters originate from the ocean, principally through evaporation, and ultimately return to this source. This process is part of the global hydrologic cycle. A major feature of this cycle is that more water evaporates from the ocean than is directly precipitated back into it. The balance of water vapour is precipitated as rain, snow, or hail over continental landmasses whence it either evaporates into the atmosphere (about 70 percent) or drains into the sea.

WRITTEN BY: Kenneth H. Mann William David Williams Read more: https://www.britannica.com/science/inland-water-ecosystem Source: Inland water ecosystem/BIOLOGY ©2009 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 91 NEWS

Lisa Rebelo and Matthew McCartney assure that Earth observation data offers hope for Africa’s wetlands

Botswana’s ©Shutterstock/Gaston Piccinetti

Wetlands support millions of in the world. Between 1970 because of human activity. people around Africa. They and 2015, inland and coastal has shrunk by include all areas that are wetlands both declined by 90% partly because its permanently or frequently about 35% globally. That’s water is being used for covered by water, and could three times the rate of global irrigation. Lake Victoria be at the edge of a lake or forest loss. This is a huge has experienced dramatic the mouth of a river. loss to important flora and changes because of the fauna and a critical loss to introduction of Nile perch, Wetlands offer a source of the many people who relied sewage inflows and more freshwater, fisheries, moist on them for their livelihoods. sedimentation and nutrients soil for farming and wild from increased agriculture in plants for food, construction In Africa, three the basin. and medicinal uses. things contribute to the They also help to control decline of wetlands: growing Part of the solution to floods, maintain rivers in populations, economic protecting wetlands is dry seasons, recharge development and climate through the creation of groundwater and purify change. accurate inventories. water. Inventories provide essential For example, Lake Chad information – like the type of But despite their importance, and Lake Victoria have wetland, exact geographic they remain among the both undergone significant location and area – most threatened ecosystems change in recent years

92 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 needed for effective wetland wetlands within a certain area. It become degraded, and about management. But despite their covers attributes like; location, 2% in West and Central Africa. importance, less than 35% of type, area, uses, ownership, However, the majority of these African nations have a national physical characteristics, the – over 90% – have the potential wetland inventory. organisms that live in it and the to be restored. challenges it faces. Gathering data from satellite Based on the global mangrove based sensors, called Earth This information is essential for maps and associated tool, observation data, could offer policy-making and management. decision-makers are given the a solution. These could feed It can also be used to establish information they needed to into national inventories by baselines against which the determine where restoration providing valuable information effectiveness of policies can can be attempted by identifying on the status and physical be assessed. locations where mangroves characteristics of the Earth’s once thrived, and where wetlands. Developing a comprehensive conditions are still suitable for inventory has its challenges, restoration. Wetland inventories but increasingly available Earth observation data can help. By With this information Wetlands cover about collecting data from satellites, policymakers can support 4.7% (1.15million km²) of Africa’s we can describe many types of communities so that they can continental area – about the wetland over huge areas. The then use local knowledge to same size as Ethiopia. data are also more efficient manage the wetlands and reliable as consistent themselves. Covering 692 631km2, methodologies can be applied freshwater marshes are the most nationally for a particular Authors: Lisa Rebelo, Senior extensive wetland type within wetland type. They are also Researcher – Remote Sensing the region. And about 65% of more affordable as many & GIS, International Water wetland area is located within wetland areas are difficult to Management Institute the four largest river basins access on the ground. on the continent –- the Chad, Matthew McCartney, Principal Congo, Niger and Nile river Aside from flagging challenges Researcher, CGIAR System basins. to wetlands, this sophisticated Organization data can be used to identify But there is considerable where things can be improved. Source: The Conversation uncertainty in these figures. This is because countries either For example, the first global http://theconversation.com/ don’t have them, or because study to map mangroves earth-observation-data- they classify and create wetland consistently across time offers-hope-for-- inventories in different ways. using Earth Observation data wetlands-111123 showed that 20% of the world’s Comprehensive and up-to-date mangroves are found along national wetland inventories African coastlines. Further are vital. A wetland inventory assessment showed that over typically involves the collection the past 20 years, about 6% in and presentation of data on East and have

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 93 How one gene in a tiny fish may alter an aquatic ecosystem. Variations in a single gene in a tiny fish alter how they interact with their environment. The study represents a strategy for uncovering, and perhaps even predicting, the ecological implications of evolutionary change.

the northern coasts of North to help us better understand America, Europe, and Asia. ecosystems? In a way I Significant to scientists, the view this work as a proof- species has a conspicuously of-concept that there are variable trait governed by a scenarios in which changes single gene: the amount of in individual genes can have bony plating, or “armoring,” effects on ecology.” on their bodies. Read more: https: Variations in this gene in //www.sciencedaily.com/ this tiny fish species have releases/2019/02/ the potential to alter the 190206123751.htm broader aquatic ecosystem, according to new research Journal Reference: Seth M. led by University of Rudman, Jared M. Goos,

©Seth Rudmani Pennsylvania postdoctoral Joseph B. Burant, Kevin researcher Seth Rudman. V. Brix, Taylor C. Gibbons, Threespine stickleback, Fish with more armoring Colin J. Brauner, Punidan which occupy lakes across released more phosphorus D. Jeyasingh. Ionome the northern latitudes, are into the water around them, and elemental transport a tiny fish with an outsize the researchers found. kinetics shaped by parallel impact on evolutionary Because phosphorus is evolution in threespine research. A University of such a key element in stickleback. Ecology Letters, Pennsylvania (USA) biologist aquatic ecosystems, such 2019; DOI: 10.1111/ has found that a single gene a difference may have ele.13225 affects the way they interact trickle-down effects on with their environment. microbes, plants, and algae Source: University of in freshwater or marine area. Pennsylvania. “How one Credit: Seth Rudman gene in a tiny fish may alter “Genomics has played such an aquatic ecosystem.” In a remote area of British a large role in advancing ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, Columbia’s Vancouver biological research in 6 February 2019 Copyright Island, Kennedy Lake’s deep many, many disciplines 2019 ScienceDaily blue waters stretch over and subdisciplines,” says 25 square miles. The lake Rudman, the lead author on https://www.sciencedaily. is home to the threespine the work, who completed com/releases stickleback, a diminutive fish the investigations with /2019/02/190206123751. species that has provided colleagues during his htm rich fodder for evolutionary doctoral studies at the study. University of British Columbia (UBC). “But the thing that I These sticklebacks thrive in think about most and is the both marine and freshwater motivation for this study is habitats and exist in most of how do we apply genomics the inland waters that dot

94 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 ANNOUNCEMENT

2019 People & the Sea Conference. 24 - 28 June 2019 at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands People & the Sea X: learning from the past, imagining the future The Conference will take place from the 24th until the 28th of June 2019 Location: Roeterseiland complex, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands

MARE People and the intensity of storms and their livelihoods. What are Sea Conference X: implications for navigators the ways in which they and coastal inhabitants, subsist and live? How The Centre for to plastic pollution and do such livelihoods Maritime Research conservation measures, impact their culture, (MARE) is preparing its the travails of travelers and social organization, 10th international People and the expansion of coastal technology and the Sea Conference that will cities, the fate of long-time innovations, management take place in Amsterdam, inhabitants such as fishers and governance The Netherlands, on and indigenous people, structures, way of life, June 25-28, 2019. This trends of coastal and ocean and worldviews? This jubilee conference, which grabbing, the regulatory stream will reflect upon is preceded by a policy pursuits of planners, officials how people in the day (June 24, 2019) and and scientists, and the past, now and in future flanked by other events, ethics of technology. What live and interact with takes time as its theme. In perspectives and skills do oceans and coasts. This full awareness of the major we have to offer to science stream is concerned ongoing changes in the and the world; what are our with fishers, navigators, knowledge industry and strengths and where do our oil platform workers, how people interact with limitations lie? tourism operators, wind coasts and seas, we first farm mechanics and the delve into the past: what Under the broad theme whole range of other have we learned, and to LEARNING FROM THE PAST, professions that engage what extent are we making IMAGINING THE FUTURE, with coasts and seas and the most of these learning we investigate a myriad of with the communities that opportunities? From whom matters in the context of they belong to. should we be learning, and six streams, each of which how do we engage in the highlights a particular aspect 2: Framing, knowing and learning process? To what of coastal and oceanic dreaming coasts and extent are the insights of affairs. oceans: earlier generations of social How do we know the scientists studying maritime Stream topics ocean and how has affairs and coastal life still this changed over relevant to us? We then look 1: Making a living from time? What are the forward and ask ourselves coasts and oceans: knowledge-producing what social scientists can entities, routines and contribute to understanding From time immemorial, practices through which and dealing with coastal people around the people study, reflect and maritime challenges globe have lived beside on and make sense of the future. Topics and upon the coasts of the ocean? What range from the increasing and ocean, subsisting and earning their are the different types

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 95 of knowledge that guide experiences for tourists and 6: Innovating, technologizing human interaction with the recreationists alike. How do and tracking uses of coasts marine environment? How we navigate the ocean, and and oceans: are they produced and how do present trends differ communicated and why are from the past? What can This stream focuses on the some more influential than we expect in future? This changing role of innovations others in guiding people’s stream will reflect on how and technology in the behaviour? This stream will we use oceans and coasts transformation of oceans and reflect on how we frame, for transport purposes and coastal areas, highlighting dream and know oceans tourism experiences, and the role of business. and coasts. It thus focuses how these activities have Discourses of blue economy on marine epistemologies an impact on environments, and blue growth are ranging from scientific economies and societies. facilitated by development to everyday forms of It thus focuses on a range in fields such as robotics, knowledge production. of maritime mobilities and monitoring and surveillance assesses the sustainability systems, energy systems and 3: Governing, steering and challenges and opportunities communication technology. managing coasts and oceans: of their development at We are interested in different scale levels and studies that address how The world-wide from other angles. material innovations and domestication of coasts and technological progress oceans has led to a flurry 5: Appropriating, contesting shift the balance between of managerial activity at and criminalizing coasts and humans and their marine and various scale levels and in oceans: coastal environments, and multiple venues. Politicians, the implications this has for planners, legislators, Oceans and coasts are people in different stations environmentalists, business subject to ever-rising of life. Contributions that re- (wo-)men and scientists conflicts over the distribution examine the position of the consider options to initiate of space and resources. marine social sciences in the blue growth, save fisheries, What is the nature of the paradigm of blue growth are reduce pollution and protect ensuing contestations? also very welcome. the environment, and create How are the games played, a proper and legitimate who are the winners and Contact regulatory environment. losers? Oil spills, pollution, ‘Stakeholders’ sit on the ocean and coastal grabbing Centre for Maritime Research other side of the table, and man-made disasters (MARE) participating, protesting, suggest disparities between Nieuwe Achtergracht 166 negotiating and undergoing. those causing harm and NL-1018 WV Amsterdam This stream is about ocean those vulnerable to the Phone: +31 20 5254143 and coastal governance in consequences. In addition, E-mail: mareconference-gpio@ all its manifestations and oceans are a welcome host uva.nl human faces, paying special for illicit activities: smuggling attention to how it has and trafficking of goods © 2019 MARE Centre. changed and might change and people, brazen acts of yet again. piracy, and illegal resource Source: Centre for Maritime extractions. Securitization Research (MARE), Nieuwe 4: Navigating, touring and is a common response. This Achtergracht 166. NL-1018 experiencing coasts and stream reflects the rough WV Amsterdam. Phone: +31 20 oceans: and dirty side of life along 5254143. Fax: +31 20 5254051 coasts and oceans and Oceans and coasts play related trends of grand and E-mail: mareconference-gpio@ important roles for the petty politics. uva.nl Web site: http://www. transportation of goods marecentre.nl/2019-people-the- and people and provide sea-conference/ attractive landscapes and

96 NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 Theme and deadline for next issue The central role of biodiversity, protected areas and wildlife in sustainable development of Africa

Africa is immensely rich in biodiversity. Its living organisms comprise around a quarter of global biodiversity and it supports the earth’s largest intact assemblages of large mammals that roam freely in many countries. Africa’s extend from mangroves to dryland forests and deserts, from the Mediterranean coast to the tropical rain forests and woodlands. Africa enjoys a highly varied weather conditions, from ice-capped mountains through temperate conditions in elevated landscapes to humid and sub-humid and dry lowlands and deserts.

Africa’s biodiversity is crucial development will be welcome. growing international recognition for the production of enough Included in the benefits of that safeguarding biodiversity and nutritious food in the face biodiversity conservation and and managing natural resources of challenges such as climate sustainable use is the crucial sustainably must be priorities in change, emerging diseases, role of wildlife and protected national plans if we are to deliver pressures on feed and water areas on which millions of nutritious food for present and supplies and shifting market people depend for their future generations and achieve demands of the growing human subsistence. In some cases, they the African Union Agenda 2063. population. Further, biodiversity benefit directly, through the contributes to maintaining consumption of food obtained To that end, the November 2018 forest ecological services and from wildlife (plant and animal) UN Biodiversity Conference ecosystem health, addressing resources or produced in or held in Sharm El-Sheikh, climate challenges and around protected areas. Others Egypt adopted, several novel preventing and combatting land benefit from tourism and other decisions related to biodiversity, degradation and desertification, income generating activities in/ inter alia, on sustainable and is a key for the tourism near protected areas, or benefit wildlife management1, and development sector, recreation, from grants associated with on protected areas and cultural life and knowledge of their roles in supporting the other effective area-based societies throughout Africa. development and conservation conservation measures(OECM)2. of protected areas. Access to The conference theme was, For the purpose of this special infrastructure and health care “Investing in biodiversity for issue of our journal, we focus associated with supporting the people and planet.” In addition, on the current roles and protected area development is a the key issues related to the potential of African biodiversity noteworthy example. sustainable wildlife management in food security and nutrition, were also the major focus of the livelihood enhancement, For several decades, second Wildlife Forum that was resilience building and socio- conservation and sustainable organized by the Collaborative economic development. The use of biodiversity have been Partnership on Sustainable emphasis is on protected the focus of considerable Wildlife Management3 areas, wildlife and sustainable international attention and (CPW) and the African Union development, but other efforts, as demonstrated by the Commission4 (AUC) on the contributions from initiatives and fact that it has been included in margins of that Conference. projects enhancing biodiversity many Sustainable Development and focusing on the role of Goals (SDGs) and the Aichi “Agenda 2063: The Africa We biodiversity in sustainable Biodiversity Targets. There is Want”, a remarkable plan of 1 https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/3107/c146/7eace696d136253889d2e4e0/cop-14-l-11-en.pdf

2 https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf

3 http://www.fao.org/forestry/wildlife-partnership/en/

4 https://au.int/

NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 97 action to consolidate and engagements, gender and services from position Africa’s priorities aspects) protected areas in local and concerns in the and national accounting SDGs, underscores the • Protected areas systems interconnectivity between management and other people, the planet and the effective area-based This issue of the journal will economy as it aims for conservation measures: offer a dedicated platform prosperity and well-being, challenges and to concerned stakeholders for unity and integration, opportunities in the broad society as with freedom from conflict well as institutional and and improved human • Roles of local, individual specialists to security. The Agenda 2063 national, regional share their thoughts and is aspirational in outlook, and international information about various requires country-specific stakeholders in the projects and programmes actions some of which are management of and other initiatives related hinged on biodiversity, protected areas and of to sustainable use and encouraging their integration biodiversity: challenges conservation of biodiversity and mainstreaming into core and opportunities in Africa, from local to policy areas. national, transboundary or • The impact on regional level. Africa has a The next edition of Nature biodiversity of REDD large number of projects & Faune journal due in and REDD+ and other with substantial outcomes June 2019 will focus on the carbon sequestration and the overview of these central role of biodiversity, and climate change projects and lessons learned protected areas and adaptation and from them will probably wildlife in the sustainable mitigation measures encourage interested people development of Africa. It (Where indigenous forest elsewhere in the world to invites authors to submit cover is encouraged and connect with kindred efforts original contributions to the biodiversity is enhanced) in the region. Case studies of following overarching areas: the projects are especially • The impact of increased encouraged. • Realising the genetic commercialisation resource gains for food and research on Please send your and agriculture from traditional fruits, manuscript(s) by email to natural biodiversity vegetables and trees the following addresses: conservation on the management of protected areas [email protected] • Sustainable use of [email protected] wildlife resources • The impact of (including nutritious food agricultural practices Deadline for submitting : fruits, bush meat, etc.), on biodiversity and manuscripts for the next and medicinal plants) in particular on their issue is 25 April 2019. impacts on protected • Protected areas areas and wildlife management and development • Illegal trade in products and livelihoods from protected species challenges (legal, social and economic • Improving Africa’s share considerations, of income from globally- prevention and marketed nature-based mitigation of human tourism wildlife conflicts, community-based • The contribution and inclusion of products

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NATURE & FAUNE Journal, Volume 32, Issue no.2 99 Nature & Faune journal is an indexed peer-reviewed open access international bilingual (English and French) publication dedicated to the exchange of information and practical experience in the field of wildlife and protected areas management and conservation of natural resources on the African continent. It has been in wide circulation since 1985. Nature & Faune journal is dependent upon your free and voluntary contribution in the form of articles and announcements that enhance sound management of renewable natural resources for food security in Africa.

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ISBN 978-92-5-131379-4 ISSN 2026-5611

9 789251 313794 CA4151EN/1/04.19