arts

Article The Medieval of Molina de Aragón: † Architecture and Decoration

Daniel Muñoz-Garrido

Independent Researcher, 18012 , ; [email protected] This article is dedicated to the memory of Santiago Palomero Plaza (1957–2019), who was Director of the † Museo Sefardí of Toledo for many years and worked hard to disseminate the Iberian Jewish heritage.

 Received: 25 September 2019; Accepted: 25 December 2019; Published: 12 January 2020 

Abstract: The remains of a medieval synagogue, in addition to numerous fragments of plaster decoration, have been found as a result of the excavation work done at the Prao de los Judíos archaeological site in the town of Molina de Aragón (Guadalajara, Spain). These remains suggest that the synagogue was built in the second half of the thirteenth century and that it was refashioned later in the fourteenth century following the same artistic model of the of Córdoba and El Tránsito. Based on comparative analysis, this article studies the Synagogue of Molina de Aragón in relation to other medieval Iberian synagogues.

Keywords: medieval architecture; medieval Iberia; ; synagogue; Jewish art; Synagogue of Molina de Aragón

1. Introduction The Jewish quarter of Molina, a town located at the easternmost part of the Kingdom of Castile, was rather important during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Jewish quarter of Molina had close ties with Cuenca’s aljama (Jewish community), 88 km away, and Daroca’s aljama in Aragón, some 50 km away. Following the end of the Castilian Civil War with the death of King Pedro I in 1369, many towns around the kingdom’s frontiers, such as Molina, declared their fidelity to the dead king by free adhesion to the nearest kingdoms of Navarra and Aragón. Some years later these towns were reintegrated into the Castile kingdom, but in order to show its disaffection with the new king, Enrique II de Trastámara, the city of Molina de los Caballeros changed its name to Molina de Aragón. In 1997, the city council of Molina de Aragón (Province of Guadalajara, Castilla La Mancha) decided to institute a workshop for young people interested in archaeology. The location, chosen for the program by the archaeologists Jesús Alberto Arenas and Juan Pablo Martínez, was a small promontory known as Prao de los Judíos, located next to the town castle. The site, also known in some documents as Castil de los judíos, covers almost 1700 m2 and is located at the highest point of the current town center, next to the Puerta de Ahogalobos gate, one of the entrances to the albacar (fortified area) of the medieval fortress (Arenas Esteban and Martínez Naranjo 2004) (Figure1). The area was significantly modified by building work done in the 1940s during the construction of the N-211 motorway. For this reason, the archaeological site currently has a rectangular ground plan, bounded by sections of the medieval town walls to the north and west and by the motorway to the east and south (Arenas Esteban et al. 2007).

Arts 2020, 9, 9; doi:10.3390/arts9010009 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2020, 9, 9 2 of 28 Arts 2020, 9, x ArtsFOR 2020 PEER, 9 ,REVIEW x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 28 2 of 28

Figure 1. GeneralFigure view 1. General of the Synagogue view of the of Synagogue Molina de of Aragón Molina archeological de AragAragónón archeological site. Author’s site.si photo.te. Author’s photo.

While the remainsWhile thethe of remains remainsIberian of Medievalof Iberian Iberian Medieval synagoguesMedieval synagogues synagogues are mostly are are mostlylocated mostly locatedin biglocated inand big inimportant and big importantand important cities, cities, Molinacities,Molina is a Molinasmall is a small town is a townsmallon the ontown border the on border ofthe the border of kingdom, the of kingdom, the which kingdom, which makes which makes the archeologicalmakes the archeological the archeological remains remains remains of its of its synagogueofsynagogue its synagogue quite quite unique. unique. quite Moreover, unique. Moreover, Moreover, these these remains remains these are are remains an example example are an of of theexample the modestly modestly of the styled styledmodestly synagogues styled in synagoguessynagoguesrural in rural areas. areas. Additionally,in rural Additionally, areas. in Additi many in many casesonally, cases the in synagogues many the synagogues cases preserved the synagogues preserved until the untilpreserved present the present day until were the foundedpresent day were foundeddayby important were by founded important members by members important of the of Jewish members the Jewish community of communitythe Jewi whosh community who were were able able who to build,to were build, decorate,able decorate, to build, and decorate, provide and provideandthe the synagogueprovide synagogue the with synagoguewith liturgicalliturgical with objects liturgical simultaneously simultaneously objects simultaneously (Muñoz-Garrido (Muñoz-Garrido (Muñoz-Garrido 2016). 2016 ).As Asa 2016).result a result As a of result this, of this, theseofthese synagogues this, synagogues these synagogues presented presented a presented very a very unitary unitary a very appearance unitary appearance appearance regarding regarding architecture regarding architecture architecture and and decoration. decoration. and decoration. This has This has beenThisbeen thehas the conception conceptionbeen the conception of of medieval of synagogues synagoguesmedieval synago that that has hasgues prevailed. prevailed. that has On prevailed. On the the contrary, contrary, On the the Synagoguecontrary, the of Synagogue SynagogueMolina of Molina stands standsof Molina out outas an stands as example an exampleout as of aan ofdi example ffaerent different type of a typeof different medieval of medieval type synagogue of synagoguemedieval with synagogue anotherwith kind with of another kindpatronage,another of patronage, kind more of likelypatronage,more tolikely occur more to in occur ali ruralkely in contexttoa ruraloccur incontext in which a rural in the whichcontext construction the in constructionwhich of the the synagogue construction of the took of place the synagogue synagogueintook an place earlier in took phasean earlierplace but in wasphase an earlier refashioned but was phase refashioned overbut was time. refashioned over Although time. Although over the remains time. the Although foundremains at the found the remains archeological found at the archeologicalatsite the are archeological not site easy are to not interpret, site easy are to thenotinterpret, analysiseasy to the ofinterpret, thoseanalysis remains the of analysisthose provides remains of those important provides remains key important elementsprovides forimportant a better key elementskeyunderstanding for elements a better forunderstanding of a Medieval better understanding Iberian of Medieval synagogues of Iberian Medieval even synagogues thoughIberian justsynagogues even a few though of themeven just though havea few survived of just a few up of to them have survivedthemthe present have up survived day. to the present up to theday. present day. The paucityThe of paucitysynagoguespaucity ofof synagogues synagogues that have that survivedthat have have survived up survived to the up present up to the to presentthe day present is daya consequence isday a consequence is a consequence of the of the Jewishof the Jewish historyJewishhistory in the history in Iberian the Iberianin Peninsula,the , butPenins the but ula,reason the but reason is the not reason isjust not the is just notJewish the just Jewish Expulsionthe Jewish Expulsion of Expulsion 1492. of During 1492. of 1492. During During the the Middle theMiddleAges, Middle there Ages, Ages, were there variousthere were were various historical various historical events historical eventsrelated eventsrelated to the related destruction to the to destruction the destructio of synagogues of synagoguesn of synagogues before before before 1492. 1492. The destructionThe1492. destruction The destruction of synagogues of synagogues of synagogues as a asconsequence a consequence as a consequence of violent of violent acts of actsviolent was was usually acts usually was linked linkedusually to military to linked military to conflicts.military conflicts. Additionally,Additionally,conflicts. Additionally, episodes episodes ofof episodes interreligious interreligious of interreligious violence violence occasionally occasionally violence occasionally led to theirtheir led destruction.destruction. to their destruction. TheThe anti-Jewish The anti-Jewishanti-Jewishriots riots ofof 13911391 riots areare aofa primary primary1391 are example examplea primary ofof example thisthis typetype of of this violence, type of because, violence, in because, many cases, cases, in many not not onlycases, were not only were synagoguesonlysynagogues were synagogues destroyed, destroyed, butdestroyed, but some some Jewish Jewish but some communities communities Jewish communities also also disappeared disappeared also disappeared (Baer (Baer 1998).1998 ).(Baer 1998). In a study basedIn a study study on medieval based based on on documents, medieval medieval documents, documents, historian Jaume histor historian Rieraian Jaume determined Riera determined that in the Kingdom that in the the Kingdom Kingdom of Aragón, ofvery Aragón, Arag fewó n,synagogues very few synagogues operated as operated such for as more such than for amore century than (Riera a century i Sans (Riera (Riera 2006). i Sans In fact, 2006).2006 ). In In fact, fact, today, theretoday, are there onlythere are remainsare only only remains of remains two of Aragonese two of Aragonesetwo Aragones synagogues: synagogues:e synagogues: the the archeological archeological the archeological remains remains of ofremains a synagogue of a ú ) (Girona)in Besalú dated dated (Girona) to to the the dated thirteenth to theמקווהMikveh-) in BesalúBesal) מקווהsynagogue withsynagoguewith aa veryvery with well-preservedwell-preserved a very well-preserved ritualritual bathbath ritual (Mikveh- bath thirteenth centurythirteenthcentury (Lloveras (Lloveras century Chavero (Lloveras Chavero 2008) 2008Chavero )and and the2008) the Synagogue Synagogue and the Synagogueof ofHíjar Híjar () (Teruel)of Híjar from from(Teruel) the the fifteenth from fifteenth the fifteenth century, century, whichwhichcentury, was was whichtransformed transformed was transformed into into the the Church Church into the of of SanChurch San Antón Ant ofón SanAbad Abad Antón and and identified identifiedAbad and as identified a synagogue as a aftersynagogue recent after recentafterarchaeological archaeological recent archaeological andand conservationconservation and conservation work (Figure work 22).). In(Figure the context 2). In theof of Aragón, Aragcontextón, ofconstruction construction Aragón, construction contracts contracts indicatecontractsindicate that that indicate the the different di thatfferent the reasons reasons different for for reasonsthe destruction for the destruction ofof synagoguessynagogues of synagogues includedincluded the the included materials materials the used materials in their used in theirusedconstruction, construction, in their construction, which which were were commonwhich common were andand common lowlow cost,cost, and such low as cost, rock, such adobe, adobe, as rock, and and adobe,rammed rammed and earth. earth. rammed This earth. may This may haveThishave influenced may influenced have theinfluenced the small small amount the amount small of archaeologicalamount of archaeological of archaeological remains remains found remains found to date tofound date(Blasco to (Blasco date Martinez (Blasco Martinez Martinez 2014). 2014). In addition,2014).In addition, In there addition, there are aresome there some remains are remains some that remains that were were partthat part ofwe of synagogues,re synagogues, part of synagogues, such such as as the the such foundation foundation as the foundation plaques of plaques of plaquesthe synagogues synagogues of the synagogues of of Girona Girona and andof Girona Olot Olot (Girona), (Girona), and Olot a a (Gwall wallirona), fountain fountain a wall from from fountain Tarragona, Tarragona, from Tarragona,a afragment fragment a offragment plaster of plaster panelof plaster from panelthe Synagogue from the Synagogueof Xátiva (Valencia), of Xátiva (Vandalencia), a small and dedication a small dedicationplaque embedded plaque embedded in a house wallin a housein Marlet wall Street in Marlet in Street in (Cantera Barcelon Burgosa (Cantera and Burgos Millás Vallicrosaand Millás 1956). Vallicrosa 1956).

Arts 2020, 9, 9 3 of 28 panel from the Synagogue of Xátiva (Valencia), and a small dedication plaque embedded in a house wallArts 2020 in Marlet, 9, x FOR Street PEER REVIEW in Barcelona (Cantera Burgos and Millás Vallicrosa 1956). 3 of 28

Figure 2. The Synagogue of HHíjar.íjar. Photo by AntonioAntonio HernHernándezández Pardo. Us Useded by permission.

In the Kingdom of Castile, the history of synagoguessynagogues may have been different, different, allowing for the survival ofof buildings buildings originally originally built built as synagoguesas synagogues to the to present the present day. According day. According to Francisco to Francisco Cantera Burgos’sCantera Burgos’s analysis analysis of a poem of a by po Yaaqobem by Yaaqob Albeneh, Albeneh, until 1391,until Toledo1391, Toledo had ten had synagogues ten synagogues and fiveand religiousfive religious study study centers. centers. The poem The waspoem written was writ to commemorateten to commemorate the consequences the consequences of that disastrous of that date.disastrous Cantera date. added Cantera two added more synagoguestwo more synagogues to this list, oneto this located list, one in the located Barrio in de the los Barrio Caleros de and los anotherCaleros and called another the Sofer called Synagogue, the Sofer Synagogue, also known al asso known the Synagogue as the Synagogue of Cordob ofé sCordobés according according to some documentsto some documents from the from fourteenth the fourteenth and fifteenth and fifteenth centuries centuries (Cantera (Cantera Burgos Burgos 1984). In1984). the lastIn the few last years, few Jeanyears, Passini Jean Passini identified identified another another two synagogues: two synagogues: the Synagogue the Synagogue of the of Golondrinos the Golondrinos and the and the ofAlley San of Juan San de Juan Dios de Synagogue Dios Synagogue (Passini (Passini 2011). Therefore,2011). Therefore, until 1391, until Toledo 1391, hadToledo at least had fourteenat least synagogues,fourteen synagogues, and it could and beit could assumed be assumed that this that substantial this substantial number number of synagogues of synagogues was built was over built a veryover a long very period. long period. The case The of case Toledo of Toledo housing housing numerous numerous synagogues synagogues and theand factthe thatfact that most most of the of Medievalthe Medieval Iberian Iberian synagogues synagogues surviving surviving today aretoday from are Castile from outlineCastile aoutline particular a particular context regarding context theregarding synagogues the synagogues within this within Kingdom. this Kingdom. As a result of violent acts, synagogues were destroyed in Castile as well as in other Iberian kingdoms. Additionally, thethe urbanurban transformation transformation that that started started in in 1412 1412 after after the the decree decree of of Catherine Catherine of Lancasterof Lancaster1 may1 may have have been been thetrigger the trigger for the for destruction the destruction of synagogues. of synagogues. However, However, duringthe during fifteenth the centuryfifteenth and century after and the Jewishafter the expulsion, Jewish expulsion, some synagogues some synagogues were transformed were transformed into hospitals, into hospitals, churches, orchurches, even houses. or even That houses. is the case That for is the the Synagogue case for the of Ib Synagogueáñez de Segovia, of Ibáñez which de was Segovia, transformed which into was a nobletransformed house. 2intoThis a kindnoble of house. transformation2 This kind favored of transformation the survival favored of buildings the survival that were oforiginally buildings builtthat aswere synagogues. originally built as synagogues. The Castilian synagogues that have been dated to around the second half of the thirteenth century present an internal space and architectural features similar to the design of . The 1SynagogueIn 1412, Catherine of Santa of Lancaster,María la Queen Blanca Regent of Toledo of Castile is from perhaps 1406 to the 1418, clearest enacted aexample decree known of this. as the Even Laws ofthough Ayllón, we apparentlydo not have promoted archaeological by Lord Chancellor remains Paul of of Al-Andalus Burgos and Dominican synagogues Friar Vicente with Ferrer,which which to compare, separated Jewsit seems from conversos and Christians. In many cases, the urban restructuration involved the destruction of synagogues as a consequence of moving the Jewish quarter to another part of the city. 2 The original name of this synagogue was also the “Major Synagogue”, which might be confused with the former Major 1 Synagogue, In 1412, Catherine today the of Church Lancaster, of Corpus Queen Cristi, Regent also of known Castile as thefrom Synagogue 1406 to 1418, of Segovia. enacted For a this decree reason, known the name as the of theLaws Synagogue of Ayllón, of Ib apparentlyáñez de Segovia promoted was coined, by Lord named Chan aftercellor the members Paul of of Burgos a family and that acquiredDominican the synagogueFriar Vicente and transformedFerrer, which it intoseparated their residence. from There conversos are documentary and Christians. records of thisIn many synagogue cases, dating the backurban to restructuration 1476, and it was probably built after the consecration in church of the previous Major Synagogue in 1419 (Ruiz Hernando 1991). involved the destruction of synagogues as a consequence of moving the Jewish quarter to another part of the city. 2 The original name of this synagogue was also the “Major Synagogue”, which might be confused with the former Major Synagogue, today the Church of Corpus Cristi, also known as the Synagogue of Segovia. For this reason, the name of the Synagogue of Ibáñez de Segovia was coined, named after the members of a family that acquired the synagogue and transformed it into their residence. There are documentary records of this synagogue dating back to 1476, and it was probably built after the consecration in church of the previous Major Synagogue in 1419 (Ruiz Hernando 1991).

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The Castilian synagogues that have been dated to around the second half of the thirteenth century present an internal space and architectural features similar to the design of mosques. The Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo is perhaps the clearest example of this. Even though we do not have archaeological remains of Al-Andalus synagogues with which to compare, it seems possible that the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca is inspired by the Andalusian style that was taken to Castile by Andalusian Jews who migrated north. The Al-Andalus Jewish culture did not disappear with the arrival of the Almohads in 1147. The Jewish cultural elite worked and made sure to protect it in order to reestablish it in their new communities in Christian territory (Gerber Satlow 2012). This shared architectural typology has its origin in the Andalusian Omayyad , which has similarities with the basilica (Borrás Gualis 2004). On the other hand, it is important to keep in mind that Jews were permeable to the predominant culture, and in this context, Jewish culture acquired a high degree of Arabization. Perhaps for this reason, an architectural model based on a mosque design was not odd to the Jewish community. The model that was adopted to build such synagogues was not the luxurious one of the great aljamas’ mosques, in which opulence was also a symbol of power, but, rather, was adopted from the simpler and more modest neighborhood mosques with three naves. This typology was more in line with the status of dhimmi that Jews held. This model of three naves could be enlarged by adding side naves in order to reach greater capacity, as in the case of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo, which has five naves. The similarities between this type of synagogue and mosques also explains the fact that some Jewish communities did not find it difficult to adopt and transform mosques into synagogues. This is the case for three mosques, which were transformed into synagogues after the Christian conquest of in 1248, and a fourth one, which was bought in 1327 by Yhuda Abenxabat, Almojarife of Alfonso XI in Seville (Ecker 1997). Besides the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo, there are others that followed the same model, such as the Synagogue of Segovia and the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Seville.3 Santa María la Blanca of Seville was a mosque transformed into a synagogue after the Christian conquest of the city. However, at a certain point in time, the building was deeply transformed into a new synagogue of three naves divided by arches and columns. The date of this reform is imprecise, because, at that time, the construction of new synagogues was forbidden. It may have been that the construction work was masked as a reform by the end of the thirteenth century. That said, it is also possible that the transformation work of the synagogue was related to the earthquake of 1356, which resulted in the repair of several churches in the city. Finally, the synagogue was turned into a church in 1391, which is still active today (Gil Delgado 2013). The Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo has an irregular plan and five naves. The central one is wider and taller than the side ones. The naves are separated by large horseshoe arches that stand on octagonal pillars, which are decorated with plaster capitals that display plant stems that define rhomboid spaces as latticework. From these rhomboids arise prominent volutes and pinecones in relief. The greater height of the central nave allows the introduction of a large frieze formed by decorative medallions, geometrical and vegetal patterns, and cartouches of epigraphy that have disappeared, and in the top part, there is a sequence of blind polylobulated arches. Unfortunately, the decoration of the heikhal wall is missing as a consequence of the renacentist reformation introduced by Cardinal Silíceo in the sixteenth century. It is very possible that the heikhal arch had profuse and rich decoration (Figure3). The date of this synagogue is often debated by researchers, ranging between the end of the twelfth century and the beginning of the fourteenth century. However, the archaeologist who carried

3 The Santa María la Blanca Church in Seville underwent emergency work to repair some cracks in 1999. In 2010, it was closed to the public in order to carry out a complete restoration, due to the appearance of new cracks. When the workers removed the paintings that adorned the lunettes, copies of the originals by Murillo that were stolen by French Marshall General Jean-de-Dieu Soult, Mudejar arches from the windows of the former synagogue were discovered, debunking the theory that Santa María la Blanca had been built from scratch in the seventeenth century (Gil Delgado 2013). Arts 2020, 9, 9 5 of 28 out the synagogue excavations between 1987 and 1988 was inclined to place the construction date during the second half of the thirteenth century (Prieto Vázquez 1998). Based on the analysis of the decorative elements, art historian Ruiz Souza dated the synagogue to the end of the thirteenth century Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 28 or perhaps the early beginning of the fourteenth century (Ruiz Souza 2009). The SynagogueSynagogue of of Segovia Segovia (Church (Church of Corpus of Corpus Christi) Christi) is the most is the transformed most transformed medieval synagogue, medieval synagogue,because a fire because destroyed a fire most destroyed of the most building of the in bu 1899.ilding The in restoration1899. The restoration was made was possible made thanks possible to thanksdescriptions to descriptions and photographs and photographs that were that taken were before taken the before fire. The the prayer fire. The room prayer is divided room is into divided three intolarge three naves large by horseshoe naves by arches horseshoe that stand arches on that octagonal stand pillarson octagonal decorated pillar withs decorated plaster capitals with thatplaster are capitalsvery similar that toare the very ones similar of Santa to the Mar onesía la of Blanca Santa ofMa Toledo.ría la Blanca The date of Toledo. of this synagogueThe date of is this unknown, synagogue but isdue unknown, to its similarities but due withto its the similarities synagogues with of the Santa synagogues María la Blanca of Santa in ToledoMaría andla Blanca Seville, in itToledo is possible and Seville,to suggest it is that possible it was to built suggest during that the it was second built half duri ofng the the thirteenth second half century. of the This thirteenth model ofcentury. synagogue This modelwas also of usedsynagogue in the capitalwas also of used the Kingdom in the capital of Arag of óthen. TheKingdom Major of Synagogue Aragón. The of Zaragoza, Major Synagogue which is ofmissing, Zaragoza, was which also divided is missing, into naves.was also The divided foundation into datenaves. is unknown,The foundation but there date are is unknown, records of thisbut theresynagogue are records dating of to this 1311. synagogue Thanks dating to a description to 1311. Thanks of the to building a description written of in the the building sixteenth written century in theby Fraysixteenth Diego century de Esp byés inFray his DiegoHistoria deeclesi Espésástica in his cesaragustana Historia eclesiástica, we know cesaragustana that the building, we know was that not thevery building large and was had not three very naves large divided and had by three marble na andves jasperdivided columns. by marble The and central jasper nave columns. was slightly The centralhigher thannave thewas side slightly naves. higher The woodenthan the ceilingside naves. had goldenThe wooden decoration ceiling and had two golden strips, decoration blue and and red, twowith strips, Hebrew blue inscriptions and red, with that wereHebrew displayed inscriptio aroundns that the were central displayed nave conforming around the a friezecentral (Blasco nave conformingMartínez 1988 a frieze). (Blasco Martínez 1988).

Figure 3. CentralCentral nave nave of of the Synagogue of Santa María María la Blanca of Toledo. Author’s photo.

At the beginning of the the fourteenth fourteenth century, century, there was a radical change in the organization of the synagogal space. This This new new model model is is not not divided divided into into naves. Instead, Instead, the the prayer prayer room room is is formed formed by a largelarge and and diaphanous diaphanous hall, decorated decorated with with profuse profuse pl plasteraster decoration covering large areas in the same same lineline as as the the ones ones that that can can be be found found in in many many rooms rooms in the the Alhambra Alhambra Palace of Granada. The The decoration decoration of these synagogues mixes elements taken from Nasrid art, such as muqarna with some Christians elements, suchsuch asas vegetal vegetal and and heraldry heraldry motives. motives. That Th isat theis the case case for thefor Synagoguethe Synagogue of El Trofá nsitoEl Tránsito where wherethe coat the of coat arms of of arms Castile of Castile and Le andón was León part was of part the decoration,of the decoration, as well as as well the Samuelas the Samuel ha-Levi ha-Levi family familycoat of arms.coat of The arms. coat The of arms coat of of the arms Samuel of the ha-Levi Samuel family ha-Levi could family be understood could be as understood an appropriation as an appropriationof an element takenof an element from the taken Christian from culture the Christ (Muñoz-Garridoian culture (Muñoz-Garrido 2016). The prayer 2016). room The is prayer preceded room by isa bigpreceded vestibule by wherea big vestibule the women’s where gallery the women’s is located. gallery The mostis located. important The most innovation important is the innovation design of isthe theheikhal designwall, of whichthe heikhal is projected wall, which like a greatis projected facade withlike a three great vertical facade panels. with three Following vertical the panels.heikhal Following the heikhal facade model in the synagogues of Córdoba and El Tránsito, the two side panels share decorative patterns, and the central one displays a . In both cases, the composition is completed with a muqarna cornice crowning the facade. The profuse, decorated facade hides the heikhal itself. The central panel in the heikhal-facade model is open in the lower part with arches in order to connect the prayer room with the niche or the small room where the Torah scrolls are kept. The Synagogue of Córdoba is the oldest example of its kind. As the foundation plaque in the right side of

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facade model in the synagogues of Córdoba and El Tránsito, the two side panels share decorative patterns, and the central one displays a sebka. In both cases, the composition is completed with a muqarna cornice crowning the facade. The profuse, decorated facade hides the heikhal itself. The central panel in the heikhal-facade model is open in the lower part with arches in order to connect the prayer ArtsArtsArts 2020 2020 2020, 9, ,,9 x9, ,xFOR x FOR FOR PEER PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW REVIEW 6 6 of 6 of of 28 28 28 room with the niche or the small room where the Torah scrolls are kept. The Synagogue of Córdoba thethetheis heikhal the heikhalheikhal oldest states, states,states, example the thethe synagogue synagogue synagogue of its kind. was was was Asfounded founded founded the foundation in in in1315 1315 1315 by by plaqueby the the the unknown unknown unknown in the right Efraim Efraim Efraim side Wadawa Wadawa ofWadawa the heikhal (Figure (Figure(Figurestates, 4). 4).4). SomeSomeSomethe synagogue years yearsyears later, later,later, was the thethe founded Synagogue SynagogueSynagogue in 1315 of of of El byElEl Tránsito theTránsitoTránsito unknown was waswas founded Efraimfoundedfounded Wadawa in in in Toledo ToledoToledo (Figure by byby Samuel Samuel4Samuel). Some ha-Levi, ha-Levi,ha-Levi, years later,the thethe treasurertreasurertreasurerthe Synagogue of of ofKing King King ofPedro Pedro Pedro El Tr I.á I. nsitoI. was founded in Toledo by Samuel ha-Levi, the treasurer of King Pedro I.

FigureFigureFigure 4. 4. 4.Heikhal Heikhal Heikhal of of ofCórdoba Córdoba CCórdobaórdoba Synagogue. Synagogue. Synagogue. Author’s Author’s Author’s photo. photo. photo. photo.

InInIn the the the Samuel Samuel Samuel ha-Levi ha-Levi ha-Leviha-Levi Synagogue, Synagogue, Synagogue,Synagogue, the the the foundational foundational foundational inscription inscriptioninscription is is is divided divided divided into into into two two two plaques plaques plaques locatedlocatedlocated on on on on both both both both sides sides sides sides of of of ofthe the the the central central central central panel. panel. panel. panel. The The The The date date date date of of offoundation offoundation foundation foundation is is isnot not isnot clear not clear clear clear due due due dueto to tothe the tothe poor the poor poor poor state state state state of of of conservationconservationconservationof conservation of of of the the ofthe left the leftleft leftplaque, plaque,plaque, plaque, which whichwhich which is is is very is veryvery very damaged. damaged.damaged. damaged. In InIn this In thisthis this kind kindkind kind of of of ofinscription, inscription,inscription, inscription, the thethe the date datedate is is is calculatedcalculatedcalculated using using using the the thethe numeric numeric numericnumeric value value value of of ofHebrew Hebrew Hebrew words. words.words. words. The TheThe The only onlyonly only clear clearclear clear word wordword word that that that that was was was was part part part of of of the thethe date datedate is good (good(good (good for for forfor the the the) טוב טוב טוב ליהודיםליהודים ליהודים good). (good). (good). (good). AfterAfter After After studying studying studying the the the the inscription, inscription, inscription, inscription, Cecil Cecil Cecil Cecil Roth RothRoth Roth suggests suggestssuggests suggests the thethe the words words words) טובטוב טובisis is Jews).Jews).Jews). The The The The numerical numerical numerical numerical value value value of of of ofall all all all its its its itsletters letters letters letters would would would would be be be be5122 5122 5122 5122 in in in inthe the the the Jewish Jewish Jewish Jewish calendar, calendar, calendar, calendar, which which which is is is equivalent equivalent equivalent toto to1361–1362 1361–1362 1361–1362 of of ofthe the the Common Common Common Era Era Era (Roth (Roth ((RothRoth 1948). 1948). 19481948). This). This This This date date da date teis is isalso is also also also corroborated corroborated corroborated corroborated by by by another another another investigation investigation investigation aboutaboutabout the the thethe decorations decorationsdecorations of ofof ofthe the thethe synagogue, synagogue, synagogue,synagogue, which whichwhich suggests suggestssuggests thatthat thatthat thethe thethe decoration decoration decorationdecoration of of theof ofthe the synagoguethe synagogue synagoguesynagogue and and and thatand thatthatthatof of the of ofthe the conventthe convent convent convent of of Santaof ofSanta Santa Santa Clara Clara Clara Clara de de de deTordesillas Tordesillas Tordesillas Tordesillas werewere were were mademade made made by by by the the the same same same same groupgroup group group of ofof ofartisans. artisans. artisans. According According According toto tothe the the same same same same study, study, study, study, the the the the plaster plaster plaster plaster work work work work in in inEl in El ElTránsito El Tránsito Tránsito Tránsito would would would would have have have have been been been been carried carried carried carried out out out just out just just justafter after after after the the the end theend end of end of of thethetheof convent the conventconvent convent decoration decorationdecoration decoration works worksworks works at at at some at somesome some point pointpoint point between betweenbetw betweeneen 1359 13591359 1359 and andand and 1361 13611361 1361 (Ruiz (Ruiz(Ruiz (Ruiz Souza SouzaSouza 2002). 2002).20022002). ). In In In both both both synagogues,synagogues,synagogues, Córdoba Córdoba CCórdobaórdoba and and and El El El Tránsito, Tránsito, Tránsito, Tránsito, the the the decoration decoration decoration and and and Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew epigraphy epigraphy epigraphy are are are connected connected connected to to toconvey convey convey a asymbolica symbolic symbolic program program program program that that that that has has has has its its its itsclearest clearest clearest clearest reference reference reference reference in in inthe inthe the thesymbolic symbolic symbolic symbolic speech speech speech speech displayed displayed displayed displayed in in insome some insome some rooms rooms rooms rooms in in in thethethein Alhambra theAlhambra Alhambra Alhambra Palace Palace Palace Palace of of ofGranada Granada Granada of Granada (Muñoz-Garrido (Muñoz-Garrido (Muñoz-Garrido (Muñoz-Garrido 2017a). 2017a). 2017a). 2017a Another Another Another). Another synagogue synagogue synagogue synagogue that that that would would thatwould would follow follow follow follow this this this fourteenthfourteenthfourteenththis fourteenth century centurycentury century model modelmodel model was waswas the was thethe lost the lostlost Synagoguelost SynagogueSynagogue Synagogue of of of Cuenca, of Cuenca,Cuenca, Cuenca, as asas suggested as suggestedsuggested suggested by byby by the thethe the archeological archeological archeological remainsremainsremains and and and the the the plaster plaster plaster fragments fragments fragments found found found in in inthe the the archeological archeological archeological site site sitesite (Palomero (Palomero ((PalomeroPalomero Plaza Plaza PlazaPlaza 2002). 2002). 20022002). ). TheTheThe fifteenth fifteenth fifteenthfifteenth century century century brought brought brought new new new trends, trends, trends, and and and a aGothic a Gothic Gothic architectural architectural architectural model model model with with with flamboyant flamboyant flamboyantflamboyant GothicGothicGothic decoration decoration decoration is is isvery very very present present present in in inthe the the synagogues synagogues synagogues of of ofthis this this period. period. period. The The The synagogues synagogues synagogues of of ofHíjar Híjar Híjar Híjar and and and Lorca Lorca Lorca Lorca havehavehave a a uniquea uniqueuniqueunique nave nave navenave made mademade upup upup byby by diaphragmby diaphragm diaphragmdiaphragm arches. arches. arches.arches. This This ThisThis design design designdesign may may havemaymay have beenhavehave been inspired beenbeen inspired inspiredinspired by the by popular byby the thethe popularpopularpopulartypology typology typologytypology known known as knownknown Church as asas Church ofChurch Church the Reconquista, of of ofthe the the Reconquista, Reconquista, Reconqui whichsta, was which whichwhich in usewas waswas during in in inuse useuse theduring during during repopulation the thethe repopulation repopulation repopulation process in processprocessprocessthe last in in period inthe the the last last last of period theperiod period Christian of of ofthe the the Christian conquestChristian Christian conquest ofconquest conquest Al-Andalus of of ofAl-Andalus Al-Andalus Al-Andalus (Figure2 ).(Figure (Figure (Figure 2). 2). 2). ThisThisThis article articlearticle analyses analysesanalyses the thethe decoration decorationdecoration and andand architecture architecturearchitecture of of ofthe thethe Molina MolinaMolina de dede Aragón AragónAragón Synagogue SynagogueSynagogue in in in comparisoncomparisoncomparison with withwith other otherother aforementioned aforementionedaforementioned synagogues. synagogues.synagogues This . ThisThis analysis analysisanalysis is is is based basedbased on onon the thethe study studystudy of of of the thethe architecturalarchitecturalarchitectural remains remains remains and and and the the the plaster plaster plaster fragments fragments fragments found found found in in inthe the the archeological archeological archeological site site site of of ofMolina Molina Molina de de de Aragón Aragón Aragón Synagogue,Synagogue,Synagogue, which which which are are are displayed displayed displayed in in inthe the the Museum Museum Museum of of ofGuadalajara Guadalajara Guadalajara and and and the the the Regional Regional Regional Museum Museum Museum of of ofMolina Molina Molina de Aragón.4 The analyses of the plaster fragments found in the synagogue explain the evolution of

4 I would like to thank Fernando Aguado Díaz, director of the Museum of Guadalajara, the museum staff and the coordinator of the Regional Museum of Molina de Aragón, Juan Manuel Cruz, for his invaluable collaboration and hospitality during my research work.

Arts 2020, 9, 9 7 of 28

This article analyses the decoration and architecture of the Molina de Aragón Synagogue in comparison with other aforementioned synagogues. This analysis is based on the study of the architectural remains and the plaster fragments found in the archeological site of Molina de Aragón Synagogue, which are displayed in the Museum of Guadalajara and the Regional Museum of Molina de Aragón.4 The analyses of the plaster fragments found in the synagogue explain the evolution of this singular building and among them, especially the plaster fragments dated to the fourteenth century. Following the style of the synagogues of Córdoba and El Tránsito, the stucco work covers large surfaces of the walls, almost as if it were a skin, which is a typical feature of the Nasrid aesthetic style. In this way, the shape and decoration of the pieces found in Molina respond to architectural elements such as doors, arches, and windows. This, in turn, may help us to understand the appearance of the synagogue’s walls.

2. The Prao de los Judíos Archeological Site in Molina de Aragón Between 1997 and 2005, an area bigger than 1100 m2 was excavated, reaching a depth of five meters in some places. The material found made it possible to define a timeline of occupation that spanned from the caliphate period (tenth–eleventh centuries) to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The main structure that was found there belongs to a synagogue with an imperfect rectangular floor plan and a prayer room divided into three naves by pillars (Figure5). During excavations conducted in 2002 at the archaeological site, an investigation was carried out to analyze the characteristics of the subsoil under the synagogue. Based on this study, it was possible to determine that during the reformation of the synagogue, it was filled up with earth and building materials from an older stage of the building. The frescoed fragments of plaster coating display black linear motifs on a red background. The plaster relief fragments that were found were painted in green with simple and modest designs. Fragments of capitals were found in an upper archaeological stratum. Those capitals were in line with those decorating the former synagogues of Segovia and Santa María la Blanca of Toledo. In addition, panel fragments similar to the plaster decoration displayed in the fourteenth century synagogues were found. All of these facts could allow us to date the construction of the Molina Synagogue to around the second half of the thirteenth century. However, the fragment panels, similar to those of the synagogues of Córdoba and El Tránsito, suggest that it was redecorated later on to adapt its interior to fourteenth-century trends. In addition to the synagogue, the archeological site contains a complex structure belonging to a public building. This large building has a square floor plan, and it is very possible that the building had at least two stories, doubling its 650 m2 surface, based on some of its architectural elements, such as the sturdiness of its external walls and its thick wood shoring beams. The building’s internal layout encompassed both closed and open spaces, such as sandstone-paved corridors, basements, and interior patios. Part of this complex structure belonged to a semi-basement floor set aside for the production of wine, which would explain the trough where the grapes were pressed and the well to collect the must that have been found at the site. In addition to this well, excavated directly into the rock with a capacity of 700 liters, eighteen jugs of fifteen-liter capacity each were found. The storage capacity is small in comparison with other medieval wineries, and therefore, it seems that the quantity produced may have been lower in terms of daily consumption. It is thus possible that this winery produced kasher wine, or so-called “vino judiego” (Jewish wine), for ritual use.5 The characteristics of the building

4 I would like to thank Fernando Aguado Díaz, director of the Museum of Guadalajara, the museum staff and the coordinator of the Regional Museum of Molina de Aragón, Juan Manuel Monasterio Cruz, for his invaluable collaboration and hospitality during my research work. 5 This kasher wine, known as judiego or judienco in Spanish and jueu or juich in Catalan, did not require that the grapes be grown or harvested by Jews, but it was a requirement that the rest of the process (pressing, storing, etc.) be done by Jew exclusively. This process differed from the one used by Christians in some oenological aspects. For example, it was forbidden to add water, lime, or gypsum to the wine to make it purer. Wine had a strong ritual role in Judaism, figuring prominently in the celebration of festivals such as Shabbat, Passover Seder, and Rosh Hashanah ( Haba 2004). Arts 2020, 9, 9 8 of 28 indicate that it had a public and community function that could also have been related to liturgical aspects and to the synagogue itself. For this reason, it may have also housed other community services, such as the rabbinical court (Arenas Esteban et al. 2007). Moreover, an area for artisanal activity was identified at the site along with a residential area consisting of two dwellings. The urban structure of the place, along with the tight path of the town wall that encloses it, suggests that, at least at some point at the beginning of the fourteenth century, the neighborhood was closed off and segregated from Artsthe 2020 rest, of9, x the FOR town PEER (REVIEWArenas Esteban et al. 2007). 8 of 28

FigureFigure 5. 5. GroundGround plan plan of of the the Synagogue Synagogue of of Molina Molina de de Aragón. Aragón. Drawing Drawing by by Fernando Fernando Lechuga, Lechuga, based based onon a a plan plan of of Jesús Jesús Arenas. Arenas. Used Used by by permission. permission.

TheThe high high amount amount and and quality quality of of the the ceramic remains remains found found at at the site demonstrate that that the the JewishJewish communitycommunity inin Molina Molina was was very very prosperous prosperous during during the fourteenth the fourteenth and early and fifteenth early centuries.fifteenth centuries.The ceramics The found ceramics were found not only were items not foronly daily items use, for such daily as use, utensils such for as preparingutensils for and preparing serving food,and servingbut also food, high-quality but also tileshigh-quality decorated tiles in decorated the islamicate in the style, islamicate golden style, tiles golden from Manises, tiles from and Manises, glazed andceramics glazed from ceramics Guadalajara from Guadalajara and the workshops and the ofworkshops Teruel and of Valencia. Teruel and The Valencia. ceramic materialsThe ceramic are materialsillustrative are of illustrative the trade relationsof the trade between relations Molina between de Arag Molinaón andde Aragón other areasand other at the areas time. at Thethe time. most Thenotable most items notable found items include found highly include decorated highly decorated metallic pieces,metallic such pieces, as buckles, such as doorbuckles, locks, door and locks, two andbronze two straight bronze pinsstraight with pins a coral with head a coral and headpâte deand verre pâte. Otherde verre important. Other important objects of objects daily use of daily that were use thatfound were are found a bone are comb, a bone a limestone comb, a mortar,limestone an mortar ivory dice,, an ivory a silver dice, ring a withsilver the ring Hebrew with the inscription Hebrew ‘Shalominscription Oro ‘Shalom Vida’, a Oro lacquer Vida’ stamp, a lacquer with stamp the inscription with the ‘Moshinscriptioné bar Shamuel‘Moshé bar Habibas’, Shamuel a bronzeHabibas’, coin a bronze coin with a hexagram on one side and a menorah with an illegible inscription on the other, possibly used as a talisman (Arenas Esteban and Martínez Naranjo 2004), fragments of two tiles from Teruel belonging to a chanukkiah, and a small iron knife with a polished bone handle (Arenas Esteban et al. 2007). Prao de los Judíos and its synagogue seem to have lost their stability as a settlement in the mid- fifteenth century. The archaeological remains suggest that the site was abandoned before 1492. The state of preservation of the plaster, which still has its polychrome, seems to indicate that the building collapsed suddenly. If the site was abandoned gradually, the state of the ruins would be worse than it is presently. The building seems to have collapsed as a result of an attack on the Jewish quarter that

Arts 2020, 9, 9 9 of 28 with a hexagram on one side and a menorah with an illegible inscription on the other, possibly used as a talisman (Arenas Esteban and Martínez Naranjo 2004), fragments of two tiles from Teruel belonging to a chanukkiah, and a small iron knife with a polished bone handle (Arenas Esteban et al. 2007). Prao de los Judíos and its synagogue seem to have lost their stability as a settlement in the mid-fifteenth century. The archaeological remains suggest that the site was abandoned before 1492. The state of preservation of the plaster, which still has its polychrome, seems to indicate that the building collapsed suddenly. If the site was abandoned gradually, the state of the ruins would be worse than it is presently. The building seems to have collapsed as a result of an attack on the Jewish quarter that aimed to destroy the synagogue. This seems very possible due to the suddenness of the destruction and the strike marks and scratches on some of the plaster fragments (Arenas Esteban 2017). It is unknown which were the effects of the anti-Jewish riots of 1391, but it is very possible that, as in the case of Cuenca, the aljama of Molina suffered serious damage (Arenas Esteban and Castaño González 2010). In the context of this violent and intentional destruction, it is very probable that stucco fragments were disseminated throughout the prayer room. There are just few extant documentary references to the Prao de los Judíos that provide indirect information about the synagogue dating back to the late fifteenth century, when the building had already been destroyed (Arenas Esteban and Castaño González 2010). These documents refer to Judaizing conversos and crypto-Jews. The population of Jewish conversos in this area was quite high during the fifteenth century, and more than 120 Inquisitorial files against Judaizing neighbors in Molina are held at the National Historical Archive in Madrid and the Cuenca Diocesan Archive. In 1495, the trial of Juan Fernández Greson took place. During this trial, Doña Olalla, a witness for the prosecution, stated that “yva cada mañana a Castil de Judíos, que fue antiguamente synoga de judíos, e que non sabe este testigo lo que allí se hazía”6. At the same trial, another witness of the prosecution, Yoçé Pachel the elder, a Mudejar man who worked for Mose Aben Xuxen, testified. This witness declared that, 35 years earlier—around 1460—he saw Juan Fernández praying in the company of two Jews and other conversos:

Que vido este testigo desde una ventana de su tio Abrayn Pachel commo en casa de Juan Gallego, Vezino de la dicha villa, estava don Mose Aben Xuxen [judío], arrendador, que posava alli de continuo. E este testigo vio ayunar el Ayuno Mayor al dicho judio, e con el a Juan Ferrandez Greson e a otra personas cuyo nombres dixo, a los quales vio ayunar el dicho Ayuno Mayor, e estar descalços en la posada del dicho judio. E vio commo estovieron alli todo el Dia Mayor justamente fasta la noche, salida el estrella, que vido este testigo a Ysaque, Judio, criado del dicho don Mose, commo tanio un cornezuelo tres vezes, e vio commo los suso dichos hizieron todos oraçion, e despues de fecha çenaron alli todos.7

The fact that Doña Olalla talks about the synagogue in the past tense, as if it were no longer standing, and Yoçé Pachel’s description of the rite of sounding the shofar for Yom Kippur in the house of Juan Gallego instead of in the synagogue, suggest that the building had already been destroyed at least before 1460. Other Inquisitorial records demonstrate that the Castil de los judíos neighborhood continued to be inhabited and that its inhabitants were primarily conversos. This conclusion is extracted from the confession of Juana Fernández la Brisela, who asserted” que las que bebian en el Castil de Judíos venían cada sábado compuestas a ver a las de abaxo. Y que su madre deste testigo dezia: ‘mirad quales vienen estas judias compuestas’”.8

6 “Every morning he went to Castil de judíos, which used to be a synagogue, and this witness does not know what he did there” (Cantera Montenegro 1985). 7 “From a window in the house of his uncle Abrayn Pachel, this witness saw [the Jew] Mose Aben Xuxen, the landlord who often stopped by there, in the house of Juan Gallego, a neighbor of said villa. And this witness saw this Jew do the Great Fast and be barefoot in the house of said Jew, and saw how they were there throughout the Great Day until the star came out at night. This witness saw how the Jew Ysaque, the servant of said Mose, sounded the little horn three times and saw how all of them prayed, and once all of them dined there together” (Cantera Montenegro 1985). 8 “Those who lived in Castil de judíos would come every Saturday to visit those below and the mother of this witness would say, ‘look at how elegant those Jewish women are’” (Cantera Montenegro 1985). Arts 2020, 9, 9 10 of 28 Arts 2020Arts, 92020, x FOR, 9, x PEER FOR PEERREVIEW REVIEW 10 of 10 28 of 28

WithWith the passing Withthe passing the of passing the of years, the of years, thethe years,memory the memory the of memory the of Jewish the of Jewish the presence Jewish presence in presence Prao in Prao de in los Praode Judíos los de Judíos losfaded. Jud faded. íos faded. Fortunately,Fortunately,Fortunately, archaeology archaeology archaeology has recovered has recovered has recovered this legacy,this legacy, this allowing legacy, allowing allowingits preservation its preservation its preservation despite despite the despite lamentably the lamentably the lamentably neglectedneglectedneglected state state of this stateof valuablethis of valuable this and valuable compellingand compelling and compelling site. site. site.

3. The3. TheSynagogue3. Synagogue The Synagogue in the in Thirteenth the in Thirteenth the Thirteenth Century Century Century The SynagogueThe SynagogueThe Synagogue of Molina of Molina ofde MolinaAragón de Aragón dehad Arag anhad almostó ann hadalmost rectangular an rectangular almost floor rectangular floor plan, plan, approximately floor approximately plan, approximately 9.80 9.80 metersmeters wide9.80 wide by meters 16.40 by 16.40 widemeters meters by long. 16.40 long. The meters prayerThe long. prayer room The room prayerwas wasat roomleast at least160 was square160 at least square meters, 160 meters, square which meters,which gives gives which it a it gives a it capacitycapacity fora capacity approximately for approximately for approximately 50 people 50 people seated 50 people seated (Arenas seated (Arenas Esteban (Arenas Esteban and Esteban Castañoand Castaño and González Castaño González 2010) Gonz 2010) á(Figurelez 2010(Figure 5).) (Figure 5). 5). The The southern The southern southern wall wall and wall and part and part of part the of of the westernthe western western wall wall wall are are gone,are gone, gone, which which which makes makes makes di ffi difficultcult difficult the thecorrect correct the interpretation correct interpretationinterpretationof the of interior the of interiorthe space interior space of the space of synagogue. the of synagogue.the synagogue. The orientation The orientationThe oforientation the three of the naves,of threethe whichthree naves, naves, are which divided which are by are pillars, divideddivided byis pillars, north–south. by pillars, is north–south. is north–south. The northern The northernThe wall northern of thewall synagogue wallof the of synagogue the adjoinssynagogue adjoins one adjoins of theone sections ofone the of sections the of thesections townof of wall. 9 the townthe town Thiswall. wall. precise9 This9 Thisprecise location, precise location, next location, to thenext town nextto the wall,to town the was town wall, common wall, was wascommon during common the during thirteenth during the thirteenth the and thirteenth fourteenth and and century fourteenthfourteenthdue century to century the due fact todue that the to Jewish fact the that fact quarters Jewishthat Jewish were quarters oftenquarters were located were often on often located the located outskirts on the on ofoutskirts the the outskirts towns of the and, of towns the therefore, towns part and, and,therefore, oftherefore, the part town partof wall the of town wasthe town alwayswall wallwas around alwayswas always part around of around the part perimeter partof the of perimeter ofthe the perimeter Jewish of the quarter of Jewish the Jewish (Riera quarter quarter i Sans 2006 ). (Riera(Riera i SansThe i Sans 2006). main 2006). entryThe mainThe was main quiteentry entry possiblywas wasquite located quite possibly possibly in a located hollowed located in outa hollowedin opening, a hollowed out of which opening,out opening, remains of which of are which located on remainsremains arethe located are western located on wall. the on 10western theThis western main wall. doorwall.10 This was10 Thismain preceded main door door was by a precededwas small preceded widening by a bysmall of a thesmall widening street, widening like of athe smallof the plaza street,street, like( Arenas alike small a small Estebanplaza plaza (Arenas and (Arenas Castaño Esteban Esteban Gonz and Castañoáandlez Castaño2010 González), which González contained2010), 2010), which a which water contained contained basin a ( Arenaswater a water basin Esteban basin 2017 ) (Arenas(Arenas Estebanthat Esteban could 2017) be 2017) that used couldthat to perform could be used be ablutions used to perform to perform before ablutions prayers. ablutions before before prayers. prayers. The pillarsThe pillarsThe that pillars thatdivided divided that the divided prayer the prayer the room prayer room into room intothree three intonaves threenaves (Figure naves (Figure 1) (Figure were 1) were crowned1) were crowned crownedby capitals by capitals by capitals quitequite similarquite similar to similarthose to those that to those thatdecorate decorate that the decorate synagogues the synagogues the synagogues of Segovia of Segovia of and Segovia Santaand Santa and María Santa María la Blanca Mar la Blancaía laof BlancaToledo of Toledo of Toledo (Figure(Figure 6).(Figure For 6). theFor6). archaeologistthe For archaeologist the archaeologist Jesús Jesús Esteban, Jes Esteban,ús the Esteban, lackthe lackof the bricks of lack bricks ofamong bricks among the among synagoguethe synagogue the synagogue remains remains remains indicatesindicates thatindicates therethat there thatwere there were no arches wereno arches noover arches overthe pillars overthe pillars the in the pillars in prayer the in prayer the room. prayer room. He room.also He suggestsalso He suggests also that suggests thethat upper the that upper the upper part partof the ofpart central the of central the nave central nave was navewassupported supported was supported by wooden by wooden by beams wooden beams that beams restedthat rested that on restedthe on pillars the on pillars the (Arenas pillars (Arenas Esteban (Arenas Esteban Esteban 2017).2017). However,2017 However,). However,this architravethis architrave this architrave system system seems system seems unlikely, seems unlikely, given unlikely, given that given thatall the all that otherthe all other thesimilar other similar synagogues similar synagogues synagogues havehave arches havearches instead. arches instead. There instead. There is no There is evidence no isevidence no of evidence the of existence the of existence the existenceof arches, of arches, ofbut arches, neitherbut neither but is neitherthere is there evidence is thereevidence evidenceof of of woodenwooden beams.wooden beams. Moreover, beams. Moreover, Moreover, the absence the absence the of absence arches of arches would of arches would have would have affected haveaffected the aff heightected the height the of the height of central the of central the nave, central nave, nave, .following following the the fourteenth-century the fourteenth-century fourteenth-century model (היfollowing כ ל(היכ-ark ל -makingmaking itmaking impossible it impossible it impossible to redecorate to redecorate to redecorate the heikhal the the heikhalheikhal (Torah (Torah(Torah ark model.model. ThisThis Thistype type typeof ofark arkof wasark was wasorganized organized organized into into intothree three three large large large vertical vertical vertical panels, panels, panels, which which which required required required a nave a navea nave of ofa of a certaina certaincertain height,height, height, as asthe as the ones the ones ones that that thatcan can becan be found be found found in in the thein synagogues the synagogues synagogues of of El Elof Tránsito TrElá Tránsitonsito and and Córdobaand Có rdobaCórdoba (Figure (Figure (Figure 4). This 4). This4). Thisredecorationredecoration redecoration is is described described is described in in more in more detail detail inin SectionSection in Section5 .5. Furthermore, Furthermore, 5. Furthermore, archaeological archaeological archaeological evidence evidence evidence does reveal doesdoes reveal thereveal the existence existence the existence of plasterof plaster of plaster benches benches benches inside inside theinside the synagogue. synagogue. the synagogue. The The perimeter perimeterThe perimeter of theof the prayer of prayer the roomprayer room had room a bench had hada bench arunning bench running running along along the along walls,the walls,the and walls, otherand andother benches other benches were benches locatedwere were located in thelocated spacesin the in spaces betweenthe spaces between the between pillars, the althoughthe pillars,pillars, althoughsome although of some these some of spaces these of these mayspaces spaces have may been mayhave lefthave been empty been left empty toleft allow empty to peopleallow to allow people to movepeople to move from to move navefrom from tonave nave nave and to to naveto nave andfacilitate toand facilitate to access facilitate access to allaccess to the all benches to the all benches the of benches the of synagogue the of synagogue the synagogue (Figure (Figure5). (Figure 5). 5). The The central centralThe nave central nave had nave hada rectangular had a rectangular a rectangular structure structure structure of 2.10 of of 2.10 meters meters meters long long long by by 1.30 by 1.30 1.30 meters meters meters wide. wide. wide. This This This structure ,for two) two for reasons, reasons,two reasons, firstly, firstly, firstly, duedue totodue itsits to location its location inin the in central the central nave and תיבה() תיבה) structurestructure has been has been identified identified identified as the as tevah the tevah navenave and, secondly, and,secondly, secondly, because because because of of itsits of shape,shape, its shape, whichwhich which stillstill preservesstill preserves the impressions the impressions from from the wooden the wooden posts posts that held that thatheld heldthethe platform platformthe platform upup onon up itsits on cornerscorners its corners ((ArenasArenas (Arenas EstebanEsteban Esteban andand CastañoCastañoand Castaño GonzGonzález Gonzálezález 20102010). ).2010). NextNext Next toto thethe to tevah the , the tevahtevah, the ,remainsremains the remains ofof anotheranother of another structurestructure structurewere were were found. found. found.This This will Thiswill be bewill discussed discussed be discussed below below below with with regard withregard regard to to the the to location the of locationlocation ofthe the ofheikhal heikhal the heikhal(Figure (Figure (Figure7). 7). 7).

9 The synagogue in Segovia also adjoined the city wall, leaving its ark boxed in between the synagogue and the city wall (Cantera Burgos 1984). 10 In synagogues with a basilica floor plan, the door is usually located in one of the two sides, unlike in churches and mosques, where the main door is usually opposite to the altar or (Palomares Sánchez 2009).

9 The9 synagogue The synagogue in Segovia in Segovia also adjoinedalso adjoined the city the wall, city wall,leaving leaving its ark its boxed ark boxed in between in between the synagogue the synagogue and and the citythe wall city (Canterawall (Cantera Burgos Burgos 1984). 1984). 10 In10 synagogues In synagogues with awith basilica a basilica floor floorplan, plan,the door the dooris usually is usually located located in one in of one the of two the sides, two sides, unlike unlike in churches in churches and mosques,and mosques, where where the main the main door dooris usually is usually opposite opposite to the to altar the altaror mihrab or mihrab (Palomares (Palomares Sánchez Sánchez 2009). 2009).

Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 28 capacity for approximately 50 people seated (Arenas Esteban and Castaño González 2010) (Figure 5). The southern wall and part of the western wall are gone, which makes difficult the correct interpretation of the interior space of the synagogue. The orientation of the three naves, which are divided by pillars, is north–south. The northern wall of the synagogue adjoins one of the sections of the town wall.9 This precise location, next to the town wall, was common during the thirteenth and fourteenth century due to the fact that Jewish quarters were often located on the outskirts of the towns and, therefore, part of the town wall was always around part of the perimeter of the Jewish quarter (Riera i Sans 2006). The main entry was quite possibly located in a hollowed out opening, of which remains are located on the western wall.10 This main door was preceded by a small widening of the street, like a small plaza (Arenas Esteban and Castaño González 2010), which contained a water basin (Arenas Esteban 2017) that could be used to perform ablutions before prayers. The pillars that divided the prayer room into three naves (Figure 1) were crowned by capitals quite similar to those that decorate the synagogues of Segovia and Santa María la Blanca of Toledo (Figure 6). For the archaeologist Jesús Esteban, the lack of bricks among the synagogue remains indicates that there were no arches over the pillars in the prayer room. He also suggests that the upper part of the central nave was supported by wooden beams that rested on the pillars (Arenas Esteban 2017). However, this architrave system seems unlikely, given that all the other similar synagogues have arches instead. There is no evidence of the existence of arches, but neither is there evidence of wooden beams. Moreover, the absence of arches would have affected the height of the central nave, following the fourteenth-century (היכל-making it impossible to redecorate the heikhal (Torah ark model. This type of ark was organized into three large vertical panels, which required a nave of a certain height, as the ones that can be found in the synagogues of El Tránsito and Córdoba (Figure 4). This redecoration is described in more detail in Section 5. Furthermore, archaeological evidence does reveal the existence of plaster benches inside the synagogue. The perimeter of the prayer room had a bench running along the walls, and other benches were located in the spaces between the pillars, although some of these spaces may have been left empty to allow people to move from nave to nave and to facilitate access to all the benches of the synagogue (Figure 5). The central nave had a rectangular structure of 2.10 meters long by 1.30 meters wide. This for two reasons, firstly, due to its location in the central (תיבה) structure has been identified as the tevah nave and, secondly, because of its shape, which still preserves the impressions from the wooden posts that held the platform up on its corners (Arenas Esteban and Castaño González 2010). Next to the Artstevah2020, the, 9, remains 9 of another structure were found. This will be discussed below with regard 11to ofthe 28 location of the heikhal (Figure 7).

Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 28 Figure 6. Two capitals of the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo. Author’s photo. Figure 6. Two capitals of the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo. Author’s photo. 9 The synagogue in Segovia also adjoined the city wall, leaving its ark boxed in between the synagogue and the city wall (Cantera Burgos 1984). 10 In synagogues with a basilica floor plan, the door is usually located in one of the two sides, unlike in churches and mosques, where the main door is usually opposite to the altar or mihrab (Palomares Sánchez 2009).

Figure 7. GeneralGeneral view of the Synagogue of Molina de Aragón Aragón archeological site.site. Author’s photo. photo.

The study of the fragments that belonged to the capitals of the synagogue synagogue and and their comparison comparison with the capitals ofof SantaSanta MarMaríaía lala BlancaBlanca of of Toledo Toledo allow allow us us to to identify identify the the existence existence of of at at least least four four or orfive five diff differenterent models models of capitals.of capitals. Some Some of the of fragmentsthe fragments share share the modelthe model of the of capital the capital but with but smallwith smalldifferences differences in their in patterns their patterns (referenced (referenced in Figures in8 andFigures9 with 8 theand letters 9 with a and the b).letters The indeterminatea and b). The indeterminatenumber is due number to the fact is due that to two the of fact the that proposed two ofmodels the proposed of capitals, models the of second capitals, and the the second third ones, and thecould third be indeedones, could part ofbe theindeed same part capital. of the The same fragments capital. areThe too fragments small to are positively too small assert to positively that they assertbelonged that to they two belonged different models.to two different However, models they.seem However, to have they formed seem partsto have of diformedfferent parts capitals, of differentbecause, ascapitals, in the casebecause, of the as Synagogue in the case of of Santa the MariaSynagogue la Blanca of Santa in Toledo, Maria the la capitalsBlanca in were Toledo, placed the in capitalspairs, facing were each placed other, in acrosspairs, facing the synagogue’s each other, naves. across11 theUnfortunately, synagogue’s as naves. a consequence11 Unfortunately, of the violent as a consequence of the violent destruction of the Synagogue of Molina, the stucco fragments were dispersed throughout the prayer room. That is the reason it is not possible to determine which capital belonged11 In the Synagogue to each pillar. of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo, the capitals are very similar. They display a complex patron made up byCapital pinecones 1-a and was plant formed stems that by define a necking rhomboid ring spaces. circled However, by a thepalmette general modelborder. of the The capitals body changes of the with capital small differences as the naves approach the heikhal as some sort of an aesthetic play (Figure6). was decorated with acanthus leaves in high relief. Capital 1-b presents different motifs around the border, which, in this case, has a plaited design. The Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo has a capital with quite similar acanthus leaves. Moreover, the design of capitals 1-a and 1-b from Molina are similar to the one found in the Toledo Synagogue, which gives us an approximate idea of what the capital of the Synagogue of Molina might have looked like (Figure 8). Only two small fragments from capitals 2-a and 2-b were found, belonging to the borders that ran under the body of the capital. This border is divided into two levels. On both capitals, the lower level is decorated with palmettes, while the upper part of 2-a is decorated with a Greek key pattern and 2-b is decorated with a plaited border (Figure 8).

11 In the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo, the capitals are very similar. They display a complex patron made up by pinecones and plant stems that define rhomboid spaces. However, the general model of the capitals changes with small differences as the naves approach the heikhal as some sort of an aesthetic play (Figure 6).

Arts 2020, 9, 9 12 of 28 destruction of the Synagogue of Molina, the stucco fragments were dispersed throughout the prayer room. That is the reason it is not possible to determine which capital belonged to each pillar. Capital 1-a was formed by a necking ring circled by a palmette border. The body of the capital was decorated with acanthus leaves in high relief. Capital 1-b presents different motifs around the border, which, in this case, has a plaited design. The Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo has a capital with quite similar acanthus leaves. Moreover, the design of capitals 1-a and 1-b from Molina are similar to the one found in the Toledo Synagogue, which gives us an approximate idea of what the capital of the Synagogue of Molina might have looked like (Figure8). Only two small fragments from capitals 2-a and 2-b were found, belonging to the borders that ran under the body of the capital. This border is divided into two levels. On both capitals, the lower level is decorated with palmettes, while the upper part of 2-a is decorated with a Greek key pattern and 2-b is decorated with a plaited

Artsborder 2020 (Figure, 9, x FOR8 PEER). REVIEW 12 of 28

Figure 8. FragmentsFragments and and possible possible reconstruction reconstruction of of the the capitals capitals of of Molina Molina de de Aragón Aragón Synagogue. Created by author.

The only remnant of a small fragment from capital 3 is decorated with acanthus leaves from which aa pineconepinecone emergesemerges in in high high relief relief (Figure (Figure8). 8) The. The Santa Santa Mar Maríaía la Blancala Blanca Synagogue Synagogue ofToledo of Toledo has has some capitals with similar pinecones, which provide an idea of how the capitals of the Synagogue of Molina would have looked. On the other side, the fragment that corresponds to capital 4 is quite large. It is possible to deduce that this was a large capital, much larger than the others that decorated the Synagogue of Molina and even slightly larger than the ones found in Santa María la Blanca. The fragment belongs to the body of the capital and is decorated with latticework formed by plant stems that define rhomboid spaces of differing sizes. Inside these rhomboids, pinecones can be found in mid to low relief. The Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca has a similar capital that allows us to imagine how the capitals of the Synagogue of Molina might have been (Figure 9). Capitals 5-a and 5-b are particularly striking. Not only do they not look like the other ones found in the synagogue, but they also have no parallels in other medieval synagogues. The fragments show an original capital in the form of a palm tree that alternates some elements in the two sub-models (a and b). Capital 5-a has a necking ring under a palmette border, while 5-b has a necking ring with a Greek key pattern border (Figure 9).

Arts 2020, 9, 9 13 of 28 some capitals with similar pinecones, which provide an idea of how the capitals of the Synagogue of Molina would have looked. On the other side, the fragment that corresponds to capital 4 is quite large. It is possible to deduce that this was a large capital, much larger than the others that decorated the Synagogue of Molina and even slightly larger than the ones found in Santa María la Blanca. The fragment belongs to the body of the capital and is decorated with latticework formed by plant stems that define rhomboid spaces of differing sizes. Inside these rhomboids, pinecones can be found in mid to low relief. The Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca has a similar capital that allows us to imagine how the capitals of the Synagogue of Molina might have been (Figure9). Capitals 5-a and 5-b are particularly striking. Not only do they not look like the other ones found in the synagogue, but they also have no parallels in other medieval synagogues. The fragments show an original capital in the form of a palm tree that alternates some elements in the two sub-models (a and b). Capital 5-a has a necking ring under a palmette border, while 5-b has a necking ring with a Greek key pattern border (Figure9). Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 28

Figure 9. FragmentsFragments and and possible possible reconstruction reconstruction of of the the capitals capitals of of Molina Molina de de Aragón Aragón Synagogue. Created by author.

In summary, the Synagogue of Molina shares many architectural and decorative similarities with other synagogues from the second half of the thirteenth century. For instance, the interior space was divided into naves, and the pillars that divided the naves were decorated with plaster capitals in the same style as the ones of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo and the Synagogue of Segovia. These capitals were not modified during the fourteenth-century redecoration, and they were preserved until the destruction of the synagogue.

4. The Location of the Heikhal (Torah Ark) The fact that the southern wall of the synagogue is missing, makes it difficult to interpret the internal appearance of the building and the location of the heikhal, in other words, the place toward which the congregants prayed. Archaeologist Jesús Arenas has suggested over the years that the ark might have been on the eastern wall. His argument not only considers the traditional location of the ark on the eastern wall of a synagogue, but also rests on the fact that the two pillars between the tevah structure and the eastern wall are different from the rest, in addition to the fact that large decorative fragments were found in this area (Arenas Esteban 2017).

Arts 2020, 9, 9 14 of 28

In summary, the Synagogue of Molina shares many architectural and decorative similarities with other synagogues from the second half of the thirteenth century. For instance, the interior space was divided into naves, and the pillars that divided the naves were decorated with plaster capitals in the same style as the ones of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo and the Synagogue of Segovia. These capitals were not modified during the fourteenth-century redecoration, and they were preserved until the destruction of the synagogue.

4. The Location of the Heikhal (Torah Ark) The fact that the southern wall of the synagogue is missing, makes it difficult to interpret the internal appearance of the building and the location of the heikhal, in other words, the place toward which the congregants prayed. Archaeologist Jesús Arenas has suggested over the years that the ark might have been on the eastern wall. His argument not only considers the traditional location of the ark on the eastern wall of a synagogue, but also rests on the fact that the two pillars between the tevah structure and the eastern wall are different from the rest, in addition to the fact that large decorative fragments were found in this area (Arenas Esteban 2017). However, other elements in the synagogue suggest a different location for the heikhal. The eastern wall has a running bench that breaks up completely the organization of the space in a Sephardic-style synagogue. Moreover, considering that the synagogue was destroyed intentionally, it is possible that the decorative fragments were scattered around the room after being pulled off the walls. Furthermore, it is quite likely in this context that, after the destruction of the synagogue, some neighbors went to the building in search of items that could be reused, which probably contributed even more to the dispersion of materials around the site.12 It should not be taken for granted that synagogues had an exact, fixed orientation toward the east, and indeed, many other houses of worship were not oriented toward . The synagogues of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo and El Tránsito, the Synagogue of Córdoba, and the synagogue in Lorca have different orientations between north and east, while the Synagogue of Segovia is oriented toward the south. The most unique one is the Synagogue of Híjar (Teruel), which was oriented toward the southeast (Hernández Pardos 2019). Moreover, the research carried out by Jaume Riera, based on medieval documentation, shows that the synagogues in the Kingdom of Aragón did not follow any predetermined orientation (Riera i Sans 2006). The construction of the synagogue was subjected to many restrictions that affected everything from the place where it could be built to its size and height. However, it seems that practical architectural sense prevailed over the ideal model of the synagogue. In the case of the Synagogue of Molina, the remains of the tevah and the arrangement of the benches around the central nave correspond perfectly to the organization of the interior of a Sephardic synagogue in which worshippers were arranged in parallel to an axis defined by the tevah and the heikhal. This would mean that the ark was located either on the north wall or south wall. Unfortunately, the south wall is gone, and with it, the possibility to determine whether the ark was located there or not. However, the position of the tevah indicates that the ark must have been on the north wall, because the reading tower is usually slightly off-center and the tevah is a bit closer to the wall opposite the ark13 (Figures5 and7). The possibility that the heikhal was located here is reinforced by the fact that the thickness of the north wall was lessened to create a small rectangular niche (Figures5 and 10). Compared with the synagogues of Santa Mar ía la Blanca of Toledo and Córdoba, this ark would have been a small one, but its rectangular form and measurements are similar

12 In contrast with the Synagogue of Molina, the Synagogue of Lorca was abandoned, and its upper tiers still contain remains of roof tiles and even fragments of metal and small chains from the lamps that hung from the ceiling (García Sandoval 2009). The absence of this type of material at the Molina site reinforces the idea that there was a violent destruction, and subsequently, the remnant materials were reused. This process would have dispersed, even more, the decorative elements around the site. 13 The tevah was usually located in the center of the synagogue in order to make it visible for as many participants as it would be possible (Mann 2017). Arts 2020, 9, 9 15 of 28

to those of the ark of the Synagogue of Lorca of 0.85 meters deep by 1.16 meters long (Figure 11) (Gallardo Carrillo and González Ballesteros 2009). Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 28 ArtsArts 2020 2020, 9, x,, 9FOR,, Artsxx FORFOR PEER 2020 PEERPEER ,REVIEW 9, x REVIEWREVIEW FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 15 15 28 of of 28 28 15 of 28

FigureFigure 10. 10.DetailDetail of the ofnorth the wall north at the wall Molina at the de MolinaAragón Synagogue de Arag ón archeological Synagogue archeologicalsite. Author’s photo. site. FigureFigure 10. 10.Detail DetailFigure Author’sof the of 10. thenorth Detail photo.north wall of wall theat the atnorth theMolina Molinawall deat theAragónde AragónMolina Synagogue Synagoguede Aragón archeological Synagoguearcheological site.archeological site. Author’s Author’s photo.site. photo. Author’s photo.

Figure 11. The heikhal of Lorca Synagogue. Author’s photo. FigureFigure 11. 11.The TheFigure heikhal heikhal 11.of Lorca Theofof LorcaLorca heikhal Synagogue. Synagogue.Synagogue. of Lorca Author’s Synagogue. Author’sAuthor’s photo. photo.photo. Author’s photo. photo. The remains of a small structure near the tevah, which still preserves the impressions of two TheThe remains remainswooden Theof a of posts remains small a small and structure of structurewhich a small nearis alignednear structure the the tevah with tevah near, whichthe,, thewhichwhich tevah-heikhal tevahstill stillstill preserves, which preservespreserves axis, still theare preservesthethe piecesimpressions impressionsimpressions of the evidence of impressions twoofof twotwothat reinforce of two woodenwooden posts postswoodenthis and interpretationand which postspostswhich is andand alignedis aligned whichwhichof the with is iswithinterior aligned alignedthe the tevah-heikhal spacewithtevah-heikhal with the ofthe tevah-heikhalthe axis,tevah-heikhal axis,axis,synagogue are areare piecesaxis, piecespieces axis, (Figure areof are evidenceofof pieces evidenceevidencepieces 12). of Thisthat evidenceof thatthatevidence reinforcestructure reinforcereinforce that that reinforce could reinforce have this structure12). structure This), as could it couldstructure could was have called have have could belongedin manyhave אלמנבר)ofthe the ofspace, synagogue‘tower the synagogue synagogueof ofthe wood’) (Figuresynagogue (Figure (Figure or 12). al 12). This12(Figure ). This This structure מגדל of space עץ )thisthis interpretation interpretationthisbelongedinterpretation interpretation of ofthe to the the interior of interiormigdal the of interior spacethe etz space interior was it was called ),of calledas mosques. itin was manyin many called This medieval platformin manyאלמנברalminbar), as), it as ( pulpitאלמנבר ) orאלמנבר )itswood’)of of, similaritywood’) wood’)‘tower or ofalor or minbar wood’) toalalminbaral minbarthe characteristic מגדלof עץ)because, ‘toweretz,, ‘tower‘tower מגדל מגדלעץ ))migdal עץ) belongedbelonged to thetobelongedmedieval the migdal migdal todocumentsetz the etz characteristic pulpit pulpit) pulpitand of was of mosques.of mosques. usually mosques.pulpit Thisoflocated This mosques.This platform platform platformbetween This was the platform used heikhal by דרשהmedievalmedieval documents documentsmedievalwas used because bydocuments because the of ofitsof becauseto itsitssimilarity deliver similaritysimilarity of the itsto todrasha thesimilarityto the the characteristic characteristic(sermon- characteristic to the ,was Híjarusually usually) and and located was Lorca located usually between(Figure between located 13). thethe the heikhalThis between heikhal location and the the heikhalistevah alsoדרשה sermon-) and ) and was of) דרשהדרשהwaswas used used by bythewasandthe the rabbi rabbi theused rabbi tevah to toby deliver deliverto the, asdeliver rabbiin the the theto drashadrasharemains deliver drasha (sermon-(sermon- ofthe(sermon-(sermon- the drasha synagogues andand the the tevah tevah,andcorroboratedas as in,, in asasthe the the inin tevah remainsthethe remains remainsremains, byas inChristian of of the the theofof remains synagoguesthethe synagogues artworkssynagoguessynagogues of the of of thatsynagogues H Híjarofofí jarrecreate HíjarHíjar and and andand Lorca Lorca ofsc LorcaHíjarLorcaenes (Figure (Figure from and (Figure(Figure Lorca 13 13).the). 13).13). ThislifeThis (Figure This Thisof locationlocation Jesus. locationlocation 13). isThisDuringis alsoalso isis location alsoalso corroborated the Middle is also corroboratedcorroboratedcorroborated Ages,byby ChristianbyChristian Christian, Christian artworks byartworks conversoChristianartworks that that, and thatartworks recreate recreate Jewish recreate scenes artists thatscenes scenes recreate fromdrew from from the scenes thesc lifeenes the life of life fromtheir Jesus.of Jesus.of daily theJesus. During lifeDuring lives Duringof the toJesus. therepresent Middle the Middle During Middle Ages, biblical the Christian, Middle scenes Ages,Ages, Christian, Christian,Ages,in which converso Christian,converso Jews, and ,,from andand conversoJewish Jewish Jewishthe artistsScriptures, and artistsartists Jewish drew drewdrew are scenes artists represented scenesscenes of drew their ofof theirtheir scenes dailyas dailydailymedieval oflives their liveslives to representdaily Jews toto representrepresent andlives thebiblical to biblicalbiblicalrepresent Temple scenes scenesscenes of biblical Jerusalem scenes as in whichin which Jews Jewsina fromsynagogue which from the Jews the Scriptures in Scriptures from an attempt the are Scriptures are represented to represented make are the asrepresented scene medievalas medieval more Jews asauthentic Jewsmedieval and and the (Mann the JewsTemple Temple 2010).and of the JerusalemOneof Temple Jerusalem altarpiece ofas Jerusalemas panel now as a synagoguea synagogue aheldin synagogue anin atanattempt the attempt Metropolitan in to an maketo attempt make the Museumthe scene to scenemake more ofmorethe Artauthentic scene authentic in New more (Mann York, (Mannauthentic 2010). which 2010). (Mann One represents One altarpiece 2010). altarpiece theOne panel scene altarpiecepanel now of now ‘Jesus panel among now heldheld at theat the Metropolitanheld Metropolitan at the Metropolitan Museum Museum of Art ofMuseum Art in Newin Newof York,Art York, in which New which York,represents represents which the represents the scene scene of ‘Jesusofthe ‘Jesus scene among among of ‘Jesus among

Arts 2020, 9, 9 16 of 28 converso, and Jewish artists drew scenes of their daily lives to represent biblical scenes in which Jews from the Scriptures are represented as medieval Jews and the Temple of Jerusalem as a synagogue Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 28 in an attempt to make the scene more authentic (Mann 2010). One altarpiece panel now held at the 14 theMetropolitan Doctors’,14 Museum recreates of the Art interior in New of York, a synagogue which represents that is thestartlingly scene of similar ‘Jesus amongto the remains the Doctors’, of the synagoguesrecreates the of interior Híjar and of aLorca synagogue (Figure that 14). isIn startlingly this particular similar panel, to thethe remainssynagogue of theis used synagogues as a model of toHí jarrepresent and Lorca the (Figure Temple 14 of). InJerusalem, this particular and the panel, me thedieval synagogue Jews are is usedthe archetype as a model for to their represent biblical the Templeancestors. of Jerusalem,The panel shows and the the medieval inside of Jews a Gothic are the building. archetype In for the their foreground, biblical ancestors. the prayer The room panel is dominatedshows the inside by a structure of a Gothic with building. steps, quite In the similar foreground, to the theminbar prayer of a room mosque, is dominated on which by young a structure Jesus withstands. steps, Behind quite him similar is the to thetevah,minbar raisedof aon mosque, columns, on whichand the young side Jesus benches stands. are Behindfilled with him isJews the consultingtevah, raised books. on columns, and the side benches are filled with Jews consulting books.

Figure 12. View of the remains of the tevah of Molina de AragAragónón Synagogue.Synagogue. Author’s photo.

This evidenceevidence suggests suggests that that the the remains remains found found between between the tevah theand tevah the heikhaland thein theheikhal Synagogue in the Synagogueof Molina belong of Molina to an belongalminbar to anor alminbarmigdal etz or. Thatmigdal would etz. That corroborate would corroborate the supposition the supposition that the heikhal that wasthe heikhal on the was north on wall, the north because wall, that because is the case that for is the synagoguescase for the synagogues of Lorca and of H íLorcajar, the andalminbar Híjar,was the alminbaraligned withwas thealignedtevah-heikhal with theaxis. tevah-heikhal This kind of axis. pulpit This began kind to of disappear pulpit began from synagogues to disappear after from the synagoguesMiddle Ages, after15 making the Middle difficult Ages, the15 interpretation making difficult of thethe archaeologicalinterpretation of remains the archaeological of some synagogues, remains ofbecause some nosynagogues, similar elements because are no found similar in Sephardic elements synagoguesare found in from Sephardic later centuries. synagogues from later centuries.It seems that the migdal etz or alminbar had antecedents in the synagogue architecture prior to the MiddleIt seems Ages. that Some the synagogues migdal etz or contained alminbarwooden had antecedents platforms in that the hadsynagogue a different architecture purposefrom prior the to theone Middle of the tevah. Ages.Similar Some tosynagogues church pulpits, contained this piece wood ofen furniture platforms would that havehad a been different taken purpose from mosque from thefurnishings, one of the where tevah. the Similarminbar to16 churchis used pulpits, by the imam this piece to give of hisfurniture sermons would (khutbah have). Thisbeen origin taken couldfrom mosqueexplain thefurnishings, similarity where between the the minbar form16 of isa used mosque by theminbar imamand to give a migdal his sermons etz or alminbar (khutbah. The). ThisMigdal origin etz could explain the similarity between the form of a mosque minbar and a migdal etz or alminbar. The Migdal etz was not as holy as the tevah, where the Torah scroll were placed, which means that it could be14 Iused would for like more to thank secular the late Vivianpurposes. B. Mann Community z”l for the opportunity leaders she addressed gave me to assisttheir in communities the creation of a cataloguefrom this for steppedthe exhibition platform,Uneasy and Communion when a, heldnon-Jew in 2010 needed at the Museum to address of Biblical the Artgroup, in New this York. would Thanks happen to this experience, from the I became aware for the first time of this altarpiece panel. 15 In the eighteenth century, the pulpit was brought back into the synagogue, although the new version was modeled after church pulpits ( Krinsky 1985 ). 1416 IThe wouldminbar likeis alwaysto thank positioned the late toVivian the right B. Mann of the mihrabz”l forand the consists opportunity of a staircase, she gave usually me to with assist handrails, in the creation leading to of a asmall catalogue platform, for which the exhibition is often crowned Uneasy by Communion a cupula. Its, originheld in was 2010 a similar at the platform Museum in Muhammad’sof Biblical Art house in New in Medina, York. which he used to give his speeches and be more easily heard by his audience. Traditionally, the imam reads or speaks one Thanksstep below to thethis top experience, of the platform, I became which aware is symbolically for the first reserved time forof thethis Prophet altarpiece (Frishman panel. 1994 ). 15 In the eighteenth century, the pulpit was brought back into the synagogue, although the new version was modeled after church pulpits (Krinsky 1985). 16 The minbar is always positioned to the right of the mihrab and consists of a staircase, usually with handrails, leading to a small platform, which is often crowned by a cupula. Its origin was a similar platform in Muhammad’s house in Medina, which he used to give his speeches and be more easily heard by his audience. Traditionally, the imam reads or speaks one step below the top of the platform, which is symbolically reserved for the Prophet (Frishman 1994).

Arts 2020, 9, 9 17 of 28 was not as holy as the tevah, where the Torah scroll were placed, which means that it could be used for more secular purposes. Community leaders addressed their communities from this stepped platform, Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 28 and when a non-Jew needed to address the group, this would happen from the Migdal etz. For example, when representatives of the civil, royal, or ecclesiastical authorities had to make an announcement or Migdal etz. For example, when representatives of the civil, royal, or ecclesiastical authorities had to notify the community about some matter, they would use the Migdal etz (Ben-Dov 2009). According to make an announcement or notify the community about some matter, they would use the Migdal etz some sources, certain Christian sermons to which the Jews were obliged to listen, were given from the (Ben-Dov 2009). According to some sources, certain Christian sermons to which the Jews were migdal etz or alminbar at the synagogue (Kogman-Appel 2011). obliged to listen, were given from the migdal etz or alminbar at the synagogue (Kogman-Appel 2011).

Figure 13. ViewView of the remains of the tevah of Lorca Synagogue. Author’s photo.

Figure 14. JesusJesus among among the the Doctors, Doctors, panel panel from from a a Spanish Spanish altarpiece, altarpiece, early early fifteenth fifteenth century. century. Courtesy Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Art.

In the last few years, the interpretation of the remains of the synagogues has been controversial, because the idea of east-oriented synagogues is very present among some scholars, and therefore, it is difficult to conceive it being otherwise. Synagogues as large and rich as El Tránsito or Santa María la Blanca of Toledo contributed to create and build that concept, but it is important to understand that those are synagogues built in big cities and founded by important members of the community,

Arts 2020, 9, 9 18 of 28

In the last few years, the interpretation of the remains of the synagogues has been controversial, because the idea of east-oriented synagogues is very present among some scholars, and therefore, it is difficult to conceive it being otherwise. Synagogues as large and rich as El Tránsito or Santa María la Blanca of Toledo contributed to create and build that concept, but it is important to understand that those are synagogues built in big cities and founded by important members of the community, whichArts makes 2020, 9, themx FOR PEER an exception. REVIEW The presence of the alminbar in the synagogue helps to interpret18 of 28 the internal space of medieval Iberian synagogues. As it is shown in the aforementioned panel of the Metropolitanwhich makes Museum them an and exception. the archaeological The presence remainsof the alminbar of Molina, in the synagogue Híjar, and helps Lorca, to theinterpretalminbar the was attachedinternal to the spacetevah of thatmedieval was placedIberian insynagogues. the tevah-heikhal As it is axis.shown in the aforementioned panel of the Metropolitan Museum and the archaeological remains of Molina, Híjar, and Lorca, the alminbar was 5. Theattached Synagogue to the tevah in the that Fourteenth was placed Century in the tevah-heikhal axis.

Some5. The Synagogue of the decorative in the Fourteenth fragments Century found in the Synagogue of Molina belong to the fourteenth century. TheSome analysis of the decorative of these fragments fragments providesfound in the information Synagogue about of Molina the redecoration belong to the donefourteenth inside the synagogue.century. AmongThe analysis all theof these plaster fragments pieces provides that have information been found, about one the redecoration of them stands done out inside because the of its sizesynagogue. and its epigraphicAmong all the decoration. plaster pieces This that specific have be pieceen found, is currently one of them on stands exhibition out because at the of Museum its of Guadalajara.size and its epigraphic In the museum, decoration. the This fragment specific is piece exhibited is currently vertically, on exhibition according at the to theMuseum direction of of the HebrewGuadalajara. inscription In the museum, in order the to makefragment it easier is exhibited to read. vertically, However, according the position to the direction of the pinecone of the in the cornerHebrew of inscription the inscription in order line to suggestsmake it easier that to the read. original However, position the position of the pieceof the waspinecone a diff inerent the one. By turningcorner theof the panel inscription to a horizontal line suggests position that the (Figure origin 15al), position it is possible of the topiece see was that a the different fragment one. containsBy turning the panel to a horizontal position (Figure 15), it is possible to see that the fragment contains the joint where the two panels would have met. That specific point was separated by a line of Hebrew the joint where the two panels would have met. That specific point was separated by a line of Hebrew inscription. This composition can be understood as part of a fourteenth-century heikhal facade model. inscription. This composition can be understood as part of a fourteenth-century heikhal facade model. Thus,Thus, most most of the of piecethe piece belongs belongs to theto the right right panel, panel, and and the the Hebrew Hebrew lineline framedframed the central central panel panel of of the heikhalthefacade. heikhal facade.

FigureFigure 15. Decorative15. Decorative panel panel of of the theheikhal heikhal ofof Molina de de Aragón Aragó nSy Synagogue.nagogue. Author’s Author’s photo. photo.

TheThe decoration decoration of of the theheikhal heikhalin in the the synagoguessynagogues of of Córdoba Córdoba and and El ElTránsito Tránsito is organized is organized into into three vertical panels (Figures 4 and 16). The fact that both synagogues use the same facade model three vertical panels (Figures4 and 16). The fact that both synagogues use the same facade model suggests that this was the trend during the fourteenth century. Apparently, this design was not suggests that this was the trend during the fourteenth century. Apparently, this design was not limited limited to synagogues decorated with plaster relief. According to a responsum written by Asher Ben 17 to synagoguesYehiel,17 the decorated tripartite witharrangement plaster was relief. also According done using to two a responsum mats hung on written either by side Asher of the Ben ark. Yehiel, As the tripartiteresearcher arrangement Purificación Marinetto was also donehas observed, using two coveri matsng a hung wall onwith either textiles side is closely of the related ark. As to researcher wall tiling and plaster relief when they feature a textilic aesthetic. In both cases, complex geometric and vegetal patterns successively repeat, offering a single decorative solution to different supports 17 In(Marinetto a responsum, Sánchez Asher Ben 2012). Yehiel was asked about some mats that were going to be hung on either side of the ark. The iconographyIn the of fragment these mats at aroused the Museum some suspicion of Guadalajara, regarding the whether right theypanel could of the lead heikhal to idolatry has a if superimposed they were hung inside thepolylobulated synagogue (Mann arch 2004 over). a vegetal background that contains an elaborate rhomboidal pattern formed

17 In a responsum, Asher Ben Yehiel was asked about some mats that were going to be hung on either side of the ark. The iconography of these mats aroused some suspicion regarding whether they could lead to idolatry if they were hung inside the synagogue (Mann 2004).

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Purificación Marinetto has observed, covering a wall with textiles is closely related to wall tiling and plaster relief when they feature a textilic aesthetic. In both cases, complex geometric and vegetal patterns successively repeat, offering a single decorative solution to different supports (Marinetto Sánchez 2012). In the fragment at the Museum of Guadalajara, the right panel of the heikhal has a superimposed polylobulated arch over a vegetal background that contains an elaborate rhomboidal pattern formed by a palmetteArts 2020 against, 9, x FOR a redPEERbackground. REVIEW The upper left corner has an inscription that frames19 of the 28 central panel andbyArts a reproduces2020 palmette, 9, x FOR against PEER part REVIEW ofa red Psalms background. 27:4: “One The upper thing left have corner I desired has an of inscription the Lord, that that frames will19 I ofthe seek 28 after; that I maycentral dwell panel in and the reproduces house of the part Lord of Psalms all the 27:4: days “One of thing my life” have (Figure I desired 15 of). the The Lord, pinecone that will located I in by a palmette against a red background. The upper left corner has an inscription that frames the seek after; that I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of my life” (Figure 15). The pinecone the cornercentral of the panel inscription, and reproduces as well part as of the Psalms position 27:4: of“One the thing line have itself, I desired slightly of sloped the Lord, toward that will the I interior located in the corner of the inscription, as well as the position of the line itself, slightly sloped toward of the ark,seek corroborates after; that I may this dwell location in the house in comparison of the Lord all with the thedays synagogues of my life” (Figure of C ó15).rdoba The pinecone and El Tr ánsito the interior of the ark, corroborates this location in comparison with the synagogues of Córdoba and (Figure located17). in the corner of the inscription, as well as the position of the line itself, slightly sloped toward El Tránsito (Figure 17). the interior of the ark, corroborates this location in comparison with the synagogues of Córdoba and El Tránsito (Figure 17).

FigureFigure 16. The16. Theheikhal heikhalof of El ElTr Tránsitoánsito Syna Synagogue.gogue. Author’s Author’s photo. photo. Figure 16. The heikhal of El Tránsito Synagogue. Author’s photo.

Figure 17. Detail of the heikhal of El Tránsito Synagogue. Author’s photo. Figure 17. Detail of the heikhal of El Tránsito Synagogue. Author’s photo. The rightFigure panel 17. ofDetail the heikhal of the facadeheikhal ofof Molina El Trá indicatesnsito Synagogue. that the central Author’s panel photo. protruded over the two side panels as in the heikhal facade of El Tránsito. By analogy, it is possible to suggest that, to The right panel of the heikhal facade of Molina indicates that the central panel protruded over the two side panels as in the heikhal facade of El Tránsito. By analogy, it is possible to suggest that, to

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The right panel of the heikhal facade of Molina indicates that the central panel protruded over the two side panels as in the heikhal facade of El Tránsito. By analogy, it is possible to suggest that, to align the composition, the smooth strip of decoration was the decorative start of a muqarna cornice, because the composition of the facade in the synagogues of Córdoba and El Tránsito are crowned by a cornice (Figure3Arts), although,2020, 9, x FOR in PEER the REVIEW case of C órdoba Synagogue, the side panels protrude over the20 centralof 28 one, and the cornice is only over it (Figure4). align the composition, the smooth strip of decoration was the decorative start of a muqarna cornice, Anotherbecause piecethe composition that may of havethe faca formedde in the part synagogues of the of ark Córdoba decoration and El Tránsito is a fragment are crowned from by a panel that is decorateda cornice (Figure with 3), a large,although, rough in thesebka case(rhombus of Córdoba grid)Synagogue, against the aside vegetal panels background protrude over (Figure the 18). It is possiblecentral toone, consider and the cornice that this is only fragment over it (Figure was part 4). of the heikhal, because the central panels in the synagoguesAnother of El Tr pieceánsito that and may C óhaverdoba formed also part display of the a arksebka decoration. The most is a strikingfragment aspectfrom a panel of this that fragment is the thicknessis decorated of with the panela large, torough which sebka it (rhombus belonged. grid) Such against a panel a vegetal could background not have (Figure been 18). attached It is to a possible to consider that this fragment was part of the heikhal, because the central panels in the simple,synagogues smooth wall. of El Moreover, Tránsito and besides Córdoba being also display unnecessary, a sebka. The it wouldmost striking have aspect reduced of this notably fragment the space in the prayeris the thickness room, and of the it wouldpanel to havewhich added it belonged weight. Such to a the panel building could not structure have been with attached no justification. to a The thicknesssimple, ofsmooth this panelwall. Moreover, may be explainedbesides being by unne thecessary, need to itlevel would the have northern reduced wallnotably and the thus space fill in the empty spacein the prayer in the room, upper and part it would of the have central added panel weight in to the theheikhal building, because structure the with lower no justification. part would have been leftThe empty thickness to store of this the panel Torah may scrolls. be explained The upper by the partneed ofto thelevel niche the northern would wall have and been thus hidden fill in by the the empty space in the upper part of the central panel in the heikhal, because the lower part would thick plaster decoration, creating a surface that allows for the display of the decorative facade. have been left empty to store the Torah scrolls. The upper part of the niche would have been hidden Otherby the plaster thick plaster pieces decoration, belonging creating to the a synagogue surface that mayallows also for bethe relateddisplay of to the the decorative ark. The facade. form of these fragments seemsOther plaster to indicate pieces belonging that they to may the synagogue have belonged may also to be some related type to the of ark. architectural The form of these decoration unrelatedfragments to the structureseems to indicate of thebuilding that they itself,may have because, belonged being to some plaster, type they of architectural could not havedecoration formed part of any architecturalunrelated to the support. structure Two of the small building pieces itself, are because, decorated being with plaster, an acanthus they could leaf not that have is formed rolled up like a volutepart (Figure of any 19architectural(1,2)). One support. of those Two (labelled small pieces in are Figure decorated 19(1,1a)) with an has acanthus a smooth leaf that side is that rolled suggests up like a volute (Figure 19(1,2)). One of those (labelled in Figure 19(1,1a)) has a smooth side that that it belonged to a corner volute on what seems to have been a small Corinthian-inspired capital suggests that it belonged to a corner volute on what seems to have been a small Corinthian-inspired (Figure capital19). The (Figure other 19). piece The other is a plaster piece is fragmenta plaster fragment that could that could have have formed formed part part of anof an arch. arch. The The form of the pieceform suggests of the piece that suggests this was that part this of was the part intrados of the and intrados the rightand the impost right impost of an archof an (Figurearch (Figure 20). Due to its shape,20). it Due was to probably its shape, embedded it was probably in a wall.embedded As is in the a wall. case As for is the the Synagoguecase for the Synagogue of El Tránsito, of El it could be possibleTránsito, that it the couldheikhal be possibleof Molina that alsothe heikhal had arches of Molina into also the hadheikhal arches. However, into the heikhal based. However, on the shape of the piece,based the on arches the shape could of the have piece, been the pointed arches could arches have instead been pointed of polylobulated arches instead ones. of polylobulated ones.

FigureFigure 18. Panel 18. Panel fragment fragment of of Molina Molina de Arag ónó nSynagogue. Synagogue. Author’s Author’s photo. photo.

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Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 28 Another of the plaster fragments found is quite notable due to its epigraphical remains (Figure 21). The HebrewAnother letters of onthe thisplaster piece fragments are not found inside is the quite border; notable instead, due to its they epigraphical are organized remains into (Figure two levels. Based21). on The the Hebrew lines that letters separate on this piece the inscription are not inside as the if theyborder; were instead, brackets, they are it organized seems that, into originally, two therelevels. were Based at least on three the lines lines that of separate inscription, the inscription although as they if they were were likely brackets, much it seems longer. that, The originally, inscription is dividedthere were into at superimposed least three lines lines, of inscription, as if it were although a text they on paper,were likely and much the lines longer. that The form inscription brackets are characteristicis divided ofinto the superimposed foundational lines, plaques as if it ofwere the a Synagoguetext on paper, of and Có therdoba lines and that El form Trá bracketsnsito (Figures are 4 characteristic of the foundational plaques of the Synagogue of Córdoba and El Tránsito (Figures 4 and 16). For this reason, this fragment may have been part of a foundational inscription that publicly and 16). For this reason, this fragment may have been part of a foundational inscription that publicly identified the synagogue founder or perhaps the person who financed the redecoration. In this case, identified the synagogue founder or perhaps the person who financed the redecoration. In this case, the foundationalthe foundational plaque plaque would would have have been been on on thethe heikhal wall,wall, as as in inthe the synagogues synagogues of El of Tránsito El Tránsito and and Córdoba.Córdoba.

FigureFigure 19. Fragment 19. Fragment of aof small a small capital. capital. (1 ()1) and and ( 1a(1a)) didifferentfferent views of of the the same same piece, piece, (2) ( 2fragment) fragment of of a leaf, (a3 leaf,) small (3) small capital capital from from the heikhalthe heikhalof Elof TrEl áTránsitonsito Synagogue. Synagogue. UsedUsed by permission permission

The analysisThe analysis of the of decorativethe decorative fragments fragments suggests suggests that that the synagoguethe synagogue had had a heikhal a heikhalfacade facade divided divided into three vertical panels in the same style of the fourteenth-century synagogues of El into three vertical panels in the same style of the fourteenth-century synagogues of El Tránsito and Tránsito and Córdoba. During the fourteenth century, the Synagogue of Molina combined decorative Córdoba.elements During from the the fourteenth thirteenth century,century, thesuch Synagogue as capitals, of with Molina an combinedark decorated decorative according elements to the from the thirteenthdecorative century, trend of such the fourteenth as capitals, century with an (Fig arkure decorated 22). The local according community to the of decorative Molina built trend and of the fourteenthrefashioned century its synagogue (Figure 22 in). connection The local communityand artistic dialogue of Molina with built other and Jewish refashioned communities its synagogueacross in connectiontime. Molina and is artistica unique dialogue case that withillustrates other the Jewish transmission communities of architectural across time.design Molinaand decorative is a unique case thatmodels illustrates from large the Jewish transmission aljamas, ofsuch architectural as the ones designof Toledo and and decorative Córdoba, modelstoward frommuch largesmaller Jewish aljamasones,, such located as the far onesfrom these of Toledo important and Cpróoductionrdoba, towardcenters of much Jewish smaller culture. ones, located far from these important production centers of Jewish culture.

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Figure 20. 20. ArchArch fragment fragment of the of theMolina Molina de Aragón de Arag Synagogue,ón Synagogue, (left) (viewleft) of view the ofintrados the intrados side, (right side,) the(Figureright special) the20. Arch specialform fragmentto form be em tobedded of be the embedded Molina from the de from topAragón theof th top Synagogue,e piece. of the Author’s piece. (left Author’s) photo.view of photo. the intrados side, (right) the special form to be embedded from the top of the piece. Author’s photo. Figure 20. Arch fragment of the Molina de Aragón Synagogue, (left) view of the intrados side, (right) the special form to be embedded from the top of the piece. Author’s photo.

Figure 21. Fragment with epigraphy of Molina de Aragón Synagogue (right) compared with the

foundationFigure 21. FragmentplaqueFragment of Elwith with Tránsito epigraphy epigraphy Synagogue of of Molina Molina (left ).de de Author’s Aragón Aragón photo. Synagogue ( rightright)) compared with the foundationFigure plaque 21. Fragment of El TrTránsitowithánsito epigraphy SynagogueSynagogue of Molina ((leftleft). ).de Author’s Aragón photo.Synagogue (right) compared with the foundation plaque of El Tránsito Synagogue (left). Author’s photo.

FigureFigure 22.22. Reconstructed Reconstructed22. Reconstructed cross cross cross section section section of Molinaof of MolinaMolina de Arag de óAragónAragónn Synagogue. Synagogue. Synagogue. Drawing Drawing Drawing by Fernando by Fernandoby Fernando Lechuga. Lechuga.FigureUsedLechuga. by 22. permission.Used Reconstructed Used by permission. by permission. cross section of Molina de Aragón Synagogue. Drawing by Fernando Lechuga. Used by permission.

Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 28 Arts 2020, 9, 9 23 of 28 Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 28 6. Other Decorative Elements 6. Other Decorative6. Other ArtsElements 2020 Decorative, 9, x FOR PEER Elements REVIEW 23 of 28 Arts 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW Many23 of 28 small fragments seem to have formed part of a decorative frieze, as well as panels and Many small fragmentsMany small seem fragments to have formed seem topart have of formeda decorative part offrieze, a decorative as well as frieze, panels as and wellwindows. as panels The and small size and uniqueness of the pieces make it impossible to find the connection 6. Other Decorative Elements windows. The smallwindows. size and The uniqueness small size andof the uniqueness pieces make of the it impossible pieces make to it find impossible the connection to findbetween the connection them. Despite that, some of them can be compared to the elements of the decoration in the Many small fragments seem to have formed part of a decorative frieze, as well as panels and between them. Despitebetween that, them.Many some small Despite of fragments them that, can some seem be compared of to themhave canformed to bethe comparedpart elements of a decorative toof thethe elementsdecoration frieze, as of well in the the as decorationSynagogues panels and in of the El Tránsito, Córdoba, and Santa María la Blanca of Toledo. windows. The small size and uniqueness of the pieces make it impossible to find the connection Synagogues of El Tránsito,windows. Córdoba, The small and size Santa and María uniqueness la Blanca of the of piec Toledo.es make it impossible to find the connectionA small fragment that belonged to a little window that had the form of a rounded arch is Synagoguesbetween ofthem. El Tr Despiteánsito, that, Córdoba, some of and them Santa can Marbe coíampared la Blanca to the of elements Toledo. of the decoration in the A small fragmentAbetween smallthat them.belonged fragment Despite to that that,a little belonged some window of them to a thatcan little be had windowcompared the form thatto the of had elementsa rounded the form of the arch of decoration a isparticularly rounded in the arch remarkable is (Figure 23). This piece contains part of the window frame and the latticework Synagogues of El Tránsito, Córdoba, and Santa María la Blanca of Toledo. particularly remarkableparticularly (Figure remarkable 23). This (Figure piece contains 23). This part piece of containsthe window part frame of the and window the latticework frame andmade the latticeworkof plants that would have blocked a considerable amount of natural light from the synagogue, A small fragment that belonged to a little window that had the form of a rounded arch is made of plants that would have blocked a considerable amount of natural light from the synagogue,thus making ventilation of the building its primary purpose. This unique fragment could have madeparticularly of plants thatremarkable would (Figure have blocked 23). This apiece considerable contains part amount of the window of natural frame light and from the latticework the synagogue, thus making ventilationthusmade making of plants the ventilation building that would of its thehave primary building blocked purpose. a its considerable primary This purpose. uniqueamount of fragment natural This unique light could from fragment have thebelonged synagogue, could to haveone of the windows located in the central nave above a decorative frieze, as it is found belonged to onebelonged of thethus windows tomaking oneof ventilationlocated the windows in ofthe the central located building nave in theits above primary central a decorative navepurpose. above This frieze, adecorative unique as it fragment is frieze,foundin couldas the it is synagogueshave found in of Segovia and Santa María la Blanca in Toledo (Figure 24). Two other small in the synagoguesthe synagoguesofbelonged Segovia to ofandone Segovia ofSanta the windows andMaría Santa la located Blanca María inla inthe Blanca Toledo central in nave Toledo(Figure above (Figure24). a decorativeTwo 24). other Two frieze, othersmall fragmentsas small it is found fragments contain Hebrew epigraphy. The first, which consists of three pieces, reproduces the which could refer to Proverbs 8:3 (Figure 25), while the other fragment reads ,(מבוא) fragments containcontain Hebrewin the Hebrew synagogues epigraphy. epigraphy. of Segovia The The first, first,and which Santa which consistsMaría consists la Blanca of of three three in Toledo pieces, pieces, (Figure reproduces reproduces 24). Two theHebrew other Hebrew small letters letters fragments contain Hebrew epigraphy. The first, which consists of three pieces, reproduces the .(Figure (Figure the 26),26), a word that could refer to Psalms 67:2 (Arenas Esteban and Castaño González 2010) ( אתנו )fragments), which couldcould contain referrefer Hebrew toto ProverbsProverbs epigraphy. 8:3 8:3 (Figure (FigureThe first, 25 25),), which while while consists the the other other of fragmentthree fragment pieces, reads reads reproducesמבוא) Hebrew letters which could refer to Proverbs 8:3 (Figure 25), while the other fragment reads ,(מבוא) Hebrew letters refer), to towhich Psalms Psalms could 67:2 67:2 refer (Arenas (Arenas to Proverbs Esteban Esteban 8:3 and (Figureand Castaño Castaño 25), while Gonz González theález other 2010 2010). fragment). readsמבוא )Figure 26),a worda wordHebrew that that couldletters could refer) (אתנו) .(Figure 26), a word that could refer to Psalms 67:2 (Arenas Esteban and Castaño González 2010) (אתנו)

Figure 23. Window latticework fragment, Molina de Aragón Synagogue. Author’s photo. FigureFigure 23. Window23. Window latticework latticework fragment, fragment, MolinaMolina de de Aragón Aragó nSynagogue. Synagogue. Author’s Author’s photo. photo. Figure 23. Window latticework fragment, Molina de Aragón Synagogue. Author’s photo. Figure 23. Window latticework fragment, Molina de Aragón Synagogue. Author’s photo.

Figure 24. Interior of the Santa María la Blanca synagogue of Toledo. Author’s photo. FigureFigure 24. 24.Interior Interior of of the the Santa Santa Mar Maríaía lala Blanca synagogue synagogue of ofToledo. Toledo. Author’s Author’s photo. photo.

Figure 24. Interior of the Santa María la Blanca synagogue of Toledo. Author’s photo.

Figure 24. Interior of the Santa María la Blanca synagogue of Toledo. Author’s photo.

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Figure 25. Fragment with Hebrew epigraphy, MolinaMolina dede AragAragónón Synagogue.Synagogue. Author’s photo.

Figure 26. Fragment with Hebrew epigraphy, MolinaMolina dede AragAragónón Synagogue.Synagogue. Author’s photo.

Another piecepiece isis particularlyparticularly outstandingoutstanding due due to to its its Arabic epigraphy epigraphy (Figure (Figure 27 27),), as as is theis the case case of ofsome some religious religious formulas formulas written written in Arabic in Arabic that can that be can found be found on the wallson the of walls the synagogues of the synagogues of Córdoba of Córdobaand El Tr andánsito. El Tránsito. This is an This example is an example of the Andalusian of the Andalusian heritage heritage among theamong Castilian the Castilian Jews.18 Jews.In the18 InSynagogue the Synagogue of Córdoba, of Córdoba, Psalm 22:29,Psalm written 22:29, written in Arabic in on Arabic two muqarna on two muqarnapanels, decorates panels, decorates the alcove the of alcovethe tevah of, whilethe tevah in the, while Synagogue in the Synagogue of El Tránsito, of El there Tránsito, is an Arabicthere is inscription an Arabic thatinscription includes that the includes formula “happiness,the formula well-being,“happiness, glory well-being, and honor” glory encirclingand honor” the encircling prayer room the prayer (Figures room 28 and (Figures 29). 28 and 29).

18 In 1145, the Almohads arrived to the Iberian Peninsula having an impact on the religious context and making the conditions of all the religious minorities in Al-Andalus worse, forcing many Jewish families to settle in northern Christian kingdoms, 18 bringing In 1145, the ArabAlmohads culture arrived and language to the with Iberian them. Peninsula The Andalusian having Jews an borrowedimpact on many the religious cultural elements context from and the making who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula, contributing a great deal to the intellectual and artistic world of Al-Andalus. Far from forgettingthe conditions this culture, of all theythe religious kept it alive. minorities During the in nextAl-And twoalus centuries, worse, the forcing prevalence many of an Jewish Arab culturalfamilies substrate to settle was in discerniblenorthern Christian among the kingdoms, Jewish communities bringing of Castilethe Arab (Muñoz-Garrido culture and 2017b language). with them. The Andalusian Jews borrowed many cultural elements from the Arabs who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula, contributing a great deal to the intellectual and artistic world of Al-Andalus. Far from forgetting this culture, they kept it alive. During the next two centuries, the prevalence of an Arab cultural substrate was discernible among the Jewish communities of Castile (Muñoz-Garrido 2017b).

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Figure 27. Fragment with Arabic epigraphy, Molina de Aragón Synagogue. Author’s photo.

FigureFigure 27. Fragment27. Fragment with with Arabic Arabic epigraphy, epigraphy, MolinaMolina de de Aragón AragAragónó nSynagogue. Synagogue.Synagogue. Author’s Author’s photo. photo.

FigureFigure 28. Arabic 28. Arabic inscription inscription on on a muqarnaa muqarna decoration decoration panel, panel, Córdoba CCórdobaórdoba Synagogue. Synagogue. Author’s Author’s photo. photo.

Figure 28. Arabic inscription on a muqarna decoration panel, Córdoba Synagogue. Author’s photo.

Figure 29. Arabic inscription frieze around the prayer room of El Tránsito Synagogue of Toledo.

Author’s photo. Figure 29. Arabic inscription frieze around the prayer room of El Tránsito Synagogue of Toledo. Figure 29. Arabic inscription frieze around the prayer room of El Tránsito Synagogue of Toledo. Author’s photo. Figure 29. Arabic inscription frieze around the prayer room of El Tránsito Synagogue of Toledo. Author’s photo.

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The remains of windows, decorative panels, and lines of epigraphy suggest that the Molina de Aragón Synagogue was extensively decorated and that the ornamentation was not limited to the capitals and the heikhal facade. It is quite possible that all of these decorative remains formed part of the upper section of the synagogue’s central nave, as is the case for the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca of Toledo (Figure 24).

7. Conclusions The archeological remains of the Synagogue of Molina de Aragón are very unique. One of the reasons that explains its singularity is the fact that many of the Iberian Medieval synagogues preserved until the present day are located in big and important cities, whereas Molina is a small town on the border of the Kingdom of Castile. This synagogue is an example of a modest type of synagogue that existed in rural areas. In addition, its internal decoration constitutes a special case; the medieval synagogues preserved until today were founded by important members of the Jewish community who were able to build and decorate the synagogue simultaneously. That is the reason synagogues such as the ones of Córdoba and El Tránsito present a very unitary appearance with respect to their architecture and decoration. On the contrary, the remains of Molina bring to light other type of patronage, more likely to occur in a rural context. The result of this was the construction of a synagogue that happened to be refashioned over time. The Synagogue of Molina was built and decorated in the second half of the thirteenth century, and it was redecorated later on in the fourteenth century, creating an artistic dialogue with others Jewish communities in important cultural centers. The result was a synagogue with three naves that combined decorative elements from the thirteenth century, including pillar capitals and a heikhal facade in the same line as the decorative trends of the fourteenth century, such as the synagogues of Córdoba and El Tránsito. The primitively decorated capitals, with five different models, were arranged in pairs on the pillars that separated the central nave of the synagogue, as in Santa María la Blanca of Toledo. It also appears that the decoration from the upper part of the central nave was preserved, where a decorative frieze probably ran, also similar to what can be found in the Santa María la Blanca Synagogue in Toledo. The heikhal appears to have been located on the north wall, as suggested by the placement of the tevah and alminbar. The north wall also contains a space that could have been used to hold the Torah scrolls. In the fourteenth century, the synagogue was redecorated, and the north wall was covered with new plaster. The large portion of decoration found with Hebrew inscriptions reveals that the synagogue followed the heikhal facade model used in the Córdoba and El Tránsito synagogues, a model made up of three panels in which the central panel opens to connect the niche holding the ark to the prayer room. The architecture of the Molina de Aragón Synagogue is lively and attests to a local community that did not allow its place of worship to become old and antiquated. The fourteenth-century redecoration adopted the fashion of the moment. Moreover, the remodeling work done indicates that this house of worship was active for a very long time.

Funding: The research for this essay was carried out under the auspices of the research project Language and Literature of Rabbinic and Medieval Judaism (FFI2016-78171-P), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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