Conor-Lucey-Building-Reputations.Pdf

i Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ulig reputations Building ii Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document LOU TAYLOR The studyofdress history DEBORAHSUGG RYAN Domestic designandsuburban Modernism Idealhomes,1918– 39 JESSEADAMS STEIN Material culture andtangible labour Hot metal KATE SMITH Perceiving production inEngland,1700– 1830 Materialgoods,moving hands STACEY SLOBODA Britain Commerce andcriticalornamentineighteenth- century Chinoiserie CATHARINE ROSSI post-wartopostmodernism From Crafting designin Italy JOHN POTVIN interior Queer aesthetics,materialculture andthemodern Bachelors ofadifferent sort MICHELLEO’MALLEYANDEVELYN WELCH The materialRenaissance IMOGEN HART Arts andCrafts objects JANEHAMLETT 1850– 1910 Domestic interiorsandthemiddle- class family, Materialrelations EDITEDBYPETER DORMER and future Status The culture of craft BECKY E. CONEKIN The 1951Festival ofBritain ‘The autobiography ofanation’ HELENA CHANCE the digital age A historyofcorporate landscapesfrom theindustrialto The factory ina garden CHRISTOPHER BREWARD A newhistoryoffashionable dress The culture offashion EDITEDBYREGINALEEBLASZCZYK ANDVÉRONIQUE POUILLARD The creation ofaglobalindustry European fashion H. SMITH EDITEDBYCHRISTY ANDERSON,ANNEDUNLOP ANDPAMELA Materials, practices, cultural logics,c.1250– 1750 The matter of art JASMINE ALLEN exhibitions, 1851– 1900 Nineteenth-centurystainedglassandtheinternational Windows forthe world also availableinthe series

ChristopherBreward Pu Greenhalgh Paul founding editor general editor il Sherman Bill and

iii Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Architecture andtheartisan,1750– 1830 ulig reputations Building Mnhse Uiest Press University Manchester Cnr Lucey Conor

iv Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document I B 98156 940 9781526119940 ISBN A cataloguerecord forthisbook is availablefrom theBritish Library BritishLibraryCataloguing- in- Publication Data SAH/ Mellon AuthorAwards oftheSocietyArchitectural Historians Illustrations inthisbookwere fundedinpartorwholebyagrant from the www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk Manchester M1 7JA Street, Altrincham University Press Manchester by Published Patents Act1988. been assertedbyhiminaccordance withtheCopyright,Designsand The rightofConorLuceytobeidentifiedastheauthorthisworkhas Lucey 2018 Conor © Copyright Britain by TJ InternationalLtd,Padstow Great in Printed Typeset byOutofHousePublishing accurate orappropriate. and doesnotguarantee thatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain, for anyexternalorthird- party internetwebsitesreferred tointhisbook, The publisherhasnoresponsibility forthepersistenceoraccuracy ofURLs published 2018 First

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v Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document In lovingmemoryofmyparents

vi Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document vii Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 4 3 2 1 Building sales: advertisingandtheproperty market Decorating houses: style,tasteandthebusinessofdecoration Designing houses: thefaçadeandthearchitecture ofstreet Building reputations: a genteellifeintrade Acknowledgements Index bibliography Select rehabilitated? builder Conclusion: the and square Introduction: anewapologyforthebuilder figures of List plates of List

Contents

233 214 208 168 122 xvii 75 26

xi ix 1 viii Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ix Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 10 11 12 13 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

(Courtesy oftheNationalLibrary ofIreland) Stapleton Collection: designs fordoorcases inDublin,c. 1790. D0002R, Edinburgh Town Council,1636–1845) Edinburgh, 1791. (Edinburgh CityArchives, MacleodBundle Alexander Crawford, elevationforapairofhousesat Queen Street, Bundle D00117,Edinburgh Town Council,1790) Castle Street, Edinburgh, 1790. (Edinburgh CityArchives, Macleod John Hayand Baxter, elevationforatenementbuildingat D0021R, Edinburgh Town Council,1784–1876) Edinburgh, 1790. (Edinburgh CityArchives, MacleodBundle Alexander Balfour, elevationfora pairofhousesatQueenStreet, D00117, Edinburgh Town Council,1790) Edinburgh, 1790. (Edinburgh CityArchives, MacleodBundle Alexander Balfour, elevationfora houseatQueenStreet, Hill), London,forMrFirth,c. 1800.(RIBACollections) Michael Searles,elevationforahouseinBrixtonCauseway(Brixton c. 1790.(CourtesyNationalLibrary ofIreland) Stapleton Collection: elevationforarow ofhousesinDublin, 1810. (HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania) Robert Mills,elevationforBenjaminChewhouse,Philadelphia, London, c. 1796.(©SirJohnSoane’sMuseum,London) George Dancetheyounger, planandelevationforAlfred Place, c. 1790.(CourtesyoftheNationalLibrary ofIreland) Stapleton Collection: elevation forapairofhousesinDublin, c. 1790.(CourtesyoftheNational Library of Ireland) Stapleton Collection: elevation forapairofhousesinDublin, (Photography ©New York HistoricalSociety) John McComb,Jr, elevationforahouse,New York, c. 1800. c. 1800.(Photography ©New York HistoricalSociety) John McComb,Jr, elevationforahouseatQueenStreet, New York, Plates x Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document x List of plates 14 15 16

(Photography ©New York HistoricalSociety) John McComb,Jr, elevationforapairofhouses,New York, c. 1800. Museum, London.Photo: HeritagePartners) Northumberland House,London, 1770.(©SirJohnSoane’s Robert Adam,ceilingdesignforthedrawing- room at Dublin, c. 1780.(CourtesyoftheNationalLibrary ofIreland) Stapleton Collection: ceilingdesignforanunidentifiedhousein

xi Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document I.1 1.8 I.2 1.9 I.3 1.10 1.1 1.11 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

Bedford Square, London,1775– 83. (Author’scollection) (© Trustees of theBritishMuseum) Matthew andMaryDarly, ‘Theantiquearchitect’, 1773. Jacob Vogdes, carpenter, 1810– 12. (Author’scollection) 257–263SouthFourth Street, Philadelphia,builtby (© Trustees oftheBritishMuseum) Matthew andMary Darly, ‘Thebuildermacaroni’, 1772. from A.W.N. Pugin,‘Temple oftaste,andarchitectural repository’ College) Photo: Imaging Department ©President and Fellows ofHarvard Museum, GiftofPeter G. andElizabethS. Neumann,2009.156. march ofbricks andmorter , 1829.(Harvard ArtMuseums/ Fogg George Cruikshank, (Author’s collection) orders ofarchitecture, according toPalladio (Edinburgh, 1765). George Jameson,self- portrait from (Getty Research Institute) ‘The bricklayer’from (Yale UniversityArtGallery) Charles WilsonPeale, Sir JoshuaReynolds, (Image ©AshmoleanMuseum,UniversityofOxford) City Council) William Cuming, c. 1797.(©MuseumofLondon) JohnMiddletonwithhisfamilyindrawingroom, Anon., (Author’s collection) Matthew andMary Darly, ‘Themacaroni bricklayer’,1772. Walpole Library, Yale University) John Kay, Contrasts (London,1836).(WikimediaCommons)

Francis Braidwood , 1786.(CourtesyofThe Lewis

Charles Thorp , 1803.(CourtesyDublin

London goingoutoftown – or – The , 1764. James Paine, architect andhisson, The bookoftrades (London,1818). , 1774. William Buckland ,

Figures

Thirty- three designswiththe

page 2 42 43 47 33 49 34 35 36 37 38 40 3 8 xii Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document xii List of fi 1.12 1.24 1.13 1.25 1.14 1.26 1.15 1.27 1.16 2.1 1.17 2.2 1.18 2.3 1.19 2.4 1.20 2.5 1.21 1.22 1.23

(Getty Research Institute) ‘The carpenter’from Reinberger) 10th Street, Philadelphia, c.1811.(CourtesyofMark Handbill ofRobertWellford, ornamentmanufactoryat (Getty Research Institute) ‘The brickmaker’from Westminster, n.d.(©TheTrustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card of ThomasBrown, plasterofParis merchant of Pennsylvania) Company ofPhiladelphia(detail),1811.(HistoricalSociety John Cromwell’s membershipcertificatefortheBricklayers’ Market, London,c.1789.(©TheTrustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card of J. Parry, bricklayerandplasterer ofStJames’s John JohnsonCollection,Trade Cards 1(65)) (The BodleianLibraries, TheUniversityofOxford, Trade card of‘Green’s bricklayersandbuilders’,n.d. Collection, EmploymentFolder: Trades andProfessions (Darton)) Bodleian Libraries, TheUniversityofOxford, JohnJohnson William Darton,‘Trades andprofessions’ (details),n.d.(The London, n.d.(©TheTrustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card ofThomasStibbs,carpenterandjoinerMoorfields, (Author’s collection) Robert Adam,Charlotte Square North, Edinburgh, designed 1791. (© TheTrustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card ofB. Johnson,plasterer ofPiccadilly, London,c.1786. 46–47Bedford Square, London,1777– 82. (Author’scollection) (© TheTrustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card ofG. Silk,plasterer ofHolborn,London,c.1788. (© SirJohnSoane’sMuseum, London) Royal Academylecture drawing ofMansfieldStreet, London. Berkshire, c.1794. (©TheTrustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card ofAlexanderMcLeod,plasterer ofWinkfield, 1767– 74. (WikimediaCommons) George Dance theyounger, TheCircus, London(dem.), London, c.1791.(©TheTrustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card ofWilliamHughes,carpenterCheapside, Institute) Themodernbuilder’s assistant (London,1757).(GettyResearch Elevation for‘asmalltownhouse’(plate46) from RobertMorris, London, c.1799.(©TheTrustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card ofEdward Weston, bricklayerofChelsea, National Library of Ireland) Anglesea Street, Dublin, c.1795.(Courtesyofthe Trade card ofWilliamSalmon,ornamentmanufactoryat Australia) manufacturer of New York, 1806.(NationalLibrary of Broadside ofGeorge Andrews, compositionornament gures

The bookoftrades (London,1818). Little Jack ofalltrades (London,1814).

50 63 51 64 52 65 56 67 57 76 58 77 59 83 60 84 60 85 61 62 62 xiii Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 2.6 2.16 2.7 2.17 2.8 2.18 2.9 2.19 2.10 2.20 2.11 3.1 2.12 3.2 2.13 2.14 2.15

(Getty Research Institute) (plate 20) from John Carter, ‘A designofatownhouseforprivategentleman’ Society) New York, c.1800.(Photography ©New York Historical John McComb,Jr, designforan unidentifiedhouse, collection) and tradesman’s compleat assistant (London,1770).(Private House elevationfrom JohnLeadbeater, body ofarchitecture (London,1756).(Getty Research Institute) Design foratownhouse (plate34) from IsaacWare, guide (Dublin,1813).(Privatecollection) House elevationfrom ThomasHumphreys, c. 1800.(Photography ©New York Historical Society) John McComb,Jr, designforarow ofhouses,New York, (Boston, 1806).(repr., NewYork: Dover, 1969) and DanielRaynerd, ‘Elevation forasmalltownhouse’(plate33) from AsherBenjamin Institute) and ornamentalarchitecture (London,1767).(Getty Research elevation’ (plates28and29) from JohnCrunden, ‘Designs forthree townhouses,making oneregular (repr., NewYork: Dover, 1969) Daniel Raynerd, ‘Elevation foratownhouse’(plate34) from AsherBenjaminand Institute) Thepracticalhousecarpenter (London,1794).(Getty Research Elevation foratown house(plate116) from WilliamPain, Photo: Aron Bar- Hama) Street, Edinburgh, 1771.(©SirJohnSoane’sMuseum,London. Robert Adam,elevationforBaron RobertOrd’s houseatQueen Institute) Thebuilder’s magazine (London,1774– 78). (GettyResearch or dining- room; lady’sdressing- room; andhall)(plate22) from ‘Designs forentablatures forrooms’ ( D0012R, Edinburgh Town Council,1761– 94) Edinburgh, 1786. (Edinburgh CityArchives, MacleodBundle, John BaxterandHay, design forahouseinGeorge Street, (Courtesy ofthe NationalLibrary ofIreland) Design foradecorative overdoor from theStapleton Collection. Palladio (Edinburgh, 1765).(Author’scollection) Thirty- three designswiththeordersofarchitecture, according to Elevation foranurbandwelling(plate25) from George Jameson, c. 1789– 93. (WikimediaCommons) Merrion Square South(left)andMerrionStreet, Dublin, (Photography © New York HistoricalSociety) design’d forRufusKingesq.’, Broadway, New York, c.1794. George StantonandJohnMcComb,Jr, ‘ElivationofaHouse

The builder’s magazine (London,1774– 78). The Americanbuilder’s companion (Boston,1806). The Americanbuilder’s companion

top tobottom: drawing- The gentleman

The Irishbuilder’s

Convenient A complete

List of fi

gures 106 108 109 109 110 111 128 129 101

86 87 88 89 90 95 97 98 xiii xiv Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document xiv List of fi 3.14 3.3 3.15 3.4 3.16 3.5 3.17 3.6 3.18 3.7 3.19 3.8 3.20 3.9 3.10 3.21 3.11 3.22 3.12 3.13

Charleston, c.1803.(Author’scollection) Ceiling plasterworkinthehallatJosephManigaultHouse, (Courtesy PhillipsLibrary, Peabody EssexMuseum,Salem, MA) Mansion, 215EssexStreet, Salem,MA(dem.),1795– 98. Samuel McIntire, designsfortheovalroom attheDerby (Courtesy MarkReinberger) Robert Wellford, ‘GoddessofLiberty’compositionornament. of theHarewood HouseTrust) Square’ from the‘SketchBookof Rose’. (Reproduced bycourtesy Joseph Rose,Jr, ceilingdesignfor‘Lord Grimston’sinGrosvenor c. 1800.(Author’scollection) Punch andgougechimneypiece atUpsala,Philadelphia, Library ofIreland) Great DenmarkStreet, Dublin,c. 1786. (CourtesyoftheNational Ceiling designfortheVenus drawing- room atBelvedere House, Collection. (CourtesyNationalLibrary ofIreland) Numbered designsforplasterworkfriezes from theStapleton (repr. New York: Dover, 2013) 22) from William Pain, Design for‘A moderncomposedcapitalforacolumn’(plate (dem.), Dublin,c.1795.(CourtesyIrishArchitectural Archive) Ceiling plasterwork infront drawing- room at59MountjoySquare National Library of Ireland) Ceiling designfrom theStapletonCollection.(Courtesyof Square, Dublin,c.1795.(CourtesyIrishArchitectural Archive) Ceiling plasterwork infront drawing- room at60Mountjoy c. 1786.(CourtesyIrishArchitectural Archive) Ceiling offront drawing- room at4Harcourt Street, Dublin(dem.), (Historic EnglandArchive) Ceiling offront drawing- room at5RoyalCrescent, Bath,c.1775. (Author’s collection) Composition ornament at53MountjoySquare, Dublin,c.1791. Frizes’, compiled 1783.(RIBACollections) Frieze designsbyJosephRose,Jr, from ‘SketchesofOrnamented (Author’s collection) Composition ornamentat54MountjoySquare, Dublin,c.1791. (Boston, 1806).(repr., New York: Dover, 1969) Benjamin andDanielRaynerd, Designs for‘ornamentalstuccoceilings’(plate27) from Asher Dover, 1970). (1777–92).(repr. New York: in theEtruscan andgrotesquestyles designs ofvases,figures,medallions, pilasters,andotherornaments c. 1787,andplate21,fig. 88 from Michelangelo Pergolesi, Ceiling paintinginrear drawing- room at10HumeStreet, Dublin, (London, 1776).(Author’scollection) 20) from George Richardson, ceilingdesignforan‘anti- chamber’ (plate Philadelphia, c.1788.(Author’scollection) Ceiling plasterworkinthedining- room atTheSolitude, gures A bookofceilings inthestileofantiquegrotesque

The practicalbuilder (London,1774).

The Americanbuilder’s companion

Original

144 145 130 147 131 148 132 152 133 154 134 135 155 135 157 137 158 137 159 140 xv Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 4.12 4.1 4.13 4.2 4.14 4.3 4.15 4.4 4.16 4.5 4.17 4.6 C.1 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11

7 July1788. of theUnitedStates , 11March 1799. 7 May1782; Illustrated houseadvertisements, London. Photo: HeritagePartners) Adelphi, London,c.1768– 69. (©SirJohnSoane’sMuseum, Robert andJamesAdam,elevationoftheRoyalTerrace atthe Northumberland. (©Trustees oftheBritishMuseum) Trade card ofJohnRiddell,auctioneerMorpeth, Dublin (detail),1787.(CourtesyCityCouncil) Thomas Sherrard, proposal forwestsideofMountjoySquare, Ireland, andViscountDunluce) Deputy Keeper of theRecords, PublicRecord Office ofNorthern Bill ofsaleforAntrimHouse,Dublin,1804.(Courtesythe Massachusetts HistoricalSociety) Massachusetts Magazine , vol.6,February 1794.(Collectionofthe Charles Bulfinch,designforTontine Crescent, Bostonfrom the (Courtesy oftheIrishArchitectural Archive) Trade card of I. Shields,auctioneerofStafford Street, Dublin. Archives ofIreland) National Archives ofIreland andtheDirector ofthe National Dublin, c.1790.(Reproduced withthekindpermissionof John Brownrigg, planofbuildingground toletatGardiner Street, House advertisement, 1817– 18. (TheLibrary CompanyofPhiladelphia) Advertising rates forthe House advertisement, 15 October1798. House advertisement, Louisburg Square, Boston,begun1826.(Author’scollection) House advertisement, House advertisement, (Philadelphia), 22March 1792and18July1792. Benjamin Franklin’s houseadvertisedin 6 April1819. Real estatesection(detail)from ‘Land andHouses’sectionheading,

Pennsylvania Packet , 13August1787;and

Gazetteer (Boston),13April1803. Freeman’s Journal (Dublin),1March 1781. (Boston), Independent Chronicle New York Journal , 7May1767. Dublin Journal , 5September1791. Aurora newspaper(Philadelphia),

(Philadelphia), Franklin Gazette

Pennsylvania Evening Post ,

Hibernian Journal General Advertiser

(Dublin), Gazette

List of fi

gures 186 187 171 188 172 189 172 190 173 196 181 197 182 210 183 183 184 185 xv xvi Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document xvii Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document mentoring, supportandfriendship. truly fortunate tohavehersustained archetype ofacademic scholarship.I am the eighteenthcentury, andwhoseconsummateresearch remains formethe exemplary teachingfirstinspired mypostgraduate studiesinthedirection of ChristineCasey, whose principal debtistomydoctoral adviserProfessor and postdoctoral research conductedoverthecourse ofthepastdecade.My This project has been alongtimeinformation,andemerged from doctoral interior ascommodity’,inChristineCasey(ed.), orcommerce? Thetownhouse journals andeditedcollections: ‘Classicism and ideasexplored in Association forUrbanHistoryandtheofArt Historians.Themes Historians, theBritishSocietyforEighteenth- Century Studies,theEuropean aired inconferences organized by, amongothers,theSociety of Architectural Society ofArchitectural Historians.Various topicspresented here were first by theNationalUniversityofIreland andanSAH/ Mellon AuthorAward ofthe Generous financialsupportforimagerightsandpermissionswasawarded Centre forStudies inBritishArtalsofacilitatedresearch captured inthetext. travel grants bestowedbytheRoyalIrishAcademyandPaul Mellon the IrishgovernmentandEU(MarieCurieActions).Scholarships fellowship awarded bytheIrishResearch Council,andjointlyfundedby material. to therespective editorsandpublishersfor permissiontoreproduce this agents oftheIrishAdamesque’, Thefusionofneoclassical principles neoclassicismandthe Dublinartisan’,inLynda Mulvin(ed.), pedagogies: Dublin townhouse Buildingreputations (uln Four CourtsPress, 2010);‘Pattern books and (Dublin: Chapter 3 Chapter 3 Acknowledgements wasmadepossiblebyathree- year postdoctoral were firstpublishedinpartthefollowing Architectural History (Dublin: Wordwell, 2011);and‘British (Dublin: Wordwell, 56(2013).I am grateful The eighteenthcentury xviii Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document xviii Acknowledgements Philadelphia, Edinburgh CityArchives, theHistorical SocietyofPennsylvania, Athenaeum of the following institutions fortheiroutstanding assistance: the liketosingleout the bibliography are threaded throughout thetext.I would and information gleaned from public collections too numerous to delineate in text inmyriad ways. remarks andsuggestionsoffered bytheanonymousreviewers improved the munity (aninterpretation already indebtedinparttohisownresearch). Critical Lewis, whoread andadvisedonmyinterpretation ofEdinburgh’s buildingcom- Schmidt, ColinThomandRuthThorpe.Particular thanksare duetoAnthony Moran, Lynda Mulvin,FinolaO’Kane,MichelaRosso,AlistairRowan,Freek JohnMontague,Anna McKellar, Edward McParland, EmilyMark-FitzGerald Richard Ireland, WilliamLaffan,EveMcAulay, Patricia McCarthy, Elizabeth Foster, SusanGalavan,thelateKnightofGlin, JudithHill,AideenIreland, Europe, includingLoreto Calderon, Sarah Drumm,AlisonFitzGerald, Sarah helpful conversationwithfriendsandcolleaguesacross Ireland, theUKand benefitedfrom American dimensiontomyresearch). Over theyears I have Chakraborty, Professor ofArtHistoryatUCD(whoprudentlyencouraged the Scott, Director of theIrishArtResearch Centre atTrinity, andKathleenJames- academic andadministrative staffinbothinstitutions, particularly Yvonne grateful for thesupportandfriendshipof tenure inOctober 2017).I am was awarded the staff on a permanent basis in September 2016 (and I joined School ofArtHistoryandCultural Policy, UniversityCollegeDublin,where Architecture at Trinity College Dublin (2015– 16), and was completed at the photographic collection ofAmericancompositionornament. and SouthCarolina. MarkReinberger kindlyshared withme his important including eye- opening visitstocities,townsandplantationsacross Virginia Daniella Costawasawonderfulcompanionthrough theAmericanSouth, who welcomed me at their 2015 Summer Institute programme in Charleston. and studentsoftheMuseumEarlySouthernDecorative Arts,Salem,NC, facilitated myinquiriesandinspections.A special noteofgratitude tothestaff to themanycurators ofhousemuseumsfrom MassachusettstoGeorgia who Routh, SusanSchoelwer, DamieStillman,Sandra Tatman, Aaron Wunsch and Laverty, CarlLounsbury, Patricia Lowe,RogerMoss,Donna Rilling,Miranda Duff, JamesGergat, Alexandra Kirtley, RosemaryKrill, Dean Lahikainen,Bruce environment (and muchelsebesides).InAmerica,thanksare dueto: Charles Bryn MawrCollege,whoprovided orientationwithinthecity’shistoricbuilt and adviceonsources forthehistoryofPhiladelphia;andtoJeffrey Cohen, Duffin oftheUniversityArchives andRecords CenteratPenn forhisgenerosity beforever indebtedtoJim empirical methodattheheartofthisbook,I will his scholarlycounsel,professional guidanceandwarmhospitality. Giventhe DavidBrownlee, for amespeciallyobligedtomy adviser there, Professor I Department oftheHistoryArtatUniversityPennsylvania (2013– Archives onbothsidesoftheAtlantichave beencentral to thisstudy, The manuscriptproceeded apaceintheDepartmentofHistoryArtand The textfirstcametofruitionduringtwoproductive yearsinthe 15). xix Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document and Eoin,inlovingmemoryofmyparents ChristineandMichael. sister Niamh,mybrother- ously provided byUCDCollegeofArtsandHumanities. Feeney, mycopy- editor. EileenO’Neillprepared the index with fundinggener- andtoChristopher Brennan, CommissioningEditor, andAlunRichards, City Archives. Thanksare alsodue totheteamatMUP, especiallyEmma the Irish Architectural Archive, the National Library of Ireland and Philadelphia Thisbookisdedicatedtomyfamilywithloveandgratitude: to mybeloved in- law Charlie, my niece Eva and nephews Robert Acknowledgements

xix xx Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 1 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document a positionofparticularsignificance inAmericanarchitectural histories, italism andcontracted labour. Thebuildingartisan,despite enjoying erature focused ontherelational effectsofurbanism,industrializedcap- character havearguably beenmarginalized inaburgeoning modernlit- manifestation oftheclassical hegemony, itsform,designandaesthetic architectural discourseasbothajerry- built commodityandaninferior on thehistoricbuiltenvironment. Disparaged ineighteenth- misunderstood andmisrepresented buildingtypesinthewiderdiscourse quity, however, thebricktownhousearguably remains oneofthemost both academiccircles andinthepopularimagination.Despiteits ubi- remains central tointerpretations ofhistoricspace,timeandplacein – of ‘Georgian’, ‘Colonial’or‘Federal’ architectures theurbanhouse most conspicuousmonumentsoftheperiod – underthevariousrubrics cities. Indeed,whilecivicandecclesiasticalbuildings constitutethe a significantrole inthenationalandcultural identitiesofthesemodern Baltimore andPhiladelphia,thishistoricbuildingstockcontinuesto play urban cityplans.From London,Bristol,DublinandLimericktoBoston, streets andsquares thatcomprisethelinksandpivotsof‘enlightened’ plasterers andrelated tradesmen, thesehousescollectivelyformedthe in large numbersbyartisancommunitiesofbricklayers,carpenters, throughout theBritishAtlanticworld(Figures turies remains oneofthemostpotentsymbolsarchitectural modernity brick terraced (or row) house of the eighteenth and early nineteenth cen- and subjecttobothabstract theorizingandthemarketeconomy, the Built inresponse toabroad range ofsocialandeconomicimperatives, is theproper definitionofthehistorian’s task. It isnotknowingwhatpeopledidbutunderstandingtheythoughtthat Introduction: anew apology for thebuilder

I.1 and RG Collingwood R.G. I.2 ). Produced century 1

2 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 2 Building reputations the focushere isonprocesses ofmakingand vocabulariesofdesign establish theirrightfulplaceswithinthearchitectural firmament. the reputations ofbothproduct (house)andproducer (builder),andto tive” partsofthebuildingworld’,thisbookisanattempt torehabilitate largely unheeded, “dumbing- down” andlossofcreativity in the “opera- dominated culture ofthetwentiethcenturyhaswitnessed‘anenormous, design, styleandtaste. a figure of building production, disassociated from issues relating to eighteenth- and interiordecoration (theDublinplasterer MichaelStapleton),the as architectural pedagogy(theBostoncarpenterAsherBenjamin) critical attentionandenjoyreputations ofdistinctioninfieldsasvarious has suffered asimilarfate.Whilesomeindividualshavereceived sustained I.1 similarities. matrix’, thepresent narrative foregrounds commonalitiesrather thandis- same political,socialoreconomic order will notyieldaninvariabledesign express identical,orevensimilarhuman content,andconversely, the of Spiro Kostof’s observationthat‘thesameurbanformdoes notperforce Bedford Square, London,1775– 83. Taking acuefrom BrianHanson’sassertion thatthearchitect- andearlynineteenth- century tradesman remains essentially 4

Whilegeographical orregional inflectionsare notignored, 2

3 Mindful 3 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document America. largest cityinthecoloniesandprincipal metropolis of early national ‘second city’ofthenascent Britishempire andPhiladelphiaasboththe world, focusedonLondon asitscultural and economichub,Dublinas elite townhouseintheforemost citiesofthe eighteenthcentury Atlantic sequent chaptersconsider thedesign,decoration andmarketingofthe reception withincontemporary socialandarchitectural discourse,sub- Opening withacultural historyofthebuildingtradesman intermsofhis on increasingly industrializedprocesses inconstructionanddecoration. building capitalistandthestandardization ofarchitectural formbased architectural style), the emerging autonomy of the building artisan as a and efflorescence ofneoclassicism(thefirstself- consciously ‘modern’ end oftheGeorgian era, thesedateparameters alsoembrace thebirth and bytheabsolutedivisionbetween‘architecture’ and‘building’atthe the beginningofmodernera inarchitectural designatmid- in historiesofarchitecture inBritainanditscolonies.Bookendedby 1750 and1830 – widelyrecognized asaperiodofcriticaltransformation common tobuildingproducers incities across theAtlantic worldbetween 257– 263 SouthFourth Street, Philadelphia, builtby Jacob Vogdes, carpenter, 1810– 12. I.2 Introduction century

3 4 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 4 Building reputations design asaconstituentelement ofhousebuildingwithinartisanalcircles. RitchieGarrisonandothersthatconsider McKellar, CarlLounsbury, J. era routinely produced designsoftheirownvolition,especiallythose tradesmen, confirmsthat‘manyMasterWorkmen’ intheearlymodern Indeed, JosephMoxon’s sumption isnotexplored. function asmarketingtoolswithinthecontextofgenteel real estate con- illustrate chaptersonindividualtrades from bricklayingtoglazing,their and methods;sowhiletrade cards andbillheadsare usedextensivelyto industry inGeorgian Englandalsonecessarilyforegrounds materials minedly Marxist)frameworks. JamesAyres’s studyoftheconstruction establishing complexsocio- economic (and,inthe case ofClarke,deter- theses, issuesofdesignandtasteare necessarilydownplayedinfavour of So, whilethebrickhouseasatypologyremains central totheirrespective of theGeorgian era. Chippendale andothercelebrated (andcommercially shrewd) tastemakers taste andmaterialculture, arguing forhisplacealongsideWedgwood, ther situatesthebuildingtradesman withinthewiderliterature ondesign, luxury craftsmanship thatdefinedanewurbaneconomy, thisstudyfur- struction industryasoneofthemostimportantelementsingrowth of Sensible ofPeter Borsay’sdescriptionoftheeighteenth- century con- in which builders made houses and, in the process, made reputations. early nineteenth- century buildingproduction toilluminatetheways ways, thisaccountdraws more particularlyonstudiesofeighteenth- and tories ofLondon,DublinandPhiladelphiahaveinformedthetextinmyriad beyond thescopeofpresent narrative. Equally, whileclassicurbanhis- torical implicationsofhousebuildingforearlymodernurbanizationlie instruments thatfacilitatedproperty speculation,forexample,orthehis- afullanalysisofthelegalandfinancial siderable treatment elsewhere: odological approach. Manyofthesecontextshavealready received con- which provides thecontextforstudyiswideranging inscopeandmeth- Given theinterdisciplinary nature ofthisbook,thesecondaryliterature artisan: the and Architecture ingly industrializedprocesses ofconstructionandmaterialsmanufacture. labour, and on the standardization of architectural form through increas- dynamics ofsocialrelations, onsystemsofsubcontracting andwage London andPhiladelphiarespectively, consideringitsimpactonthe examined theemergence ofcapitalistmodesbuildingproduction in Important studiesbyLindaClarkeandDonnaRilling,forexample,have consistent feature ofurbanhousehistoriesonbothsidestheAtlantic. and home,thesocialproduction ofthebuiltenvironment hasremained a More pertinentforthepresent narrative are historiesbyElizabeth Despitesomedisparitiesinthebroader historiographies ofhouse 7

Mechanick exercises 9

5 ahistoriographical gloss (1703),aguideforbuilding

8 6

5 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document concerned foremost withmaking‘afastsale’. they ‘rarely represent anoriginalvision’,beingtheproduct ofindividuals equally dismissive: while thatcity’sbrickterraces ‘oftenhavegreat charm’ petitive property marketshasnotsubstantiallyevolvedintheinterim. builders designedtheirproducts andmarketedtheirserviceswithincom- not afford tobebehindinquestionsoftaste’,ourunderstandinghow 1945, acknowledgedthateighteenth- century Londontradesmen ‘could of terraced housesasthe‘lowestdenominator’ofarchitectural design, canonical tastes.Ignoringtheconnoisseurialbiasembodiedinevaluations century Britainpositnewwaysofthinkingabouttheartisan’sresponse to established teleologicalhistoriesofarchitectural designineighteenth- fashionable atthetime.’ with thespiritofindividualityandwouldhappilycopywhateverdetailwas of Georgian citieswere highlyconventionalmen;theywere notimbued ging nuancesoffashion’,are nonetheless unequivocalthat‘Thebuilders builders, ‘beingaware ofmarkettrends, were intenselyaware ofthechan- Dan CruickshankandNeilBurton,forexample,althoughrecognizing that addressed inthisliterature. business ofbuildingandthetastehasyettobeadequately books andthevocabularyofbuilt economic andlegalimperatives oftheground plan,therole ofpattern speculative housingmarketshaslongbeenrecognized – inparticularthe But whereas thecomplexrelationship betweendesignandproduction in or asexamples of ‘hit- that understood ‘the Theorick part of Building, as well as the Practick’. because itcontinuedtoberegarded withoutdeference.’ a whole.Thiswasnotnecessarilybecauseitpoorly understood,rather penetrate all levels of society, but not always on an emulative basis, nor as ‘Classicismdid adaptable todifferent circumstances and expectations: understood asaflexiblesystemofdesignwithinartisanal circles, freely that thevocabularyofPalladian classicisminEnglandandAmericawas andPeter Guillery’srecent suggestion sonance withBernard L. Herman aesthetic bias. guidelines that controlled its visual appearance, are delineated without tecture’, thesocialprocess bywhichtheestatewasrealized, andthe forms anddetails’,representing a‘highlystandardized surveyor’s archi- the design of terraces was ‘made up of stock a balanced approach: while of theNewRiverEstatein London,builtfrom the1810s,epitomizessuch on thebasisofstylisticdiversityandeclecticplurality’. ‘did notprivilegeoneformoveranotherbutinstead preferred tooperate example, understands the urban house as the product of a culture that the designandbuildingprocess inlateseventeenth- century London,for sider adaptationasaformofinvention.ElizabethMcKellar’s accountof By contrast, emerging critical and revisionist responses to the 20

and-

14 TimothyMowl’shistoryofGeorgian Bristolis miss builder’sclassicism’, 12

WhileSirJohnSummerson,writing in xmls – examples 15

thesynergy betweenthe

17 thesestudiescon- 18

19 Thisfindsacon- A recent account Introduction 13 11 16

5 6 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 6 Building reputations shouldbe shouldhave while Campbellsuggeststhatthearchitect supervisor ofthevarioustrades necessaryforitsconstruction.However, asserts thearchitect’s role asboththeauthorofabuilding’sdesignand entitled ‘OfArchitecture, andthoseemployedinthatbranch’, Campbell apprentices toanyparticulartrade, mystery, or profession’. In and improve thenatural geniusoftheirchildren, before theyputthemout the authornotes,toadviseparents andguardians ‘inwhatmannertodiscover Campbell’s represented somethingofaconundrum.ThisisconfirmedinRobert of buildingwere becomingincreasingly codified,thebricktownhouse while theformaldistinctionbetweenintellectualandmanualdimensions Charleston. of consumermarketsthrough anetworkofdistributorsfrom Baltimore to neoclassical imageryfrom EnglandtoAmerica’,andoutlineshisexpansion Reinberger alsodescribesWellford’s products asan‘importantconduitfor domestically produced compositionornamentisthefocusofhisnarrative, in 1797.Althoughtheserialproduction (andthusdemocratization) of ornament manufacturer RobertWellford, whoimmigrated toPhiladelphia A good exampleisMarkReinberger’s accountofthecareer ofEnglish- advance newwaysofthinkingaboutissuessuchasagencyandvolition. present study, recent monographs informedbymaterialculture studies and C.P. Curran establishedacanonoffigures thatremain central tothe craftsmen. WhilepioneeringstudiesbyGeoffrey Beard, FiskeKimball industry – industry – This perception ofthecityhouseasproduct ofanunfettered building of institutionsdevotedtoimproving standards indesign. Great Britainduringthisperiod,asituationconcurrent withthefounding have chartedtheemerging authority ofarchitects onbuildingprocess in Ely, MarkCrinsonandJulesLubbock,BrianHanson,amongothers, of what we now recognize as the architectural profession. John Wilton- but thesecondhalfofeighteenthcenturyalsowitnessedemergence and socialmobilityineighteenth- century Britain,Ireland andNorthAmerica; House builders,asweshallsee,enjoyedagreat degree ofdesignautonomy The reputation of thebuilding industry Related tothisisthehistoriography oneighteenth- century building I scarce knowofanyinEnglandwho City- House. cially inandaboutLondon,where there gobutfewRulestothebuildingof a for theProfession; Bricklayers,Carpenters,&c. allcommenceArchitects; espe- ‘eminentindesignandinvention’,heisunequivocal that: with all of the implied deficiencies in qualities of design and atasteinarchitecture improved byforeign travel and,aboveall, 22 The Londontradesman

, first published in 1747 and intended, as , firstpublishedin1747andintended,as have had should have aneducationregularly designed aliberal education, 23

Nonetheless, Nonetheless, chapter 31, chapter 31, born 21

7 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document was ‘toraise thelargest possiblerental’. Bysuchmeans,heargued, blame squarely on‘therapacity ofthebuilders’,whoseprincipalconcern when ‘aneighbourhoodofhousesistobenewmodelled’,Soanelaidthe architecture inLondon.Notinghowarchitects were ‘seldomconsulted’ for example,SirJohnSoanedecriedthestateofcontemporary domestic course. Inhispenultimatelecture tostudentsattheRoyalAcademyin1815, ( present andnogreat results canbeproduced whilesuchasystemlasts’ complements hisassertionthat‘Architecture anddecoration isa to hispolemicaltreatise tectural repository’, oneofthree declarative platesformingapreamble ‘who cangivehimafewhints’; while‘DesignsWanted’ include thosefor Wash, plasterer’; an individual ‘just set up as architect’ seeks a partner ture oftheancientworldat‘Mechanick’s Institute’isoffered bya‘Mr. dedicated (‘withoutpermission’) to‘TheTrade’: a lecture onthearchitec- of a shop front inundated with advertisements and commercial notices and critical voicesineighteenth- andnineteenth- century architectural dis- (builder) are legionanddrew opinionsfrom someofthemostsignificant Mr So- GeorgianLondon in achapteronthebuildingindustrySirJohnSummerson’sseminal concealed contemptforthosewho‘commenceArchitects’ waslaterquoted of eighteenthcentury urbandomesticarchitecture. Campbell’sbarely standards ofconstruction – lingered longinthehistoricalinterpretation broader malaiseindesign. by the 1830s the building artisan was routinely held responsible for a practice ofbuildingintoarchitecture inearlynationalAmerica,Britain While carpentersandhousewrightswere instrumentalinelevating the higher feelingsofart’were oftenmercilessly denigrated fortheirefforts. But thoseartisanswhodidaspire to‘eleganceofcomposition’and‘the ranted. in nomenclature from carpentertoarchitect wasbothfatuousandunwar- eighteenth- architect’, Summersoncorroborates thefluidityofprofessional identityin sical mannersforcommercial gain. At best,thehousebuilderwassomeonewhocustomarilysacrificedclas- century builders, by their nature, produced bad or indifferent architecture. intellectual pursuitandbuildingasacommercial enterprise: eighteenth- Figure I.3 Theoriginsofthisinvectivetowards product (house)andproducer merge intothesystemofprofitable speculation. position. Thusthecharacter ofourarchitecture andthehigherfeelingsofart purpose ofingress andegress, withouttheleastregard toeleganceofcom- our buildingsare limitedtoheapsofbrickswithperforations forlightandthe and- 25 Central tohisthesisisthedistinctionbetweenarchitecture asan ). century Englandwhilesimultaneouslysuggestingthattheshift so, carpenter, becominginaveryshorttimeSo- 29 Here the sarcasm is pointed and unrelenting, taking the form . Describinghow‘Oneoftenfindsamandescribedas Contrasts

28 A.W.N. Pugin’s‘Temple oftasteandarchi- 26 publishedin1836,unambiguously

and- Introduction so, Esq., trade at 7 8 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document A.W.N. Pugin, ‘Temple of taste, andarchitectural repository’ from I.3 Contrasts (London, 1836).

9 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document only recently beenestablished. ‘house carpenter’ throughout his career, his house- building business has which hesuppliedoriginaldesigns.Yet despiteidentifyingprimarilyasa building contractor, andtheArch Street MeetingHouse(1803– 8), for Academy of the Fine Arts (1805– 6; dem.), for which he was the principal public buildingsinFederal- era Philadelphia,includingthePennsylvania authored architectural books, has long been associated with important (read ‘row houses’).OwenBiddle,authorofonethefirstAmerican- tiality thatprivileges‘architecture’ (read ‘bespokehouses’)over‘building’ American architecture, thecanonsuffersfrom thesameart- historical par- the artisaninevitablyenjoysamore privilegedplaceinhistoriesofearly somewhat sardonically as‘theartisan’sequivalentoftheGrand Tour’. ization ofthejourneyman’speripateticexistenceas ‘tramping’, defined of theeighteenth- isimplicitinthecharacter- century artisanalworld: this distinction betweenthepolite(intellectual)andvulgar (manual)aspects guage usedbyhistoriansofearlymodernworkinglives, underscoringthe both the‘builder architect’ of theearlymodernperiod andthe‘new distinguishing figures likeRobertAdamand SirWilliamChambersfrom tural profession’ inBritainandIreland duringtheaccessionofGeorge III, and makinghouses.Howard Colvinsituates the‘nucleusofanarchitec- thedifference betweendesigninghouses sion andbuildingasatrade: misread architectural vocabulariesandconsequentlybuiltinbad taste. In concertwiththeirforgoing ofpublicdecorumforprivategain,builders style (theinappropriate useof‘exotic’modesdesignanddecoration). of from aqualifiedindividual)andhisignorance oftheproper semiotics self- the establishedcanonsofclassicalandgothicdesign),hisunwarranted, tural history(makingnodistinctionbetween‘Antideluvian Babylonian’and hanger’, Pugin’s‘Temple oftaste’mocksthetradesman’s grasp ofarchitec- province of‘non- descripts ofeverysort,from theplasterer tothepaper- porary architectural writerJamesElmes’slamentthatdesignwasthenthe a ‘MoorishFishMarket’andan‘EgyptianMarineVilla’.Echoingcontem- on thoseretrospectively designatedas‘proto- bias remains squarely infavourofthearchitect or, inAmericanterms, buildings as theonline like Dublin,Limerick,BostonandPhiladelphia,modernresources such for thebrickstreetscape thatremains suchapartofeverydaylifeincities plasterers and others from the building trades were in fact responsible Notwithstanding thewidespread recognition thatbricklayers,carpenters, ‘Builder architect’ or‘master workman’? Atstakehere isthedistinctionbetween architecture asaprofes- appointed positionwithinthearchitectural hierarchy (requiring ‘hints’ databasecontainfewbiographies ofearlybuildingcraftsmen: the Dictionary ofIrisharchitects 32

A further equivocation isfoundinthelan- orthe architect’. American architects and 31 Indeed,while Introduction 33

9 10 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 10 Building reputations part of the American building industry’. modern sense)were ‘latecomerson thescene’and‘alwaysaverysmall the growth ofprofessionalism inthedecadesafter1820: architects (inthe calls ‘thepractice ofarchitecture’ inearlynationalAmerica,whichlocates in aBuilding’andthe‘Surveyor, orSuperintendentofanEdifice’, ‘architect’ asthe‘Chief, andanArtificerorBuilder’,the‘MasterWorkman builder’s dictionary tectural discourse.Omittingdefinitionsfor‘builder’or‘craftsman’, tradesman is furthercomplicatedifwe refer toDaniel Defoe’s characterized as‘more ofanentrepreneur thanacraftsman’). production during the course of the eighteenth century (and who is type ofbuilder’thatemerged inresponse tocapitalistmodesofbuilding (design). a ‘anewintermediarystage’between largely builtbetween1765and1795,alsoargues that of thebuildingcommunityresponsible forEdinburgh’s firstNewTown, amateurs’. a challengetoboththe‘vernacular- oriented builders’andthe‘gentleman recently arrivedfrom Britain’,suchindividuals,Cohenargues, represented professionalism incolonialAmericaatmid- definedas‘usually century: terminology, identifiesthe‘builderarchitect’ asasignificantsteptowards part of a wider Atlantic world narrative. Jeffrey Cohen, adopting Colvin’s matter iscomplicatedwhenAmerica’sbuildingtraditions are embraced as to buildwithbricks’,thecarpenter isthe‘builderofhouses’. play a ‘builder’as‘hethatbuilds; anarchitect’, buttheverb‘tobuild’as defines and buildingare equallydescribedinambiguous terms: Johnson ‘artificer’ is‘anartist’butalso‘onebywhomanything ismade’.Builders ultaneously as‘artist;professor ofanart’andasa‘lowtradesman’, while ology isinitselfveryimprecise. An‘artisan’,forexample,isdescribed sim- and ‘craftsmaster’ (‘amanskilledinhistrade’). that Johnsonmakesbetween‘craftsman’ (both‘artificer’and‘mechanick’) defined byDrJohnsonas‘alowworkman’.Shefurther notesthedistinction onies, carriedwithitderogatory implicationsandwaslessprevalent, being monly usedterms,while‘mechanic’,thoughpopular intheAmericancol- modern Londonreveals that‘artificer’and‘tradesman’ were the most com- tion industry. sotoowere thedesignationsofthoseworkinginconstruc- figure – – just as‘architect’ wasevidentlyaprotean term andindeedaprotean business thatincludedbuildingdesignandproject management’. of architects’ atatimewhentradesmen were ‘branching intonewareas of thus confirmswhatStanaNenadichasdescribedas‘theambiguousstatus Thisbringsustothequestionoflanguageineighteenth- century archi- thearchitect’. Moreover, whilethebricklayerisone‘whosetrade is 37

(1726),which notes that

Thisfindsaccord withMaryWoods’s accountofwhatshe 40

ElizabethMcKellar’s accountofthebuildingworldinearly , publishedinLondon1734,variouslydefinesthe tradesman

36 Anthony Lewis’s recent study 41

(practice) and ButJohnson’stermin- The complete English builder 42

represented Thematter

34 39

But the architect Indeed,

38 and The

11 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document here replaced withthemore precise term‘housebuilder’. ally, andnotnecessarilybuildingtradesmen bytraining orprofession – are and decorating trades typicallyenrolled attheSchoolofOrnament andthe in avarietyofcraft industries.Artisansand apprentices from thebuilding design anddraughtsmanship withtheintention ofimproving theircareers the drawing schoolsoftheDublinSocietyreceived practical instructionin markets, hadlongbeenrecognized. in manufacture, anditsrelated economicbenefitsfordomesticconsumer Ireland bymid- century theimportanceofdesignforimproving standards Manufacture andCommerce inLondon1754. in 1731,wasfollowedby theSocietyforEncouragement ofArts, Improving Husbandry, Manufactures andother UsefulArts,founded theDublinSocietyfor premiums fordraughtsmanship andinnovation: of augmentingthetypicalskills- focused trade apprenticeship andoffering tion – builders’ academies. apprenticeships andoftenaugmentedrefined indrawing schoolsand these individuals,basedonpractical skillstypicallyacquired viaindentured sanal’) havebeenselectedtoreflect thenature ofthe workundertakenby modern reader, theterms‘tradesman’ and‘artisan’(anditsderivative‘arti- one time.)For thepurposesofclarity, andwiththeaimofassisting necessarily represented asmallminorityoftheurbanworkforce atany thatthis tion withinsuchabroad occupationalcategory, I acknowledge an arbiterofarchitectural anddecorative tastes.(Increating thisdistinc- trades whoembraced thebusinessofhousebuildingandself- fashioned as The figure atthecentre ofthisnarrative is an individual from the building to makearchitecture (Bath) andJohnNash(London)asparadigms ofaneo- classicizing attempt architectural historieshasbeenonthesetpiecesofarchitects JohnWood as diverseSteenEilerRasmussenandMarcus Binney, theemphasisin aesthetic appreciation of the brick terrace has been advanced by historians (production) has coloured histories of the typical town house: although an As we have seen, a distinction between architecture (design) and building The right todesign …andtogood taste what AnnePuetzhasidentifiedasthe‘right’todesign. in the builder’ whichhistorianscustomarilyusetorefer toanypersoninvolved a handicraftsman. such asasmith,carpenter, ashoemaker, andthelike,suchashere wecall Ireland, whenyou sayatradesman, youare understood tomeanamechanic, forexample,inthenorthofBritain,andlikewise in adifferent manner: the saidterm initiallysponsored byprivateenterprise – formedwiththeintention business of property development – ofproperty development – asbuildingundertakersgener- tradesman 43

Theslipperyterms‘masterbuilder’and‘speculative from isunderstoodbyseveral people,andinseveral places, building. 48

Thistranslated intoatypeofinstitu- Butsemanticsaside,atissuewas

49 Thosewhoattended 47

45 InBritainand

Introduction 11 12 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 12 Building reputations according toPuetz,‘anincreasingly contestedissue’. architects toartisansand‘mechanics’,theentitlementdesignbecame, teaching programme thatcatered forawidestudentbody, from artistsand early advocatesofdesigneducationinBritainandIreland envisageda ‘according tothemoderntasteinbuilding’. opportunities fortheimmigrant skilledindrawing plansandelevations absence inAmericaofanarchitectural profession those tradesmen who aspired to both the Academy continued to satisfy the demand for design instruction among Builder’s EveningAcademyinDublinorthePhiladelphiaArchitectural gies rarely impingeduponactualities: artisan- led institutionssuchasthe speculative market’. ‘no doubtbecauseofthelimitedformsitcouldtake, especiallywithinthe tectural patternbooksandbuilder’shandbooks,concludingthatit was nonappearance ofthe‘typical’terraced orrow housetypologyinarchi- recent accountoftheLondonhouse,forexample,devotesachapterto the riment of considering the tradesman’s creative agency. Rachel Stewart’s and theimpactofsubcontracting onarchitectural form – alltothedet- ticularly, have naturally focused ontheoff- site standardization ofparts of urbandomesticarchitecture generally, andofbuildingeconomics par- ision oflabouranditsimpactoninventionmanufacture, historians house. Whiledesignhistorianscontinuetorevise theoriginsof div- problem inhistoriesoftheeighteenth- andearlynineteenth- century row benefited from classesattheSchoolofFigure Drawing. School ofDrawing inArchitecture, butplasterers andstucco- workers also the stone- aspects ofthebuildinganddecorating process, from constructionand fessionalization ofarchitectural designanditspreferred control overall very topicaldemandforartisanaldesigninstruction’, books andornamentprintsfrom mid- century arose asaresponse to‘the rise intheproduction andcirculation ofdrawing books,artisanalmodel New York builder JohnMcComb,Jr, theportfolioof Dublinplasterer and design remained apriorityinthebuilding process. Elevation drawings by the evidencefrom awiderrange oftextualandvisualsources reveals how English architectural booksfellshortofillustrating practicable archetypes, evidence thatthetypical house wasnotdesigned.Moreover, although designs of professionally trained architects. the artisanonlyinsofarasitenabledhimtocomprehend andtranslate the drawing wastherefore regarded astheprovince of design: architectural increasingly regarded withinacademiccircles asthe the RoyalAcademy, foundedin1768.)From mid- century, drawing was ther underlinedbythetheoretical andhierarchical modelespousedby design Thisformalseparation ofdesignandconstructionremains apersistent carving to joinery and upholstery, effected a separation between ofarchitecture andthe 55

Butthelackofpublished exemplarsisnotinitself making ofarchitecture. (Thiswasfur- art 54 53

) On the other hand, ideolo- and craft per se 52

theincreasing pro-

51 mechanical of building. (The So,althoughthe

50 However, while offered further armof 13 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document suggests more complexreadings oftheurban domesticinteriorasasign posits thehousebuilderas animportantarbiteroffashionabletaste,and Bath, andinthecitiesofearly nationalAmericafrom 1800onwards. This of property developmentfrom atleastthe1780sinLondon, Dublinand interior decoration – intimber, plasterandpaint – wasaconstituent part Stewart andAmandaVickery, requires particularrevision: as weshall see, changing handsfrom buildertoconsumer, most recently echoedbyRachel taste. Summerson’sclassicaccountofthespeculatively built‘brickshell’ home tothedetrimentofbuilder’sreputation withrespect togood and decorating urbandomesticarchitecture affecthistoriesofhouseand in thedecadeseithersideof1800. of inventionremained aconstituentpartofthehousebuilder’sarsenal sion wascoevalwith‘therepression ofthecraftsman’s initiative’,thespirit Summerson’s suggestionthattheexpansionofarchitectural profes- penter AsherBenjamin,amongothers,confirmthat,contrary toSirJohn house builderMichaelStapletonandthepublisheddesignsofBostoncar- instrument bywhichtheyare created andmaintained’. quently, tastebecomes‘notmerely areflection ofclassdistinctionsbutthe the struggleforsocialdistinctionisaprimaryfeature ofsociallife;conse- regarded asthemeanstocurtailitsdissolution.Pierre Bourdieu argued that taste: just asluxuryconsumptionthreatened thesocialorder, sotastewas criticism withrespect toclass- based anxietiesabouttheacquisitionof widening socialdemographic, themiddlingsortssoonbore thebruntof ‘typical’ brickLondonhouseforitscounterpartinPhiladelphiaorDublin. – system ofsubcontracting andwagelabour) there isnomistakingthe classicism), typology (tall brick houses on narrow plots) and process (the building andvocabularyofdesign – intermsofaesthetics(astandardized ‘morality, socialorder andpoliticaleconomy’. tion toissuesofstyle,designandurbanism’wasultimatelyrelated to constituted ‘good design’, a discourse that ‘connected personal consump- to havepubliceffects’;thiswasimplicitintheperennial concernforwhat from themiddleofseventeenthcentury, ‘privateconsumptionwasseen history ofthediscourseonconsumertasteinmodernBritainreveals that experience asthecriteriaforgooddesign. to theartisan’sinsistenceonacombinationofdrawing skillsandpractical demand forthesubjugationofartisan’sinitiative in thecreative sphere, good tastewasequallysubjecttoconflictingviews,from theconnoisseur’s lute, immutablequality’. the mercy ofmarketsandfashion’,tothenotionthatitwas‘anabso- divergent opinions,from conceptionsoftasteas‘relative, fluctuating,at concerning thesocial,aestheticandmoral implicationsoftasteembraced a contestedjurisdiction.AsLubbocknotes,eighteenthcentury theories Furtherlongstandingmisconceptionsabouttheprocess ofbuilding AsBritain’seighteenth- century consumerculture embraced anever- 59

By1800,theartisan’sabilitytocomprehend 56

Indeed,despiteashared systemof 60

58 Buttaste,likedesign,was 57

Jules Lubbock’s Introduction 13 14 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 14 Building reputations to artisanal interpretations of the neoclassical idiom in Ireland. qualities oftheFederal style,forexample,orthevernacular‘lilt’ascribed ‘more purelyterms ofdiscrete American’ nationalorsocialidentities: the been concernedwiththesupposedlyrepresentative qualitiesofstylein scholars ofwords, ideasandobjects,architectural historieshave often scholarship. AlthoughMaudlinnotesa‘shared themeofidentity’among this lacunaisadirect consequenceofadominantthread withinthat world. its expression intheurbandomesticarchitectures oftheBritishAtlantic – advertising aLondontraining inIrishandAmericannewspapers and – tiguity tity hasbeenformulated’,sothispresent studyemphasizescultural con- transatlantic studieshavehelpedto‘rethink thewaysthatnationaliden- ‘involuntary consumption’ineighteenth- century Britain. social demographic forwhatdesignhistorianJohnStyleshasdescribedas of socialandcultural capitalineliteconsumercircles. Italsoexpandsthe arship inthefieldsofarchitectural designandthebuildingcrafts. within thehumanities,whilesimultaneouslybemoaninglackofschol- recently drawn attentiontothedevelopmentofinterdisciplinary initiatives atlantic exchange.Withreference tothisliterature, DanielMaudlinhas cultural andintellectualexperiencespredicated onearlymoderntrans- America necessarily draws on a burgeoning literature devoted to shared A holisticapproach tothedomesticarchitectures ofBritain,Ireland and The British Atlantic world yet toclaimapositioninthisnarrative. North Americahavegathered momentuminrecent years,Dublinhas tural exchangebetweenGeorgian LondonandthecitiesofBritish century. gence asanindependentnationduringthecourse ofthetwentieth a separate kingdomthroughout theeighteenthcentury, anditsemer- identity as Great Britainanditsnarration inmodernIrishhistories: its be ascribed to Ireland’s complex social and political relationship with consumer tastes more precisely andmore immediately. Philadelphia (or Boston, or Williamsburg), necessarily informed Irish London, forexample,compared tothedistance betweenLondonand tual exchangebetween centre andperiphery. Dublin’s proximity to history we allow for more nuanced comparative studies of intellec- ically dispersedurbancentres. focuses insteadonashared designsensibilityamongartisans in geograph- that culture’, thatis,assignifiersofashared Britishidentity, thisnarrative set of‘communicatorsmeaningandthevaluesidealsheldby Whileacademicstudiesdevotedtoinvestigating networks ofcul- 64 Butrather thanexploringthishistoricbuiltlegacyasacoherent 67

confirmedby, amongotherthings,thenumbersoftradesmen ButifweacknowledgeIreland’s proper placewithinBritish 65

Thisomissioncanofcourse 61 68

Describingthe 63

Just as 62

But 15 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document court. a resident aristocracy ofpeersandnobles,aparliamentvice- larger thanthatofManchesterandLiverpoolcombined – andsustained – city stantially larger thananyothercontemporary BritishorNorthAmerican further correctives needtobeintroduced. AfterLondon,Dublinwassub- social order: underline thoseclassdistinctionscentral toBritain’sstrictlyhierarchical Anglicization, EnglishauthorssuchasPeter Guilleryare determinedto tility inColonialAmericaastheexpression ofanemerging process of Whereas Americanacademicshaveregarded theriseofaculture ofgen- extension ofBritisharchitectural taste’. too different culturally from Englishsocietytobemerely anunreflective area, CarlLounsburyconcedesthatthecolonieswere ‘toofarawayand character andprocesses ofbuildingdesigninthewiderChesapeake opportunity. Thiswastruealsoofthe builders anddecorators wholeft Then asnow,emigration wasasmuchabout economicnecessityassocial interest. which hasrecently beenthesubjectofarenewed focusofacademic blocks ofSecondandThird Streets (belowHigh(nowMarket)Street) – of historiansasthe‘RepublicanCourt’andclustered around oneortwo was hometoPhiladelphia’spost- Revolution elite – knowntogenerations and squares thanwiththerelatively circumscribed residential districtthat eighteenth centurieshadmore incommonwithDublin’sGeorgian streets London’s aristocratic West Endduringthecourseofseventeenthand the availabilityofparticulargoodsandservices. ways thatwere distinct,from themovementofparticularsocialclassesto Britain anditscoloniesinformedpatternsofmigration andconsumptionin verbial ‘pond’,thephysical,cultural andcomprehensible distancebetween modern transatlantic travel tolittlemore thanthecrossing ofthepro- Philadelphia. While recent Atlantic world histories tend to reduce early between LondonandAmericantownscitiessuchasCharleston in theacademichistoriographies produced oneithersideofthatpond. example ofwhathasrecently beenidentifiedassignificant‘mismatches’ its profound debttoBritishdesignauthority. ography ofIrisharchitecture duringthisperiodhaslongacknowledged WithIreland securely situatedwithinabroader ‘British’narrative, some a newcountry. of whichwouldnot,asarule, havebeeninclinedtoleaveforthehardships of were inadominantsectionofsociety;theestablished andprospering members Politeness wasintheascendanteighteenth- century England,butitsroots Relatedtothisistheever- diminishing distance,figuratively speaking, withapopulationmore thanfourtimesthatofPhiladelphia,and 71 Sociallyandarchitecturally speakingthen,thedevelopmentof 72

69 Bywayofcontrast, thehistori- 70 70

Thisarguably reflects an Introduction regal 74

15 16 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 16 Building reputations craftsman’. as asmallentrepreneur andemployerand,ontheother, asalaborer and describing ‘theinherent dualismoftheartisan’srole, ontheonehand, ‘ambiguities andtensions’characteristic ofPhiladelphia’s artisan culture, his owncountry.’ his scale…andembarksindesignsheneverwouldhavethoughtof one visitornotedoftheEuropean immigrant that‘Heverysuddenlyalters skilled workers’. foreign- many oftheskilledartisansinUnitedStateswere foreign- born, all longstanding andpersistentfallaciesinAmericanlabourhistories: ‘since relates strongly towhatRichard AlanMcLeodcharacterized asoneofthe oncile withtheempiricalevidenceprovided bythebuiltenvironment. This but suchclaimsare oftendifficulttosubstantiateandevenharder torec- bold claimstodistinguishthemselveswithinaburgeoning marketplace, and decorating, immigrant EnglishandIrishartisansfrequently made ‘under thefirstarchitects’ orfamiliaritywith‘themoderntaste’inbuilding Using newspaperadvertisementstoannounceaprofessional formation cities likeLondonandDublinforBoston,Baltimore andPhiladelphia. example, housepaintingwas deemedtorequire ‘verysmall abilities’ thecarpentry trade wasuniversally wellregarded, for one another: while as the formal standing of the individual building trades with respect to different statusenjoyedbetweenindividuals intownandcountry, aswell at upward socialmobility. Ofrelated significanceforthisstudyisthe the publishingofarchitectural books,mightalsobeconstruedasattempts a ‘middling’labourclass.Otherroutes towards advancedstatus,suchas and employee,ofcounteringanemerging ideologicalbiastowards This hadtheopportunityofwideningsocialdistance betweenmaster to manage labour relations and complex legal and financial instruments. was convertedintohousebuilding,abusinessthat demandedanability whose practice was formed in craft apprenticeship but whose success ‘no mannerof Ingenuity’. ment thanwascommonlyavailableinEngland’. of labor, allowedcraftsmen greater possibilitiesforeconomicadvance- experience that,baseduponwidespread landavailabilityandashortage Howard Rock notes how a ‘legacy of deference’ was countered by ‘a colonial America. Reflectingonthecomplexityofearlymodernartisanalidentities, artisan classesintheBritishIslesandbothcolonialearlynational further questionsconcerningthedivergent socialandpoliticalstatusofthe and decorative tastesoriginatinginLondon. important role ofimmigrant artisansasagentsofarchitectural fashions and materialintegration betweenBritain,Ireland andAmerica,the American (orevenIrish)provincialism, thefocushere isonthecultural OfcoursetheplaceofartisanwithinwiderAtlanticworldraises born artisans,asageneralization, therefore represent highly 79 Theindividualcentral tothethesisofthisbookisafigure

78 Butrather thanreiterating outmodednarratives about Ontheotherhand,EricFoner alsoidentifiescertain 81

In1782,forexample, 80

and 17 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document timely andwelcome,asignificant aspectofurbanbuildingproduction in theacademicliterature onGeorgian domesticarchitecture isboth Indeed, whiletherecent inversionofemphasis from house tohome the success of a business catering to the genteel real estate market. reductive imagesofthe‘economicvirgin’ cant steptowards rehabilitating theartisan’sreputation indesign: while of thenation’seconomy, thepurposeofthisbookistomoveasignifi- builders responded to market demand and, in turn, stimulated the growth minority ofestablishedeighteenth- century individuals). plex, nuancedrelationship tostyleandfashion(hithertotheprovince ofa pragmatism overarchitectural niceties,andsuggestsinsteadamore com- misconception thattownhousebuildersnecessarilyprivilegedeconomic Just asNicholasBarbon’s Conclusion: anew apology for thebuilder prise – prise – that questionsofstyleandtastewere aconstituentpartofthatenter- ment wasundoubtedlyasignificantmotivatingfactor, thisbookargues Although the potential profit from the business of property develop- speculatists’ users. tiations betweenawiderange ofnetworkactors,interest groups andend considers thedesignprocess asrelational, predicated ondevelopingnego- pragmatic vernacularlanguage – common practices andawidelyshared senseoflegitimacy’through a world ofarchitectural taste. focusing ontheirdesigncompetenceandacuityinnegotiatingthefickle dimension toworkinglivesspentasbuildingproducers, byspecifically imaginary’ – petence. Embracing philosopherCharlesTaylor’s notionofthe‘social that havesuccessfullyestablishedhisfinancial,legalandmanagerialcom- fore been designed to complement recent social and economic histories the discipline of architectural history, the chapters that follow have there- in architectural histories,especiallyinBritainandIreland. Shapedwithin builder asanagentofrefined architectural tasteisnotafamiliarnarrative Ireland, Toby Barnard notes: imports, seeingengravings orpatternbooksandbythemselvestravelling. this, theycoulddisplayadiscriminatingfancyortaste, improved byhandling to demonstrate their virtuosity, helped to determine what was erected. In craftworkers. Mastercraftsmen, insistingonwhatwaspracticable butkeen have markedthedealingsofself- appointed arbitersoftaste… withthe learnt politetastefrom theirbetters.Inactuality, greater reciprocity may craftsman] fornothingexceptartisanalskills.For theirpart,thecraftsman Conventional interpretation wouldhaveitthatthecultivated…turnedto[the 86 thatanunderstandingof styleandtastewasinfact Reflectingonpatternsofeliteconsumptionineighteenth- 83 definedasthe‘commonunderstandingthatmakespossible ontheotherhavelongbeenputtorest, theurbanhouse An apologyforthebuilder 84

Insodoing,itcontradicts thestillcommon Building reputations

82 ononehandandof‘rapacious seekstoaddfurther (1685)argued that

85 Suchaposition essential Introduction century 87 to to

17 18 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 18 Building reputations ture infascinatingways.’ ginal ones,andtheveryacts oftranslation andemulationshapearchitec- reminds usthat‘Secondhandideasneednot belesscompellingthanori- BarksdaleMaynard dissent incontemporary architectural discourse,W. ence on‘foreign publications’wellintothemid- nineteenth centurycaused more complexpatternsofcultural production. WhileAmerica’sdepend- Anglocentric narratives ofcentre andperiphery, this bookmakesacasefor language fostered distinctdialects.Butrather thanreinforcing traditional mental vocabulary, andhowdegrees ofseparation from thesource ofthat into howthetaste- conscious artisanadaptedandtranslated Adam’sorna- sketchbooks ofRose,StapletonandMcIntire canyieldimportantinsights cultural milieus. superlatives, require adisinterested appraisal germanetotheirrespective ‘unique visionoftheneoclassicalstyle’continuestogenerate unnecessary once describedunwiselyas‘ourDublinAdam’,andMcIntire, whose by speciousevaluations.Therespective accomplishmentsofStapleton, McIntire, Rose’sIrishandAmericancounterparts,are alsodiminished demands adiscrete, impartialassessment.MichaelStapletonandSamuel humanist educationandformalarchitectural training inEurope; rather it ticeship totheplasteringtrade doesnotstandcomparisonwithAdam’s own right.RosewasnotAdam’scounterpart,however, andhisappren- also achievedsuccessasaproperty speculatorandinteriordesignerinhis some of Britain’s most revered architects, including Robert Adam, but he spanning more thanthirtyyearsheenjoyedthesustainedpatronage of tive example of the building tradesman central to this position. In a career success ofthatenterprise.Londonplasterer JosephRoseisarepresenta- and whonegotiatedfashionablearchitectural tastesinorder tomakea petitive advantage by investing in house building and property speculation in thecourseoftheirworkinglives,whoturnedthatcompetencetocom- This bookfocusesonthoseindividualswhogainedafinancialcompetence tradesmen. were conductedinhousesdesignedanddecorated forthemostpartby idly captured inrecent studiesbyAmandaVickeryandHannahGreig, has beenaccordingly overlooked: genteel livesofpoliterefinement, viv- Goldsmith, caught mannersontheway up andcultivatedelegance intheir acquired prosperity through industrynecessarily, toparaphrase Oliver modes ofbuildinganddecorating. new styles’,preferring insteadtopreserve established – andapproved – notes how some master artisans had ‘no interest in the Mary N. Woods Reflecting onarchitectural practice inearlynineteenth- century America, ‘Resistance to fashion can be as significant as susceptibility to fashion.’ modernity andpolite/ Successinbusinessfostered personal improvement. Those who Ofcourse,notallbuildingtradesmen represented aprogressive front. 88 88

Conversely, a comparisonbetweentheportfoliosand vernacular – vernacular – 92

89 Peter Guilleryhasrecently argued that Withsuchbinariesinmind – tradition/ 90

19 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document tural value’. ably altered’ discipline,committedtocreating a‘broader viewofarchitec- within whatAliceT. Friedman hasidentifiedasa‘profoundly andirrevoc- already expansiveyetstillevolvingdiscourseondomesticarchitecture; of thosehouses. housing’, so they correspondingly dictated the form and visual character of buildingproduction. Justasbuilders‘virtuallydominatedthesupplyof tating thehousebuilderasanagentofbuildingtastewellafigure pattern booksandnewspaperadvertising – itisconcernedwithrehabili- tunities offered byaburgeoning printculture – intheformoftrade cards, self- appearance anddeportment. 1 Notes 6 as muchwealth.’ nomic and intellectual exchange, sociability and refinement were valued urbane commercial culture, where one engaged in public life through eco- social identities.AsAnnBerminghamhasargued, ‘Inthisnewurbanand some ofthestrategies ofgenteelretailing asaspectsoftheir‘improved’ refined tastes,andriskingpublicridicule,astuteindividualsfurtheradopted builder’s progression toprominence. Performance did.’ Garrisonnotesthat‘socialclassdidnotdeterminea carpenters, J. Ritchie of business, cultural and intellectual competence among New England not necessarilyanimpedimenttoprofessional status: reflecting ondegrees the burgeoning ‘middlingsorts’.Asweshallsee,aformationintrade was period, thebuildingentrepreneur thusemerged asapivotalfigure among 2 3 5 4

Haven andLondon ( London : Cresset Citedin John Philadelphia architecture illustratedinprintsanddrawings seen asaproduction figure andnotadesignfigure’ inthehistoriography. development, Elizabeth McKellar acknowledges that the master builder ‘is primarily InherseminalaccountofLondon’sseventeenth- andearlyeighteenth- ( Montreal : McGill- Queen’s UniversityPress , 1965 ), p. 16 . Pennsylvania Press , 1961 ). Brian 1720 McKellar in Britain,1530– ( Boston : Little, Brown , 1999) , p. 16 . ‘Architecture andtheartisan’is the titleofachapterin Spiro authority ately toreflect thenature ofthisrevisionist accountofthebuildingtrades. Asthetitlesuggests, fashioned asarbitersofarchitectural taste. Focusing on the oppor- ( Manchester : Manchester UniversityPress , 1999 ), p. 105 . Hanson Summerson Kostof ( Cambridge : Cambridge UniversityPress , 2003 ), p. 21 . , The birth of modern London: the developmentanddesign of thecity1660– ThebirthofmodernLondon: the Peter 97

, , Architects andthe‘buildingworld’fromChamberstoRuskin: constructing h iysae: urbanpatternsandmeanings throughhistory Thecityshaped: 1830

96 , Collins , Initswidestsense,thisbooksituatesitselfwithinan : 1952 Yale UniversityPress , GeorgianLondon 94

( Giventheprotean nature ofartisanalidentityinthis London ); and ,

Changingideals inmodernarchitecture, 1750– Building reputations : Penguin Books, : Penguin George B. 93

Marketingthemselvesasauthoritiesof

( London 2003 Tatum PleiadesBooks, : ); 1953 , Maurice ensgettw: 5 years of 250 Penn’s great town: explores howtradesmen ). Ithasbeenchosendeliber- John (

Philadelphia Craig Summerson 95

, Dublin1660– 1945 : : , University of Introduction ; repr. Architecture

Elizabeth century 1860 1950 New

19 20 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 20 10 Building reputations 13 12 16 15 11 18 17 14 19 20 9 8 7

Press and buildinginearly NewEngland,1799– McKellar, Press , 1996 ). ( London : Architectural Press , 1975 ). University ofPennsylvania Press , buildersinPhiladelphia,1790– 2001 ). houses, craftingcapitalism: ch. 4; house inGeorgianLondon in Englishurbanhistory1688– 1820 duction ofthebuiltenvironment Summerson, SeeMcKellar, p. 252 . James Williamsburg Lounsbury culture c.1680– Linda Peter Mw, To buildthesecond city Mowl, Cruickshank andWyld, ( Bristol : Redcliff , 1991 ), pp. 96 – Timothy London revisited ’, itself beenthesubjectofrecent scholarship.See Joseph architects. hierarchical system,suggestingthatbuilders‘universallyaccepted’thediktatof situates thetradesman’s engagementwith‘architectural fashion’inadecidedly p. 118 and eclecticplurality.’ McKellar, form overanotherbutinsteadpreferred tooperate onthebasisofstylisticdiversity we shouldhavenoproblem inunderstandingaculture whichdidnotprivilegeone dialect ofavernacularvarianttheclassicallanguage.Inour ownpostmodernage ‘Thelateseventeenth- andearlyeighteenth- century Londonhouseis…aregional creation ofthe“Georgian ” ’, in ‘ ( Aldershot : Ashgate new approaches to eighteenth- , Articulating British classicism: 2004 century architecture ), pp. 35 – Dan Georgian building and Guilleryavoidthatbook’s prejudicial tone. CruickshankandWyld, the ‘orderly flexibilityof18th- century architectural classicism’,althoughHerman classicism Deptford andPhiladelphia’,inArciszewska andMcKellar (eds), B.L.HermanandPeter Guillery, ‘Negotiating classicismineighteenth- in thefirstplace’. notes thattherulesofclassicism‘canonlybebroken ifoneagrees toabidebythem pp. 185– 91. 47: Introduction’, inPhilipTemple (ed.), ‘NewRiverEstate: ouimvru rfsinls: JohnSummersonandthetwentieth- Populism versusprofessionalism: Northern ClerkenwellandPentonville Cruickshank , Borsay Clarke . DanCruickshankandPeter Wyld’sclassicaccountofGeorgian building

Ayres 2006 Dan Moxon Mowl , p. 188. This echoes Cruickshank and Wyld’s earlier comment regarding, p. 188. Birth ofmodernLondon (eds), Art ofGeorgianbuilding ); , , Cruickshank , ‘ The Englishurbanrenaissance: the developmentofprovincial urban (ChapelHill : University ofNorthCarolina Press , 2013 ), pp. 64 –

Buildingcapitalism: historical change andthelabourprocess inthepro- Georgian London BuildingtheGeorgiancity , , CarlR. c.1760 Birth ofmodernLondon Mechanick exercises: or, thedoctrineofhandyworks To build the second city: architects and craftsmen of Georgian Bristol and , p. 1. Ibid. h hspaehue architectural investigation by Colonial The Chesapeake house: London Journal

Neil ’, in , p. 118. Lounsbury Art ofGeorgianbuilding and ( New HavenandLondon Peter Burton , p. 105. Peter . 56.Summerson’sapproach andmethodhas , p. ( Barbara 7. Borsay London : Routledge , ‘ Design process ’, in

; , Birth ofmodernLondon , p. 1. ( London : Longman , 1990 ), p. 165 . LifeintheGeorgiancity J. Ritchie Garrison

56.

26 : 2 Wyld (ed.), ( New HavenandLondon

Arciszewska p 116– , pp. 54; ( 1859 (odn Yale UniversityPress, 2008), (London: , 2001 ): 35 – odn theartofGeorgianbuilding London: Theeighteenth- century town: areader ( , p. 1. Knoxville : , : : and 1992 , Yale UniversityPress , 50;and Two carpenters: architecture Michela Rachel Cary Elizabeth . 221.Elsewhere she , p. ); ( University ofTennessee Survey of London London : Viking Donna 1850 Carson Elizabeth Stewart Articulating British Rosso : : ( McKellar ( Yale University Rilling London

and Philadelphia : , ‘ , Thetown McKellar Georgian , , century century , Making CarlR. 85. 2009 ), 1703 ), 1990 ), (eds), Art of , vol.

21 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 31 32 30 22 33 29 25 24 21 28 26 23 27

DictionaryofIrisharchitects 1720– ‘building world’ regarding themselvesas‘theequal ofthearchitect’. Hanson, early decadesofthenineteenthcentury. Thishadtheunwelcomeeffectofbuilders introduction of the system of contracting in gross and competitive tendering in the riol expressed bySoaneandElmesshouldbeunderstoodinthecontextof the and buildings for smallvillas;chiefly uponoeconomical principles MacPacke disgrace theArt.’ Citedin described how‘Thebusinessinallourgreat citiesisinthehandsofmechanics who

JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians design tothe‘Fan- painter Toy- Man, Lace- Man, Paper- hanger,Elmes echoesJamesPeacock’s earlier, orUndertaker’. satiricaladmonitionofthosewhoentrust ture’, inArciszewska andMcKellar (eds), ‘Commercialization andbacklashinlateGeorgian architec- Daniel M. Abramson, accused thearchitectural writer James Elmesinhis1821 of everysort,from theplasterer tothepaper- hanger” beingallowedtodesign, ‘Lackoftastebyclientsfrom commercial backgrounds ledto“non- 1968),p. 121 . of Pugin’s ( 1984 107 ): – Mark Anthoensen Press , 1940 ). 1966); E.J. Conor architectural writersandwritingpresentedtoNikolausPevsner Letterfrom A.W.N. PugintoE.J.Willson,1836,citedin 1999), p. 10 . architecture innineteenth- century America of domesticarchitecture inAmerica,1800– Press, 2008),pp. 15– 37. of Britisharchitects 1600– practice ofarchitecture, 1600– 1840’, inHoward Colvin, education Crinson Smesn GeorgianLondon Summerson, emphasis. Author’s America Kimball e York ( New : Geoffrey Dell University Press , 2000 ), p. 256 . Biographicaldictionary Colvin, Hanson, work oftheseventeenth andeighteenth centuries cited in David sional architect in England ’, in tory oftheprofession

Hobsbawm Upton Watkin Reinberger Lucey Geoffrey , and ( Newark : University ofDelaware Press , 2003 ), p. 15 . E.P. Architects andthe‘buildingworld’ SamuelMcIntire,carver, thearchitect ofSalem ( Beard Contrasts [JamesPeacock], Manchester : , ‘ aspectsof thetransformation Pattern booksandprofessionalism:

Thompson Jules

(ed.), , ‘ Owen Biddle and Philadelphia’s real estate market, 1798– Holmes andMeier , , www.americanbuildings.org . 50.Despitethis,English- born architect BenjaminHenryLatrobe

,‘ The tramping artisan ’, , pp. 49, 54– , Beard , Lubbock Georgiancraftsmenandtheirwork Utility and beauty: Robert Wellford andcomposition ornamentin Utilityandbeauty: Robert SirJohnSoane: the Royal Academylectures ’,in ( New York , ,

ThemakingoftheEnglishworking c Manchester UniversityPress , Craftsmen and interior decoration in England, 1660– John

1840 , MaryN. 8. Architecture: art orprofession?300 years ofarchitectural

Oikidia, or nutshells: being ichnographic distributions Oikidia,ornutshells: being , p. 22. , p. 55. Summerson , 4th edn (New Haven and London: Yale University , 4th edn (New Haven and London: Yale : :

Spiro Oxford University Press 1940 1981 Woods Kostof Economic HistoryReview , online, ); ( ; (ed.), C.P. , Berkeley : John (ed.), From craft to profession: the practice of From crafttoprofession: the Articulating Britishclassicism 75 : 1 ( 2016 ): 25 – 1860 www.dia.ie Curran Wilton- Ely Concerning architecture: essays on Concerning architecture: essays Thearchitect: chapters inthehis- ( ( ’, London London : Tiranti University ofCaliforniaPress Phoebe , ( Portland, ME WinterthurPortfolio 1994 , Dublindecorative plaster- ( 1976 A biographicaldictionary Lectures onArchitecture and ( odn: London : , ‘ The riseoftheprofes- lass ); Howard Colvin, ‘The Cambridge ,

(NS) ( 1785 Stanton ), pp. London : ( 47. American architects Architects andthe London : Pantheon 3 ), p. ), p.

( 180 – , 1950– 51 ): 313 Country Life : : Southworth- , ‘ The sources 1967 Introduction : 53 Allen Lane Cambridge 208; . Thevit- descripts . 153. , p.

); 19 : 2– 3 1806 ’, Fiske Mark 1820 Jose .’ .’ , , , ,

21 22 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 22 Building reputations 48 41 40 34 35 52 49 42 36 55 54 53 50 43 37 51 44 39 38 45 46 47

strategy andmeansoftraining youngartisans’.Garrison, Perkins Books mid- eighteenth- century England ’, Matthew of DesignHistory MKla, BirthofmodernLondon McKellar, builders’. and hadseparate listingsfor‘surveyorsoflandandbuildings’‘carpenters ALondondirectory of1763categorizedarchitects alongsideauthorsandpainters, Colvin, Georgian city ‘Architect- 1986 Jeffrey or profession? Puetz, ‘Designinstructionfor artisans’, 220. Colonies?’ we notbedispleased,asaNation,toranked, byForeigners, after oneofourown Start ofherintheEncouragement ofalltheusefulandornamentalArts.…should rassment in some quarters: ‘Ireland, Britain’s younger Sister, Seems to have got the Dublin’sleadinstate- sponsored designeducationwasregarded asanacuteembar- Samuel Johnson From crafttoprofession Woods, Seat Town house Stewart, 9 February 1765. 1860 AdvertisementofDudleyInman, aLondoncarpenter, inthe Ibid. ( Dublin : Royal DublinSociety studentsandawardwinners1746– , TheDublinSocietydrawingschools: 2000 ), p. 83 . Edward Robbins, Jr attended all three between 1782 and 1785. Daniel Defoe market forexpertise ’, University ofEdinburgh, 2006,pp. 198– 9. A.R.Lewis,‘ThebuildersofEdinburgh’s NewTown 1767– 1795’, PhDdiss., England Saumarez- Smith Puetz,‘Designinstructionforartisans’,218.For thebroader issue,see above- adoptingtheviewofanartisanassomeone‘withgenerally InusingthistermI am PhD diss.,UniversityofMissouri,1971, p. 5. economic mobility’.Richard AlanMcLeod,‘ThePhiladelphiaartisan1828– Stana carpenter. 1734), vol.1,n.p.Similarly, there are noentriesfortrades suchasbricklayeror The builder’s dictionary or gentleman and architect’s companion capitalist imperative forbuilding,butinsistson‘artisan’. DanCruickshankuses‘builder’rather than‘craftsman’; LindaClarkeunderlinesthe Marcus architecture Anne , 233. ( Philadelphia : University ofPennsylvania Press , 1986 ), p. 19 . ’, in Puetz , Nenadic average skillsand oftensomedegree ofeducationandupward socialand 1964 Biographical dictionary, (eds), Cohen Binney (London : Craske JamesF. Thomas builders in London and Edinburgh’, p. 598. SeealsoAyres, builders inLondonandEdinburgh’, p. 598. John Gwynn , ‘ Design instruction for artisans in eighteenthcentury Britain ’, ( London: Mitchell Beazley , 1998 ). ), p. , pp. 8– 11. , , . The complete English tradesman , ‘ Early Americanarchitectural drawings andPhiladelphia,1730– , ‘ , Drawing toward building: Philadelphia architectural graphics,1732– Drawingtowardbuilding: Philadelphia , Town houses: evolution and innovationin800 years ofurbandomestic Architect- , , , ‘ andthecompetitivespiritinearly Plan andcontrol: design , 12 : 3 ( 1999 ): 218 . 241 A dictionaryoftheEnglishlanguage Eighteenth- Weidenfeld &Nicolson , 1993 ), pp. 135 – Mortimer O’Gorman . Amore positivespinon‘tramping’ characterizes itas‘alabor , p. 155. Historical Journal , ,

An essayondesign builders inLondonandEdinburgh, c.1750– 1800, andthe , Theuniversaldirector century decoration: design andthedomesticinteriorin century decoration: design , p. 28. SeealsoCrinsonandLubbock, Jeffrey A. , p. 4. , pp. 95– 7.

Journal ofDesignHistory 55 : 3 ( 2012 ): Cohen (London , 1749 ), pp. 91 –

( London , 1726 ), p. 1 . , George E. ( London 598 . , 6thedn( London, 1785 ). Two carpenters

42. , 12 : 3 ( 1999 ): 187 – Thomas 1763 South CarolinaGazette

), citedinNenadic, , 2 vols (London, Gitta

and Architecture: art

Building the , p. xx. , p. xx. Willemson G. Holmes Charles Journal 1850’, 216.

1849

, ,

23 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 58 67 60 59 57 68 56 66 65 61 62 63 64

Brewer, century culture; nevertheless,London(andEngland)remains thesolefocus. he meansDublinandEdinburgh – aspartofhisnarrative ofBritisheighteenth- John Brewer isunusualinhisconsideration ofthe‘otherBritishcapitals’ – bywhich 1550– 1960 Jules 1997),pp. 87 – cultureintheeighteenthof theimagination: English century in or ancien- Britain intheeighteenthcentury. S.J.Connollyhasargued forIreland’s ‘ambiguousstatus’withrespect toGreat British architecture Turner place inthewiderBritishcontextisexplored inessaysincluded hre N. CharlesGlaab communication andconnectionwithBritainthantheyhadamongthemselves.’ p. 2 material culture,1600– ( Edinburgh : Susan ( Puetz, ‘Designinstructionforartisans’, 234. Ibid ), p. 1995),p. image, andobjectintheseventeenth andeighteenth Centuries Ann dictionary ‘Vitruvian precedent tooktheplaceofpersonalinventiveness’.Colvin, Palladianism as‘fataltothe craftsman’s artisticself- sufficiency’ andhow ih(o xml)Piaepi,lt aloneWilliamsburg.’ with (forexample)Philadelphia, let London inpopulation,wealthand proximity to sources offashionable designthan AsToby Barnard reminds us,‘Dublinanditshinterlandshadmore incommonwith 1996 ), p. 26 Summerson, rs itr: revisionism and the revisionist controversy Irish history: NoessaysonIreland in Bernard L. Daniel exchange Frank John exchange London : and material culture in Britain and North America, 1700– itics ’, Daniel Haven andLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 2012 ), p. 105 . Sterling 2013), p. 12 . ,p 1985),p. of exchange between BritainandNorthEastAmerica,1750– New Haven Ann ., p. xiii. . ‘Untilaverylateperiodintheirdevelopment,thesecolonieseachhadmore Bermingham Styles Lubbock Journal ofBritishStudies Trentmann (ed.), Maudlin Manning Maudlin Bermingham Boyd The pleasures oftheimagination Yale UniversityPress , , p. 3. ; orMaudlinandHerman(eds), , p. 27. 12 237 régime? ( NewHavenandLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 1995 ), p. xiv . , Herman . . Ontheshiftingboundariesoftaste,see : : The dress of the people: everyday fashionineighteenth- Thedressofthepeople: everyday century England Edinburgh University Press ,

, TeMro fGetBian: nationalidentityinseventeenth- ‘The MirrorofGreat Britain’: Georgian London Yale UniversityPress , ; , 91. TheAdamstyleinAmerica1770–

, ‘ The tyranny of taste: the politicsofarchitecture anddesigninBritain Thetyrannyoftaste: the JohnMartin and and Introduction , , , ‘ practices, andpol- Materiality inthefuture ofhistory: things,

, ‘ object,text Introduction. Theconsumptionofculture: image, A historyofurbanAmerica ’, in ( (eds), Reading : and Bernard L. Andrew 1850 D.G. John John uligteBiihAlni ol: spaces, places, and BuildingtheBritishAtlanticworld: ( Chapel Hill

Robinson Boyce ’, in 48 : 2 ( 2009 ): 283 – Spire Books , Taylor . 58.Colvinechoesthissentiment,describing , p. 2006 Styles Brewer Daniel S.J. Herman and 2007 ); orMaudlinandPeel (eds), (eds),

Connolly , and Maudlin : : (eds), ae yt: architect toGeorgeIII JamesWyatt: , p. 28. Building theBritishAtlanticworld Alan University ofNorthCarolina Press , 2007 ). For acritiqueofStyles’sargument see , ‘ 2012 (New York : Macmillan , 1967 ), p. 8 . rnalni ieaysuis areader Transatlantic literarystudies: Introduction Amanda

,‘ O’Day (eds), ), p. ), p. 1820

Theconsumption ofculture Eighteenth- and 307. ), althoughforanearlierperiod. 4 ( , cited in Maudlin,

New York Robin Vickery John

’, in 1900 ( Peel 1830 London : HarperCollins , century Ireland: colony ( The making of modern Toby Brewer Daniel ( (eds), odn: London Routledge : : : ( London : Routledge , Garland Publishing (eds), Farnham ( New Havenand Barnard The materialsof , OliviaHorsfall Thepleasures Gender, taste Maudlin Thematerials Introduction Biographical Materials of

. Ireland’s : : , Ashgate , Making : century 2016 ), ( word, and New

’, , ,

23 24 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 24 80 81 71 Building reputations 85 84 83 82 69 75 72 70 78 77 76 79 74 73

Joseph Collyer University Press , 1989 ), p. 36 . iconography identity is explored in 1982),p. Robert Campbell ls: socialexperience intheAmericancity, 1760– class: L.A. understanding of the modernity of Georgian architecture beyond examples of DanielAbramson’s argument that‘Theperspectiveofcommercialization widens 2004),pp. 23 – Charles Nutshells Peacock, London virgin’, whoseprimeinterest wasinhishandiwork.McKellar, century craftsman inLondonhasbeendepictedbyhistoriansasan‘economic ElizabethMcKellar iscriticalofhowthelateseventeenth- andearlyeighteenth- Press London : Yale UniversityPress , lives and possessions in Ireland 1641– 2004 the grand figure: ), pp. 120 – cycles 1500– John Lounsbury, ‘Designprocess’, p. 85. and London For Philadelphia,see table 7.2. 28( Peter taste andmaterialculture Olley Jeffrey A. Murray London : Yale UniversityPress , 2004 ), p. 275 . Federalist Philadelphia,1790 moment ofLatrobe’s Waln House 1620– 1820 Puig GaryB. 1989),pp. xxiv – x Howard B. artisan’, p. 19. area duringthe first halfofthenineteenthcentury’.McLeod Theauthorcontinues: this is‘asituation whichisnottrueatleastforthePhiladelphia taste, andmaterialculture ation of321SouthFourth Street, Philadelphia’,in Styles andVickery(eds), University Press , folly: the architectural andfinancialfailuresofanAmericanfounder Eric 1789– Jennifer van Horn of Virginia Press , 2010 ). and societyintheeighteenth- century BritishAtlanticworld Hill : : 1995 ): 102 – Craig and University ofNorthCarolina Press , , Foner Styles , Classicalsplendor: painted furnitureforagrandPhiladelphiahouse 85 adocumentaryhistory 1825: Guillery 1976 , pp. 94– 5. Fraser Taylor Nash Michael and 244 , ( Minneapolis,MN : Minneapolis InstituteofArts , 1989 ), p. 2 . and Cohen Rock : : ( Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan , 2012 ). ,p ), p. 1913 Tom Paine andRevolutionary America Yale UniversityPress , , ‘ , . Dublin’sarchitecture asthematerial expression ofitsProtestant , , ‘ Public buildingandcolonialpolicyinDublin ’, 4. , , Douglas , The parentandguardian’s directory A historicalperspectiveonearlyAmericanartisans ’, in Amanda Thesmallhouseineighteenth- century London , ‘Introduction’, in Howard B. Rock (ed.),

23; Modernsocialimaginaries , , xv xv ( Cheltenham andNorthampton,MA , 2014 , ‘ materializedmemoryandthe Place, timeandarchitecture: Conforti The Londontradesman 40 , p. 67. Thepowerofobjectsineighteenth- century BritishAmerica .

Maurice , citedin ); Amy H. Henderson, ‘A); AmyH. Henderson, designanddecor- familyaffair: the Robin Fisher

Vickery , p. 23. , pp. 267– 91. (eds), ’, Usher , Craig

TheEuropean macroeconomy: growth, integration and Journal ofInterdisciplinaryHistory

StuartM. , ‘Introduction’, in StylesandVickery(eds), TheAmericancraftsmanandtheEuropean tradition MaryM. ’, in , 2016 , ( Thearchitecture ofIreland ProtestantDublin,1660– and 1760: architecture Albany :

2017 Alexandra Alevizatos ), pp. ( London , 1747 ), p. 103 . Schweitzer ( Durham, NC Blumin );

tt nvriyo e York Press State UniversityofNew 15 – Emma 1.

36; , (London , 1761 ( Theemergence ofthemiddle 1900 Hart RyanK. e York New : , ‘ The spatialorganization of : :

Edward Elgar , ( , TheNew York Cityartisan, Charlottesville ( : BuildingCharleston: town 1770 Cambridge : Cambridge Duke UniversityPress Smith Kirtley Architectural History ( , ( New Havenand ( New Havenand ‘ThePhiladelphia 24 : 1 ( 1993 ): 35 .

London: Oxford University ( New Haven ), p. 168 . Birth ofmodern , Robert Morris’s and 2000 ( New Haven : :

University

Francis J. Peggy A. Batsford , ), p.

( Gender, Gender, Chapel : : 152 , Yale

, ,

25 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 92 91 89 97 94 87 86 90 96 95 93 88

Ireland (London: Thames &Hudson,1987), p. 6. creation ofwealth.’ AdrianForty, came intobeingataparticularstageofcapitalismandplayedvitalpartinthe were toocloselyassociatedwithcommerce …Ithasobscured thefactthatdesign has notedhow‘Itiscommonlyassumedthatdesignwouldbesomewhatsoiledifit Adrian Forty sent narrative. Abramson, ‘Commercialization and backlash’, p. 157. stylistic abstraction …andindustrialmaterials’,isespeciallypertinentforthispre- W. W. style land ofarchitectural research ’, C.P. ( London : Routledge , 2011 ), p. 3 . From crafttoprofession Woods, Press , 2005 and housing ’, AliceT. ‘Introduction’, p. 12. Bermingham, ‘Of Universities’. in Makingthegrandfigure Barnard, Kjetil London : Yale UniversityPress , 2002 ), p. 65 . Peter ionable societyinGeorgianLondon Cak, Buildingcapitalism Clarke, Two carpenters Garrison, OliverGoldsmith, demographic. See Recent historiesoftheAmericantownhousehaveaddressed abroader social Amanda in the early American city, 1780– and London Barksdale Maynard Peter

( Salem,MA : Peabody EssexMuseum , 2007 ), p. 25 . Curran Guillery Fallan

70 : 1 Friedman

Vickery Guillery , ‘ Dublin plasterwork ’, ). ). , ‘ , ( : :

Yale UniversityPress , , ‘ studiesandBritisharchitectural history Introduction: vernacular 1940 ): 46 Architecture in action: travelling withActor- Architecture inaction: travelling Network Theoryinthe Journal ofSocietyArchitectural Historians , (ed.), , ‘ The wayyoudothethingsdo: writing thehistoryofhouses Behind closed doors: at homeinGeorgianEngland Behindclosed doors: at An inquiryintothepresentstateofpolitelearning Bernard L. , Architecture intheUnitedStates 1800– ; ul rmblw Britisharchitecture andthevernacular Builtfrombelow: , p. 15. Dean , p. 74.

Herman Architectural TheoryReview , p. 56. Lahikainen

, p. 118. 1830 Objects of desire: design andsocietysince 1750 Objects ofdesire: design JournaloftheRoyal SocietyofAntiquaries 2009 ( ( Chapel Hill , Oxford : Town house: architecture and material life ); ,

Hannah aulMItr: carvinganAmerican SamuelMcIntire: Oxford University Press , : :

Greig University of North Carolina

58 : 3 ( 1999 ): 407–8 , 13 : 1 ( 2008 ): 80 – Thebeau monde: fash- 1850 ( New Havenand (1759),ch.11, ( New Haven Introduction 96. 2013 .

). ). ’,

25 26 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document cies were bothmateriallyandideologically related tothe circumstances condemned inarchitectural discourseandthepublicpress, itsinadequa- speculativelybuiltbrickhouse.Loudly ticular product ofhisindustry: the ception ofthebuildingtradesman was,aswe shallsee,related tothepar- tradesmen todictatepolitetaste.The‘problem’ associated withthisper- whether itwas,infact,appropriate for architectural connoisseurship: of trade andcommerce, mightsuccessfullynegotiatethepoliteworldof depended ontheappealoftheirproduct inaflourishingmarketplace. attheveryleast,theirsuccessinbusiness a vestedinterest in design: teel refinement (discussedin of theinteriorsthatconstitutedrequisite backdrop toalifeofgen- builder, notthe consumer, customarilydictatedthedesignanddecoration conscious elite(thesubjectof the ‘enlightened’mosaicofstreets andsquares inhabitedbythetaste- for ‘polite’people.Builders,notarchitects, raised thehousesthatformed peoplebuiltanddecorated houses of theGeorgian townhouse: ‘useful’ and industry(usefulness).Butthisbeliesaninherent irony inthehistory dichotomybetweengentility(politeness) refinement andalifeoftrade: a this lacunaliestheapparently antonymousrelationship betweenalifeof of designandtasteremains historicallyunderdeveloped. Attheroot of a successfulemployerandbusinessman,thebuildingmechanic’sgrasp andsupervisoryskills,aswellbeing having possessedboth technical the housebuilderasanagentofarchitectural taste.Nowrecognized as systems ofwagelabour, there hasbeenrelatively littleappreciation of financial prosperity andthechallengesfacedbyindustrialization been established,specificallyintermsofprofessional mobilitythrough While thesocialandeconomichistoriesofbuildingartisanhavelong The pertinentquestioniswhetherthebuildingtradesman, asafigure Building reputations: agenteel life intrade Chapter 3 Chapter 3 Chapter 2 Chapter 2 1 ). Itfollowsthenthatbuildershad ); andfrom the1780s,house 27 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document tion thatexistedbetweenamastercraftsman andajobbinglabourer. social discourse,embracing thedifferent strata ofprofessional organisa- the useofterm‘artisan’wasoftenimprecise ineighteenth- to themiddlingorlowerranks ofsociety?AsdiscussedintheIntroduction, merchants tocarpenters,bricklayersandhousepainters,generally belong labour intheworkshop’. the livesofearlymoderncraftsmen shouldnotbereduced simplytotheir artisanal identityisnolongertenable,and‘thecomplexityrichnessof social distinctions. relationship tocommerce, gentilityfacilitatedsocialmobilityandblurred Indeed, despiteitsoriginsinaristocratic courtculture, andmediatedbyits recent scholarshiphasemphasized,the‘production- centred definition’ of its production and to the perceived social rank of its producer. But as manual vocation. late eighteenthcentury tradesman intermsotherthanhis‘degrading’ has retired from business’ permits the historian some scope to view the study, thefact that the‘opulenttradesmen’ isfurtherqualifiedasone‘that an easyassociationwiththebuildingcapitalistthatforms thefocusofthis While theparticulardescriptionsofeachclassthat followdonotpermit neyman’, ‘tradesman’, ‘opulenttradesman andmerchant’ and‘nobility’. century In his class? artisan An aspect oftheeighteenthcentury buildingindustry. Inhisaccountofthe embodied inthetypeofcommercial enterprise thatformedanimportant urban settings generally, pointing to the social and economic mobility agree onthedifficultyindetermininga‘middle’ classinearlymodern record – suggestsasocialdesignationakintothemodernmiddleclasses. building as anarbiterofarchitectural taste. culture; andthemeansbywhichbuilderpromoted andself- trum; thetextualandvisualrepresentations ofthehousebuilderinprint this chapteristoexaminetheplaceofartisaninwidersocialspec- ition toengagewiththeprotean worldofarchitectural style(s).Thepointof means toobtaincredit) tofacilitatethatambitionandtheagencyvol- had theambitiontosetupinbusinessashousebuilders,capital(or ticularly concernedwiththoseindividualsfrom thebuildingtrades who relations predicated onimproving materialcircumstances. eenth centuryconfirmthechangingpatternsofidentityandexchange Didartisansfrom thebuildingindustry, from sawyersandlumber Historians of social class in Britain, Ireland and the United States Withtheterraced houseasthefocusofthisnarrative, weare here par- Anecdotes ofthemannersandcustomsLondon,during theeighteenth (1810),JamesPeller Malcolmidentifiedfoursocialclasses: ‘jour- tradesman’ – manyofwhosenamesare preserved inthehistorical

5 Infact,thestatusofwhatwe may term the‘opulent 4

Taken together, historiesofsocialclassinthe eight- 2

A genteel life intrade fashioned century

1 of

27 28 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 28 Building reputations independent ofanymasters,tothesweatedgarret labourers’. prosperous master- craftsman, employinglabouronhisownaccountand great differences ofdegree concealedwithintheterm“artisan”,from the labourer’, Thompsonisnonethelessanxioustopointoutthat‘there were ‘no efforttodifferentiate betweenthemaster, theself- employed, andthe this station.Notingthattheoccupationaltablesof1831censusmake neymen and labourers in the social order, confines the generic ‘artisan’ to classes, citingearlynineteenth- century discoursesontheplaceofjour- Thompson’s classicaccountoftheformationEnglishworking ther difficultiesinestablishinghisplacewithinthesocialhierarchy. E.P. of the‘labouring’classor‘working’class,adistinctionthatcreates fur- inherited’. period, andthecorresponding understanding that‘classeswere madenot from thesecollectivehistoriesisthefluidity ofsocialclassduringthis manual work’incitiesthroughout earlynationalAmerica. This was in spite of the ‘close identification of middling status with skilled skilled andvaluablecraft’, beingrecognized as‘distinctlydegrading’. ‘workwithone’shands,evenina throughout theanglophoneworld: association between types of work and social worth that was observed attitudes tosocialhierarchies, acknowledgesacommonlyheldprejudicial Blumin, whileunderliningthedistinctionbetweenAmerican andEuropean of occupations.’ they generally hadinmindawiderange ofincomesandagreat variety Langford notesthat,‘Whencontemporaries talkedofthe“middlesort”, emerging middleclassesandtheirimpactonEnglishnationalidentity, Paul hautebourgeoisie petitbourgeoisie but squarely situatesthe‘self- employed artisan’inIreland amongthe Lane definesthetermmiddleclassas‘anambiguouslocution’generally, (on America)andFintanLaneIreland), underscore thiscomplexity. Recent accountsoftheeighteenth- century middleclassesbyStuartBlumin as opposedtolower, sortsrelates totheirlivesintrade andcommerce. mores across theearlymodernEnglish- speaking world. pretation findsaccord withhistoriansofclass,taste,gentilityandsocial Trades’ inthemiddle ofasystemthatwasbased onoccupation,income groupings, including Daniel Defoe and Joseph Massie, placed the ‘working were set’. the traditions, perceptions, andoutlookofthecommunitiesinwhichthey argues thatindividualpositionswere further‘amplifiedordiminishedby erty andemployment)totheabstract (politenessandbreeding), Langford a diversityofcircumstances andconsiderations, from thematerial(prop- Ontheotherhand,artisanisalsounderstoodunderrubric Thedifficultyattendingtheascriptionoftradesmen tothemiddling, Earlytomid- 7 11

ofsmallbusinessmenandindependentprofessionals: the Reflectingonthefactthatsocialstandingdepended beingmadeupofwealthymerchants andindustrialists. eighteenthcentury commentatorson socio- 10

Whatemerges

8 Thisinter- economic 9

29 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document situated amongthemiddleranks). journeyman andapprentice) andof eral socialranks’ basedonthe‘overlappinghierarchies’ of than hisLondonorDublincounterparts. the Philadelphiaartisanenjoyedgreater opportunitiesforsocialmobility and businessman – asthemiddleclassofbuildingindustry. had graduated from aformalapprenticeship andoperated asbothemployer Britain unequivocally describes the ‘skilled artisan’ – that is, someone who hierarchy’. social mutability, rather thaninastrictlygraded orstrictlydenotedsocial and manners,converselythesepositionsreflected ‘abeliefinchangeand widening ‘middling’sortsanditseffectonsocialdifferentials likedress wealth andstatuswasacquired, censuringitsdistributionamongthe just associalcommentatorsbecameconsciousofthenewwaysinwhich ical legitimacybyAdamSmithin the socialandeconomicsignificanceoflabour, apositiongiventheoret- with ‘workingclass’.Thiswassymptomaticofagrowing awareness of ‘lower’ classeswasreconfigured atthistime,and‘lowerclass’wasreplaced Significantly, thethencommonlinguistictriadof‘higher’,‘middling’and and patternsofconsumptionasopposedtoinheritedsocialrank. also existed between theindividualtrades that constitutedthebuilding (or respectable livelihood).Butahierarchy ofoccupationalengagement others developedbuilding businessesandrealized afinancialcompetence capital. Clearly the majority formed the rank and file of the industry, while respondingly enjoyedvaryingdegrees ofambition,literacy andaccessto archy ofmasters,apprentices, journeymenandlabourers: individuals cor- complex and multifaceted. The building world itself boasted its own hier- building industry. success andrenown inboththemanualandintellectualspheres ofthe Asher Benjamin and Owen Biddle, attained their majority and achieved in earlyAmericanarchitectural history, suchascarpentersturnedauthors cing class’ofthe1790s,decadewhensomebest- known figures emerged aspartofwhatPaul Giljedescribesasthe‘independent produ- America. Politically empowered intheaftermathofRevolution,artisans century Enlightenmentthinking.Nowhere wasthismore tangiblethanin the craftsman were elevatedwithinthesocialpeckingorder byeighteenth- torically disparaged as members ofthe‘lowerorders’, thelabourer and and the‘large unrulyHerd ofMen’. good Credit, great Dealings, and, most commonly, of good Understanding’, ‘Tradesmen oflowerDegree’, occupyingapositionbetween‘Tradesmen of identified ‘Artificers, Carpenters, Bricklayers, Glasiers, Painters, etc.’ as of socialclassintheWhitechapeldistrictLondon in 1734,forinstance, might broadly ringtrue,itrequires somequalification.A revealing analysis JamesAyres’s accountofthebuildingtrades ineighteenth- 13 Thishadwiderrepercussions incultural terms.Althoughhis-

14 GaryNashdescribeshowartisansbelongedto‘sev-

15 InawiderBritishcontextitseemsthat The wealth ofnations trade 18

Thereality was,ofcourse,more 16

(with‘constructioncraftsmen’ A genteel life intrade (1776).Indeed, craft

17 Whilethis (master, century 12

29 30 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 30 Building reputations entrepreneurs, ‘thedevelopersofthisage’. contracting and labour organisation, so financial expertise begat building of himfrom housecarpentersandmasterbuilders. very genteelfortunetoset up’, given thenecessarycredit termsexpected plasterer neededonly£50to‘setupmaster’,atimbermerchant required ‘a and £20,andatimbermerchant between £50and£200.Moreover, whilea between £5and£20,acarpenterplasterer commandedbetween£10 source indicatesthatwhileabricklayermighttakeanapprentice for prerogatives oftheindividualtrades were understood.Onemid- varying degrees ofcapitalinvestment,andtheeconomicobligations a masteronceoutofhis indenture.’ onies, where ‘Noimpedimentblockedayoung artisanfrom styling himself ical systemofprofessional development, and thatintheAmericancol- the apprenticeship systeminEurope, whichobservedarigidly hierarch- new worlds.RogerMoss,forexample,hasnotedthe difference between gentility, andthe modestmeanstoachievethem’. larly onanindividual’s‘aspiration towards thesocialandmaterialformsof the distinctionbetweenmiddlingandlowersorts rested more particu- opportunities forsocialadvancement,Paul Langford hassuggestedthat in possession of these skills might enjoy greater But while a tradesman painted byanycommonLabourer atonethird theExpense’. reasoned thatwith‘theHelpofafewprintedDirections, aHousemaybe the preference forplainfinishesthroughout theeighteenthcentury, itwas years ‘toaBranch thatmaybelearnedinasmanyHours’.Indeed,given parents were advisedagainstbindingapprentices forthecustomaryseven in marked contrast to that of the bricklayer, carpenter or plasterer, and community. Thegeneral opinionofthehouse- painter, forexample,stood barriers’ andfacilitatedthepursuitof‘competence, society andwealth’. that the system of ground rents practised in the city dispensed with ‘capital sional independenceandfinancialrespectability. Rillingfurtherargues that property speculationwastheprincipal,albeitrisky, route toprofes- construction industry in early national Philadelphia is also unequivocal scale ofbusiness enterprises.DonnaRilling hasdescribedthefluidity of formal organization ofindividualshopsand businesses,andtherelative contractual requirements’. and numeracy forsuccess,‘inanindustryincreasingly organized around modern London,ElizabethMcKellar stresses theimportanceofliteracy bility inherent inthesystemofspeculativebuildingasitemerged inearly the eighteenthcentury housebuilder. Acknowledgingtheeconomicflexi- supervision ofon- site labour – increasingly determinedthecharacter of requiring botharange ofcomplexlegalandfinancialinstrumentsthe – the intellectualandmanualdimensionsofbuildingprojects afacility Apprenticeship indentures tothedifferent building trades demanded Opportunitiestoadvanceprofessionally differed betweentheoldand 21

Whileadministrative skillswere crucialfor

25 Thisnecessarilyimpacted onthe

22 DonnaRilling’sstudyofthe 24

Theabilitytomanage 19

century 23

31 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document among itsfoundingmembers; Charitable Mechanic Association numbered bricklayers and carpenters Indeed, inan era definedby ‘thestruggletoensure thatcommerce carpenters, bricklayersand plasterers inpolite architectural discourse? site, withmanagementasamasterbuilderonanother’. particular howindividuals‘interspersedjourneyworkononeconstruction house carpentrybusinessesintheearlyRepublic,forexample, noting in house building. towards methodsofprofessional organisation conducivetothebusinessof composed ofoperatives from outsidethecitycorporations, indicatesashift of MasterBuilders,WrightsandMasonsinEdinburgh around 1790, craft associationsconfinedtothenewworld.TheformationofSociety the specificcommercial interests ofaburgeoning artisanclass.Norwere in Philadelphia1809,represented yetanothersteptowards addressing turies. tradesmen inLondonthroughout theseventeenthandeighteenthcen- independently stressed the importance of mutuality among building ance toartisanalidentity, andElizabethMcKellar andPeter Guilleryhave business alone.Societiesandassociationswere offundamentalimport- of prevailing socialdistinctionsandhierarchies’, association withcityandprovincial leaders’. its members,according toRogerMoss,‘were indailysocialandpolitical formed in 1724, was the foremost trade organisation in the colonies, and practitioners inanyoneplace.TheCarpenters’CompanyofPhiladelphia, along similarlinesofexclusivity, representing onlyasmallpercentage of an increasingly importantaspectofthebuildingindustryandoperated were nothampered bythemedievalguildsystem,craft associationswere of municipalpolitics.Whilebuildingtradesmen intheAmericancolonies membership wasanimportantsteptowards promotion withinthearena advancement: as eachcityguildreturned memberstothecommoncouncil, but theyalsooffered thepotentialforsocialdistinctionandbureaucratic sanal labourandproduction, andprotected theinterests oftheirmembers, to itsparticulartrade vocation. Housewright SocietyintheCityofBoston,whichrestricted membership describes thebuildingartisanthatformsfocusofthispresent narrative: in mind,StuartBlumin’sdescriptionofthemiddlingsortsarguably best An individual’simproved statuswasnotrestricted tosuccessin set ofsociallevels. and the prosperity of a few, strained the very idea of a clearly differentiated work circumscribed thestatusofallartisans,butindependencemany, standing ofthemajoritymiddlingfolk.Thesocialdegradation ofmanual There was, in short, a fundamental, unresolved contradiction in the social Given that the rule of decorum demanded ‘at least a nominal acceptance 28 Craft guildsincitiesthroughout theBritishIslesregulated arti- 32

30 thiswasfollowedin1804bytheAssociated 31

TheMechanicsNationalBank,founded 29

In1795,theMassachusetts 33

whatwastheplaceof A genteel life intrade

26 Withtheabove 31 32 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 32 Building reputations were already deeplyenmeshed’. so muchtoexcludecommerce from art,buttomarkthefactthattwo tion, predicated onthefoundationofRoyalAcademyin1768,‘wasnot suggested thatthedistinctionbetweenaliberal andmechanicaleduca- about thecommodificationofculture generally, AnnBerminghamhas London’s middling sorts. social milieu was in fact increasingly available to a broader spectrum of opportunitytoparticipateinapolite Klein calls‘plebeianpoliteness’: the gression offormalsocialboundariesgaverisetothephenomenonwhat In anagewhere socialidentitywasbothadaptive and dynamic, the trans- served to refine rather to corrupt’, shared issuesofartisanalidentity across theAtlantic world.Inhisstudy vidual aswellcultural andgeographical particulars,butit also addresses with theirbusinessoroccupation. Thisdecisionnecessarilyreflected indi- tume andgenteelsettings, whileotherschosetobeassociateddirectly elected torepresent their‘improved’ status intheformofelaborate cos- mercially successful individual, two discrete approaches emerged: some the expenseofaportrait arguably confinedthepractice tothemore com- portraits ofartisans,inparticularthosecommissionedbyartisans.While its owndistinctresponses. delicate relationship betweenproducer andconsumer, invariablyelicited building, givenitsimpactonthebuiltenvironment andpredicated onthe ways bothvariedandcomplex.Andasweshallsee, the businessofhouse aesthetics andutility, andbetweengentilityindustry, isplayedoutin of eighteenthcentury artisanallifegenerally. Here thecontestbetween tation ofbricklayers,plasterers and others reflects theprotean nature erature, andfrom commissionedportraits tosatiricalprints,therepresen- visually. From architectural treatises topolemical broadsides and advicelit- tradesman waswell represented inpublicdiscourse,bothtextuallyand As aconspicuousmemberofthemodern,commercial city, thebuilding The building artisan intext and image the moderneconomy’. tionship betweencapitalismandgentility, arguing thattheywere ‘alliesin ment incolonialandearlynationalAmericahasalsohighlightedtherela- understood that‘commercial lifeitselfdemandedakindofpoliteness’. tury ‘politeness’wasjuxtaposedwith‘usefulness’,italsocommonly Lawrence Kleinnotesthatwhileintheearlierpartofeighteenthcen- fields ofconsumptionandmaterialculture haschallengedthispolarity. the outset,itisimportanttoacknowledgethatrecent scholarshipinthe a pre- eminent arbiterofgenteelarchitectural anddecorative tastes?At paradox, argued inthisbook,ofthe‘industrious’buildingtradesman as Something ofthiscomplexitymaybedetermined byreference to 37

Indeed,reflecting oneighteenth- century concerns 36

Richard Bushman’s account of social refine- 38

34 how do we reconcile the apparent 35

33 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ciations’. the skilledcrafts through apprenticeships, shopculture, andtrade asso- identification andpridewhichwasthoroughly instilledinpractitioners of emblems of trade was symptomatic of the ‘long tradition of occupational recognizes that the decision to represent oneself surrounded by the sanal ideal of the productive citizen’. More broadly, however, Rubenstein situates thegenre withinaculture thatspecificallycommemorated the‘arti- of occupationalportraits inearlyAmerica,forexample,HarryRubenstein accor 1.1 hat). able labourer’s attire (includingprotective sheepskincollar, sleevesand poseswithinaworkshopenvironment dressed insuit- identity: Jameson published in1765,epitomizesthisconfidenceadecidedlyartisanal ( Figure 1.1 students athisschoolofarchitectural draughtsmanship inCanongate. for example,rather thanthedrawing instrumentswithwhichheinstructed practice; illustrating theworkbenchandtoolsofstonemason’scraft, Jameson emphasizesthemanualrather thanintellectualdimensionsofhis ‘gentleman operative’ asopposedtothearchitectural connoisseur, so George Jameson, self- portrait from ding to Palladio 40 Justashisbookwasaimedsquarely atthebuildingtradesman and 39 A self- A portrait bytheScottishstonecarverGeorge Jameson ), formingthefrontispiece tohisbookofarchitectural designs (Edinburgh, 1765).

Thirty- three designs withtheorders of architecture, A genteel life intrade 41

33 34 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 34 Building reputations appellation of‘builder’rather than‘architect’. across earlynineteenth- century London,Cubittalwaysinsistedonthe dinary professional successasadeveloperofnewstreets andsquares Thomas Cubitt’s (1788– despite his extraor- 1855) occupational identity: similarsensibility, thistimetextualrather thanvisual,isreflected in A 1.2 proudly displayed. both theintellectualandmechanicalaspectsofBedford’s practice are drawing inhishand;behindhimisabuildingunderconstruction.Here Bedford (1720– 1802), thesubjectisshownseatedwithanarchitectural Wilson Peale’s portrait of Philadelphia house carpenter Gunning own senseofplaceinthesocialandarchitectural milieu.InCharles embraced different strategies ofvisualrepresentation pertinenttotheir with aclassicaledificeas into thatprofessional sphere ( Maryland andVirginia, andsoughtinsteadtoimmortalizehiselevation on theotherhand,enjoyedanarchitectural career ofsomedistinctionin portrait of Sir Christopher Wren (1711) or Sir Joshua Reynolds’s portrait – parison Formally posedportraits inoils,thoughrare, illustrate howartisans Charles Wilson Peale, cmoiinlyadcnetal – compositionallyandconceptually withJohnClosterman’s 43

English- born joinerWilliamBuckland(1734– William Buckland scaenae frons Figure 1.2 Figure 1.2 , 1774. , Buckland’sportrait standscom- ). Posed athisdrawing table, 42

74), 35 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document trait. his draughting skillsare determinedly ‘the essential subject’ ofhispor- – tectural portraiture – specificallybooks,drawings anddividers and inent member.) Bucklandemploystheestablishediconography ofarchi- Martin’s LaneAcademy, where thearchitect IsaacWare wasaprom- carpenter buthadbenefitedfrom professional instructionattheSt son (1763)( as inReynolds’sdouble portrait ofthe architect JamesPaine andhis by thisdateoccasionallychosesimilar, lessaristocratic attitudes,such unpowdered hair, butthis is toignore thefactthatEnglisharchitects is shownrather as‘anintelligentworkingman’inamodestsuitand conventions ofthegenre, ithashoweverbeensuggestedthatBuckland of SirWilliamChambers(c.1780).Althoughclearlyemulatingthe 1.3 Cuming, Thorpeschewedallreferences tohisformationintrade andis Lord Mayorin1800( municipal politics inlateeighteenth- century Dublinandwaselected a meteoricrisethroughhouse builderCharlesThorp(d. 1817) enjoyed mobility availabletotradesmen intheAmericancolonies.Plasterer and portrait unequivocallycelebrates thegreater socialandprofessional Sir Joshua Reynolds,

45 Semanticsaside,byproclaiming arespectable statusBuckland’s iue 1.3 Figure ). James Paine, architect andhisson Figure 1.4

44 (Paine, ofcourse,washimselfthesona ). Commemorated inoilsbyartistWilliam , 1764. A genteel life intrade 35 36 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 36 Building reputations 1.4 all aspired todistancethemselvesfrom theirstation. of circumstances andsensibilitiesparticulartotheindividual not which buildingtradesmen chosetorepresent themselves reflected arange identities withinthenascentbuildingindustry. Naturally, themeansby in 1776. (now CityHall),abuildingforwhichhehadwonthe decorating contract ever, hechosetoberepresented intherotunda oftheRoyalExchange resplendent intheformalregalia ofmayoral office.Significantly, how- versation piece genre ( Figure 1.5 ). materials, thedrawing- room settingwasaconventionofthepopular con- borders signifiedMiddleton’strade inpigments,wallpapers andpainting completed c.1797.While the bluecolourofwallsanddecorative London ‘colour man’ John Middleton (d. 1818), whose family portrait was judged balancebetweentrade andgentilitywasstruckby lives. A finely represent themore ‘elevated’,professional dimensionstotheirworking tities intrade, otherslikeWilliamBucklandandCharlesThorpelected to George JamesonandThomasCubittproudly clungtotheirformativeiden- William Cuming, Taken together, theseportraits illustrate thecomplexityofartisanal

Charles Thorp , 1803.

46 Whilesomelike 37 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document an emerging publicsphere ( instructive exampleofhow ridiculewasformedwithinthevisualculture of mobility ofthisartisan class. brick, terraced house – othersmocked itsproducer, specificallythesocial some tookexceptiontotheprincipalproduct ofthebuildingindustry – the world waslegionandcamefrom manydirections indifferent guises.While to thegeneration ofcapitalfrom theirestates,criticismofthebuilding appreciated theimportanceofhousebuildersandreal estatespeculators in printmedia.Indeed,althoughtitledlandowners andcitycouncils nature ofartisanalidentitiesandreputations elicitedavarietyofresponses representation ofanupwardly mobilebuildingclass, but themultivalent Self-commissionedportraits represent onedimensionofthevisual macaroni bricklayer’:‘The ridiculed thebuilder Anon., 1.5 spicuously fashionable. The and eighteenthcenturies, but itsoonbecameabyword for anythingcon- stuff enjoyedbyBritishand Irishgrand touristsduringtheseventeenth Matthew Darly’scaricature ofthe‘Macaroni bricklayer’(1772)isan John Middletonwithhisfamily inhisdrawing room OED Figure 1.6 Figure 1.6 ). defines the macaroni as ‘A dandy or fop; 47

Macaroni wasan‘exotic’food- , c.1797.

A genteel life intrade 37 38 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 38 Building reputations ging bourgeoisie. represented awiderrange ofclasstypesdrawn principallyfrom theemer- Sandby (publishedin1765). Shearer West noteshowDarly’s macaronis Cries of London Leone Ghezziandthestreet vendorsandhawkerspopularizedinsomany and 1774 – fallsomewhere betweenthegrand touristcaricatures ofPier sorts – as ‘atermofreproach toallranks ofpeople’. Continental tastesandfashions.’ By theearly1770s,itwaswidelyrecognized set ofyoungmenwhohadtravelled inEurope andextravagantly imitated specifically (inthesecondhalfofeighteenthcentury)amember 1.6 inauthentic socialmask’and‘exemplifiedthedangers ofartifice’. as a conspicuous, even dubious member of genteel society; he wore ‘an socialandcultural terms,themacaroni wasregarded to one’sstation: in there wasacorresponding concernwithdressing in amannerappropriate while a certain degree of artifice was a prerequisite for polite intercourse, broader socialdemographic thatsawhischaracter ‘asubiquitous inall social behaviour, therepresentation ofthemacaroni grew toembrace a aristocratic elite,andconspicuousbytheirexaggerated forms ofdress and Matt Darly’s printsofvariousmacaroni characters drawn from themiddling sixsetsoftwenty- four portraits each were published between 1771 hew and Mary Darly, macaroni ‘The bricklayer’, 1772. portfolios, including the now famous set by artist Paul 50

Thus,whilethe‘real macaronis’ were partofaprivileged 48

AmeliaRauserhasnotedthat 49

39 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document considered anathematotheperformanceofgentility. the eighteenthcentury, alifeofproduction was,aswehaveseen,generally wigswere wornbythebettersortoftradesmen throughout order: while erately confoundseasyinterpretation ofhisplaceinthesocialpecking – recognized asaconstituentelementofman’spublicpersona delib- challenge totheAscendancy’sdistinctiveness’. wearing ofLondonandFrench fashionsbytheartisanclassesposed‘a social emulationbythelowersortsalsocarriedpoliticalimplications: the As socialaspirant, hisself- – fashioning inbourgeois terms wigswere ‘Macaroni bricklayer’. in satirized byRobertCampbell’sdescriptionofthetailor’s trade, published of character anditsrepresentation invisualculture. within abroader mid- specificity ofindividualfigures asopposedtogenerictypessituatesthem inturnsuggestedawiderclassaudience.This levels ofsociallife’: this ment’: recognized thepervasiveimpactoffashion onthemostdiverseemploy- London’s tradesmen whohad,inthewords ofNeilMcKendrick, ‘already Campbell’s satire wasinfactbornoutof ageneral recognition among for therisingmiddleclasses’. the macaroni caricatures, as‘bothacautionarytaleandsecret exemplar interprets thecontemporary ‘fascinationwithcharacter’, exemplifiedby primacy ofprivatecharacter inpubliclife.Correspondingly, Amelia Rauser tion ofLondon’smiddlingsortswithinapoliticaldiscoursecentred onthe middle- the printsresided in‘theassociationofasingularityfashionwithspecific blurring ofclass divisions’, Bloomsbury. person; mostlikelyThomasPrior, abricklayerofGreat RussellStreet, described as‘PriortoanyotherMacaroni’, isevidentlyapunonreal the “wrong” clothingfor[his]socialestate’. isliterally ‘wearing Lawrence Kleinhastermed‘socialtransvestitism’: he he alsorepresents anexampleofthecontemporary concernwithwhat to strikeabalancebetweenusefulnessandrefinement. Inhisfineclothes and atrowel (thetoolofavulgartrade), themacaroni bricklayerattempts a sword (afashionableaccoutrement ofapolitegentleman’swardrobe) The Londontradesman Itisthrough thiscomplexcultural lensthatwemustviewDarly’s Thiscollapseofsocialdistinctionrepresented bydress wasinfact moving Wires, andhungupupona Peg. Great Mogul,andare asinsignificantinSocietyPunch,deprived ofhis of Beings upon them: identical ExistencethanwhattheTaylor, Milliner, andPerriwig- Maker bestow There are NumbersofBeingsinaboutthisMetropolis whohavenoother 59 class professions andbehaviors’,West locatesDarly’srepresenta- withdress representing ‘themost public manifestationofthe ; 52 have no more Relation to their dressed selves )However, whileacknowledgingthatthecomedicvalueof Strip them of these Distinctions, and they are quite a different Species

55 eighteenth- What aspects of his character are portrayed here? (1747): 60

thebricklayer’s expensiveclothing and

53 InIreland, according toMartynPowell, century discourseregarding thenature 58

51 , thantheyhavetothe

56 (Darly’sbricklayer, A genteel life intrade Brandishing both 39 40 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 40 Building reputations tively makesanassofhimself( Figure 1.7 ). most conspicuousitemofhisensemble – theartisanliterally andfigura- fashionableclothes,walkingcaneandfoppishshoestrings – play: in the in 1789,makesasimilarpointusingtextualassociationandvisualword- John Kay’scaricature ofEdinburgh wrightFrancis Braidwood, published cess ofsocialandeconomicchange’. powdered wigindicatehisunderstandingof‘therole ofclothesinthispro- 1.7 inappropriate, signsofhighfashion: decried howDublin’sartisanclassfreely embraced suchconspicuous,and series of letters published between 1776 and 1778, for example, habitually across theBritishIsles.Correspondents tothe of dress andhowitvisuallymanifestedthecollapseofsocialorder. humorous print,whichtappedintoanxietiesabouttheperformativenature once aWeek. toupeed, pomatumed,powdered, perfumed,&c.a … musthavehishairtiedupinaQueueorClubofponderous Magnitude, conspicuous Macaronies ingeneral thanourveryApprentices; eachofwhom donotknowaSetofmore formidable, say?Why, Sirs,I Mechanics! DidI Evidence ofawiderantipathytosuchdisplayaboundsinprintmedia John Kay, Francis Braidwood 64

, 1786. 61

Thisissurely thepointofDarly’s 63

Hibernian Journal la- Mode deParis atleast , ina 62

41 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document tury building tradesmen in James Elmes’s brings tomindthewithering,retrospective descriptionofeighteenth- Doric order isequatedwiththeirfondnessformodish dress: where theirlackofappreciation fortheunornamentedformofGreek receive itscommercial character.’ are stampedwithLuxury, Foppery, andExtravagance, thiskingdommust for thesonsofTrade? Isitfrom menwhoseearliestNotionsofIndustry Another writerwondered ifsuchmimicryconstituted‘aproper Education coat &waistcoaton.’ youalwaystrippingaboutwithyour your worklikeaWorkman I found atMiltonaveryoddone.Insteadofappearingin of goingonwhenI was November 1771,Chambersremarked toSmith,‘Ithoughtyourmethod aletterof against RobertSmith,hisforeman atMiltonAbbey, Dorset: in made explicitinacriticismlevelledbyarchitect SirWilliamChambers A concernwithfancyand,byextension,inappropriate dress isalso worth’. sion causedbytheveneration ofexteriorappearance rather thaninner pointed tothetext’sunambiguousmessageconcerning ‘themoral inver- izing thetailor’sabilityto‘quiteliterally maketheman’.StuartBlumin has Philadelphia in1772(thesameyearasthe‘Macaroni bricklayer’), satir- in apamphletentitled of legitimatesocialaspiration’ forthoseemployedinmanualtrades. being commonlyusedineighteenth- century America‘tospecifythelimits anic’ and ‘sons of Trade’ is arguably not without significance, the former ( Figures 1.8 pointed andthehumouriscorrespondingly lessimmediateorappreciable architect’ and‘Thebuildermacaroni’, buthere thesatire isarguably less and moral implicationsoffashionabledress. public commentaryandprivateadmonitionclearlyaddressed thesocial dence of‘TheEleganceaTrader orManofProfession’, theseformsof book andafragment ofaclassical entablature alluding totheincreasingly shown burdened withthetrappings ofaprofessional designer, includinga necessarily anindividualdrawn from thebuildingtrades); thearchitect is to amerchant orgentlemaninvolvedin property speculation, andnot role asa beyond theframe oftheimagewithaneyeglass, nodoubtapunonhis they compared toribbedstockings. and halfayard oftailbehind;scorningitssimplefluteswithoutfillets,which did ashirtwithoutruffles,orwigtwogoodportlycurlsovereachear, the ‘newfanciedDoric,’(astheytermedit),withoutabase,asmuch practising carpentryandbox- making, were aliveinmyremembrance; – hating carpenters; afewofthem,callingthemselvessurveyorsandbuilders, Batty Langley, itistrue,hadaschooloracademy, buthisdiscipleswere all From elsewhere inthebuildingworldDarlylampoons‘Theantique 70

speculator and 1.9 (a‘builder’duringtheGeorgian periodcould refer

68 ): the agedfigure ofthebuildersurveysground ): the Ingenerally advocating‘asimplePlainness’asevi- The miraculouspowerofclothes 65

67 Indeed,theuseofterms‘mech-

Lectures on architecture 69

Thissentimentwasechoed A genteel life intrade , publishedin (1821), 66

This cen- 41 42 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 42 Building reputations the English- speaking world – and in the American colonies was certainly the carpenterwasanequally significantbuildingcapitalistthroughout mechanical, professional andcommercial aspectsofhisbusiness.Although also relates tothelowopinionofbricklayergenerally, intermsofthe across theAtlanticOceantoPhiladelphia,BostonandBaltimore. Butit speaking world,from LondonandBristoltoDublinLimerick, and defined moderndomesticarchitecture incitiesthroughout theEnglish- satirize? Theanswermaylieintheprevalence ofbrickasthematerial that to glaziersandplasterers, whymightDarlyhaveselectedthebricklayer to With somanybuildingtrades athisdisposal,from carpentersandplumbers despised…andlionised The builder to to establishtheirprofessional credentials – andbyextensiontheauthority ‘Athenian’ StuartandRobertAdampublishedfoliosofantiquearchaeology bookish nature ofarchitectural design – modernarchitects suchasJames Matt 1.8 oecnpcosbidn pcltr – a more conspicuous building speculator bricklaying was synonymous cule. Ireland particularly, wastherepresentative figure ofpublic scornandridi- with thebusinessofhouse building.Andthehousebuilder, inBritainand design,fostered bygrand tourismandahumanisteducation. 72 The choice of bricklayer Thomas Prior for Darly’s caricature of a hew andMaryDarly, antique ‘The architect’, 1773. 71

43 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document opinion isbroadly disparaging: tect (design) and stonemason (‘the first rank of tradesman’) – Campbell’s Placing thebricklayerthird intheorder forbuildingahouse – afterarchi- and evaluatesthetrades associatedwiththeartofbuildingindividually. guide totherelative meritsofthedifferent trades andprofessions, describes other sociallymobileartisansandtradesmen. Peace ofParis in1763,suggestingthebricklayer’spre- eminence among exceptional levelofbuildingdemandandsupply’inLondonfollowingthe RachelStewartdescribes‘an evidently calculatedonmore thanapun: bourgeois building tradesman – being ‘Prior to any other Macaroni’ – was Matt 1.9 RobertCampbell’s the Housethan alltheBricklayer’sLabour. the Carpenter, bytheStrength ofWood, contributesmore tothestandingof Doors and Windows … and the other common Articles in a City- House, where Tuition ofanArchitect: And inTown theygenerally knowthejustProportions of a MasterBricklayerthinkshimself capable to raise aBrick House without the suppos’d, theArchitect directs himineverythingrelating toDimensions.But Top ofoneanother, andbeddingthemtheirproper BedsofCements;foritis considering himasamere Bricklayer, onlyinranging hisBrickevenuponthe He differsfrom theStone- Mason asmuchhismaterials; Skillconsists, hew andMaryDarly, buildermacaroni’, ‘The 1772. The Londontradesman 74

, notedabove,publishedasa 73

A genteel life intrade 43 44 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 44 Building reputations tive housesbeing‘theirslightness’. ‘greatest objection’tospecula- impact onthequalityofconstruction: his had voiced concerns about London’s speculative building industry and its nomics andbuildingconstruction.Asearlyas1703, authorRichard Neve projects ofhisown,bywhichBricklayersare frequently ruined’. business, unlesshesuccumbstothe‘temptationoflaunchingintobuilding theindividualmightwithindustryrealize aprofitable cautionary note: business ofamaster’ – wasnonetheless compelledtoclosewithafamiliar draw plans,andtosurveyestimatebuildings,anessentialpartofthe for bricklayersintrigonometry, arithmeticanddrawing – thebetterto‘to and guardian’s directory nomic downfall.ThisviewwaslaterechoedinJosephCollyer’s rise abovetheirstationbecomethe their placeinthearchitectural andbuildinghierarchy; thosethatseekto bricklayersshouldacknowledge The pointofthepunisunambiguous: of theirownHouses,andfixthemselvesinJailwithMaterials.’ new ThinginLondon,forthoseMaster- Builders tobuildthemselvesout ality are abandonedandthetoneof thetext takes amockingturn: ‘Itisno of theirown,whichfrequently ruinthem’.Inclosing,alleffortsatimparti- for others’,meaningarchitects, and‘notlaunchoutintoBuilding- conditional onthedecisionbyindividualsto‘confinethemselveswork to be ‘a profitable business’, Campbell was unequivocal that success was is whollydenigrated. Acknowledgingthatbricklayinghadthepotential which bricklayersandcarpentersrealized theirownfinancialcompetence, the ensuingparagraph, where buildingspeculation,theprincipalmeansby bricklayer isfoundwanting.Thisstingingdenunciationcompoundedin sibility ofthecarpenter. Onbothcounts – designandconstruction – the position, thesoundconstructionofa brick buildingisinfacttherespon- the ‘justProportions’ (read ‘classicalproportions’) ofarchitectural com- Brick House’. Moreover, while the bricklayer is ‘generally’ acquainted with authority ondesign,thebricklayer‘ A numberofpointsare significanthere. Althoughthearchitect isthe market conditions’ofearlymodernLondon. ‘built- course ofthelateseventeenthcenturythatoccasioned suchconcerns: the it was the shift from timber- frame to brick shell construction during the battle between the citizens of London and Westminster and the building houses were, heargues, ‘acompromise solution’to‘along- for itseconomicprosperity asforitsarchitectural mien,thecity’sredbrick of London’sterraced streets and squares. Admired asmuch,ifnotmore, architecture asembodied/ represented intheformandspatialorganization early 1700s,considersthe complexrelationship betweencommerce and tory oftasteinBritain,drawing ontheso- called ‘LuxuryDebates’ofthe Atthecruxof‘problem’ wastherelationship betweenbuildingeco- in obsolescence’ofbrickbuilding‘beingperfectlysuited tothenew (1761),which,althoughadvocatinganeducation

77 architects thinks ElizabethMcKellar hasargued that himselfcapable’ofbuilding‘a 78

JulesLubbock’scultural his- oftheirownsocialandeco- The parent 76

Projects running 75

45 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document euain ngon ess construction, nottomentiondesign, was regulations inground leases: of buildersshouldbecorrected bycontrols institutedin covenants and be corrected byArchitecture (withacapital‘A’), butthebuildingpractices a neatencapsulationofboththemanandhislegacy. aims ofarchitecture, andallhisaimwasatprofit’, iswidelyrecognized as as ‘more ineconomisingground foradvantage…thanthemore noble speculators’. having ‘falleninbefore theywere tenanted’. Ware lamented‘theartofbuildingslightly’,citingevidencehouses dubious becauseitwastheprovince ofspeculators.Writingin1756, Isaac redbrick terraced or row house was pamphlets and the public press: the throughout theeighteenthcentury, becomingaleitmotifintreatises, with suspicion. odds withamajorityopinionthatviewedunfettered buildingdevelopment of theburgeoning consumermarketinreal estate.Butthisviewwasat other things,thatproperty speculationwasaresponse tothedemands represented afirststepinfree marketeconomicsandargued, among emerged asa‘problem’ withinarchitectural discourse. design, ofhouses,streets andshops – sotheplainbrickterraced house – measured quantitativelynotqualitatively inthenumber, rather than the method‘introduced byDr. Swift’s reflection onthespeculativebuildingindustryinIreland blamed advantage’. of construction,thebuilder ‘doesnotchusetoemployhismoneythe articles’, thatistorulesand regulations regarding materialsandquality that ‘unless his Grace [i.e. the aristocratic landowner] tye him down to to theleaseholdsystemadoptedthroughout theBritishIsles,Ware argued involved inproperty developmentinLondonthelate1730s. was alsosomeonewithexperienceinspeculativebuilding, havingbeing struction wastheprovince oftheprofessionally trained architect. Buthe tectural authority, insistingthat designandsupervisionofabuilding’scon- authority, Ware wasofcourseatthevanguard oftheconstructionarchi- the buildingindustrythereafter. Barbon’s London pioneered thesystemofspeculativebuildingthatcharacterized whose notoriouscareer asaproperty developerinlateseventeenth- the career ofbuilderandeconomistNicholasBarbon(c.1640– Such concernsechoedthecriticisminarchitectural discourse are allreduced tobeggary. answer halftheirdesign,theyare forced toundersellitatthefirststory, and they can. But, as it often happens, and more every day, that their fund will not and theirmoney;whenworkisfinished,sellittothebestadvantage of ground, clubtobuildoneormore houses,unitetheircredit, theirstock, The mason,thebricklayer, thecarpenter, theslater, andtheglazier, takealot Much of the concern with the building class 85

79 InWare’s estimation,then, notonlyshouldhousebuilding Asthegreatness ofacommercial nationwasincreasingly 80

Indeed,RogerNorth’sdescriptionofBarbon’spractice 82

Barebone atLondon,whodiedabankrupt’: An apologyforthebuilder 83

per se Asbotharchitect and

81 was predicated on In1724,Jonathan A genteel life intrade 84

Referring c.1698), century

(1685) 45 46 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 46 Building reputations area oftheWest Endoftown,hecontinues: to theprodigious buildingactivity thenunderwayintheMarylebone by aSpeculator’then‘itsdurability maybesuspicious’.Withreference Peacock isunequivocalthatifahouse‘hasperhapsbeenbuiltforSale advice forthoseengagedinbuildingfrom designtoconstruction, that takes the form of a series of ‘observations and reflections’, with industry ingeneral andthehousebuilderinparticular. Inanappendix Nevertheless, the text is littered with direct attacks on the building Campbell’s witheringopinion: customarily sacrificed to increase profits. In this, Ware shared Robert crafts. the potentialforcapitalgain butwithnoformaltraining inthebuilding criticized inpublicdiscourse alsonumbered thoseattracted purely by by theendofeighteenth century, the ‘builders’and‘masterbuilders’ and otherscertainlyspeculated intheirownright,andincreasingly so outside the building industry. While bricklayers, carpenters, plasterers tunities offered bylandandproperty developmentattracted figures from wider, systemic issue.Already in thelateseventeenthcentury, theoppor- and itisclearthatthebuildingtradesman becameascapegoat for a or construction.But‘builder’wasitselfaslipperyterm, aswehaveseen, The builderturnedproperty developerwasnottobetrustedwithdesign Implicit andexplicitinallofthisisthecriticism speculativebuilder. often difficulttodistinguishbetweenthesatiricalanddidacticvoices. tradesman. Describedby Eileen Harrisas ‘a contrary littlebook’,itis portion – same token, the advice on topics such as propriety, regularity and pro- building tradesmen asarbitersofarchitectural tastegenerally; bythe supposed authorservedtounderlineforthereader theineptitudeof labourer’. Thisworkedontwolevels.Ontheonehand,statusof tion ofthesemi- pseudonymous JoseMacPacke, styleda‘bricklayer’s (1785), architect James Peacock’s elaborate conceit involved the inven- building alsoelicitedsatiricalresponses. For Mistrust intheintellectualandmanualaspectsofbusiness months aftertheexpiration ofhislease. them withsuchnicetyandaddress, astodecree theirdissolutionprecisely six and adaptingthequalitiesofhismaterials,manner ofconnecting bone School,isasbadflatheresy; hegoesoncalculatinghissubstances, the speculativeadventurer, inured tothemaximsandhabitsofMary- [A]goodmaximinbuildingis,‘A littlestronger thanstrong enough;’this,to not totrustentirely totheirSkill. a GentlemanwhowantstobuildwithSecurityaswellBeauty, woulddowell Bricklayer; andare liabletosplituponthesameRockofBuildingProjects: But Both CarpentersandJoinersare UndertakersinBuildingaswelltheMaster 89

AsStefanMuthesiushas noted,theintroduction ofbuilding the sine quanon of architecture – ofarchitecture – was‘voiced’byabuilding 86

Oikidia, ornutshells le- 87 87

47 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document both hiscredentials andhisreputation. his apprenticeship tothecarpentrytrade andthereby callingintoquestion Mylne describingGwynnasbeing‘lateofanotherprofession’, hinting at and Westminster improved Gwynn to satirize architect Robert Mylne as ‘Mr. Trowel’ in his and authority. Professional rivalry inspired architect andpolemicist John architecture, wasalsoadeviceusedtochallengeanindividual’scharacter the encroachment ofthecountrysideisunderway byaseriesof‘newstreet’ owners equally. regulations wasanattempttocontrol builders,speculatorsandland- George Cruikshank, 1.10 or – apogee inGeorge Cruikshank’spopularcartoon tion, shoddyconstruction andthegreedy builderarguably reached its mechanical worldofthebuilding tradesman. pointed: architectural connoisseurshipwasresolutely dissociatedfrom the asty ofstonemasonstotheScottishcrown – whichmadetherebuff more through thebuildingtrades – Mylnewasdescendedfrom arenowned dyn- Themarch ofbricks andmorter Theinvocationofanoccupationalformationintrade, asopposedto Thisapparently symbioticrelationship betweensprawling urbaniza- 90 90

London going of out town– or– The march of bricksandmorter (1766).Thiswasapparently inresponse to , publishedin1829(

91 Ironically, bothhadcomeup London goingoutoftown – Figure 1.10 ). A genteel life intrade London 92 Here , 1829.

47 48 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 48 ( Figures 1.11 and 1.12 ). carpenter, bycontrast, isshownpreparing thevarioustimbercomponents layer isillustrated intheactive(proper?) role of‘buildingahouse’: the laying iselevatedtotherealm ofarchitecture. More significantly, thebrick- Sussex, andLambethPalace, London;byimplication,thetrade ofbrick- celebrated brick- built monuments, including Herstmonceux Castle, East bricklayer’s occupation,forexample,describessome ofEngland’smost narrative ofthe interest here istheinvocationofhistoricprecedent: the hence itsuseandimportanceforbuildingwalls,houses, &c.’. Ofparticular houses andotherbuildings’;bricklayingis‘theartof cementingbrick… sible for‘framing andjoiningpiecesoftimber, andfittingthemupin of eachcraft carpenterisrespon- inadecidedlyneutral toneofvoice: the industry, Representing almostalloftheprincipaltrades associatedwiththebuilding but dispenseswiththeiroftenderogatory judgmentsandappraisals. this itshares acommonpurposewithRobertCampbellandJosephCollyer book wasclearlyaimedattheoffspringoflowerandmiddlingsorts: in Designed to‘acquainttherisinggeneration withourvarioustrades’, the published inLondon1804– 5 andrevised inmanyeditionsintothe1820s. Building reputations building tradesmen in sharing theirmoralistic tone,are thevisualandtextualrepresentations of erects asignbearingthelegend: of shovels,pick- axes andhods.Atthecentre ofthecompositionafigure houses formedbylegionsofbuildingautomatonsingeniouslycomposed Friends inLondon.Itwassubsequently publishedinPhiladelphia (1808) William Darton(1755– 1819), aprominent memberoftheSociety in from thecentres offashion(souththeriver). of Londonthatwere eitherdecidedlyworkingclass(theEastEnd)orfar wordplay and asameansofsituatingtheculpritinparts on twolevels: as sion. Thegeographical identifiersof‘BrickLane’and‘Brixton’alsowork as avandal,responsible forLondon’sunfettered, jerry- built urbanexpan- sical and the gothic, but also, and more pointedly, to the idea of the builder once aninspired reference totheearlymoderndialecticbetweenclas- Little Jack ofalltrades In contrast to the mocking satirical tone of Darly and Cruikshank, but Related to these are the textual and visual characterizations found Cruikshank’s identificationofthebuilder/ developer as‘MrGoth’isat Brixton Brick Lane Bricklayers Arms Brickmaker Enquire ofMr Goth On aBuilding Lease This Ground tobe Lett The bookoftrades

The bookoftrades,orlibrarytheusefularts

, achildren’s bookfirstpublishedin1804 by carefully delineatedthetechniquesandskills 93

, first 49 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document political significance. decades following the American Revolution, the artisan enjoyed a new and Puritanidealsofcommunityrespectability, andwhere, inthe labour rather thanmerchant commerce nodoubtappealedtoQuaker and Boston(1813),where itsemphasisonoccupationsinvolvingmanual bricklayer’ ‘The from 1.11 all (reasonable?) expectation: ably the lowliest trade in terms of acuity and skill, who is elevated beyond penter, mason and glazier, here itisthebrickmaker( individual entries describing a number of building trades, including car- in plain,simpletermsorder toappealthebook’s‘littlereaders’. With explanation, thecharacter andmeritsofarange oftrades are delineated But I rais’d the fameofGreat InigoJones. Your proud marblemonumentsshineincutstones, Who but yourpoorBrick- maker, cover’dwith clay. Who made theselarge cities, nowtellme,I pray? Of little mean hovels,dark,dirty, and damp? But what were theyonce butaheathera swamp, And DublinandEdinburgh, Glasgowand Cork; Fine citiesare London,Bath,Bristol, and York, The bookof trades

94 In illustration, rhyming verse and descriptive 95 95

(London, 1818). 96

Figure 1.13 Figure 1.13 A genteel life intrade ), argu- 49 50 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 50 Building reputations potential ignominyofbuilding business(speculation). seems, thedignityofbuilding labour(bricklaying)iscontrasted withthe firm foundationlaywithcare, Norbuildthy castlesintheair’.Here, too,it in tone,demandingjudgement andmindfulnessineverydaypractice: ‘The layer, whofirstappeared inthesecondeditionofbook, iscautionary heat ofsummer.’) Bycontrast, theopeningstanzaaddressed tothebrick- obliged tosleepintheopenair, andsufferfrom thecoldofwinterand is alsoextendedtothecarpenters,withoutwhoselabours ‘We shouldbe lives, inorder tobuilduscommodioushabitations’.(Thiscommendation is encouraged to‘beverythankful’brickmakers‘whothushazard their standing atanimmenseheightonnarrow andtotteringplanks’ – thereader at seeingsomeclimbtheladdersladenwithhods of mortar, andothers the perilsinherent inbuildingconstruction – ‘weare indeedjustlyalarmed importance ineighteenth- century Britisharchitectural theory. Alerted to building quality;and,moreover, withInigoJones,anarchitect ofthefirst Brick- stantially built of brick, the point here is that the honest labour of the ‘poor Notwithstanding thefactthatcitieslikeBathandEdinburgh are notsub- carpenter’ ‘The from 1.12 these depictions of‘honestanduseful’tradesmen share aformalvocabulary maker, cover’dinclay’isequatedwitharchitectural modernityand The bookof trades (London, 1818).

Unsurprisingly, 51 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ‘support’ forthisnarrative scene. point isfurtherunderscored bythebrick- wall patternthatprovides aliteral of thebricklayerforcity’sbuildingandarchitectural industries.This house tothedecorative church steeple – signifiesthe central importance depiction ofbuildingsdifferent magnitudes – from the humble brickrow much ontheworkingindividualswhodominateforeground, thevisual ging architectural profession andthe politicsofdesignatmid- their interdependent relationship, canberead asasymptomoftheemer- view oftheproducer (housebuilder)and the product (brick house), and architectural andsocialdiscourse.Inbroader cultural terms,thesardonic tradesmen generally, and thehousebuilderparticularly, were perceived in But collectively, theyspeaktothecomplex waysinwhichthebuilding temporalities, aswelldivergent cultural andgeographical specificities. builder – of Philadelphia,foundedin1792( the vignetteonmembershipcertificatesofBricklayersCompany with officiallysanctionedrepresentations ofthebuildingindustry, suchas brickmaker’ ‘The from 1.13 Of course,suchtextualandvisualrepresentations ofthehouse from disreputable macaroni to decent labourer – reflect different Litt le Jack of alltrades

iue 1.14 Figure (London, 1814). (London, 1814). ). Whilethefocusisvery

A genteel life intrade century. 51 52 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document .4 John Cromwell’s membershipcertifi cate for theBricklayers’ 1.14 Company of Philadelphia (detail), 1811. 52 Building reputations cities from BristoltoBaltimore. Withreference tonewspaperadvertising, and whichremains aconstituentpartofthe everydayurbancharacter of the substantialbuiltevidence thathassurviveddowntothepresent day and architectural criticwouldhaveusbelieve,thenwe hardly have houses were fallinginasregularly astheeighteenth- century publicpress through modern,tastefuldesignandsoundconstruction.Indeed,if brick depended onreputation; andagoodreputation couldonlybeachieved thesuccessofabuildingbusiness stood byallbuildingentrepreneurs: have seen,neglectedtoconsiderthesimpleeconomic equationunder- marketing andsellingofreal estate.Criticismofthebuildingworld,as we design ofthehousefaçade,decoration ofthehouseinteriorand the chapters, thisisevidentfrom thewayinwhichbuildersnegotiated the stituent componentofhisreputation. Asweshallexplore intheensuing builder wasnecessarilyinvestedindesignandarchitectural tasteasacon- Despite theaccusationsofcontemporary andmoderndiscourse,thehouse A genteel life intrade industrialized buildingindustry. decades eithersideof1800,predicated onanincreasingly capitalizedand shift inbuildingprocess andlabourorganization thatemerged in the of thebuildinglabourer maybeunderstoodintermsoftheparadigm Conversely, theliterature extollingthemoral sincerityandhonestvirtue

53 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document manner nowpractised intheCitiesofLondonandWestminster’. the antiquegrotesque style’aswell‘colouringoftheapartmentsin the and gentry of Cork in 1781 that he executed decorative plasterwork ‘in ingenious JamesWyatt,Esq;Architect’ inEngland,advisedthenobility apparently ‘received hiseducationandprofessional knowledgeunderthe comply withandatothertimestoresist institutionalandsocialcoercions.’ their ownindividualends,astoolstoconstructsocialselves;attimes need toexplore thewayinwhichindividualsappropriate cultural formsto within the commercial marketplace. As Ann Bermingham has argued, ‘We attention to how house builders and decorators distinguished themselves trade cards, broadsides andotheraspectsofprintculture, wenowturnour facturer represented asignofdistinguishedaccomplishment. or tutelageunderanEnglisharchitect, designerorluxurygoodsmanu- World throughout theeighteenth century, soanindividual’sapprenticeship As Londonremained thecultural centre oftheEnglish- speaking Atlantic association by Taste great architect oftheAdelphiBuildings’. bold, lightandeleganttaste, whichhasbeenlatelyintroduced bythe ‘lately returned’ from London,advertisedhiscapacitytobuildinthe‘new, Philadelphia in 1773, the enterprising carpenter William Williams, having intended audience. the significanceofthisassociationwouldnothavebeen lostonMurphy’s Wyatt’s extensivecountryhousepractice inIreland from theearly1770s, observing that‘A foreigner isalwayspreferred bytheIrishnobility.’ to Dublinin1797decriedthelackofencouragement fornative‘genius’, So endemicwasthispredisposition toEnglishtastesthatoneacerbicvisitor acteristic ofluxuryconsumptionineighteenth- century Ireland and America. services, apreference thatisnowwidelyrecognized asanestablishedchar- advertisements attesttotheenduringappealofimportedBritishgoodsand and discerning consumer. In 1794,JosephBowes announced thathe announcement generates anaffinitybetween accomplishedproducer stood thereference toRobertAdam’sThamesidedevelopment, Williams’s to thecultivatedandparvenu alike,whomayornothaveunder- throughout theeighteenthcentury. not beenestablished,Englisharchitects enjoyedextensiveIrishpatronage althoughhisemploymentunderthesefigures has was novainconceit: Architects there, suchasMessrs. Adam, Chambers, Paine, Wiatt,&c.’ Daniel Quigley’sreference to‘eightYears inLondonunderthefirst and thereby generate professional advantage.In1780,Dublincarpenter names offashionableEnglisharchitects tosignifytheirowncredentials agents fortheirLondoncounterparts,sobuildingtradesman invokedthe We findsimilarapproaches amongAmerican tradesmen. In JustasIrishmanufacturers andretailers advertisedtheirrole as 101

DanielMurphy, plasterer, having

103 Cleverlydesignedtoappeal A genteel life intrade 99

Newspaper

102 100

Given

53 54 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 54 Building reputations in theclassabovethem,notcollaboration withthosebelowthem’. aggrandizing advertisementsconfirmthat‘aspirants soughtincorporation to workinafashionableandtastefulmanner. Taken together, theseself- and tocreate anurbaneprofessional discernmentbasedontheability exercise wastoaspire toanimproved stationwithinthebuildingindustry, bolder claimsthatcouldnotbesoreadily substantiated – thepointof the compared withLondonandDublin,forexample,certainlyallowed for – at facevalue thegreater distancebetweenLondonandPhiladelphia academies ofartsandsciencesinEurope’.) he describedthedrawing schoolsoftheDublinSocietyas‘onefirst card 1790,andthenresident forHoban: by inCharleston,SouthCarolina, Hoban’s purposewasunambiguous.(Thisremained animportantcalling a general Philadelphiareadership mustremain amatterforspeculation, familiarity with the name and function of that improving institution among Workmen asanyinIreland’. approved andlatestFashions – Havingbeenregularly bred underasgood workman, Plasterer andPlain- painter’ from Dublin,performed‘inthemost London- garden squares aftertheEnglishmodel,andsustainedpatronage for city’, itboastedaseriesofsuperlativepublicbuildingsandaristocratic lence incraftsmanship andarchitectural tasteinitsownright.As‘second decorative work‘aftertheLondonTaste’. and Clow,‘Builders’ofDivision- Street, New York, undertookbuildingand was habituallyasignofqualityandfashioninitself: in1765,Dobie clearly notthepoint.Indeed,throughout theeighteenthcentury, ‘London’ certainly beyondtheinspectionofhisPhiladelphiaaudience,thiswas the buildingsenumerated byhiminLondon,GlasgowandEdinburgh were principal callingcard, buthealsoemployedothertextualciphers. the ‘opportunities’gainedinserviceof‘thisGreat Man’wasBowes’s draughtsman intheofficeof‘thecelebrated RobertAdams[ was ‘latelyarrivedfrom Europe’, havingspent‘several yearspast’asa manufacturers andretailers adoptedinnovative merchandising and and HelenClifford haveargued thatinan‘economyof persuasion’, In theirstudyofGeorgian salesandmarketing techniques,MaxineBerg ture wascomplexanddynamic.Italso, byturns,activeandpassive. The eighteenthcentury buildingtradesman’s relationship withprintcul- Trade cards andbroadsides: marketing taste received forarchitectural drawing ‘from theDublinSociety’. distinguished himselfbyreference tothe‘different premiums’ hehad Evening Herald to anynowdoneinthecityofDublin’,wasadvertised Whiletheveracity oftheseclaimsshouldnotnecessarilybetaken TheIrishcapitalevidentlyenjoyedareputation asacentre ofexcel- based architects. In Baltimore in 1789, Joseph Kennedy, a ‘Stucco- in1785.Theauthorofthisnotice,JamesHoban,further 106

Carpentrywork‘inthemoderntaste,equal 105

108

107

Pennsylvania Althougha sic

104 ]’. Here, 109 While

55 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ture, commodificationandsocialperformance. consumer, sotheentrepreneur understoodtherelationship betweencul- their peers.Astastewasincreasingly understoodasthepreserve ofthe order toattract business,andtocreate professional distinctionamong tomakepubliclyvisibletheirtrade specialismin of thiswastwofold: turned tomore sophisticatedformsofself- presentation. Thepurpose the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, so builders and decorators itself becameavailabletoawidersocialstratum duringthecourseof emphasize thepoliterdimensionsofbuildingbusiness. and retailing. Here, wewillconsiderhowbuildersusedtrade cards to occupied by the auctioneer and the genteel axis of manufacturing borrowing techniques and strategies from the commercial worlds builders advertisedtheirproficiency asarbitersofarchitectural tastes, Building tradesmen were noexception.In ( Figure 1.15 ). ises (withsignboard), italsosignifiestheirparticulartrade specialism no doubtarepresentation oftheir actual business prem- this category: builders firm,withitsillustration ofathree- storey brickbuilding,fallsinto cases literally. Thefinelyengraved designfor Green’s bricklayersand – manner thetrade card becameasignforthebuilder’sshop insome them from the‘lowersort’ofcommonlabourers andjourneymen.Inthis of customer, and tocreate an impression ofthe individualthatelevated was evidentlyastrategy designedtoattract andappealtoaparticularkind rather than‘public’shops – theuseof trade cards bybuildingtradesmen shopkeepers’ – Matthew Boulton,whoavoidedtheadvertisingstrategies usedby‘common newspapers orbroadsides. cards andbillheadswere more importanttoearlymodernadvertising than advertisement, invoice,receipt andpricelistatonethesametime – Performing variouseconomicfunctionssimultaneously – oftenactingas advertising strategies ‘toconveymessagesofdiscriminatingtaste’. artisans could afford abespoke design – andstandardized layoutsavailable Indeed, whiletherelative expenseofprinting trade cards meantthatnotall card andthehandbillcarriedgreater currency intermsofmarketingtaste. ally inalimitedpictorialor figurative sense, thedesignqualityoftrade of the luxury goods trades during the course of the eighteenth century. market place’,illustrated trade cards emerged asakeypromotional tool of graphic andprintculture …addressed toattracting individualstothe Forming part of what Berg and Clifford have described as ‘a wider context fied professional character, reputation inbusinessandcredentials intaste. sional distinctioninnewspaperadvertisements,sothetrade card signi- Following theexampleofentrepreneurs likeJosiahWedgwood and Since newspaperadvertising rarely relied onimages,andthentypic- JustasexperienceinLondonwasfrequently invokedtocreate profes- 114 disparaging newspapers and preferring ‘private’displays

Chapter 4 Chapter 4 112

A genteel life intrade wewillseehow

111 Asculture

110 113

55 56 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 56 Building reputations and promotional purposes. to themodernbusinesscard, trade cards servedunambiguousnetworking might becountedamongthemore professionally astute: equivalent insize plasterers whotookadvantageoftheopportunitiesoffered bytrade cards of promotion’. have argued thattheirapplicationrepresented ‘averyconsciousstrategy for customizationwere already popularbymid- 1.15 Trade card of ‘Green’s bricklayers andbuilders’, n.d. builder’s pocket companion of theircommercial function,wasakintotitlessuchasBattyLangley’s trade cards conferred personaldistinction.Theirportability, akey aspect to mention specialist venues such as clubs and societies, the circulation of a particularidea oftheclassical’. from the 1760s, with an emphasis on the ‘transcending association with Berg andClifford noteanincrease intheuseofclassicaliconography rococo, ‘Gothick’,Chinoiserie,neoclassicism.Unsurprisingly, design: istic diversitynowregarded asaconstituentelementofeighteenth- being printedonavarietyof stockofvaryingsizes – andembraced thestyl- treasure Cards andbillheadstookvariousformstosuitdifferent requirements – (1766). 115

Withthisinmind,thosebricklayers,carpentersand

116 (1747)orWilliamPain’s Onbuildingsitesandindrawing- rooms, not 117

A striking exampleofthisisthetrade A striking century – The builder’s pocket- Berg andClifford century The

57 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document were difficulttodepictseductivelyontheirown’. an establishedmethodusedbyretailers when ‘the commodities for sale doors, frames and shutters, this deliberate opacity, it seems, represented with thetextualdescriptionofStibbs’sactualtrade specialisminpresses, romantic visualizationofclassicalruinsistherefore decidedlyatodds trade insecond- hand goods‘boughtandsold’.Significantly, whilethe in ‘carpenter’sandjoyner’swork’,butalsothedecidedlynon- tectural backdrop ofPiranesian grandeur, Stibbsannounceshisbusiness lent tothefashionable arabesque cartouchesandrelated framing devices Lane, Holborn( SilkofLeather arguably hintingatalingeringconservatism, thatofG. elements of both the rococo and neoclassical ornamental vocabularies, ofNewComptonStreet ( While thatofB. Johnson able noveltiesmaybediscerned byaclosereading ofdiscrete designs. distinctly individual relationships with architectural tastes and fashion- process oftranslation from printedpagetodecorated surface.Here, too, text – – zation card ofThomasStibbsinMoorfields( c arpenter and joiner of Moorfi Stibbs, elds,London,n.d. Thomas of card Trade 1.16 A more direct affinitybetweentheserviceoffered anditsvisuali- isfoundinthetrade cards ofplasterers, reflecting thelongstanding achievingabalancebetweenthesemanticfields of imageand Figure 1.18 Figure 1.18 ), ismore appreciably modern,beingequiva- Figure 1.16 ). AgainstaRomanarchi- 118

Figure 1.17 Figure 1.17 A genteel life intrade ) includes genteel 57 58 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 58 Trade card of B.Johnson, plasterer of Piccadilly, London,c.1786. 1.17 Building reputations of Winkfield,Berkshire ( trade card ofAlexanderMcLeod,aplasterer workinginthesmallvillage tication confinedtothemajormetropolitan centres, evidencedbythe testament tothisinterdependence.) Nor was this level ofsemanticsophis- ition ornamentmanufactory’inGreat Portland Street, Londonisfurther ‘transmitters offashionableforms’. between illustrated trade cards andpatternbooks,bothofwhichactedas and PlacidoColumbani.Suchcards alsoconfirmtheimportantassociation published byLondon- based designerssuchasMichelangeloPergolesi Piratical Productions’. Ornament Work intheBuildingline’,advisedcustomers to ‘Beware of that employthem’;Jaques ofHolborn,manufacturers of‘everysort Publick asPainters, andspoiltheWork, tothegreat Detriment ofthose warned of‘Counterfeitsand Interlopers’who‘toooftenimposeonthe George Hutchison,apainterand gilderoftheHaymarket, or materials: opportunity tocautionpotentialclientsagainstsubstandard workmanship and decorative elements.Bycontrast, Londontrade cards oftentookthe ities in‘OrnamentalWork’ are represented byfinelyengraved figurative London credentials andhiscommercial competitiveness,soMcLeod’sabil-

Figure 1.19 Figure 1.19 119

). Justasthetextestablishesbothhis (APergolesi designfora‘compos-

59 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document atic ofanincreasingly ‘coherent andcodified visuallanguage’that spoketo the trade cards ofStibbs, Weston andothers shouldbeseenassymptom- the nature ofthebusiness ortrade advertisedanditsvisualizationinprint, struction) tobeauty(decoration). Witharguably noparity, then,between even upontheTop ofoneanother’,butshifts theemphasisfrom utility(con- not onlyelevateshimselfabove theeverydaypractice of‘ranging hisBrick understanding ofarchitectural fashion ( to thebusinessortrade ofbricklaying,itfocusesinstead onsignifyinghis its useoftheantiquegrotesque vocabulary: studiously avoiding any allusion Weston’s card isevenclosertothoseofdecorators likeJohnsonandSilkin well astheproduct ofhisbusiness (the house). intellectual (design)andmechanical(construction)aspects ofhistrade, as that mostAdamesqueofdecorative surrounds, Hughes illustrates boththe ( Figure 1.20 The trade card ofcarpenterWilliamHughesisinstructive inthisrespect through surprisingyetsophisticatedcombinations oftextandimage. and other building trades pursued the persuasive rhetoric of taste making Trade card of G.Silk,plasterer of Holborn, London,c.1788. 1.18 A decorative emphasiswasnotconfinedtothecards ofhousedecorators, ). In aseries of cartouches formed by husk chains and ribbons, Figure 1.21 Figure 1.21 120

London bricklayer Edward

). Insodoing,Weston A genteel life intrade 59 60 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 1.20 Trade card of Alexander McLeod, plasterer of Winkfi eld,Berkshire, c.1794. 1.19 Trade card of William Hughes,carpenter of Cheapside, London,c.1791.

61 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document fiviei h eoeyo et – of invoicein the recovery of debt and concludesthattheireconomic for the place of the trade card in ‘operations of credit’ – namely, as a form handbills intermsof‘quality andselectdistribution’,shefurtherargues complex systemsofcredit, distinct from the more commercially oriented ledges thattrade cards were, inaconsumereconomydominatedby of qualityandtastethrough more subtle,abstract means. this timebeingrecognized asagraphic conventionforrepresenting ideas framing devicestoadvertisetrades andbusinessesofalldescriptionsat unambiguously ( of textandimage)infavourmarketinghisgoods and termsclearly appeal tothe‘citizens’ofBostoneschewedvisualniceties (bothinterms of compositionornamentmanufacturer George Andrews, whosedirect ( 1.22 Figure ). gentleman andtradesman alikefrom hisshopinDublin’sAngleseaStreet on itemizingthewiderange ofprepared ornamentavailabletoarchitect, dispenses withillustrative allusionstostyleandtaste,focusesinstead appearance. Theeleganttypographic designofWilliamSalmon’scard more decidedlymercantile bent,yetremain ‘polite’intoneandvisual universal tropes abouttaste Trade card of Edward Weston, bricklayer of Chelsea,London,c.1799. 1.21 Cards, handbillsandbroadsides mightoftenbedesignedalonga 123 More obviouslycommercial stillisthe1806broadside iue 1.23 Figure

121 ). Indeed,whilePhilippa Hubbard acknow- – – thepreponderance ofelegantAdamesque A genteel life intrade 122

61 62 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document .2 Trade card of William Salmon,ornament manufactory at Anglesea Street, Dublin,c.1795. 1.22 1.23 Broadside of George Andrews, composition ornament manufacturer of NewYork, 1806.

63 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document also partofa widertrend inadvertisingthatwould become imagery, intheformofeaglesandother decidedly Americansymbols,was most distinguishedhouse builders.(Wellford’s shrewd useof‘patriotic’ quality ofhisstockinatestimonial autographed byeighteenofthecity’s puff; and,more significantly, asanapparently impartialendorsementofthe alistofgoodsand servicesprovided; asgeneral advertising of levels: as architraves, pilastersandwindowshutters),thetextoperates onanumber tion of his prepared ornament (as figurative and decorative additions for ( 1.24 Figure Manufactory ofCompositionOrnaments’inTenth Street, Philadelphia example ofthisisthehandbill,dated1811,Robert Wellford’s ‘American materials andhardware supplierstojourneymenandlabourers. were built – they necessarily addressed a broad spectrum of actors from contracting andsubcontracting system – themechanism by whichhouses theparticularsof of socialandcommercial exchangerelations: given builders anddecorators were likelyemployedinmore complexpatterns might wellhaveactedprimarilyasaformof While theprintedcards andhandbillsofgenteelshopkeepersretailers functions were diverseandwideranging. 1.24 Handbillof Robert Wellford, ornament manufactory at 10thStreet, Philadelphia, c.1811. ). Whiletheillustration simplydemonstrates theapplica-

124 Thisisanimportantpoint. aide mémoire A genteel life intrade de rigueur , thoseof 125

A good A good by

63 64 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 64 Building reputations work ofsimilarvisualandtechnicalcomplexity. Artists withoutanyadulteration’, were eminentlysuitablefordecorative text andimage;theimplicationbeingthathisproducts, being‘prepar’d for sale prices – wouldrecognize thesignificanceofrelationship between audience – a dragon ( with itselaborate cartoucheformedbytheatricaldrapery andcrowned by on theonehand,beread asadesignintendedtosimplyattract attention, and intellectuallysubtle.Londonplasterer ThomasBrown’s trade card can, selves reveals bothagencyand volition. argues thattheselectionofstylesandornamental motifsinandofthem- manufacturers in terms of consumer choice, this analysis of builders’ cards from mid- century, arguing for less individualagencyamongartisansand While Michael Snodin has drawn attention to the use of ‘stock’ designs of thecontemporary shopkeeper, retailer andluxurygoodsmanufacturer. language oftaste,thetrade cards ofbuildingtradesmen complementthose a range ofdifferent publicsoraudiences.Butinadoptingacodifiedvisual the 1820s. 1.25 Trade card of Thomas Brown, plaster of Paris merchant of Westminster, n.d. Taken together, thedifferent designprioritiesdisplayedhere suggest 126

Figure 1.25 Figure 1.25 plasterers inthemarketforqualitymaterialsatretail orwhole- )Othersemployedmethodsatoncebothcommercially blatant ). Conversely, Brown mighthave expectedthathis 127 Itisalsoclear thatsomewere

65 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document understanding hisproblematic reception incontemporary social, cultural signs ofgentility, JohnLocke’streatise oneducationoffers aroute into Although aneighteenth- century tradesman mightpossesstheoutwards Conclusion biguously autographed as‘Parry delin.’ ( the publisheddesignsofJohnCrunden,WilliamPain andothers,isunam- case inpoint: its illustration ofalarge countrypile,albeitacompositefrom card ofJ. Parry, a bricklayer andplasterer ofStJames’sMarket, is agood tinctly professional ambitionsbeyondtheirimmediatevocations.Thetrade directly theproduct oftheirrespective shops,andthusrepresented dis- Trade card of J. Parry, bricklayer andplasterer of St James’s Market, London,c.1789. 1.26 commercial lifebutthepretension toaffectthe‘polite’meansdo so. underscores not only the desire to attract genteel clients at every level of whose jobitwastoempty the city’s cesspoolsandwaterclosets, includes so- urban social spectrum: this called ‘Nightmen’ or ‘Muckmen’, number ofillustrated cards produced bytradesmen ateverylevelofthe than amassaudience,thisisdemonstrably contradicted bythelarge End, beinganexampleofadvertisingdirected atthebespokeclientrather as theprovince oftheluxuryandsemi- luxury retailers ofLondon’sWest some historians have generally regarded the elegantly designed trade card Figure 1.26 ). 128 Moreover, although A genteel life intrade

129

65 66 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 66 Building reputations in howtoadvanceinconspicuously’. throughout theperiod,itcouldalsoguide‘theupwardly sociallymobile complex. Whilesocialdecorumupheldclassdistinctionsandhierarchies tige wascircumscribed’. the time,were permittedprofessional mobilitywhilsttheirsocialpres- especially importantpartofaworker’stoolkit’. deportment thusrepresented whatJ. Ritchie Garrisonhasdescribedas‘an and lives begatpersonalfortunesanddictatedarchitectural tastes: dress social identityinanincreasingly commodifiedcultural landscape.Working The macaroni bricklayerisinfactaprimeexampleoftheprotean nature of and deportmentoftheirsocialbetters – butrather figures ofmodernity. roni bricklayer are arguably less figures of ridicule – aping the appearance sorts’ duringthecourseofeighteenth- century, characters likethemaca- ness andgentilityincreasingly availabletoabroader range ofthe‘middling designed businesscards, wouldcounterthatimpression. Butwithpolite- of ‘dressing up’,eithersartoriallyorthrough theaffectationofelegantly inherently genteel – theworldof implication forthetradesman wasthattheworldofcommerce wasnot dential address – dential address – often cheek by jowl with their aristocratic patrons. other ways,andupward mobilitymightbereflected inatradesman’s resi- Cultural refinement wasalso,asJohnBrewer notes,‘asocialsolvent’in an and architectural discourse.Lockeargued thatdeportmentshouldexpress was status’. growing demandfor‘arange ofpersonalaspirations, crucialamongwhich has definedastheearlymodern‘urbanrenaissance’, dependentonthe bricklayer’s fancyattire shouldbeseenasasymptomofwhatPeter Borsay social distinction,beingraised tothepeerage asBaron Ashcombe. builder/ sons eschewingalifeintrade forthemedicalandlegalprofessions; London retired toavillaintheDublinsuburbsas‘Gentleman’1820s,his this City’. and fewofhisprofession havecontributed more totheimprovement of owes itsoriginandpresent splendidappearance tohisenterprising spirit, of 1823, for example, noted that the ‘elegant outlet which bears his name castigated inpublicdiscourse. DublinbuilderJohnRussell’sdeathnotice decorum, sotheirbuiltlegacy wassometimescelebrated rather than blocks ofSpruceStreet inPhiladelphia. 1806, housecarpenterOwenBiddleresided inoneofthemore respectable his neighboursinNorthGreat George’s Street; at thetimeofhisdeath in the Rt Hon. Henry Theophilus Clements and Lady Hannah Tynte among the 1780s,Dublinplasterer andhousebuilderCharlesThorpcouldcount inner Bricklayers,according toJamesAyres, ‘likemanyothercraftsmen of Justascertainindividualssuccessfullynavigatedthe boundariesof developer ThomasCubitt’ssonGeorge achievedevengreater genteelquality;mannersspokeofan 137

132 In1816,the obituaryofPhiladelphia house carpenterJacob

133 Butthesituationwasinfactinfinitelymore trade

134 Dublinplasterer George Stapleton doubly so? – doublyso? – andthatnoamount

131 inner Withthisinmind,the refinement.

130 136

The In 135

67 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ornaments.’ ‘In himthemechanicalpartofourcommunityhavelost oneofitsbrightest of ‘stucco- plaisterer’ JohnFallon inCharleston,SouthCarolina, notedthat and politedimensionstoalifeformedintrade: in 1804,theuntimelydeath sophisticated epitaphacknowledgedtherelationship betweenthevulgar hath acalling,anofficeofprofit andhonour’( Figure 1.27 ). Franklin’s famousmaxim: ‘He thathathatrade, hathanestate,andhethat 1 Notes most ornamentalandvaluableprivatebuildings.’ him; andtohisenterpriseskill,ourcityisindebted formanyofits integrity hadsecured tohimtheesteemandconfidenceofallwhoknew ‘A lifeofindustryand erence tohispractice indomesticarchitecture: Vogdes describedhiminsimilarlyglowingterms,makingparticularref- n.d. (details), professions’ and ‘Trades Darton, William 1.27 2

James JasmineKilburn- Toppin, ‘Crafting artisanalidentities inearlymodernLondon: the TheartisanandtheEuropean town,1500– 1900 Royal Collegeof Art,2013, p. 11. spatial, materialandsocialpractices ofguildcommunities c.1560– Farr , ‘ Cultural analysisandearlymodernartisans’, in 139 Collectively, these endorsementsbringtomindBenjamin (Aldershot : Ashgate , 1997 ), p. 56 . 138

Geoffrey A more textually A A genteel life intrade 1640’, PhD diss., Crossick 140

(ed.),

67 68 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 68 15 16 14 18 Building reputations 13 12 19 22 21 17 20 10

23 11 24 3 5 9 4 8 7 6

Nash, ‘A historicalperspective’, p. 1. pp. xi – CharlesN. Press , 1996 ), p. 34 . social identity, 1750– Paul A. pp. 24 – Lnfr, Apoliteandcommercial people Langford, Howard B. Cannadine the triadofupper, middleandlower;theoppositionalhighlow. that coexistedintheeighteenth- century Britishmentality: hierarchical orordained; Ibid Corfield, ‘Classbynameandnumber’,p. 112. Blackwell, 1991 ), pp. 101 – Robert Campbell ( Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan , in 2010 ), p. 28 . Ibid city 1660– 1720 choice ofaprofessionortrade Elizabeth Joseph James 1976), p. 15 . working class cultural labourers anddomesticservants. the buildingtrades madeupthelargest group intheoccupationaltablesafteragri- master carpenterandjourneymanlabourer – the1831censusinBritainshowsthat Despitetheconflationofstatus – withnodistinctionmade,forexample,between city, 1760– StuartM. JamesPeller Knopf , 1992 ), pp. 28 – Fintan Richard L. eighteenth century Topo, Englishworkingclass Thompson, Ibid Press , Clarendon 1989 ), p. 61 . city 1620– 1820 Puig GaryB. Paul DonnaJ. ( 1987 Penelope Lane (ed.), JimSmyth,‘Themenofproperty: politics andthelanguageofclassin1790s’, 1850 Lnfr, Apoliteandcommercial people Langford, Fintan ( London : Viking , 1990 ), pp. 115 – ., p. 128. DavidCannadineoutlinesthree different modelsofsocialstructure ., p. 128. ., pp. 109– ., pp. 109– 10. Seealso ., p. 62. and ( Philadelphia : University ofPennsylvania Press , 2001 ), p. 42 . ), reprinted in Langford xx. Ayres 56. Collyer Lane Gilje Nash Michael Rilling Blumin

McKellar Corfield

, 1900 Lane Bushman ( Minneapolis,MN : Minneapolis InstituteofArts , 1989 ), pp. 1 – Politics, society and the middle class Rock ClassinBritain Glaab ,

, ‘ William Thompson, class and his Irish context, 1755– , ‘ theAmericanartisan,1750– Identity andindependence: ( London : Pantheon Books , 1964 ), p. 234 . Malcolm , ‘ , BuildingtheGeorgiancity , , ( Manchester : Manchester UniversityPress , 1999 ), p. 110 . A historicalperspectiveonearlyAmericanartisans ’, in (ed.), ( , Theparentandguardian’s directory, andtheyouth’s guide,inthe , , , , oieadcmeca epe England1727– Apoliteandcommercial people: Making houses, crafting capitalism: builders inPhiladelphia,1790– Makinghouses,craftingcapitalism: builders Cambridge : Theemergence of themiddleclass: social experience intheAmerican , Conforti Paul A. , 2vols( London , 1810 ), vol.2,p. 417 . The Londontradesman , ‘ Class bynameandnumberineighteenth- century England ,

AhistoryofurbanAmerica The birth of modern London: the developmentanddesignofthe ThebirthofmodernLondon: the , Penelope 9. , The refinement of America: persons, houses,cities TherefinementofAmerica: persons, 1850 AnecdotesofthemannersandcustomsLondon,during

Politics, society and themiddleclass inmodernIreland Gilje (eds), 30. ( New HavenandLondon ( Dan atmr Baltimore : ( London , 1761 ), pp. 75 –

Cambridge UniversityPress ,

and Corfield Cruickshank , p. 234. TheAmericancraftsmanandtheEuropean tradition Robert 17. (ed.), ( New HavenandLondon

(London , 1747 Johns HopkinsUniversityPress , , p. 75. , p. 103, n. 29. E.P. Asher and Language, historyandclass Thompson

, p. 8. On this point, Smyth is citing , p. 8. ,2ndedn(

(eds), Neil : : 6, 92 – Yale UniversityPress ,

Burton

), p. 103 . American artisans: crafting Americanartisans: crafting , ThemakingoftheEnglish e York New : 3, 266 , 276 – 1989 , LifeintheGeorgian

,p ), p. : :

Yale University 1783 30 ( Macmillan , 7. New York : . Seealso Francis J. (

1850 ( 13.

Oxford : Oxford : 1995 ), 1998 ), 1833 ’,

David ’, in ’

69 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 44 39 32 25 45 37 36 40 33 26 41 38 35 34 27 28 43 42 31 29 30

Wos From crafttoprofession Woods, in Rock,GiljeandAsher(eds), HarryR. Rubenstein,‘Withhammerinhand: workingclass occupationalportraits’, (Aldershot:Ashgate,2004),pp.147–8. ArticulatingBritishclassicism: newapproaches toeighteenth-century architecture late Georgian architecture’, inBarbara Arciszewska andElizabethMcKellar (eds), architectural theoryseeDanielM.Abramson, ‘Commercialization andbacklashin biotic relationship’ between architecture and commerce in eighteenth-century in BerminghamandBrewer (eds), object,text’, Ann Bermingham,‘Introduction. Theconsumptionofculture: image, University ofEdinburgh, 2006,p. 189. A.R.Lewis,‘ThebuildersofEdinburgh’s NewTown 1767– 1795’, PhDdiss., trades’, PhDdiss.,UniversityofDelaware, 1972,p. 141. RogerW. Moss, Jr, historyofthecolonialPhiladelphiabuilding ‘Masterbuilders: a JamesF. Bsmn TherefinementofAmerica Bushman, Ibid ( London : Routledge word,image,andobjectintheseventeenth andeighteenth centuries , of culture: 1995 ), p. 373 . ( New HavenandLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 2006 ), p. 16 . Ars BuildingtheGeorgiancity Ayres, (eds), John Rlig Makinghouses Rilling, 103: 4 (2013): 1 – sonifying theevolvingprofession ’, pp. tural graphics1732– For an overview of Jameson’s career and its contexts see century England ’, in Lawrence Ibid Bui, Theemergence ofthemiddleclass Blumin, and biography of EdinburghNewTown 1765– 1795 of CaliforniaPress , old guildsystem.’ McKellar, relations andanorganization of manpower seeminglynotthatdifferent from the ‘Thecontracting systemeveninthespeculativeworldhelpedmaintainlabour et anoverview text: ’, in JamesF. June 2015. HermioneHobhouse,‘Cubitt,Thomas(1788– 1855)’, inthe OnAmericanassociationsinageneral sensesee 1984), p. 7 . sion: the practice ofarchitecturesion: the innineteenth- century America in a great industry CharlesE. RogerW. IanM. IanM. ., p. 364. ., p. 14. 2 – G. Styles 3 Gender, tasteandmaterialcultureinBritainNorthAmerica,1700– Quimby

Holmes Perkins

O’Gorman O’Gorman , online, Quimby Moss Klein Peterson and

, ‘ Introduction: some observationsonthecraftsman inearlyAmerica (Radnor, PA : Chilton BookCo. , 1976 ), p. 46 . , ‘ socialidentitiesinearlyeighteenth- Politeness forplebes: some , Jr, ‘ The originsoftheCarpenters’CompanyPhiladelphia ’, in Amanda 94. (ed.), www.oxforddnb.com/ view/ article/ 6859?docPos=4 , ‘ Some architects’ portraits innineteenth- century America: per-

1999 ), p. 11 . (ed.), ,‘ The Philadelphiaarchitectural drawing initshistoricalcon- 1986 Ann JamesF. , p. 7. Vickery Thecraftsmaninearly America (eds), ( Building early America: contributions toward the history of Bermingham Philadelphia : Birth of American artisans , p. 13.

, p. 2.

, ‘ O’Gorman rwn oadbidn: Philadelphiaarchitec- Drawingtowardbuilding: Introduction Transactions oftheAmericanPhilosophical Society

(Reading : Spire Books , 2014 ), pp. 27 – m dr London,p. 109. m odern The consumption ofculture , p. xvi. and University ofPennsylvania Press , , pp. 35– 6. , Jeffrey A. John ’, in MaryN. , p. 180. John Brewer

Anthony Cohen Woods Styles ( Oxford dictionaryofnational New York New York : (eds),

A genteel life intrade ( and , , Berkeley : University , p. 5. Onthe‘sym- , p. 5. George E. From crafttoprofes- Lewis Theconsumption Amanda , accessed11 W.W. W.W. , Thebuilders 46.

Thomas Norton , Vickery 1986

1830 ), ), ’,

69 70 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 70 Building reputations 53 47 55 54 48 46 52 51 50 49

Museum see Rauser, ‘Hair, authenticityandtheself- made macaroni’, 102.Onthebroader point Kevin the clothes make? Print culture and the meanings of macaroni effeminacy ’, in ( Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan , 2005 ), p. 62 . Haven andLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 1996 ). on 26September1772.Itwaspriced6d.‘plain’or1s.‘illuminated’. Thepublicationofthe‘Macaroni bricklayer’wasannouncedinthe University Press , 2004 ), p. 13 . Cliff 1766; athird apprentice wasboundin1786butthismayrefer toanotherindividual. Priortookapprentices in1754and apprenticeship to HenryClement.A Thomas of theWorshipful CompanyofTylers andBricklayersin1744,havingservedhis PrioroftheParishtion. A Thomas ofStGeorge, Bloomsbury, wasmadeafreeman Prints andDrawingsintheBritishMuseum George logue, however, stated‘NotGeorge III,butabuildernamedPrior’.See cultural concernaboutmasculinity’,see For arecent account ofthetransgressive character ofthemacaroni, andthe‘public macaroni’s reputation foreffeminacyandsexualdeviancywas notatstakehere. Giventhenature oftheDarlyportfoliosmiddling types,itseemsclearthatthe MartynJ. 1828;repr. Themacaroniandtheatrical magazine Eighteenth- Century Life Thesmallhouseineighteenth- century London ‘Affluence didnotinvariablymeanabandonmentofartisanidentity’. ( London , 1779 Anon to asthe‘Macaroni trowellist’) appearin Advertiser 1668– 1800 HenryCharles William Angelo ‘Prior, thebuilder’asoneof‘bourgeois macaronies’ helduptoridiculebyDarly. The source forthis isHenryCharlesWilliamAngelo(1756– 1835), whoreferred to See AnearlyauthorityonBritishprintssuggestedasimilaritywithportraits ofGeorge III. 181, n. 18. that thisdidnotextendtothewiderrange ofmiddlingsorts. roni serieswere identifiedbyHorace Walpole asreal individuals,althoughconcedes West notesthatsomeofthemore distinguishedtypes represented inDarly’smaca- Shearer Century Studies AmeliaF. of a ‘Mrs Br– brothels inLondon,where his‘athleticandmanlyform’attracted theattentions February 1771; was announcedinthree newspapersinFebruary 1771( daughter of‘Mr. Prior, Builder’,withanaddress atGreat RussellStreet, Bloomsbury, tories publishedbefore 1772,theyearofDarly’ssatiricalprint.Thewedding this combinationofnameandtrade appearsinthevariousLondonstreet direc- Diana Webb Frederick George ., Murphy , Nocturnal revels: or, thehistoryofKing’s- Nocturnalrevels: or, Place, andothernunneries , vol. 4: ,vol.4: CatalogueofthepoliticalandpersonalsatirespreservedinDepartment West , 25February 1771).References tothe‘Macaroni bricklayer’(alsoreferred Donald , Rauser ( London apprentices 1904 Powel London: d– , ‘ The Darly macaroni prints and the politics of “private man and ), vol.2,pp. 62 – 38 : 1 ( 2004 ): 101 – y’, and unsavoury aspects of his business practices are suggested. Middlesex JournalorChronicle ofLiberty 1761– 1770 ), pp. , , ‘ Hair, authenticity, andtheself- made macaroni ’, , Theageofcaricature: satirical printsinthereignofGeorgeIII Sally Thepoliticsofconsumption ineighteenth- century Ireland Society ofGenealogists , 25 ( 2001 ): 170 – 267 – Stephens O’Driscoll ( 8.EffortstoidentifyPriorhaveyieldedlittleinforma- London

, 4. ,vol.2: Thereminiscences ofHenryAngelo

, 17. CatalogueofprintsanddrawingsintheBritish (eds),

, (October1772), p. 1. Tylers’ andBricklayers’ Company 1612– 1883 82. ,vol.5,

Sally tde nehmr: text andimagein Studies inephemera: Nocturnal Revels ), p. ), p. 1996

O’Driscoll ( New HavenandLondon 769

1771– 1783 ), pp. . A later iteration ofthiscata- . A later , 23February 1771; General EveningPost 38 , ‘ What kindofmando , ascurrilousguideto , ( London 54 , 79 Ibid ,vol.2( Public Advertiser . Nolistingfor Peter MaryDorothy , ,p. 174– ., pp. 1935 Eighteenth- Guillery London , ), p. ,2vols Yale: Public ( 1644, New , 23 83 . ” ’, 5, ,

71 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 82 70 81 71 80 72 62 61 60 57 56 74 73 66 65 63 58 76 75 64 67 59 78 77 68 79 69

reference toIreland JonathanSwift, 1887), p. 53 . Bui, Theemergence of themiddleclass Blumin, pp. 61– 2. the longeighteenthcentury ’, in Stewart, from £600to£1000each,havelatelybeensold from only£90to £200’.Quotedin ‘rage forbuildinginthatparish…carcases whichcostthebuilders …atfirsthand, bankruptcies amongbuildersin theMarylebonearea ofLondonhadnotdulledthe R. Tyranny oftaste 1550– 1960 Jules political andpersonalsatires The‘Antique Architect’ hasbeenidentifiedasRobertAdam.George, HibernianJournal of eighteenthcentury England Brewer ( London AhistoryofeverydaylifeinScotland 1600– eighteenth- OnNicholasBarbon,seeMcKellar, tive buildersinearlymodernLondon.McKellar, ElizabethMcKellar notesthatbricklayerscountedforahighproportion ofspecula- city streets’, pp. 157– 8; Donald, OnthispointseealsoBushman, Ibid Ibid Klein, ‘Politeness forplebes’,p. 374. Press , 2010 ), p. 148 . England John Press , 2013 ), pp. 241 – Cmbl, Londontradesman Campbell, University Press , 2009 ), p. 2 . Rachel Bui, Theemergence of themiddleclass, Blumin, Ibid George, Some versionsoftheprintbearlegend,‘IsaydontLaughforweare Brothers’. For Braidwood, seeLewis, Londontradesman Campbell, Clyr Parent andguardian’s directory Collyer, Ibid HibernianJournal James Elmes Neil MKla, BirthofmodernLondon McKellar, 1703), p. 71 . Richard British Library, MS41133,SirWilliamChambersletterbooks,I, 65r.

North ., p. 51. ., p. 53. . ., pp. 159– 60. McKendrick Lubbock Styles and Stewart ’, in : : Catalogue ofpoliticalandpersonalsatires , Neve Town house Routledge TheautobiographyoftheHon.Roger North century print (NewHavenandLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 1995 ), pp. 4 – J.H. , ‘ Manufacturing, consumptionanddesignineighteenth-

John

, , , Lectures onarchitecture , , The city and countrey purchaser, and builder’s dictionary The tyranny of taste: the politicsofarchitecture anddesigninBritain Thetyrannyoftaste: the , pp. 13– 15. The truthofsomemaximsinstate andgovernment,examined with ThetownhouseinGeorgianLondon Plumb , ‘ The commercialization offashion ’, in , 9– 12 August1776.QuotedinPowell, , 1– 3 September 1777, quoted in Powell, Brewer (1724).InOctober1769, , , p. 218, n. 20.

1993 78. (eds), ( Lewisburg, PA andLanham,MD and

), p. The buildersofEdinburghNewTown , vol.5,p. 137.

, p. 159. , p. 191.Author’semphasis. (Bloomington : Indiana UniversityPress , 1982 ), p. 50 . Thebirthofaconsumer society: thecommercialization 538 Roy Elizabeth Refinement ofAmerica The ageofcaricature , p. 85. ; Porter Stana Birth ofmodernLondon , 2ndedn( London , 1823 ), p. 390 . , pp. 75– 6. (eds), Nenadic Foyster , p. 31. p. 31. 1800 The craftsman Consumption andtheworldofgoods ( Birth ofmodernLondon and , vol.6: , ‘ Necessities: food andclothingin Edinburgh : ( New HavenandLondon , ed. , p. 82. ChristopherA. , p. 41; Corfield,‘Walking the Politics ofconsumption 1784– 1792 A. magaziner Neil Politics of consumption Jessopp , pp. 12– , pp. 12– 37; Lubbock, : A genteel life intrade Edinburgh University Bucknell University , pp. 136, 144,147. , pp. 136, McKendrick (1938),p. 636. ( Madison, WI Whatley Catalogue of eported that

, p. 97. ( 5. London ,

century , (eds), : : Yale John , 61. , ,

71 72 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 72 101

100 Building reputations

102

92 86 85 88 93 99 98 97 96 95 94 83 84 91 90 89 87

( Manchester : Geography of bricksandmortar ’, For anoverviewofitsconceptionandformationsee Journal century Deptford andPhiladelphia ’, in Londontradesman Campbell, Eileen Acomplete bodyofarchitecture Ware, Press , 1970 ), pp. 263 – James CambridgeUniversityPress , and aration? HospitalityanddisplayinProtestant Ireland, 1660– Rolf Vickery, ‘Introduction’, pp. 22– 4. (ed.), the late 1820s, a fact that almost certainly inspired his cartoon. See a resident ofthe NewRiverEstatewhichwasbuildingata‘frantic’ paceduring home topeopleonlowerincomes’.Guillery, By1800,theeasternandsouthernsuburbsofcity‘were more thanbefore in LondonandEdinburgh, c.1750– 1800, and themarketforexpertise ’, promotion’ evidently attracted ‘muchridicule’. Mylne’s designforBlackfriarsBridgeinLondon,which‘excessiveself ‘ ArticulatingBritishclassicism Bernard L. ‘Introduction’, p. 14. Bermingham, ment are invoked). between classicalandgothicthemagnificenceofmodern builtenviron- from dustandmud)themason(where theorders ofarchitecture, thedialectic Thebrickmakershares plauditswiththepavier(whosehonestlabourpreserves us and inBostonin 1813. FirstpublishedinLondon1804;subsequentlyPhiladelphia1808 On brickmakingseeAyres, ( Bloomington : Indiana University , 1992 ), p. 11 . SurveyofLondon Haven andLondon HibernianChronicle DublinEveningPost Linda London : Yale UniversityPress , 2008 ), pp. 185 – Isaac Ware Sandby’s London ’, H.M. ( Dublin : integration anddiversity Kingdomsunited?Great BritainandIrelandsince 1500: villas; chiefly uponoeconomical principles John University Press , 1982 ), p. 34 . Stefan BirthofmodernLondon McKellar, eodct ydoe reflections onthree Irishcases Second citysyndrome: ’, in D. Loeber Colvin Bonehill SurveyofLondon

Eastwood 55 : 3 ( 2012 ): 600 . Peacock David Harris Muthesius Four Courts Press , 35 : 2 ( 2002 ): 133 – , , and , A complete bodyofarchitecture Herman AbiographicaldictionaryofBritisharchitects 1600– , , ‘“ , Manchester UniversityPress , , Children’s bookspublishedbyWilliamDarton andhissons Britisharchitectural booksand writers, 1556– Magda (eds), , vol. 36: , vol.36: iii,o usel: beingichnographic distributionsforsmall Oikidia,ornutshells: h eteo laueadmgiiec” Paul andThomas The centre ofpleasure andmagnificence”: , : : HuntingtonLibraryQuarterly , 27August 1781. , 12February 1780. TheEnglishterraced house and Yale UniversityPress , Environmental History 5. ,vol.47: Aunionofmultipleidentities: the BritishIslesc.1750–

Stouthamer- Loeber

Peter The parishofSt Paul, Covent Garden Building theGeorgiancity 1999 1990 55. , p. 161. , p. ,p.

North ClerkenwellandPentonville

Guillery

), pp. , pp. 42– 9. 188 ), p. , p. 291. . Onthebroader issue,see 366 95 – , ‘ Negotiating classicismineighteenth- (London , 1785 ), p. 65 . .

108; 2008 (London , 1768 ), p. 291 .

, ‘ Dublin anditsvicinityin1797 ’, 17 ( 2012 Arciszewska Small House 1997 91.

Stana Toby

), p. ), p. ( New HavenandLondon 75 : 3

) pp. ( Michael 1088 , pp. 102– 3. Barnar ): 844 – Nenadic 2012 127 – and ; , p. 27. Cruikshankwas , p. 27. ): F.H.W. d 51. 1800 389 , ‘ Integration or sep- Rawson 46;andStyles , ‘ , S.J. 1840 1785

(

Architect- builders

( New Havenand . Thisfocusedon London : Athlone

’, in McKellar Sheppard David Connolly

,4thedn( Philip ( , ‘ The march L. Cambridge Historical Brockliss Dickson Temple (eds), c.1850 (ed.), : Yale (ed.), New Irish : ,

73 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 107 113 112 106 105 104 103 124 123 122 121 120 119 118 117 116 115 114 110 109 108 111

M. Birse, ‘Hoban,James’,inthe M. Birse, of theWhiteHouseinWashington. For anoverviewofhiscareer, seeRonald Pennsylvania EveningHerald Maxine sumption ofculture culture asacommodity, 1660– 1800’, inBerminghamandBrewer (eds), see JohnBrewer, ‘ towards “The mostpoliteageandthevicious”: attitudes Onthecommodificationofculture anditsexpression invisualandtextualterms, MarylandJournal New York Mercury Pennsylvania Packet Pennsylvania Packet Britain’, unpublishedpaperpresented attheannual conference oftheEconomic PhilippaHubbard, ‘Theeconomicfunctionsofthe trade card ineighteenth- Work intheBuildingline’,includesanitemizedlistofgoodson the reverse. Thetrade card ofJaquesHolborn,manufacturers of‘everysortOrnament Berg andClifford, ‘Sellingconsumption’, 159. Berg andClifford, ‘Commerce andthecommodity’,p. 197. gance’. Berg andClifford, ‘Sellingconsumption’, 159. of anygoods,orlengthyliststhem,inthevisualsimplicity ofneoclassicalele- Thesimpleneoclassicalborders, popularbythe1790s,‘outlaweddepiction History advertising and the trade card in Britain and France tury: ’, they reveal about thetools,materialsandoperations ofthedifferent trades. Given thefocusofhisbook,Ayres isunderstandablyconcernedonlywithwhat ( Columbia : pattern books‘withwhichtheyare socloselyassociated’. Berg andClifford notethesimilaritybetweendesignsontrade cards andthe Ibid Berg andClifford, ‘Commerce andthecommodity’,p. 197. scale: 65mm ×45mm;95mm65mm;and120mm× 80mm. indicates thatthemajoritymaybeclassifiedwithinthree broad categoriesof Ireland (unsortedcollection)andtheBritishLibrary (HealandBankscollections) Althoughdimensionsvary, acomparisonoftrade cards attheNationalLibrary of Berg andClifford, ‘Sellingconsumption’, 149. commodity’, p. 191. consumer ware and its graphic display.’ Berg and Clifford, ‘Commerce and the close connectionbetweenthelook,design,displayofdomesticandornamental takingmycuefrom Berg andClifford’s observation that‘There wasa Here I am America Maxine Polite andcommercial people Langford, 2( and CharlestonCityGazetteandAdvertiser March 2015. www.oxforddnb.com.ucd.idm.oclc.org/ view/ article/ 45956?docPos=1 various buildingtrades isillustrated inAyres, eighteenth- Seealso 1998),p. 189 . and sellingnewconsumergoodsineighteenth- century England ’, in 1987 ): 115 – . David

, p. 4. Berg 4 : 2 Berg Desmond Ormrod century ephemera ’, ( University ofMissouriPress , and and 07) 2007 146 ):

32;and , 6October 1789. Helen , 11March 1765. , pp. 341– 61. (eds), Helen , 15October 1794. , 4January 1773. FitzGerald Robert Clifford . SeealsoJay, ArtmarketsinEurope1400– Clifford , 25May1785.Hobanisbestknownasdesigner , KnightofGlin,‘ Early Irishtrade- cards andother Jay , ‘ display Commerce andthecommodity: graphic Eighteenth- . ‘ Selling consumptionintheeighteenthcen- Oxford dictionaryofnationalbiography , Thetradecardinnineteenth- century America , 4May 1790. , p. 67. 1987 The tradecardinnineteenth- Century Ireland/ Iris anDáChultúr ). A range oftrade cards from the ). A range Building theGeorgiancity 1800 Ibid A genteel life intrade ( ., p. 196. Aldershot : Ashgate , CulturalandSocial Michael , accessed 1 , The con- , online, century passim century

North .

73 74 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 74 Building reputations 131 132 130 140 139 138 137 129 136 135 134 128 133 125 127 126

1799– 1859 J. Ritchie Garrison Peter John Locke illustrated buttheir significanceisnotanalysed. Benjamin Franklin, city ofWashington’. City Gazette Poulson’s AmericanDailyAdvertiser Freeman’s Journal tury culture c.1680– see Cruickshank and Burton, Scott,‘TheWaddesdon trade cards’, 97.For examplesofnightmen’strade cards ( London , 1767 ), plates 37 – symposium rococo inEngland: a Hubbard uk/ dotAsset/ bb5d50c1– 228b- 4a2f- History Society, UniversityofNottingham,2008(availableonlineat: 9e09– 5652a98ad884.doc John ( Oxford : Oxford UniversityPress , F.M.L. 2001 ), p. 90 . Styles andVickery, ‘Introduction’, p. 17. in Englishurbanhistory1688– 1820 Compare, forexample, with ( New York , 1968 ), pp. account oftheiroriginanduse Londontradesmen’s cardsoftheXVIIIcentury: an 70 , 80 . Ars BuildingtheGeorgiancity Ayres, thanonehistory cards: more ’, Walsh, ‘Theadvertisingandmarketing ofconsumergoods’,in On the trade card as souvenir and/ or reminder of the site of purchase, see Claire ( 2012 ): 30 – and exchangeincommercial andcollectingspaces ’, ( Aldershot Ashgate : and Michael Trade cardinnineteenth- Jay, century America Berg andClifford, ‘Sellingconsumption’. ( London : HarperCollins , 1997 ), p. 74. E. Brewer Borsay Thompson Shore , ‘ Trade cards in18th- circulation, century consumerculture: movement, Snodin ( Knoxville : University ofTennessee Press , 2006 ), p. 45 . , , 46. , 25September1804.Fallon was‘anativeofIreland’ and‘lateofthe , Some thoughtsconcerning education , ‘ The Englishurbanrenaissance: the developmentofprovincial urban Thepleasures ofthe imagination: English cultureintheeighteenth cen- (eds),

c.1760 , ‘ Trade cards andEnglishrococo ’, in , 21June 1823. , , Two carpenters: architecture andbuildinginearly NewEngland, The waytowealth Gentrification and the enterprise culture, Britain 1780– , ’, in detsn n h uoenct: historical perspectives Advertising and the European city: 2000 Peter 8, 54 – ), pp. John

Life in the Georgian city Journal of Design History Borsay , p. 109. ( 5. Crunden London

( London : Longman , 1990 ), p. 179 . , 22October 1816. 79 – (1758). (ed.), 95;

, Convenient andornamental architecture 1986 Katie , pp. 13– 14. The eighteenthcentury town: a reader

), p. ), p. ( London , 1693 ). Scott MaterialCultureReview 83 , pp. 92– , pp. 92– 3, where theyare , ‘ The Waddesdon trade

. Seealso 17 : 1 Charles ). Seealso ( 2004 ): 91 –

C. Hind Ambrose

Wischermann www.ehs.org.

(ed.), 100;and Philippa

74– 75 Heal 1980 The ,

75 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document classicism wasbeingdelivered toeliteconsumersbyartisan craftsmen?’. But asPeter Borsayhasargued, ‘howdoesthistallywiththefactthat of aCity- by RobertCampbell in 1747 – thatthere were ‘few Rules tothebuilding pilasters ( produced the‘tragedy, orrather farce’ ofafour- bay pedimentwithfive south sidesofBedford Square inLondon,where paired three- bay houses at architectural coherence byartisanbuilders,suchasthenorthand of industrialisationandcapitalism thatshapedbuildingsystemsand ical townhousehavebeen amplydiscussedelsewhere, ashavetheforces the early1790s( to makearchitectural ‘sense’ofEdinburgh’s burgeoning NewTown in of JohnWood inBathfrom the1720sonwards, andRobertAdam’sattempt of urbandesignthatmade historians havetraditionally concernedthemselveswiththoseparadigms light onthesemiotic‘illegibility’ofuniformterrace andpalacefront, recent researchas beingoflimitedinterest: although hasshedimportant sider theindividualeighteenth- century house – thetypical‘street house’ – artisan class.Thehistoricalresponse tothisphenomenonhasbeencon- dependent onaneconomicallyindependentandcreatively autonomous building upofindividualurbanplotsandcityblockswasalmostentirely by architects, surveyorsand,insomeinstances,civicauthorities,the scape). However, whileideologicallyconceivedgeometries were dictated individual concern(privatehouse)andsocialobligation(publicstreet- was unequivocalinconsideringtheelitetownhouseasnexusbetween trope inarchitectural histories,andearlymodernarchitectural discourse The builtenvironment asanexpression ofthesocialorder isacommon The materialsandmethods employedintheconstructionoftyp- Designing houses: the façade and the House’ – House’ – Figure 2.2 Figure 2.2 ). rhtcue f tet n square and street of architecture Figure 2.1 Figure 2.1 ). hasheldfirm. 2 Broadly speaking,theadversarialviewexpressed architecture 1 Alsoloudlydisparaged are thoseattempts

3 Artisan 2 from building building precluded good , suchasthesetpieces design

4 .

76 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 76 Building reputations 2.1 controls. between creative agencyandsociallyconstructed regulations andbuilding so thisaccountconsiders thedesignoftownhouseasaconsensus generally as‘aseriesofcompromises betweenconventionandinnovation’, Just asAliceFriedman hascharacterized domesticarchitectural design response totheparticularsocio- economic contextsinwhichtheyworked. tectural books;andthedesignsfortownhousesproduced by artisans in and tasteformedthrough apprenticeship, buildingtradition andarchi- artisan’srelationshipdesign, focusingontworelated todesign areas: the sion isintendedtocomplementthoseliteratures withanewemphasison typologies. a typologythatwas speaking, thisliterature furthersacharacterisation ofthetownhouseas led preference fordecorumbythesimplestmeanspossible. potential affront tosocialorder, asamanifestation ofanavowedconsumer- material expression ofemerging normsofcostbehaviour and,despitethe a direct consequenceofanimplicit‘politicaleconomydesign’,asthe low statusand cultural conservatism. nacular’ hasbeendeliberately avoided,particularly foritsundertonesof Rbr Aa, Charlott Adam, Robert 7 Inthefollowingdiscussion thecommonlyinvokedterm‘ver- 5 Theformoftheurbanhousehasbeenvariouslyregarded as e Square North, Edinburgh, designed 1791. made asopposedto 8

Clearlythisis notwhatwasatstake designed . Thepresent discus- 6

Broadly 77 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document than indulgeinweird decorative invention’. supposed ‘simplicityofcharacter’ andcomplicit‘readiness tocopyrather challenges thereceived wisdomregarding the‘average’ builder’s and citiesacross theEnglish- speaking world. In sodoing,thisnarrative thus madeaprofound materialcontributiontotheappearance oftowns trades whoentered theworldof(largely speculative)housebuildingand of designandarchitectural taste. trade intermsthatunequivocallyannouncedtheircompetencematters embrace thetrappings ofanelevatedsocialpositionandtoadvertisetheir draughtsman’. Joseph Collyeradvisedthat asuccessfulmaster builder must be‘agood here: as notedinthe here: as previous chapter , buildingtradesmen were quickto 46– 47 Bedford Square, London,1777– 82. 2.2 a businessmanwithfinancialrelationship todesign’. with thecharacterization oftheeighteenthcentury builderas‘essentially arship: the townhouseremains somethingofacontested fieldinacademicschol- everyone wantedto‘speak’ thesameclassicallanguage – the designof understanding oftheartisan’s negotiationoftheclassicalhegemony – not We are concernedhere withthoseindividualsfrom thebuilding 12 for London’s house builders, the ‘standard terrace’ represented 11 Butwhilerevisionist historieshaveargued forabroader

9 Italsoresolutely dispenses

10 Writingin1761, Designing houses 77 78 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 78 Building reputations century buildingindustry. ‘a preliminary necessity’withinthelateeighteenth- andearlynineteenth- this chapteramplifiesandextendsourunderstandingofhowdesignwas to invertthederogatory implicationsoftheterm‘builders’classicism’, houses’. orders ordrawing skills‘hadlittlerelevance totheconstructionofrow economically repeatable’; ‘the most robust choice in a risky financial world’, being ‘infinitely and tization. ination inguidebooksandinstructionmanualswaskeytoitsdemocra- raise themselvesabovethelabouringmasses’,anditspopulardissem- was understoodas‘anessential skill foranyindividualwhowished to tionship toit.MatthewCraske hasshownthatdesignbymid- ture provide animportantcontextforunderstandingthebuilder’srela- Recent accountsofthe‘place’designineighteenth- century Britishcul- Design andtheartisan classes’. signalled ‘a new commercial confidence amongst London’s producer classicizing connoisseurship’predicated onaristocratic patronage, and lation’. house isattributedto‘theexigenciesofspeculativebuildingandlegis- issue of) conceptual control.’ “design” wasunderstoodnotasatechnicalprocess, butas(thecontested lying assumption(drawing enablesdesigning)becameproblematic when emphasized thedistinctionbetweeninventionandexecution,‘Theunder- was widelyacknowledged,AnnePuetzhasargued thatasacademictheory otal agentofthatregulation? than introduced standards ofdesign,surely thebuildingclasswasapiv- Muthesius andothershaveargued, London’sBuildingActscodifiedrather models of buildings: drawings of the classical orders – oftheclassicalorders – models ofbuildings: drawings insomespecific housewrights were required tomakeplans,elevationsandevenpasteboard artisan instructioninEdinburgh, forexample,reveals thatmasonsand Hand, andknowhowto Design hisWork’. Architecture’, andthecarpenterwasexpected to‘writeatolerable were required to‘learnDesigning,and draw allthefiveOrders of stonemasons most ofthecrafts associatedwiththebuildingindustry: Draughting skills were a constituent part of a formal apprenticeship for important steptowards certifiedindependenceandprofessional mobility. receded insignificanceduringtheperiodunderreview theyremained an apprenticeship, andalthoughtheinfluenceofguildscorporations designer ofarchitecture. Thetraditional route towards proficiency inthebuildingtrades was 15 18 14 19 Butwhoinformedthatlegislation?If, asJamesAyres, Stefan This in turn formed part of a public rejection of a ‘tradition of Almostuniversally, theformandvisualappearance ofthetown Butwhiletheimportanceofdrawing skillsformanufactures 17 13

inPhiladelphia,knowledgeoftheclassical

16 This had implications for the builder as a Following Peter Guillery’srecent attempt 21

AnthonyLewis’sprécis of century 79 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document in MabbotStreet. eral kindsofOrnamentalDrawing, aftertheirworking hours’ athishouse – of theSchoolOrnamentDrawing instructed‘Artificers’ inthe‘sev- flourished. From 1771,theartistWilliamWaldron – laterappointedmaster completion ofacoursedevotedto‘thefirstprinciples ofarchitecture’. instruments anddrawing materials,andwere awarded acertificateupon studentswere required tosupply theirownmathematical from 1740: school of architectural design from his premises in Canongate, Edinburgh foremost trade association,withhisplantoopenanarchitectural school. Owen Biddlelobbied(unsuccessfully) theCarpenters’Company, thecity’s already longestablishedinPhiladelphia 1804,whenhousecarpenter was necessarilyartisan- ofprivatedrawing academieswas led. A tradition absence offormalcollegiateschoolsarchitecture, designinstruction the America, theinitiativenecessarilycamefrom thebuildingtrades: in colour cakes. customarily extended to drawing pens, porte- crayons and boxes of water- By theendofeighteenth century, acase ofinstrumentsforcarpenters for glaziers the relevant pagesofWalter Gedde’s 1783, theglazierAndrew Keay wasrequired tofamiliarizehimselfwith attention tothearticulationofitsclassicalmouldingsandornaments;in Alex Weir was expected to decorate a house while paying particular 1757,apprentice housepainter demands oftheirrespective skillsset: in building trades also had to demonstrate a proficiency beyond the practical or ‘proof piece’)foradmissiontothecorporations asafreeman. Related instances ‘afterPalladio’ – represented atypical ‘essay’ (or‘masterpiece’ Architecture isnecessary.’ who isnotintendedtofollowsomebusinesswherein aknowledgeof the Societystipulatedthat‘nopersonshallbeadmittedasascholar… attendance attheschool.In1772,professional standards were raised when combined apractical training attheiremployer’sworkshopwithpart- for mechanics’.Typically drawn from artisanbackgrounds, students manship, providing ‘aproper knowledgeoflinesanddrawing sufficient with theexpress intentionofproviding instructionintechnicaldraughts- School forDrawing inArchitecture, foundedin1764,wasestablished other formalized methods of design education. The Dublin Society’s Roofs, Stair- cases, Brackets forCeilings, &c.’. second classofprizeshadamore practical bent,beingfor‘Sectionsof Dwelling- design, andcomprisedtwopremiums forplansandelevationsof‘aPrivate for Drawings’, dividedintotwoclasses: the firstclassofawards focusedon Committee for Fine Arts agreed to a new programme of ‘Encouragement of architectural instructionforartisanswere recognized in1787whenthe AsoutlinedintheIntroduction, theartisancouldalsobenefitfrom house, andanotherofaPublicEdifice,oneeachatleast’;the (1615/ 28

25 16). AuthorandstonemasonGeorge Jamesonoperated a 22

23 Boththepractical andintellectualdimensions Sundry draughtsprincipallyserving

24 Privatedrawing schoolsalso Designing houses time 26

In 27

79 80 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 80 likely beconsidered redundant. the practical partofthatbranch’, thatdesignsfrom hisownhandwould variety oftown- houses, andsomanypersonswhoare dailyconcernedin Morris supposedthat‘there are already published,andexecuted,sucha Building reputations his kinsmanGeorge Richardson. and Edinburgh plasterer and builder James Nisbet subscribed to books by Colen CampbellandRobertAdamtoWilliamPain andThomasChippendale, of New York builderJohnMcComb,Jritemizesfifty- two titlesranging from Volumes’, William Halfpennyacknowledgedthat‘theTown isalready burthen’dwith architectural fashion. As early as 1724, English architect turned author and visual literacy among tradesmen and the desire to keep abreast of industry generally, andsubscriptionlistsconfirmthehighlevelsoftextual building community. tural publishinginthecapitallikelyaddressed theimmediateneedsof Gwynn among others – although the scale of house building and architec- London is not easily accounted for – and was indeed lamented by John eighteenth- trodden and unfashionable forms’, the diverse content of the typical able thatearlytitlesrepresented the‘conservativecodification’of‘well- misunderstanding – misunderstanding – – they are seen to have fostered an inadequate understanding or even advice onthePalladian idiomrendered for‘themeanestcapacity’,so century classicism.Justasbuilders’manualsandpattern booksoffered is, however, another contestedfieldinthehistoriography ofeighteenth- of professional andtrade backgrounds. to accommodatedesignersandpractitioners from across awidespectrum Library’ inHolbornatteststothecapacityofLondon’spublishingindustry Theoretical, Practical, andOrnamental’,from I. and J. Taylor’s ‘Architectural and ‘modern’ archetypes. relative totheirsocialimportance,andonthe distinctionbetween‘ancient’ and others customarily advised on the proportion and decoration of rooms room function;bythe1770s,booksWilliam Pain, George Richardson of classical ornaments to the relationship between solar orientation and range of theoretical and aesthetic matters, from the semiotic character mid- a ‘uniformandcontinuedbuilding’forthisexclusiveaddress. Barlow soliciteddesignsfrom thearchitect HenryKeene inorder tosecure mid- tinguish hisbuildingventure. For 17– 18 CavendishSquare, builtinthe also hadoccasiontoengagetheservicesofaprofessional architect todis- Booksofcourseformedacrucialparttheeducationbuilding The absenceofinstitutionalizeddesigneducationinmid- Thesignificanceofthebookforarchitectural designandpedagogy century, builders’ guidesoffered adviceandinstructionregarding a 1750s, thepartnershipofcarpenterJohnPhillipsandbricklayer 32 and the 1779 catalogue of ‘Modern Books on Architecture, century bookdefiessimplisticcategorisation. ofitssyntaxandvocabulary. 29

Inthepreface to

37 Indeed,while thepatternbookhasin past

30 34 Butthetaste- conscious Londonartisan

An1808catalogueofthelibrary Rural architecture 35

Butwhileitisargu-

36 (1750),Robert Already from 31

century 81 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document and to‘prolong hisinvolvementinthedesignprocess’. pretations haveconsidered itspotentialtoextendtheartisan’sautonomy responsible forthesuppression ofcreative initiative,more recent inter- [Batty] Langley, will,nodoubt,leavetheir oldpathwithgreat reluctance.’ workmen whohaveformanyyearsfollowedthefootsteps ofPalladio and TheAmericanbuilder’s companion tion ofa‘newsystemarchitecture’ inBoston1806,theauthorsof their charges bythearchitect’. workmen’ were notcontent‘tofollowthedirections andbecontrolled in irony wasapparently lostonSirJohnSoanewhenhesuggestedthat ‘master ation ofthisnewprofessional class’. a bricklayertobecomeanarchitect wasseenasathreat byalatergener- from mid- century, ‘therelatively minorsocialmovementwhichpermitted As wehaveseen,inconcertwiththeprofessionalization ofarchitecture been dismissedas‘thecomicfaceof18thcenturyclassicism’, cific conditions differed from citytocity, thegeneral principleremained century Atlanticworldwas alargely speculativeexercise. Thoughspe- House buildinginthecities oftheeighteenth- andearlynineteenth- Design andthe‘street house’ the worldwithWorks ofWhimandCaprice’. lent artistsintheirowntrades, imaginethemselvesArchitects, andsofill Wood asbelongingtoaclassof‘Workmen’ who‘afterbecomingexcel- joiner ‘wholayhisapron aside’,Killigrew’s designswere categorizedby Wood’s adverseappraisal ofhisBathpeer, WilliamKilligrew. Bytrade a rivalry, andamore academicclassical sensibility, inspired architect John one anotherinanefforttoestablishcredibility asdesigners.Professional designs or draughts’, the latter on the ‘execution of the design’. and raising anedifice’ – theformerpredicated ontheinventionof‘several ‘art orscienceoferecting edifices’,and to bemore formallydelineated.Bythemid- 1770s, tual significations,sotherespective partsofthebuildingprocess came fessional competencies,and‘design’enjoyedbothtechnicalconcep- icit. appearance’, sotheywere castigatedfortheircreative andintellectualdef- level ofarchitecture’. in thewords ofDanCruickshank,didnothabituallyaspire to ‘averyhigh cityhouse, a widerissuewithcontemporary urbandesigngenerally: the classicism; singleness’ inthedesignofurbanhouses,advocatingarational, Palladian 1728,RobertMorriscomplainedof‘insensible exists intheliterature: in and masonrytopaintingglazing – were ‘subservienttoarchitecture’. was therefore thepractice bywhichthe‘arts’ofbuilding – from carpentry 41 Justastheterm‘artisan’embraced arange ofindividualskillandpro- For socialimprovers andarchitectural criticsalikethisconstituted 40 butasbuildersembraced this‘normofplainclassical 42

Individualswere notabovecriticizing (1806)cautionedthat‘Oldfashioned 45

Himselfthesonofabricklayer, the building

47 Boastingoftheintroduc- the‘artofconstructing architecture

39 A further paradox Designing houses

43 andheld Drawing wasthe

48 44

81 82 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 82 Building reputations terrace were constructedatthesametimebyasinglecontrolling hand. the outset,orascaleofoperation thatmeant thatallbuildingsinastreet or in Edinburgh, dependedoneitheranimposed architectural designfrom course andexemplifiedat the RoyalCrescent atBathandCharlotteSquare a visualeffectincreasingly demandedfrom enlightenedarchitectural dis- vate concern (home). Uniformity or monumentality of the street elevation, sensibility – ment, itcanalsobeinterpreted astheexpression ofacultivated,genteel technology, and ontheeconomicallydrivensystemofspeculativedevelop- predicated onincreasingly standardized processes ofbuildingdesignand to erect oneinasimilarform).So,whilethis‘reduced’ classicalstylewas lease atradesman- built brickterraced housefortheircityresidence (or and Dublinthenobilitygentrywere generally contenttopurchase or discrete architectural statementsintheirownright,citieslikeLondon market. Althoughsomeofthegrandest townhouseswere designedas it isclearthatthesebuildingssatisfiedthedemandsofelitehousing nomic pragmatism inthehistoriography thereafter. industrial products’, andarguably explainsthesustainedemphasisoneco- Steen EilerRasmussentodescribeLondon’sterraced housesas‘refined onymous with jerry- building, andthebricklayer, byextension,thefocal short- term interests. high- balancing act’betweenmaintaininghighstandards ofdesigntosecure alike, thesystemofspeculativebuildinghasbeendescribedas‘adelicate sale (orlease)ontheopenmarket.Beneficialtolandownerandbuilder to designandconstruction.Oncecompleted,thehousewasoffered for within aprescribed periodoftimeandoftensubjecttoclausesrelating building tradesman); and a house was erected on the ground, usually at anannualrent byabuildingspeculator(often,butnotexclusively, a building lots; each lot of ground was then acquired (through sale or lease) atract ofground wassurveyedanddividedintoindividual constant: exchange andprofit’. building industry, theyare largely understoodas‘objectsofproduction, and scantlings,doorwindowframes. matter ofassemblingvariouspre- ordered parts’,intheformoftimberjoists eighteenth centurymeantthathouseconstructionbecameincreasingly ‘a emerging industrializationofthebuildingindustryduringcourse established asatypologybytheendofseventeenthcentury, andthe tion andwageagreement. The‘typical’three- bay brickhousewasalready contracting andsubcontracting andofevolvingpatternslabourorganisa- at theirowncapitalrisk,theywere dependentonacomplexsystemof a proto- bymasterbuildersoperating capitalist buildingindustry: erected Inthe previous chapter wesawhowthebrickhousebecame syn- Asatype,thesehousesare nowwidely describedastheproducts of status tenantsandofferingfavourable conditionsfordevelopers with thehouse- buyer privilegingpublicobligation(street) overpri- 49 51

This‘modern’qualityprompted Danisharchitect 50

Andastheproducts ofa 52

Atthesametime, 53

83 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document dwelling- houses.’ has introduced muchneatnessandregularity tothegeneral aspectofthe citizen describedhow‘This interference onthepartof Legislature wake ofnewbuildingregulations, forexample, onenineteenth- York inthe the eighteenthcentury. Asbrick replaced timberinNew given thetradition oftimber- frame building thatpersistedthroughout Brick construction,ofcourse,enjoyedabetterreception inthecolonies under review. In1756,Isaac Ware thoughtthecolourof red brick routinely designedbespokehousesinaplainbrickidiom( Plate 2 in Washington) andRobertMills(BenjaminChewHouseinPhiladelphia), early nationalAmerica,suchasBenjaminHenryLatrobe (DecaturHouse brick typology( projects thatnegotiated,rather thanradically overhauled, the‘standard’ Dance theyounger(theMinories),alsoundertook speculativebuilding (at Mansfield Street), William Chambers (in Berners Street) and George that architects ofthefirstimportance, suchasRobertandJamesAdam many brick- heaps piledoneaftertheother’,itisimportanttoremember building slightly’,andSoanedismissedLondon’sterraced housesas‘so at thecloseofGeorgian era. ButwhileWare condemned‘theartof Ware andJohnGwynnatmid- century, toJohnSoaneandJamesElmes Such viewswere afeature ofBritisharchitectural discoursefrom Isaac point ofcriticismconcerningstandards ofdesignandconstruction. 2.3 Royal Academy lecture drawing of Mansfi eld Street, London. The brickaestheticwas alsoimpugnedthroughout theperiod iue 2.3 Figures 55

, 2.4 and Plate 1 ); andtheircounterpartsin Designing houses century ). 54

83 84 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 84 Building reputations 2.4 Brown pigments, bricks thatwere ‘colourwashedred’ withVenetian RedandSpanish and earlynineteenth- century terraces were oftenbuiltwithgrey stock world, red brick enjoyed adifferent reputation. Dublin’s lateeighteenth- texture ( Plate 3 an impressionistic mannerthatemphasizesitsqualitiesofcolour and captures theattractive visualandmaterialproperties ofred brickin plinths. use of stone ornaments in the form of window pedestals and rusticated mony achievedbetweenavisualfieldofgrey stocksandthecustomary ‘fiery anddisagreeable totheeye’,andpreferred thechromatic har- Peter Nicholson’s was laterreproduced verbatimin with white.’ ally coatedwithscarletor grey, thedivisionsofbricks are pickedout Dutch ancestorsforfresh paint;everyhouse ofanypretension isannu- inheritthetaste oftheir who notedthat‘Theinhabitants ofNew York observed byanearlynineteenth- century EnglishvisitortoManhattan, odds witharchitectural practice. an appraisal ofthebrickterrace inarchitectural discoursethatwasat George Dance theyounger,The Circus, London(dem.), 1767– 74. 56

Ti on fve onbcm rhdx: Ware’s opinion Thispointofviewsoonbecameorthodoxy: 60 60

58 59

andanelevationdrawing intheStapletonCollection A similar augmentation ofstockbrickfinisheswas A similar The newpracticalbuilder 57

The builder’s magazine Butinothercitiesacross theAtlantic (1823),andsosustained

(1774– 78) and

85 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ( Figures 2.5 Carter’s design‘foraprivate Gentleman’in Town House’publishedin Morris’s‘small innovations withintheestablished terrace idiom: Robert designs examinedbyStewart, twomightbesingledoutascredible of considerably grander scaleandpretension. ignore thenarrow confinesofthestandard cityplotandpropose buildings ‘typical’ brickterraced house: published designsfortownhousesgenerally architectural literature, RachelStewartnotesthelackofdesignsfor illuminating accountoftheLondonhouseineighteenth- century English matter fortheauthorsofbooksaimedatbuilding industry. Inarecent, Gwynn andJamesPeacock, sothedesignofstreet housebecamea ingly amatterofpublicconcern,atleastintermscriticssuchasJohn assistant Elevation for ‘a smalltown house’ (plate 46)from Robert Morris, 2.5 Stitt’s the admittedlylimitedIrishcounterparttothisliterature, suchasWilliam elite urbanmansionanditsrequisite magnificence;apositionshared by be saidtocomplement,materiallyandfiguratively, thediscourseon As thevisualcountenanceofLondon’sstreetscape becameincreas- (London, 1757). The practicalarchitect’s ready assistant and 2.6

). WhileMorris’s elevationiscasually dismissed by The modernbuilder’s assistant The builder’s magazine 61

(1819). For thisreason, theymay The modernbuilder’s 62

Ofthenumerous (1757)andJohn Designing houses (1774) 85 86 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 86 Building reputations prototypes ofCarter, JohnCrunden,WilliamPain andothers( Plate 4 ). skill inthedesignofmodesturbanhousing’wasclearly indebtedtothe such assurveyorturnedarchitect MichaelSearles,whose‘remarkable and overlooks thewidergeographical sweep(that is,beyondtheconfines the formof‘estimators’, ‘ready reckoners’ andbooksofmensuration), written aboutordesigned for’,Stewartdiscountsabroader literature (in But in suggesting that the typical terraced house was ‘generally not building. design is seen as evidence of the potential for making architecture from a seriousattemptataddressing thedesignoftypicalhouse – Carter’s Stewart as‘unremarkable’ – althoughits20feetfrontage arguably indicates builder’s magazine 2.6 hold. acteristic formyetachievesaformaldistinctionbefitting anoblehouse- at street level),itaugmentsrather thanradically readdresses thechar- Robert AdamandJamesPaine. are notafforded thesameattentionas those of ‘leading architects’ such as pragmatism andarchitectural connoisseurship,Carter’spublisheddesigns John Carter, ‘A design of atown housefor aprivate gentleman’ (plate 20) from A qualitativeappraisal ofthesepatternbookdesignsisone matter. 64 Yet despiterepresenting aclevercompromise betweeneconomic 63 Indeed,bothinplan(ellipticalhall)andelevation(blind arcade (London, 1774– 78).

Alsooverlookedare thedesignsoffigures The 66

87 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document really needdesigning,justbuilding’( tion reflects thefactthat‘initsstandard formtheterrace housedidnot assistant house inJohnLeadbeater’s tural culture. of London)eighteenth- andearlynineteenth- century Britisharchitec- House elevation from John Leadbeater, 2.7 the standard brickenvelope. individual builder’screative autonomywithrespect tothearticulationof the lackofprescriptive detailinLeadbeater’selevationacknowledges the what thedesign tive distributionwithrespect tooneanother. So, insteadoffocusingon relationships betweenstorey heightsandwindowopes,oftheirrela- – meagre tedly laconicindetail – thedesignandtextualdescriptionare decidedly (London, 1770). and theMembersthereto belonging’. the purposes of achieving ‘the true Proportioning [of] the several Stories, what it nor aninventiveexercise withinanestablishedidiom – better to consider is (1770),forexample,Stewartargues thattherudimentaryeleva- : a careful delineationofthecomposition atypicalfaçadefor : a there isaclearemphasisontheimportanceofproportional

67 Inherappraisal ofthedesignforafour- storey, three- is not – – itisneitheraradical departure from thenorm

The gentlemanandtradesman’s compleat The gentleman andtradesman’s compleat assistant Figure 2.7 ). 69

Itmightfurtherbeargued that 68

However, while admit- Designing houses bay

87 88 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 88 Building reputations for hisintendedreader. sion tocreate anarguably more urbane,yetstillcost- effective, archetype different citiesandprincipaltownsinIreland’ clearlyinformed thedeci- to thestudyofMechanism’ – Humphreys’s experienceasabuilderin‘the educated inanyofourelegantClassicalSeminaries’ – beingrather ‘bred aesthetics. is clearlyHumphreys’ owninvention. elevation withadecorative corniceandstringcourseofstoneor brick Dublin’s Georgian terraces, sotheaugmentationofcustomarilyplain Just asChristineCaseyhasrecently notedthat‘acorniceisanevent’ in a general frontispiece tothebookisbyturnsconservativeandcreative. in Belfast,Cork,Dublin,LimerickandWaterford – themodelpresented as concerned withitemizingthedifferent costsofbuilding‘firstrate’ houses fied already establishedmethodsofbuilding – andthecontentislargely ( Figure 2.8 also accompaniedbyanelevation,thistimepictorialrather thanschematic manent andsubstantialdwelling- house ina genteel partofthecity’was House elevation fromThomas Humphreys, 2.8 Across thepond,bookshadamore immediateimpacton building Dublin measurer Thomas Humphreys’s published estimate for ‘a per- 72 ). Indeed,while WhileCarter’s designfor 71

The Irishbuilder’s guide The Irish builder’s guide

70 The builder’s magazine Inspiteofhis‘nothavingbeen (1813)arguably codi- (Dublin,1813). mighthave

89 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document companion Asher Benjamin’sdesign‘forasmalltownhouse’in Charles Bulfinch’sdesignfor13– 17 ChestnutStreet inBoston(1804– wider builder JohnMcComb,Jr(discussedbelow). been ananomalyin builder’sThe American companion ‘Elevation for asmalltownhouse’ (plate 33)from AsherBenjaminandDaniel Raynerd, 2.9 opment ofthearchitectural profession inearlynationalAmerica. significant character, customarily regarded asakeyfigure inthedevel- rationalization of architectural form: the blind arcade, after all, was not a rationalization of architectural form: the towards, arguably, amore economictype mayequallybeinterpreted asa eye to established systems of building and construction. But its adaptation his booktoAmerica’sburgeoning building industryandclearlyhadan common Americanarchetypes. A carpenter bytrade, Benjamin addressed applied ornamentsandadjusts theproportions ofsolidto void tomore retains theground- floor arcade, omitsthe enrichedstringcoursesand particular social demographic. Benjamin’s refinement of Carter’s design designs ‘forhousesinTown’ illustrate arange ofresponses tothecity’s terrace orrow architecture inBostonwasitsinfancy, hispublished British (1806)( context,providing theinspiration for, amongotherbuildings, Figure 2.9 Figure 2.9 English (Boston, 1806). ) and the town house designs of New York ) andthetownhousedesignsofNew York context, it was certainly influential in the

73 Benjaminisanespecially The Americanbuilder’s Designing houses 74

As 5), 89 90 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 90 Building reputations matter ofhis station – example, are describedasbeingsuitedfor‘agentleman’orothersocial must beunderstoodasaconstituentelementofBenjamin’s typical feature ofearlynineteenth- century townhousesinBostonandso builder’sThe American companion ‘Elevation for atownhouse’ (plate 34)from AsherBenjaminandDaniel Raynerd, 2.10 customarily attributedtohim. fashionable BeaconHilldistrict,including11– 23 HancockStreet (c.1806), (25 feet)anddouble- plot (54feet)street housessimilartothosebuiltinthe cities andtowns ofNewEngland,thepublication ofdesignssuch asthese paradigms, andmodifiedtosuitelitetastes andbuildingcustomsinthe ‘eleven bysixteeninches, twelve lightseachwindow’.Inspired byEnglish cifically windowglass;that oftheprincipalstorey, for example, being attention paidtotherelative proportion ofmaterialcomponents, spe- yet simultaneousconcern for aestheticeffectisrevealed bytheparticular room, chinaclosetandlibrary ( design forathree- bay houseboastsa‘parlourfloor’completewithdining- spatial organization of rooms and the hierarchy of the individual storeys: a lhuhntapnigayfrhrdsrpiette – Although notappendinganyfurtherdescriptivetitles none,for Benjamin’stownhousedesignsclearlyprovide examplesofsingle- taste .

(Boston, 1806). 75

Textual descriptionfocusesinstead onthe Figure 2.10 Figure 2.10

). Benjamin’soriginsintrade design anda

91 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Street andNinthStreet’. as themessuageerected …attheSouth EastcornerofthesaidHigh of HighStreet otherthanofBrickandthe same Highthandnohigher agreement that‘nootherBuildingshouldbe erected onthe sameinfront penter, andJacobKeyser, plasterer, boundKeyser toDucker’soriginal and High(nowMarket)Streets inPhiladelphia betweenJohnDucker, car- to thehousesnowfinishingfronting QueenStreet’; specified buildings‘inallrespects ofequalheight,storeys andornaments the 1720sbydeveloperWilliamHendrickforground inDublin’sSmithfield builder developers. sion’ amongtherequisite legalandfinancialdocumentationdemanded of the finely rendered elevation drawing was ‘an unnecessary elaborate inclu- world ofearlynineteenth- century Philadelphia,isalsounequivocalthat is negligibleforthisearlyperiod.DonnaRilling,describingthebuilding cost computationrather thanaestheticform,evidencefortheelevation Houses adjoining’. Block CorniceabovetheTwopairofStairsWindowin alinewiththeother Estate, thebuildersofCharlotteStreet were required to‘putaPortland province ofanemerging architectural profession. neymen peersandtocountertheclaimthatdesign(andtaste)wassole place inaburgeoning buildingmarket,toelevatehimamonghisjour- culture of architectural publication that sought to protect the craftsman’s 1803 to‘architect andcarpenter’by1806.Theyalsoformedpartofawider was clearly part of Benjamin’s self- advancement from ‘housewright’ in use ofplandrawings withinspeculativedevelopment. ical, andnotsolelypaperbased’,ElizabethMcKellar foundevidenceofthe house designinlateseventeenth- century Londonas‘incremental, empir- functions, ofarchitectural drawings. Whiledescribingtheprocess ofelite building. Here wemustmakeadistinctionbetweenthemyriadtypes,and was regarded as a constituent component of the business of urban house by artisansacross theAtlanticworldreveal theextenttowhichdesign eighteenth- has revealed abroader range ofpracticable exemplarsavailabletothe with the architectural literature published in early national America, Just asthemeasuringliterature publishedinBritainandIreland, coupled House buildersasdesigners of adevelopment’. word’ and‘bynomeansuniversalnorcriticalinthedesignformulation use’, set oflegal,financialandenvironmental relationships which ensured its ‘unique capacity’oftheplan‘forcrystallizingingraphic formacomplex Amore universalformof‘design’wasprecedent. 78 shenonethelessconcludesthattheywere ‘inferiortothewritten and earlynineteenth century builder, so elevation drawings

83 80 79

Andaslate1808,thesaleofabuildinglotonNinth

Withinaworkingmilieuwhere drawings clarified

84 Thesekinds ofinstructionsprovide evidence 76

onLondon’sBedford

77 Leasesissuedin Recognizingthe Designing houses 91 92 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 92 Building reputations described as‘communitiesofinterest’. and professional clustering;formingwhatStanaNenadichasrecently ledge about design and construction through social clubs, craft societies appraise the ‘Plans, Elevations and Particulars’. London in1790,notedthatinterested parties‘inclinedtocontract’ could requesting tendersforthree ‘CapitalHouses’nearFinsburySquare in design. one ofthemostwidelycelebrated examplesofeighteenth- century urban system employedtobuildtheRoyalCrescent atBath(completedc.1775), to workanapproved drawing. prohibitive, andbymid- century housebuilderswere increasingly expected leases forrelatively modesttributariessuchasOrchard Street were equally opment atthebeginningofeighteenthcentury;by1710s,building the town,suchasQueenSquare, were already afeature ofproperty devel- nious street elevation.Storey heightsforhousesinthemore politepartsof early themethodsofregulation thatcontributedtotheidealofharmo- ‘as perElevation’. brick façadesornamentedwithpilasters,fasciaeandsillcoursesinstone, houses with‘best’stock leases forBathStreet (laidoutin1787) specified if notalwayscompulsory, stepinthebuildingprocess. bymid- place: century, drawing wasinfactrecognized asanadvisable, particularly inthosecitieswhere buildingguidelineshadlongbeenin as akeydeviceforachievingarchitectural coherence inurbandesign, a ‘workmanlike’product usinggood- quality materials. understood conventionsofformandconstruction,anexpectation of atraditional yetenduringapproach todesignthatrelied onwidely elevations in ink andwatercolour signaldrawing asaformofintellectual building entrepreneurs (discussedin both ameanstoensure designfidelityandadevicetoattract prospective Federal- Stapleton; andbyJohnMcComb, Jr, the foremost ‘builder architect’ in Edinburgh; bytherenowned Dublinplasterer andhousebuilderMichael and terraces (orrows) bytheartisanbuildersoffirst New Town in remainder ofthischapterwillexaminedesigns produced for townhouses – as thelocusofbothpublicinterest andarchitectural discourse the from atrade, totheprofession ofarchitecture’. that design ‘enabled men to make the transition others have advanced: designs grew, sothehousebuilderresponded accordingly. to theplanandElevation’prepared byarchitect ThomasPaty. Henry Hawkins,housecarpenter – to build‘agreeable ineveryRespect builders – two housesinthefashionablesuburbofCliftonrequired thecontracted Simultaneously, however, the useofelevationdrawings wasemerging The following account builds on the notion that Matthew Craske and 86 era New York. As outlined in apartnershipbetweenJosephGrindon,tilerandplasterer, and

91 Bythecloseofcentury, anelevationdrawing was 94

Individually and collectively, these finely rendered Chapter 1 , journeymen artisans also shared know-

89 In1768,anagreement forbuilding Chapter 4 Chapter 4 87

92 Focusing onthefaçade – ). A notice ‘To Builders’, ). A notice As the practice of paper

85 Itwasindeedthe 88

Bristoladopted 90

Ground

93 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Adam’s commission bythetowncouncil. in thedirection ofmonotonyandlackdistinction’ inhousesbuiltbefore Edinburgh demic attention.A.J.Youngson’s seminalaccountof sible for building them, having only very recently attracted objective, aca- individualhouses,andthepeoplerespon- appreciated inaggregate: the building rates andindustrializedmanufacture. gies offormandornamentinanera ofincreasing standardization through British Atlanticworldinthecreative manipulationofestablishedtypolo- drawings confirm a shared interest among building tradesmen across the and indrawing schoolsandbuilders’academies.Inbroader terms,these capital anddemonstrate thegraphic skillsacquired through apprenticeship city intheworld’. orably describedas‘themostextensiveexampleofaRomanticClassical the Moray Estate (feued in 1822), it constitutes an urban landscape mem- (planned 1801– 2), theWestern NewTown (builtpiecemealfrom 1805) and enlightenment urbanplanning.Together withtheNorthernNewTown tect JamesCraig, haslongbeenadmired asthematerialexpression of The firstNewTown inEdinburgh, builtfrom 1767toadesignbyarchi- Edinburgh’s of the fi andthehouses builders rst New Town design autonomy. instead granted whatwaslaterdeemedtobeanimmoderate degree of ledging that‘aspeople’stasteinbuildingissodifferent’, speculatorswere individual houses and their relationship to the wider streetscape: acknow- Acts of1767and1768hadnotimposedanyrulesregarding thedesignof and intheabsenceofanyreasonable assurance ofdemand,earlyBuilding only. Inanefforttoattract developersandstimulatebuildingprogress, the foremost thoroughfares ofthismodernand‘rational’ urbansetting. in theolderpartsofcity, butgradually regarded asinappropriate for garret storey; features typicalofthemultiple- occupancy dwellingscommon numbers ofstoreys, orforinserting‘Stormont’(dormer)windowsin the typically rejected for, amongother transgressions, proposing anirregular an elevationoftheintendedhouse. and from 1785applicationsforbuildingground hadtobeaccompaniedby storey façadefortheprincipalstreets (exclusiveofbasementsandgarrets), Actof1781specifiedastandard three- of guidelinesandrestrictions: an the buildingvarietythatemerged, thetowncouncilinaugurated aseries conceived onlyin1791andcommencedbuilding1795.)Inresponse to for CharlotteSquare, theprincipalornamentoffirstNewTown, were the designofstreet elevations;RobertAdam’selegantpalacefront designs variety, there isnoevidencethathewascharged withtheresponsibility for coherence achievedthrough acareful balancebetweenuniformityand Edinburgh, then,isacitywhoselateGeorgian streetscape hasbeen (1966),despiteitssuggestive title,discerned‘astrong tendency 95

96 ButthisisEnlightenmentdesigninorthographic terms (AlthoughCraig evidentlyfavoured aformalvisual 97

Thereafter, buildingtenderswere

99 Butarguing againstthereceived The makingofclassical Designing houses 98

93 94 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 94 Building reputations model ofgenteelurbanismenvisagedfortheNewTown. width andheight,itsaesthetic‘mediocrity’wasdecidedly atoddswiththe pointed Craigmillar rubble,andcomposedofmodesthousesvarying digm ofacademicclassicismtowhichbuildersmight aspire: of cherrycock- scheme ofunifiedarchitectural character yetattempted’,represent apara- truly modernhousebuildingproject inEdinburgh’ and‘themostambitious George Square (1766– 79) intheOld Town, describedasboth‘thefirst building stock that dated from the foundation of the New Town. (Nor did the 1785Actandcontributedtoavisualcontinuitywithanexisting builders couldalsociteprecedent inpreserving atypologythatpredated enlightened planningandarchitectural decorum.Butthecity’shouse Queen Street. Here, itmightbeargued, building tradition trumped both of theforemost streets oftheNewTown, includingGeorge Street and ends, forexample,continuedtobeenvisaged,andindeedbuilt,onmany forlarge- terms: designs scale tenementswithdormerwindowsandgable tural ambition,andcompetinginterests were playedoutinformalbuilding bear witnesstoanartisancommunitywithvaryingdegrees ofarchitec- risks associatedwiththereal estatemarket. attractive todevelopers,investorsandacorporate bodymindfulofthe duction undertakenbythetypicalhousebuilderwasalsoinevitablymore retard thefinishingof[NewTown] plan’. the citycouncil,whoargued that‘iftheBuildersdonotgetfairplayitwill the ‘ridiculous’designsofmasonWilliamSmithwasnotentertainedby of itsurbanevolution.In1777,a complaint ofarchitect JamesCraig about terms ofeconomic,creative andpoliticalagency, wasavitalconstituent an expression ofits‘NorthBritish’identity, thecity’sbuildingindustry, in of house builders in the 1780s and 1790s; in other words, subsequent to partite doorcase andground- floor rustication – wasemulatedbya number 1771 forBaron RobertOrd’s houseinQueenStreet – specificallyitstri- were more discerning.LewishasshownhowRobertAdam’s designof though sometimes,itmust besaid,withlittleregard forcontext – others – a competencewiththeprinciples ofclassicalcompositiongenerally of ‘dynamic,changingsocialorder’. less acelebration of‘astaticorder andsocialhierarchy’ andmore aplace Lewis’s recent studyoftheNewTown considersitsformalproperties as – equivalent toLondon’seliteresidential terraces andsquares Anthony been commissionedandapproved. Street hadcommencedbuildingandthedesignforCharlotteSquare had decade later, Hanover andFrederick Streets were almostcomplete,Castle blocks ofGeorge, QueenandPrincesStreets were substantiallybuilt;a proceeded apace.Bytheearly1780s,StAndrew’s Square andthewestern notion of the New Town as a sort of ‘Mayfair- Scores ofsurvivingdrawings from themid- 1780s totheearly1790s Whilethedesignsproduced byEdinburgh’s buildersdemonstrate 104

101

Conceivedbythetowncouncilas

102 Thescaleofbuildingpro- on- Forth’

103 100 )Development – a Scottish

95 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Ord ( Plate 5 ). Butthere isarguably more inventionhere thanfirstmeets to pilasters)barely concealhisdebttoAdam’soriginaldesignforBaron window proportions andtheflatteningofarchitectural elements(columns the masonAlexanderBalfourin1790,where subtlevariationsinterms of approach toarchitecture. Thisiscertainlytrueofdesignsproduced by by arenowned architect mightwellbeconstruedasabusinesslike innovations inconstructionandfashion,adapting afaçadedesigned one oftheprevailing methodsbywhichartisansappraised themselvesof Of course,adaptationorimitationfrom thebuiltenvironment constituted the institutionofbuildingregulations bythetowncouncil( 2.11 Robert Adam,elevation for Baron Robert Ord’s houseat QueenStreet, Edinburgh, 1771. ultaneously retaining thevisual appealofthesingleproperty. Although and uniformitydesired ofthelateeighteenth- century terrace, whilesim- moulding. Thesedesignsby Balfourcleverlyachievethetypeofcontinuity wall – front toeachthree- bay façade – definedby averticalbreak alongtheparty which thediscrete properties havebeenemphasizedwithashallow break- clearly conceivedasapair, ofparticularinterest here isthemannerin produced by Balfour for Queen Street in the same year ( Plate 6 ). Although the eye.Thisisbestdeterminedbyanelevation for apairofhouses andtheterminationof sillcourseateitherendwithapedestal Designing houses Figure 2.11 ). 105

95 96 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 96 Building reputations were common( fare andamajortributary, orcross street, where bow- fronted tenements different approach tothedesignofelevationsinaresidential thorough- and atenementbuildinginCastleStreet (1790),forexample,reveal the Hay, mason,andJohnBaxter, slater, forahouseinGeorge Street (1786) an individualworkofart’. square, itwas‘neithernecessarynorexpectedthateachhouseshouldbe the long- held assertionthat,withintheconfinesofaGeorgian street or the financialrisksassociatedwithspeculativebuilding,andcomplicates contradict thenotionthatdesignofhousewassolelycontingenton the province ofthebuilderasitwasclient.Moreover, thesedrawings the decisiontoaffect‘differences withingeneral sameness’wasasmuch eral sameness’. ally chosebetweenhousesonthebasisofsubtledifferences withingen- of townhousearchitecture hasshownthat‘purchasers andtenantsgener- confined tolateeighteenth- century London,RachelStewart’srecent study on Adam’selevation forBaron Ord, onedesign substantiallyelaborates design problem posedbyhousesinpairs. Althougharguably dependent (d. 1793),produced in1790and1791,reveal discrete solutionstothe ively catered toabroad socialspectrum: historically castigatedasa‘mechanicalandsymmetrical’gridiron, effect- the locationofproperty withintheNewTown. Craig’s plan,although derivative) elevation,thedesignoffaçadewasgenerally predicated on better classofartisans’. by wayofcontrast, were intendedforshopkeepers,merchants and‘the Town respectively; themodesthousesofThistleStreet andRoseStreet, turesque viewsofFifeandtheFirthForth, andoftheCastleOld Street were builtupononesideonlyinorder toallowuninterruptedpic- tion topeopleofTaste’. Wright wasunequivocalthat ‘theground plan hasgivenuniversalsatisfac- selling real estateintheless obviously fashionable areas oftheNewTown, as proffering acredible architectural solutiontoaproblem identifiedwith only alosstothePetitioner butalsototheTown ofEdinburgh’. Aswell of thesestreets oftenstandemptylongaftertheyare finished,whichisnot a planthatwillhethinksstrike the attention of thepublic,asHouses arguing that‘beingacross street thePetitioner findsitnecessarytoadopt mitted tothecouncilabow- fronted designintendedforFrederick Street, each ofthethree principalstoreys. it wasevidentlydeemedappropriate tomaintainaconsistencyofscale on a multiple- occupancy dwelling,albeitoneintendedforthegentryclasses, town house is dispensed with in the design of the tenement building: as diminishing ofwindowsizesrelative tothespatialhierarchy ofthetypical Elevations forpairsofhouses bythestonemasonAlexanderCrawford While Balfour effectively offered two iterations of the same (arguably

106 iue 2.12 Figure ButBalfour’selevationsforQueenStreet indicatethat 112 109

107

DesignsbythebuildingpartnershipofJohn

and Plate 7

111 In1790,masonRobertWrightsub- ).

108 110 PrincesStreet andQueen Interestingly, thehabitual 97 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document House withaplainfront similartotheother Housesthere’. introducing pilasters, the Petitioners now humbly propose to build their the proprietor ofthehouseonoppositesidehasgivenupidea of on theoppositesideofstreet wastohaveasimilarfront – Butnowthat side ofGeorge Street, since‘atthattimeitwasproposed thattheLodging town councilinorder toamendanearlierproposal forahouseonthenorth also important.In1786,thepartnershipofHayandBaxter approached the a singularlydecorative solution.Butcontextandbuildingprecedent were developments were intendedforQueenStreet – andhispaired elevationis – for paired housesthatskilfullyretained anindividualcharacter both Crawford mayalsohavebeeninspired byAlexanderBalfour’searlierdesign tripartite doorcase andafringeofquoinstotheupperstoreys ( Plate 8 enriched, ornamentalapron tothesecond- floor windows,apedimented on thismodel,withbalustrades tothewindowsof 2.12 John Baxter andJohn Hay, design for ahouseinGeorge Street, Edinburgh, 1786. in theabsence ofdesignspecifications on approved modelstothedetrimentoftheir owncreative invention.But in theNewTown, soitmightbeargued thatbuildersdependedorrelied town councilmovedincreasingly towards thebetterregulation ofbuilding Edinburgh’s housebuilderswere clearlyobligedtodesign. And asthe per se , andcognizant ofthe‘people piano nobile Designing houses 113

, an ). 97 98 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document architecture, Elevation for anurbandwelling (plate 25)from George Jameson, 2.13 98 accor Building reputations emerged intheinterim( Figure 2.13 ). also express themore considered approach tostreet architecture thathad dwellings publishedbyEdinburgh masonGeorge Jamesonin1765,they play a‘decorative fungus’ofcarvedornament. of thework‘ambitiousplasterers’, whose façadesinGeorge Street dis- exampleisCharlesMcKean’s curiousreprimandtury urbanism.A recent building architectural aesthetic,theformationofthesehouseswithinaculture of terms of the wider urban composition. vidual speculationsyetsimultaneouslymaintainsa balanced harmonyin (rustication, andcoursesofsmoothtooledashlar) thatannouncesindi- string courses,balustrades) andofthematerialtextures ofdressed stone lies inthesubtlemanipulationofarchitectural details(doorsurrounds, distinction ofincreasing delicacyandrefinement. Theircreative invention like AlexanderBalfourandCrawford wastocreate architectural of Taste’ whoconstitutedthereal estatemarket,theimpetusforbuilders Writing in1934, SteenEilerRasmussen criticizedthebuildersofLondon’s understand thiswithinthe contextofarchitectural criticismgenerally. ding toPalladio Despite the obvious attention paid by masons and wrights to the continuestoelicitcriticism amonghistoriansofeighteenth- (Edinburgh, 1765).

114 Compared with designs for urban Thirty- three designs withtheorders of 115

Butitisimportantto cen- 99 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document h roiiigo mteaia – the prioritizingof‘mathematical – profitable plotsfirstandarchitec- might surprisethoseforwhom thecity’shistoricalstreet patternrepresents terraces, theexistenceofacorpusdrawings relating totheirdesign tectural reticence ofDublin’seighteenth- andearlynineteenth- customarily allowedintheliterature. Indeed,giventhepronounced archi- reveal thatthecity’shousebuilderswere more sensibleofdesignthan of plasterer andhousebuilderMichaelStapleton(c.1747– 1801), however, distressing degree’ inDublin. that equivalent and ‘monotonous’ rows of houses survived ‘to a really gation ofLondon’sbrickterraces in1945,SirJohnSummersondiscovered ieties aboutdecoration: and ornament,apositionthatarguably saysmore aboutmodernistanx- terraced housesfortheir‘superficial’useofclassicalarchitectural form described as‘themostsingularfeature ofthecity’sfabric’. ical builtenvironment; itseighteenth- century brickterraces beingrecently than forasenseofplaceconsistentwiththevisualcoherence ofitshistor- Dublin are admired lessforanyperceived qualityofarchitectural beauty Unlike Edinburgh’s NewTown, theredbrick streets andsquares ofGeorgian Michael Stapleton andtheDublinhouse facades’. ornament’ andthe‘civicurbanity’ofDublin’s‘plaindesignedGeorgian architectural criticstopraise ‘thevalueofrestraint intheuseofexterior elegant ofanythatsizeintheNewTown’. build ahousethatwouldbe‘oneofthemostsubstantialcompleatand contracted withplasterer andmasterbuilderJamesNisbettodesign was built for Lady Balcarres, a member of Edinburgh’s elite, who in 1789 that thehouseinquestion – identifiedasthepresent 115George Street – and Builders ofthisCity’in1794indicates hisstandingandreputation inclusion ofStapleton’sname ina‘CertificateofthePrincipalArchitects Robert Adam’s neoclassical decorative style (discussed in common, collectiveaimtomakethenewstreets beautiful.’ one buildingcompany, thebuildersofNewTown coulddemonstrate a not everyhouseintheNewTown wasthesameandbuiltbyonemanor form row. Intheelegantwords ofAnthonyLewis,‘Despitethefactthat ture houses ofthefirstNewTown demonstrate howthemakingof set againsttheincreasing jurisdictionofEdinburgh’s towncouncil,the speculative buildings. as itisofAlexanderBalfour’sadaptationthatsamedesignforownhis than tectonic;andthisisastrueofRobertAdam’selevationforBaron Ord the factthatclassicalarchitectural detailiscustomarilydecorative rather ture – from Asadelicatebalancingactbetweenproduction andconsumption, conditionally – 117

building McKean’s statement ignores the significant historical fact shouldnotbeconfinedtothepalacefront ortheuni- later’. 116

asimilarviewprompted post- war English 122

121

Thoughheisbestknown as anexponentof )A number ofelevationsfrom theportfolio

118 Italsopointedlyignores Designing houses

120 119 Chapter 3 Chapter 3 (Inhiscasti-

architec- century ), the

99 100 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 100 Building reputations four storiesinheight’. adjoining streets neededonlytobe‘goodandsubstantialdwellinghouses the parapet ofthebuildings’onnorthsidesquare; thoseinthe the fronts ofthehousesinMountjoySquare would‘range exactlywith dicular toFitzgibbonStreet, required theleaseholdertoobserveonlythat side ofMountjoySquare, contiguouswithBelvedere Placeandperpen- 1791, a deed of leasefor a prominent corner site at the northeast ciple: in vidual plots,soaconsistentparapet heightbecamethesole this preference forabespokehouse. Doneraile House in Kildare Street (built 1746– 50), for example, illustrates architects, builders and developers: architect Richard Castle’s elevation for largely conformedtoaplain,unarticulatedtypologylongendorsedby in twodimensionsonly, andtheindividualhousesofstreets andsquares in theformofpalacefronts anduniformterraces were typicallyrealized arguably themostambitious – butonpaperonly. Grand- manner setpieces built anumberofhousesinMountjoySquare andMountjoyPlace,was degrees ofarchitectural ambition.TheGardiner estate,where Stapleton Town, were raised onprivatelyownedestatesthatdemonstrated varying by degrees standardized andself- dently relied onthefactthatdesignof domestichousewasalready should beraised ‘three storeys andahalfhighabovethecellars’,evi- Square on the aristocratic Fitzwilliam Estate requested only that houses terraces builtpiecemealbyindividualspeculators.LeasesforMerrion that mighthaveaffectedamore discerningcompositionalregularity across lation regarding theproportions oftheindividualstoreys, aspecification to theheightofhousesinsquare, there wasnocorresponding stipu- standard eighteenthcentury forminDublin. five elevations for town houses that exhibit all of the characteristics of the among Dublin’sbuildingcommunity, andthedrawing collectionincludes congruity. and itsterraced architecture relied onmaterialsformuchofitsformal negotiated classicalparadigms tosuitestablishedpractices andtastes, Merrion Square South, involving a business partnership between William goodexampleofthis principleinpractice isrepresented by80– A window stoolsanddoorcases’. requirement stipulated‘noBowwindowsorotherprojections beyondthe and range ‘exactlywiththeparapet oftheadjoiningbuildings’;afurther façades of‘red stockbrick’thatwere expectedtorise47feetinheight adjoining housesbetween1789and1793(allnowdemolished),stipulated leases were correspondingly slight. a preference forareticent classicism – thecontrols stipulatedinbuilding plex andmultifarious – economicpragmatism, lackofconsumerinterest, aeuiomt ydfut – mate uniformitybydefault hencethe lack ofexplicitinstructions. TheelitehousesofDublin,likeLondon,andunlikeEdinburgh’s New 126

Leases for Mountjoy Square, where Stapleton built three

128 Curiously, giventhesingularimportanceattached 127

Ashouseswere raised upfrom theindi- 125

euaig – regulating

124 Asaresult, thecity’sbuildingindustry Whilethereasons forthisare com- 123

aplainnessandapproxi- design prin- 87 129

101 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Rule inBuildings, todiminishtheStories intheirHeightonesixthPart; that builder’s companion tice suchtheories‘found only limitedexpression’. atical andgeometricalextensions ofthecube,circle andsquare, inprac- Ware advocatedPalladio’s ‘ideal’proportions andratios basedonmathem- at mid- architects turnedauthorsRobertMorrisandIsaac century: while Dan Cruickshankhasshownthatanumberofsystems were inoperation proportions ofstoreys relative tothehierarchical compositionofthefaçade. to theliterature aimedatthebuildingtrades inorder todeterminethe Trade ofCarpentersandBuilders’( Hendy, JohnGibsonandDonnellan,describedas‘Copartnersinthe 2.14 pattern anddoorcases ofidenticalformanddesign. erty isachievedbyaconsistentparapet height,asymmetricalfenestration 9 inches frontage). adouble- and another(number86) is fronted, five- bay house(of40feet anarrowone (number85) has two- bay frontage (amere 22feet6 inches), and33feet2 inches), albeit ofvaryingwidth(between27feet2 inches themajorityare ofstandard three- spatial dimension: while bay frontage, appearance tothesquare, thehousesare infactofvaryingbreadth and Merrion Square South(left In theabsenceofstrictguidelines,Dublinbuilders may haveturned 131

(1769)provided asimpleruleofthumb: ‘It isageneral Collectively, a visual harmonyacross theentire prop- ) andMerrion Street, Dublin, c. 1789– 93. iue 2.14 Figure ). 130

132

Presenting aunified WilliamPain’s

Designing houses The 101 102 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 102 Building reputations in two undated house- building specificationscomposedbyDublinmeas- diminution ofstorey heightsobeysthissystem.Thestorey heightsoutlined Leadbeater’s interesting, ifunsurprising,correspondence totheschematicelevationin thicknesses and room heights, withthe‘third sort’ ofhouse – the CityRebuildingActof 1667had,amongotherthings,specifiedwall third Story to be a sixth Part less in Height than the second.’ is, thesecondStorytobeasixthPart lessinHeightthanthefirst,and ually circumscribed bylegal,constructionandeconomicconsiderations. aesthetics andtheoretical principles,asitwasina Dublin wasrooted asmuchinan intended house]Handsometothefront ofsaidstreet’. stipulated a‘doorwayornamentedwithCutStone so astorender [the leases issuedforBaggotStreet ontheFitzwilliamEstatein1790,which typical façadeacross thecity( Plate 9 ). Thisiscorroborated by building aesthetic significanceofthedoorassoleornamental inflectionofthe Adam- formal spatialorganisation oftheinterior. the proportions ofwindowsanddoors,wasinfactattheservice the properties) demonstrate howthecompositionoffaçade,including for thedrawing- room storey ofthelarger house;13feetforthetwosmaller different storey heightsrepresented oneithersideofthisdesign(14feet symmetry intheelevation,cornerstonesofPalladian classicism.The simple drawing reveals thatthere wasequalconcernforproportion and standard ‘two- room’ planubiquitousfrom mid- tial revenue from asite – theindividual housesinvariablyconformtothe and 27feet).Ostensiblyanexercise inexploringthemaximumpoten- issued bytheGardiner Estate – butofvaryingplotwidth(between23feet were carefully adaptedtohousesofidenticalheight – stipulatedbyleases adjoining properties ( Plate 3 ), whichillustrates howbuildingproportions seventeenth andeighteenth centuries. of prescriptive (ifoftenignored) Building Actsduringthecourseof construction, size and cost of urban houses introduced in London by a series system of house ‘rates’ or ‘sorts’ – the set of specifications regarding the Place (1775). Adam’s designs for the Royal Terrace, Frederick’s the Adelphi (1768) and tural exemplars,includingtheRoyalCircus inDublin(1790),andRobert room dimensions,forexample,beingakintomore ‘enlightened’architec- figures departfrom thisruleofthumbmethod;theattenuateddrawing- ture generally. Significantly, however, Stapletondesignsannotatedwith confirming theimportanceofbookineighteenth- century buildingcul- urer BryanBolger(c.1758– 1834) alsocorrespond withPain’s formula, This is confirmed by close inspection of a Stapleton design for three AnumberoftheStapletondesignssuggestanunderstanding ofthe style doorcases andfanlightsofdifferent dimensionsunderlinesthe 134

The gentlemanandtradesman’s compleat assistant Thissuggeststhatthedesignofterraced housein architectural 138

InthewakeofGreat Fire,

136 A related designillustrating A related culture withanemphasison century – century – building 137

thisdeceptively culture habit- 133

intended for There is an where the

135

103 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Peter Nicholson’s – tually, ifnotstrictlyinformalterms withthefourtypesillustrated in of ‘first’and‘second’rate housesandshare somesimilarities – concep- the StapletonCollectionillustrate thedivergent aestheticdemandsmade classification system not being formally adopted in Ireland, elevations in the proportions ofwindowsfollowPalladian ratios of1:1,1:2and2:3. plane delimitedbythefirst- andsecond- floor levelsissquare inarea, and – that Dublinhousesexpressed thegarret asadiscrete storey thewall portion commoninLondonhouses – adeparture necessitatedbythefact 52 feetfrom basetoparapet. However, whileitdepartsfrom the2:3pro- 1:1), withacombinedfrontage of50feetandmeasuringapproximately customarily adapted tothevariousdemands oftheelitehousingmarket. able forasingleLadyorGentleman’, confirmsthatthebuildingcommunity roomed house’inHarcourt Street in1789,describedasbeing ‘verysuit- advertisementfora‘single heights wouldhavebeenimposed: Stapleton’s was clearlynotpartofan elite residential enclave where uniformparapet indicates theadaptability of thetypologyonasite40feetwidththat ther planandelevationofadjoininghousesdifferent heightsandwidths typology underdiscussion. ‘fronting highandprincipalstreets’ – beingequivalenttothelateGeorgian ( rate’ designintheStapletonCollectionisforapairofthree- bay houses tion ofhousetypologiesalready longstandinginbuildingcustom.)A ‘first- significant asanexampleofpractice informingtheory, beingacodifica- ground- in Nicholson’sschematicelevationsalsosacrificewindow alignmentsat of formfollowingfunction.(Thethree classesbelow‘firstrate’ houses a concessiontothespatialorganization ofthisstorey andaclearexample those oftheupperstoreys, andthedoorcase more markedlyso;evidently ( houses in Harcourt Street (1786– 89) and increasingly common after 1800 of anarrower, two- bay proportion notdissimilar toStapleton’sself- the area thatwouldunambiguouslydetermineitsrate), thehousesbeing designation (withoutaccompanyingplansitisnotpossibletoestablish cubic capacity of 900 square feet). Another design suggests a ‘second- for ahouseofthiscalibre (firstrate houseswere expectedtooccupya doorcase necessarilydemandingagenerously sizedentrance hallsuitable better sortofresidential street orsquare: the symmetricalalignmentofthe fenestration across eachstorey isappropriate forhousesintendedthe The pleasingbalanceofsolidtovoidcoupledwiththeuniformpattern tion, standards ofconstructionandthesystemrates. principally concernedwithenforcing earlierActsregarding fire preven- after, didnotinfactprescribe any rulesregarding design its supposedlyperniciousinfluenceonthequalityofurbandesignthere- Plate 10 Plate 11 ). Here the ground- floor windows are slightly misaligned with floor level,theplantakingprecedence overthefaçade.) ). 142

Here, theproportion isalmostaperfectsquare (aratio of The new practical builder The new practical 139

Theso- called ‘BlackAct’of1774,namedfor (1823).

141 (Nicholson’stextis 140

Designing houses per se Despitethis 144

, being A fur- built rate’

145 143

103 104 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 104 Building reputations been painted,asdescribed byvisitorstothecity(notedabove): assume thatMcCombenvisagedthetypicalred brickconstructionto have absence ofanycomparable upstandinghousesfrom hisoeuvre, wemight the McCombelevationsare uniformlyrendered inshadesofgrey. Inthe of sandstoneinEdinburgh andthemellowtonesofred brickinDublin – the visualproperties oftheirrespective materials – thesilver- grey hues drawings ofhousesinEdinburgh andDublinreflect invaryingdegrees for someone of McComb’s date and training’. on theEnglishpatternbook,describedas‘aperfectly natural practice row houseidiom;here, too,wecandeterminetheAmericandependence a range ofresponses tothetaskofdesigningabespokehousewithin of elevationsby‘builderarchitect’ JohnMcComb,Jr(1763– 1853) display Dublin houseasbeingcarefully designedasitsEdinburgh analogue. squares likethoseofLondon,Bath,Edinburgh orDublin. ‘thought intermsoffree- standing houses’rather thaninterraces or an affluentnewsuburbofthecityin1795,MountVernon proprietors tural But itmayalsoreflect theinfluenceofgraphic conventions ofarchitec- ment’. shift inemphasisawayfrom the individual dwelling towards unitdevelop- Ireland, aprocess describedbyPeter Borsayasthe‘subtlebutsignificant they recall theevolutionofurbandesignineighteenth- century Britainand were fullyunderstoodtoformpartofalarger terrace orrow. Inthatsense the storeys inalloftheStapletondrawings nonethelessindicatesthatthey neighbouring properties, therendering ofexposedtimberjoistsbetween threes were conceivedwithoutreference totheappearance oftheir ‘always remained theexception’inFederal era. Alexander Parris’s designsforPortland, Maine(1806),theterrace orrow andBaltimore (Waterloo Row,1816),orpaper- 1809) bound, suchas realized, suchasRobertMills’sdesignsforPhiladelphia(Franklin Row, a commonfeature oftheAmericanurbanlandscapebefore 1800.Whether Unlike itsBritishandIrishcounterparts,uniformrows ofhouseswere not John McComb, Jr andtheNewYork house urban elegancetothetown’, (designed in1793– 94), which introduced ‘awhollyunfamiliaraspectof palace front, suchasarchitect CharlesBulfinch’sTontine Crescent inBoston elevations, it seems clear that brick was the default building material. tables orbasementsare clearlydelineated as ashlarblocksinatleasttwo ment: a biggerhousesignified abiggerclaimofsocialcapital. ment: a zens electedinsteadtocreate visualdistinctionintermsofscaleandorna- cities, where residential zoningwasstillinitsinfancy, itswealthiestciti- struction was elidedinfavourofemphasizing formandornament. While itmustbeconcededthatthese designs ofhouses in pairsor engraving 146 Despite its admittedly taciturn appearance, we must accept the onarchitectural 148

alsometwithresistance: acquiring landfor drawing , where thepatternofbrickcon-

151 Interestingly, while the

147 Earlyattemptsatthe 149

InAmerican

152 150

asstone A series A series 154

153

105 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 1811, ‘wasequallyopenfortheconstructionofamansion orafoundry’. and volumesofbuildings,‘anyarea’ ofitsnowfamousgrid,devised in significant planningconsiderations’ regarding landusageortheheights the mostconvenienttolivein’.Buthavingfailed inaugurate ‘several that strait sidedandrightangledhousesare themostcheaptobuildand reported that‘acityiscomposedprincipallyofthehabitationsmen, and commissionappointedin1804,andaugmented1807, urbanized. A street patterns,four- fifths ofwhich,aboveHoustonStreet, hadyettobe Common Counciltoaddress thehaphazard developmentofManhattan’s character’, thecontestbetweenpublicandprivateinterests stimulatedthe and Dublin. variable street elevation uncommon inthebetter parts ofcitieslikeLondon were twostoreys overbasementwithadormered pitchroof, creating a covenants. AsinPhiladelphia,manyearlyFederal- era housesinNew York urban housewas,aswehaveseen,oftencircumscribed byregulations and house buildersinthecitiesofBritainandIreland, where thedesignof or bespokepairsrows, hiscreative opportunitywasdistinctfrom thatof in thoseofhisDublinorEdinburgh peers.Asessentiallybespokehouses, nificant thatthere ismore varietyinMcComb’sportfolioofdesignsthan New York belongingtoashared – some truthinthisstatement thedomesticarchitecture ofFederal- Their housesare stillessentiallyEnglish.’ ‘the Americanshavenotyetadoptedastyleofarchitecture oftheirown. go unnoticed.Writingin1824,JamesFenimore Coopercomplainedthat United Statesuntilthemid- nineteenth century’. aimed atimproving thequalityofurbanhousingwere notadaptedinthe Moreover, the introduction of fire regulations aside, ‘housing restrictions in favour of a more conservative approach’. how hisfamiliaritywithEnglishneoclassicismwasinpractice ‘subdued fied adisparitybetweenhispaperdesignsandexecutedwork,noting buildings asrepresenting ‘alatercolonial- Adamesque style’,andidenti- to decoration andfurniture. DamieStillmancharacterizes McComb’s volumes onavarietyoftopics,ranging from engineeringandfortifications by architectural literature: as notedabove,hispersonallibrary extendedto design waslikelythrough apprenticeship andthebuildingsite,refined sical idiom.Thesonofamasonturnedbuilder- architect, hisformationin the betterendofmarketandarticulatehiseclecticapproach totheclas- of streets andsquares inthecitiesof BritainandIreland duringthelast and soformallyconceptually distinctfrom thehomogeneouscharacter house was,asinBostonand Philadelphia,aneventintheurbanlandscape, New York haduptosixproperties inprogress atanyonetime, Inearlynineteenth- York, acity‘plainlycommercial in century New McComb’s designsfordomesticarchitecture were clearlyintendedfor Althoughitseemsthat competitive house- building businessesin British architectural culture – itisalsosig-

156

155 Butwhilethere iscertainly Thisconservatismdidnot 158

Designing houses 159

theelite era

157

105 106 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 106 NewYork, c.1794. George Stanton andJohn McComb, Jr, ‘Elivation of aHouse design’d for RufusKing esq.’, Broadway, 2.15 Building reputations tomarily being reserved for the best reception rooms. clature) ofeventhegrandest Philadelphiantownhouses,for example,cus- ground floor(or‘firstfloor’tousetheAmericannomen- consumers: the thing observedbyAmericanbuildersor, evidently, demandedbyAmerican was usualinLondonandDublinhousesafter1750, thiswasnotsome- a visualdistinctionbetweentheground andfirstfloor(or adapted to local needs and tastes ( Plate 12 ). While the practice of creating M’Comb Builder’, is a good example of how a common typology was society ( Figure 2.15 ). King’s pre- eminence inboththecultural andpoliticalarenas ofNew York of 54 feet frontage, the stern modernity of its façade loudly announced design forlawyeranddiplomatRufusKing(c.1794): a large five- bay house exampleofthisisMcComb’s quarter oftheeighteenthcentury. A good suggest thatthe designwasintendedfor aclientwhodemanded greater distinction withtall(almost floortoceiling)windowsatthislevel.Thismay models where thefirstflooristypicallytaller, McComb creates avisual the storey heightsofMcComb’sdesigndepart from English(andIrish)

A designforanunidentifiedthree- bay house,autographed as‘John 160

161 However, while piano nobile ) 107 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document and likelypredates AsherBenjamin’siteration ofthesamesource. left, confined toamere 5feet 6 inches inbreadth. 8 inches of the 25 feet street frontage, with the entrance hall, positioned at was likelythesamebrief: the street parlourcommands agenerous 17 feet panying plan)ontheverso represents amore pragmatic response towhat A similar designwithtwoseparate entrances ( A similar 1820s, andrarely tookthelarge semi- circular formillustrated here. York before the On theotherhand,fanlightswere uncommoninNew city residences ( that ‘neithermagnitudenor elegance’wasrequired ofentrance hallsin and, asRachelStewarthas noted, ‘out of step’ with Ware’s own advice the ground floorentirely tothehall,asolutionrarely attemptedinLondon town housedesignpublishedin manner ofanEnglishorIrishtown house. the ‘drawing room’ wassituatedonthefirstfloor(‘secondstory’),in and politicianJohnB. Coles’s houseat1State Street (dem.),indicates that degree ofarchitectural pretension. Anunrelated plan drawing forlawyer in seems unlikelythathewouldhavefollowedIsaacWare’s model(published folio invariablyplacethedoortorightorleftof composition – butit envisaged here – unidentified plans for three- bay houses in McComb’s port- accompanying planitisnotclearwhatparticularspatial organization was tical, locationofthedooratcentre ofthefaçade( Plate 13 ). Withoutan inwidth,assertstheideal,ifimprac- Street, whileonly24feet6 inches demands of the building site. A design for an unidentified house in Queen between theobservanceofarchitectural protocol andthepragmatic already familiar in thebetterterraces ofLondonand,after 1800,Boston. of atypegenericclassicalornamentinstuccoorreconstituted stone ation isinsteadconfinedtoanenricheddoorlintelandimpostmoulding course oftheEnglishdesignare alsohere discarded, andsurfacedecor- than theory).Thespandrel ornamentsandfluted,second- storey string the windowsinatticstorey isafurtherconcessiontopractice rather James Burton,were (thetallerproportion nevercommoninNew York of in Londonthrough thespeculativedevelopmentsofMichaelSearles and for example, he omits the round- headed windows, which, though popular estate expectations: while heretains theblindarcade atground- floor level, design inaccordance withlocalbuildingpractices and,presumably, real subtle differences indicatehowMcCombcustomizedCarter’spublished Charlton Street andVandam Street (builtfrom 1817). that cityintothe1820s;examplesofwhichcanstillbeseeninhouseson – property as atwo- family residence butmore likelyrepresenting amixed- A Compleat bodyofarchitecture Of course,McComb’selevationisclearlyinspired byJohnCarter’s Other designs for single houses reveal the creative tension that arises features therectangular toplightsthatremained popularin Figure 2.17 Figure 2.17 ). 165 Analmostidenticaldesign (withaccom- The builder’s magazine in1756) and givenoverthefront part of Figure 2.16 Figure 2.16 ) – 166

(describedabove), Designing houses catalogued

162 But use

164 163

107 108 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 108 Building reputations form of two three- bay houses flanking afive- bay house ( plain brickfacades. (and thelaterrow housesofBostonandPhiladelphia),favoured austere, York houses,liketheirDublincounterparts after1800,New inception: string coursesandstonelintelsenrichedwithvoussoirs indicateanearlier the most part unidentified (and undated), architectural features such as of hisapproach torow housedesign,giventhattheproperties remain for American real estatemarket.Whileitisdifficulttodeterminetheevolution of Englishpatternbooktypologiesandtheeconomic realities of the the contest between idealism and rationalism; that is, between the dictates the problem posedbyhousesbuiltinpairsorthrees. Here wecanwitness scape untilthe1820s,anumberofdesignsreveal McComb’sresponse to John McComb, Jr, design for anunidentifi edhouse, New York, c.1800. 2.16 partite Adam- style doorcase ofthelarger property andthe WilliamPain- visual terminusakintoapavilion. A further distinctionismadebetweenthetri- (25 feeteach)are differentiated withapedimentedbreakfront, creating a street levelandagiantorder ofIonicpilasters;thefaçades theendhouses the larger centre house(50feet)isarticulatedwitharusticated blindarcade at One ambitious design comprising three individual properties takes the Although the uniform row was not a feature of New York’s urban land- Figure 2.18 ).

167

Here, Here, style style 109 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document John McComb, Jr, design for arow of houses, NewYork, c.1800. 2.18 Design for atown house(plate 34)from IsaacWare, 2.17 (London, 1756).

A complete bodyof architecture

110 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 110 Building reputations William Pain’s while thearticulationofmiddlehouseisclearlyindebted toadesignfrom derived from JohnCrunden’s design precedents may be a useful exercise in connoisseurship, but far more Carl Lounsbury’sassertion that‘searching English architectural booksfor tecture witharesponsibility tothepublicrealm. We might alsolearnfrom for housesofdifferent sizeandcost,the obligationtocreate anarchi- design achievesaharmonious balancebetweenthecontemporary demand often reproduced plateswhosefirstoutingwasdecadesearlier – McComb’s tectural vocabularythatcouldbedescribedas of thepilasterorder isadroitly managed.Althoughdependentonan archi- and sillcoursesoneachbreakfront andtheirrelationship tothepedestal observed across thecombinedfrontage, andthecareful articulationofstring is uniformityofstorey heightsandmodillioneaves cornice architecture: a But thisismore thanamere agglomeration ofsources, acut- configuration oftwothree- bay housesflankingalarger, five- bay houseis and borrows itsformandvocabularyfrom twodifferent printedsources: the doorcases oftheflankinghouses.Interestingly, thisdesignisacomposite John Crunden, ‘Designs for three town houses,making oneregular elevation’ (plates 28and29)from 2.19 Convenient and ornamental architecture The practicalhousecarpenter Convenient andornamentalarchitecture (1794)( (London, 1767). retardataire Figures 2.19

and- – Pain’s books and paste paper paste paper 2.20 ). (1767), (1767),

168 168

111 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document would haveconcealedthe low- pitched hiproof atstreet level. rectangular window openings with projecting sills and a parapet which themodernityofdesignisexpressed inthesimple tial setting: here elevation wasevidentlyintendedforapairofhouses inagrander residen- entrance vestibuledirectly behind(seenintheaccompanyingplan).A later the entire ground- floor façade) butclearlyrelated to the volume of the confinedtothedoorsurround (more typicallyto somewhat gauche: here tradition. Anunusualvariantontherusticatedplinthisnoteworthy, if splayed lintelsare obvioussignsofMcComb’sdebttoAmericanbuilding ( bay houseswithashared central passageleadingtoayard orbackpassage were integrated intothecolonialdesignprocess’. valuable isthestudyofhowacademicconceptspromoted inthesebooks 2.20 windows in the currently fashionable style’. century New York ‘was little more than the embellishment of doorways and of CharlesLockwood’sassertion thatrow house designinearlynineteenth- (London, 1794). Plate 14 ). Here, thestring courses,thetallerpitchofroof andthe Elevation for atown house(plate 116)from William Pain, More modest,andlikelyearlierindate,isadesignforpairofthree- Inthevariationdisplayed in McComb’sportfoliowefindtheopposite

171 In the number of drawings 169 169

The carpenter practical house

Designing houses 170 170

111 112 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 112 Building reputations between tradition, theprofit motive,legislation andfashion’. not arevolutionary invention,buttheproduct ofanevolving interplay house buildersinNew York. drawing asameanstodistinguishhispractice from thecommonherd of construction andornament,JohnMcComb,Jrclearlyusedtheelevation within abuildingculture thatunderstood‘widelyknownconventions’of in thatcity’sspeculativehousingmarket,describingthemas‘superfluous’ early national building industry found little evidence of the use of drawings eighteenth andearlynineteenth centuries. the designingandmaking ofurbandomesticarchitecture during thelate – Edinburgh (or stone) – notleastat MountjoySquare inDublinandQueenStreet in fidelity betweentheseprojections onpaperandthebuildingsin brick already definedelsewhere butnotyetaccomplished’,theextraordinary ‘projections ofaplausibleoutcomeforsetinstructionsandproposals agency. Andwhile RobinEvanscharacterized presentation drawings as British Atlanticworld,andare afurthertestamenttoindividualcreative tinctive qualitythattheclassicalidiomenjoyedin discrete partsof the economic imperative. devoted tothistypologywealsofindaparticularresponse toasocio- embraced thecreative potentialofthearchitectural elevation. or DesignsoftheUprightsOrthographyes’, housebuildershadfully Architraves, Friezes andCornices’,shouldbedeterminedin‘Draughts of eachFront’, anditsarticulationintermsof‘Facias, RustickQuines, A centuryafterJosephMoxonrecommended that‘thefashionandform Conclusion tastes. New York, theadaptationofEnglishpatternbookarchetypes tosuitlocal relationships inacitywhere unarticulatedbrickwasthenorm;andin imposed bythetowncouncil;inDublin,importanceofproportional Edinburgh, theguidelinesandregulations conditions oftheirmaking: in decades eithersideof 1800. Scottish counterpartsconfirmsthequalityofartisanalinventionin ever, thevarietyofdesignsproduced byStapleton,McCombandtheir rather thansomethingthatbuildersnegotiated. industry ishabituallyregarded asanimpedimenttocreative imagination concerned themselveswith: the increasing industrializationofthebuilding of Georgian EnglandorFederal Americaare thoughttohavenecessarily nomenon’, the design of the town house is not something that the builders architecture andbuildingare certainly‘different aspectsofthesamephe- Peter Guillery hasrecently argued thatLondon’s terraced house‘was Thesedesignsare ofcourse,followingAdrianForty, responses tothe 176 Buttakentogether, thesedrawing collectionsconfirmthedis- isfurthertestamenttoa widespread congruence between 172

AlthoughDonnaRilling’sstudyofPhiladelphia’s 173

177

175 Taken together, how- 174

178 But while Thisis 113 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 3 2 4

6 7 9 town house.Thisis typology oftallhousesonnarrow plots,thatwefindthe within thealready flexiblesystemofPalladian classicism,andwithina those limitations.Itisinthesubtledifferentiation offormandornament and plasterers turned house builders invented within the parameters of imposed byprivatelandownersandcitycouncils,carpenters,bricklayers of building. But working with and against the regulations and guidelines certainly trueofterraces androws throughout thewiderBritishculture 1 Notes 5 8

Robert Campbell Dan Peter Borsay Jules AliceT. CruickshankandBurton, For arecent andilluminatingdiscussiononthedissimulation oftheelitetownhouse See,forexample, Peter Guillerydescribestheartisanas‘culturally conservative’andcharacterizes his Press , 1990 ), pp. 25 – p. 126 of housedesignedbyarchitects likeRobert Adam. ‘typical’ speculativelybuiltterraced house,Stewart’stextfocusesonthe‘bettersort’ see 1996);CruickshankandBurton, Bedford Square: an architectural study BedfordSquare: an University Press , 1992); 1790– 1850 and housing and Accountability Journal Jeacle design termsoncethe[role ofprofessional architect] beginstoemerge’. been depictedbyhistoriansas ‘subservient to thearchitect inbotheconomicand earlier period,ElizabethMcKellar iscriticalofhow London’sbuildingcraftsmen have University Press , 2004 ), p. 2 . see labour process in theproductionofbuiltenvironment 1550– 1960 styles, vernaculararchitecture isessentiallylocaland conservative.’ materials andconstructionmethods.Unconcernedwithnational orinternational by onewithoutanytraining indesignguidedbyatradition basedonlocalneeds, output asvernacular. Here headoptsJillLeverandJohnHarris’sdefinition: ‘Designed ical meanings ofwork introduction’,‘The historicalmeaningsofwork: an inPatrick Joyce(ed.), According to Patrick Joyce, custom can be ‘innovative and adaptive’. Patrick Joyce, 1720 McKellar Thesmallhouseineighteenth- century London Rachel Donna Cruickshank (Manchester : Manchester UniversityPress , 1999 ), pp. 94 – Lubbock , ‘ , . Onthisanomaly, andhowitmighthavebeenrectified, see James Accounting andtheconstructionofstandard house ’, Friedman , The birth of modern London: the developmentanddesign of thecity1660– ThebirthofmodernLondon: the Stewart ( Philadelphia : University ofPennsylvania Press , 2001 ). ( New HavenandLondon ’, Rilling , ‘Whyare housesinteresting? , ’, , JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians Ayres The tyranny of taste: the politics of architecture and design in Britain, The tyranny of taste: the , , and , ‘ thehistoryof houses The wayyoudothethingsdo: writing The Londontradesman 2009 , , ThetownhouseinGeorgianLondon Linda design , aighue,catn aiaim buildersinPhiladelphia, Makinghouses,craftingcapitalism: 6. (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress, 1987), p. 20. Neil BuildingtheGeorgiancity

) pp. 16 : 4 ( 2003 ): 582 – Life in the Georgian city Burton Clarke .

116 – Life intheGeorgiancity , 35.However, althoughostensiblydevotedtothe , LifeintheGeorgiancity uligcptls: historicalchange andthe Buildingcapitalism: ( London andAtlanticHighlands,NJ : Yale UniversityPress , ( London , 1747 ), p. 158 . 605;Stewart, Urban History ( New Havenand London (

, p. 117. Althoughdescribingan , p. 117. odn: London : ( New HavenandLondon , pp. 98– , pp. 98– 189. For America, Town house 34 : 2 ( 2007 ): 341 . ( ( London : Viking Yale UniversityPress e York New : Routledge ,

58 : 3 architecture 5. Accounting, Auditing 1995

Designing houses

( Andrew ,p ), p. 1999 ): 406 – . Peter

The histor- xi Elizabeth : : Athlone Guillery

; , ofthe

Byrne 1990 ), Yale : Ingrid : : Yale 13. , , , 113 114 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 114 Building reputations 28 21 27 14 13 22 20 19 29 17 16 15 10 25 24 23 26 18 11 12

pp. George Adams Historians tural educationinPhiladelphia,1804– Parent andguardian’s directory recommended to learnarithmetic,geometry, trigonometryanddrawing. Collyer, Campbell, of DesignHistory Jeffrey A. iln , Rilling, Town house Stewart, North Carolina Press , 2013 ). Ware asamember. (1735) waspatronized byFrederick, PrinceofWales, andnumbered architect Isaac fessional mobilityforcarpenters, masonsandjoiners;theStMartin’sLaneAcademy prioritized ‘anempiricalunderstanding ofbuilding’andoffered aroute towards pro- other optionsforLondonartisans: under SirChristopherWren, theRoyalWorks had inaugurated onlyin1768,withthefoundation oftheRoyalAcademy, there were University ofEdinburgh 2006,pp. 177– 8. A.R.Lewis,‘TheBuildersofEdinburgh’s NewTown’, unpublishedPhDdiss., Anne Ibid. For contemporary criticism,see Peter city a ‘profoundly classical’ systemofproportion. Ayres, post- ‘the forbearoftheterraced house’ – informedtheguidelinesinstitutedby JamesAyres hasargued thatthehousesofBloomsburySquare inLondon(1661) – Town house Stewart, house: architectural investigationbyColonial Williamsburg ‘ John DublinChronicle 26 July1787), 135. RoyalDublinSociety, Macmillan, 1995),pp. 49, 51. JohnTurpin, Books , 2014 ), pp. 41 – whole story (ed.), Anthony mid- eighteenth- century England Matthew Joseph Collyer University Press , 1977 ), p. 193 . Bernard L. J. Ritchie Garrison ture (eds), century Deptford andPhiladelphia ’, in 1799– 1859 Design process ’, in , p. 14. ( , 200. 91 – fire BuildingAct of1667;summariesitslegislationhavingintroduced Wilton- Ely Aldershot : Ashgate Guillery Puetz h rhtc: chapters inthe historyoftheprofession Thearchitect: Articulating British classicism: new approaches toeighteenth- ArticulatingBritishclassicism: new century architec- Making houses,craftingcapitalism 2 Lewis Craske . Althoughstate- sponsored educationinarchitectural design was 53 : 2 ( 1994 ): 139 – London tradesman

Cohen ( ( London : Thames &Hudson , 2014 ), p. 252 . , ‘ Design instruction for artisans in eighteenthcentury Britain ’, Knoxville Herman , ‘ Georgian: builders’ classicism ’, in A school ofartinDublinsince theeighteenth century , , , , , The parentandguardian’s directory ‘ The riseoftheprofessional architect inEngland ’, in Geometrical andgraphicalessays , 15October 1771. , ‘ andthecompetitivespiritinearly Plan andcontrol: design ThebuildersofEdinburghNewTown 1767– 12 : 3 ( 1999 ): 232 . , ‘ earlyinstitutionalsettingsforarchitec- Building adiscipline: , Mark Two andbuildinginearly carpenters: architecture NewEngland, , p. 119. , p. 122. and Proceedings oftheRoyal DublinSociety : : 2. Cary University ofTennessee Press ,

, Crinson 2004 Peter 83.

Carson , pp. 158– 60. Apprentices tothebricklayingtrade were , p. 75.

), pp.

’, John and Guillery

Journal ofDesignHistory and 187 – Jules Barbara Gwynn 1890 , ‘ Negotiating classicismineighteenth- , p. 75 . Carl 225;McKellar, Lubbock ’, , JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural

An essayondesign Arciszewska Lounsbury

( London , 1791 ), pp. 9 – Denna ( London, 1761 ), p. 93 . , Architecture: art ofprofession? 2006

Jones ( Chapel Hill (eds), Birth ofmodernLondon 12 : 3 ( 1999 ): 190 . ), p. and Building theGeorgian 23(2November1786– (ed.), 1795 ( 17 Elizabeth e York New : Oxford ; ( ( The Chesapeake Carl

Architecture: the (Dublin: Gill & (Dublin: Gill London Reading : Spire : : University of Spiro

Lounsbury 11.

McKellar

, Journal

Kostof 1749 ), , ;

115 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 30 34 38 42 41 31 43 44 39 40 32 36 45 33 37 35

of simpleformsandboldrelief (pp. 7– 8). Robert Press , 1994 ), pp. 15 ofarchitectural educationin Britain 300 years – Kenneth Damie Dan for buildingsinthecountry Englishneoclassical architecture CruickshankandBurton, Town house Stewart, books to1848 as welltheshared experienceofunpretentious craftsmen’. mixture oftheworks ofthepompous,ignorant, theambitiousandplagiarist Citedin‘CavendishSquare’, in Thebuilder’s magazine and designtechniques’. as asupplementaryreference bysomeonewhohadacommandofbasiccarpentry Upton hasmadetheimportantpointthatarchitectural books‘couldonlybeused invention, ortaste’. sources, alteringadetailhere oradimensionthere inaccordance withnecessity, craftsmen inthecolonies‘departedfreely – andusuallyintelligently – from their Ayres, cavendish_ square.pdf , p. 54,accessed29May 2017. able onlineat vols 51and52: New York Christopher Robert Morris 1987 colonial settlements to the national period Group Symposium,28October1995 tury Bath ’, in of thetransformation ofdomesticarchitecture inAmerica,1800– Portfolio universal dictionaryofartsand sciences writers, 1556– 1785 William Halfpenny Mxn s Moxon’s the ‘asymmetricallyfenestrated andgabledfront elevation’accompanying Guillery, 1703),p. xvii . Nisbet isanamedsubscriberto Ars BuildingtheGeorgiancity Ayres, For the‘Architectural Library’ see of chimney- Morning being a Friend to the Muses’ (p. x). cipal ChambersofDelight,alltheStudiesandLibraries betowards the Thebuilder’s guide appropriate toroom function – Richard ( London , 1792 ). Cruickshank ), p. Building theGeorgiancity Morris Stillman

Neve Small house Mechanick Exercises : : 19 : 2– 3 Hafertepe 291 Architectural Press , pieces

Woodward .

, , , , Neil (

Ruralarchitecture: consisting ofregular designsofplansandelevations An essayindefence ofancientarchitecture The city and countrey purchaser, and builder’s dictionary , ‘ , South- Amherst :

( and ( rhtcua ok nNw ok from McCombtoLafever York: Architectural booksinNew ’, in www.ucl.ac.uk/ bartlett/ architecture/ sites/ bartlett/ files/ chapter07_

, , 94) 1984 114 ): London, Burton (Cambridge : Cambridge UniversityPress , 1990 ), pp. 59 – (Dublin1758),by‘F.P., Builder’,describeshow‘alltheprin- and Practical architecture , p. 120. , p. 64. According toGuillery, thisapproach isdiscerniblefrom 34. Hugh East Marylebone Peter (London,1774– ‘“ ,

Dell University ofMassachusettsPress , Life intheGeorgiancity (ed.), James ( London , 1750 ), n.p.

In the Jelly Mould”: craft andcommerce in18thcen- In theJellyMould”: craft 1781 Wyld Morrison

(London , 1703 ). Upton . Asearlyas1952,HughMorrisonargued that grand rooms shouldhaveornamentsatalarge scale, 1975 , 2vols( London : Zwemmer , 1988 ), vol.1,p. 180 . , p. 9. , pp. 20– , pp. 20– 1, citing Philip ) includesadviceregarding howtoselectadesign Georgian vernacular: papers givenattheGeorgian Georgianvernacular: papers , George O’Gorman London: the art of Georgian building ), p. ,‘ Pattern booksandprofessionalism: aspects Eileen ( , ( London : , 5vols( London , 1778– 88 ), vol.1, n.p. 78), pp. 22, 91. Temple al mrcnacietr: fromthefirst EarlyAmericanarchitecture: London 83 ( London , 1724 ).

Richardson (repr. . Theydescribethecontentas‘apeculiar (eds), Harris ( George

and Manchester :

: : Georgian Group , Yale UniversityPress , , p. 125; seealso , p. 125; Oxford : Abraham , Colin Britisharchitectural booksand Americanarchitects andtheir

’s Richardson New designs in architecture ( London, 1728 ), p. 69 .

Thom Oxford University Press Rees Manchester University

2007 , , ’s SurveyofLondon Designing houses 1860 Cyclopedia: or, an 1996 ), p. ), p. Damie Anewcollection ( ’, 2017 London and ), p. ), p. 164 Winterthur ( Stillman East London, . James ), avail- Joseph 5 60.

. Dell , the

, , ,

115 116 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 116 60 59 Building reputations 63 62 61 47 58 53 52 48 46 64 54 49 50 56 51 57 55

Unidentified source inLockwood, and brown. Elsewhere, theplainbrickfinishisrendered inwatercolour tints ofred, pink 2010), p. 75 . American versionofthis,seeUpton,‘Pattern books’,119– 20. Thegentlemanandtradesman’s compleat assistant builder’s guide Thisstreet frontage corresponds withthatofthehouseestimatepublishedin 1819)pp. 156 – 66 by56feetsquare’. estimates for‘buildingandcompletingaMansionHouse’ for‘buildingaHouse WilliamStitt’sdesignsalsoignore thetypicaltownhouse,providing instead Town house Stewart, Casey rather superficial way, bothliterally andfiguratively’ (p. 242). ideals’ (p. 235),hesuggeststhatclassicalmouldingandornamentswere used‘ina fact self- contradictory: while arguing thatthefacadessignify‘pronounced aesthetic 1960),p. 229 . Rasmussen’sapparent appreciation ofthetownhouseaestheticisin John Wood, Academy lectures Susan 1823),pp. 346 – for theproducers, notbyconsumerdemand.’ Guillery, cing, evenperhapsprice- fixing. Standardisation wasdriven byeconomiesofscale ‘Regularitysuitslarge- scale developmentbecauseitfacilitatesmeasuringandpri- SteenEiler Asher brick- fact that‘InigoJoneswasnotquiteforgotten’, thenewterraces constituted‘somany design of earlier houses revealed ‘an imitation of Palladio’ and bore witness to the monotonous and,itmaybeadded,ofill- constructed houses’.Moreover, whilethe as Grosvenor Square andCavendish Square, hadrapidly descendedinto‘streets of Asaresult, London’sfirst‘grand essays ofthespeculativesystembuilding’,such Adam manner’. Stillman, Stillmanrecognizes Carter’sdesignasaresponse to‘theenormous influenceofthe Isaac Bristol andClifton,1783– 1793 ’, tion ofsomethelaterresidential terraces. inevitably beenlinkedtotherelatively reduced standards indesignandconstruc- leased sitestomere ‘journeymencarpentersandworkingmasons’,afactthathas numerous andambitious’, thishadfallento 30 percentanddevelopersincreasingly been estimatedat70percent.However, bythe1780s,‘whenprojects becamemore percentage ofestablished mastercraftsmen engagedinspeculativebuildinghas CruickshankandBurton, 1806),p. viii . MKla, BirthofmodernLondon McKellar, Royal Academylectures Wr, Acomplete bodyofarchitecture Ware, 1972), p. 27 . Howard Peter row house,1783– 1929, anarchitectural andsocialhistory Unidentifiedsource in heaps piledoneaftertheother’. (ed.), Ware Nicholson Roundtree Benjamin Davis , Rasmussen A descriptionofBath

Acomplete body of architecture Theeighteenth- century Dublintownhouse

, (Dublin, 1758), pp. 102– (Dublin,1758),pp. 102– 4; andwiththedesignin 98, 200 – Thecultureofbuilding 7; and , , ‘ Brick in the eighteenthcentury Dublin town house ’, in ( Thenewpracticalbuilder, andworkman’s companion Builder’s magazine Cambridge : , p. 159. Daniel William , , p. 256. 28. London,theuniquecity Charles Life intheGeorgiancity Neoclassical architecture

Raynerd Stitt Cambridge UniversityPress ,

Business History Lockwood , 2vols(London,1765),vol.2,p. 317. , p. 78. Bricks andbrownstone , Thepracticalarchitect’s ready assistant ( , p. 60. , p. 61. , Oxford David TheAmericanbuilder’s companion ,

( rcsadbontn: h e York theNew Bricks andbrownstone: : : Watkin London Oxford University Press , ( J.R. London , p. 111. Inmid- century Bristol,the 20 : 1 ( 1978 ): 8 – , vol.1,p. 201. (London , (ed.), Ward , ( 1756 Small house : : Dublin : Jonathan Cape , , p. 8. ( , ‘ Speculative buildingat SirJohnSoane: theRoyal New York : McGraw- Hill , ), p. ), p. 1770 ). 2000

Four CourtsPress 9. 291 ), p. ), p. John

, p. 51. ; Watkin (ed.), 256 2006 ), p. 12 . Leadbeater 1934 ( ( Christine ( . For the London Boston , Dublin , , repr. The , , ,

117 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 86 69 68 67 87 82 81 80 75 72 70 71 66 65 84 83 74 73 85 77 76 79 78

Hill : University ofNorth Carolina Press ), p. 4 places, andmaterialculture,1600– the BritishAtlanticworld: spaces, . Historians ofGreat Britain , 1987 ). market forexpertise ’, world. See‘ recognized asevidenceofashared approach todesignacross theBritishAtlantic Walter ( Montreal : McGill- Queen’s UniversityPress TheprovincialtownsofGeorgianEngland: a studyofthebuildingprocess, 1740– , 1974 ), pp. 188 – pp. 138– pp. 138– Humphreys proposes fivestoreys overbasement, rather thanthecustomary four. Thegentlemanandtradesman’s compleat assistant Leadbeater, Ibid Town house Stewart, Michael Searles: a Georgian architect and surveyor Stana Knsed Press , Kingsmead 1978 ), pp. 231 – Brendan ( Dublin : Four CourtsPress , 2005 ), p. 19 . SeeAyres, Makinghouses Rilling, Upton, ‘Pattern books’. Keith N. Old- Time NewEngland Publishing (eds), ‘Owen Biddleand London thanaboutthoseinBoston,Baltimore, orCharleston.’ MichaelLewis, illustrations. … Americans were more reliably informedaboutthebuildingsof – architecture were modern thatis,publications andmass- produced, accurate borrowed from England.Themeanswhereby Americans learnedaboutEnglish ‘Ifthere wasan overall nationalcharacter toAmerican architecture …itwasone ChristineCasey, ‘Dublin’sdomesticformula’,inCasey(ed.), Thomas Dublin townhouse CruickshankandBurton, Town house Stewart, Philadelphia CityArchives, DeedsE.F./ 33/ 28. Town house Stewart, in Bostonbetween1800and1830 ’, Jack University ofVirginia Press , 2009 ), p. 113 . Sterling builder RobertCaryLong,Sr. See Rilling, BirthofmodernLondon McKellar, Upton, ‘Pattern books’,107– 50. scale andsocialpretension, asat10– 18 West HamiltonStreet (1820– 22), erected by windows setinblankrelieving arches, wasquicklyadaptedtohousesofreduced Robert Mills’sdesignforWaterloo Row,Baltimore (1817– Ibid Ibid Baltimore rowhouse ., p. 155. ., p. 132. ., p. 126. Quinan Nenadic American architects andtheirbooks Ison Making houses Boyd 54; CruickshankandBurton, Morgan Humphreys Twomey , Building theGeorgiancity , 1985 Introduction , ‘ Some aspectsofthedevelopmentarchitectural profession TheGeorgianbuildingsofBath from1700to1830 , TheAdamstyleinAmerica1770– , ‘ , Architect- ), pp. , , p. 49. , Buildings of Massachusetts: metropolitan Boston BuildingsofMassachusetts: metropolitan The youngcarpenter’s assistant (

, p. 138. , p. 166. , 120. Smithfieldandtheparish of St. Paul, Dublin,1698– , New York New York : , p. 76; McKellar, Historical Journal 228 – , p. 79. 65 : 3– 4 ( 1975 ): 1 – TheIrishbuilder’s guide

’, in Life intheGeorgiancity builders inLondonandEdinburgh, c.1750– 1800, and the 9.Seealso Daniel Princeton Architectural Press ), p. , 120.

3. MaryEllen Maudlin

, pp. 1– , pp. 1– 16; McKellar, Old- Jack Life intheGeorgiancity 55 : 3 ( 2012 ): 597 – Birth ofmodernLondon

21. , p. 160. Time NewEngland

Quinan

and

1820 Hayward , p. 129. For Searlessee ( Bernard L. ( , ‘ Daniel Raynerd, stuccoworker Dublin London ( New York andLondon ’, inHafertepeandO’Gorman and

612. 1813 : Birth ofmodernLondon Society of Architectural Herman 203. The eighteenth-

Charles

68 : 1– 2 , pp. 147– 8. Architect , p. 242. , 218; 19), with its triplet ,p ), p. (

Designing houses 1948 ( 33 Charlottesville : (eds), ( C.W. C.W. vi Belfoure 1850 . Thisisnow 1977 ): 32 – . Unusually, ; repr. W. W.

: :

Chalklin ( Bonwitt Building Garland century Chapel Bath : , 1820 1750 The

8; ’, , , ,

117 118 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 118 Building reputations 102 101

110 111 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 100 96 95 94 93 89 88 92 99 98 97 91 90

analysis ofelevationdrawings isindebtedtoAnthonyLewis’sresearch. Lewis,‘BuildersofEdinburgh NewTown’, pp. 12– 13. Thecontextforthefollowing ( Edinburgh : RutlandPress , 1996 ), p. 39 . A.J. Henry-RussellHitchcock,quotedin others.’ Ware, own convenience,buttheoutsideisdecorated forshew,andtopleasetheeyesof insidehecontrivesforuseandhis builds withtastedesires itshouldbeseen: the IsaacWare suggestedthat‘An elevationshewsthehouse,andeveryonewho Craske, ‘Planand control’, p. 191. in medievalandearly modernBristol Walter workman’s generalassistant (London1769),p.10. to thetypicaltownhousetypology. WilliamPain’s Elevations ofGentlemensHouses’illustrated inthetextbearnoresemblance every Floor, andElevationsofeachFront’. Thatsaid,the‘TwoDesigns,Plans& and alsoprevent Disputes,previous totheerecting anyBuilding,todraw Plansof William Pain advisedthat‘Itisnecessary, toconveyabetterIdeaoftheWork, Ayres, Buildingthe Georgian city 1790s. the source fortheartisan- designed bow fronts oftheNew Town inthe1780s and (dem.), designedbythearchitect JohnAdamin 1761, are customarily regarded as Thepairofbow- fronted tenementbuildingsatAdamSquare intheOldTown University Press, 1984 ), pp. 18 Gifford – PublicAdvertiser Gifford CastleStreet wasbuiltwith‘high- class maindoortenementsand afewhouses’. the OldEdinburghClub of classical Edinburgh in factthreatened asearly1770andprotected onlyin1816.Youngson, Gifford Makingofclassical Edinburgh Youngson, Ibid Town house Stewart, BuildersofEdinburghNewTown Lewis, Edinburgh Stillman, ( Edinburgh : Tholis Publishing , 2008 ), p. 222 . Youngson, 12/ 1779, D0015R. Council Papers 1778, Petitions and Miscellaneous Council Papers, 1/ Ibid (ed.), Charles Makingofclassical Edinburgh Youngson, Ibid Lewis, ‘BuildersofEdinburgh NewTown’, p. 38. of Edinburgh Press , 1966 ), p. 81 . Ison, Bristol Records Office,HaynesCollectionHA/ D/ 281. 1978),p. 153 . Thesewere oftenamendedinpractice. p. 251. p. 251. ., p. 123. 71– ., pp. 2, citing Edinburgh City Archives (hereafter ECA), Miscellaneous ., p. 40. Youngson Georgian buildingsofBristol The neo- Scottish contributions tourbandesignsince 1750 classical town: , Ison Ian R.M. et al. et al. et al. Dorothy McKean Edinburgh Neoclassical architecture , p. 92. , Making ofclassical Edinburgh , , TheGeorgianbuildingsofBristol Edinburgh , Edinburgh A complete body of architecture Themakingofclassical Edinburgh,1750– , 27May 1790. Mowat Bell , ‘ The incivilityofEdinburgh’s NewTown ’, in . TheBuildingsofScotland ( New HavenandLondon , p. 117. , , pp. 87– 91. Edinburgh Old Town: the forgottennatureofanurbanform EdinburghOldTown: the (NS) 5 ( 2002 ): 93 – , ‘ , , pp. 291– 2. , p. 321. Theuninterruptedviewfrom PrincesStreet was , p. 321. Adam Square: an Edinburgh architecturalAdam Square: an first’ , , p. 20. In‘An EstimateforBuildingaNewHouse’, 19.

, p. 25. Seealso o.1 . 226;Youngson, , vol.1,p.

(Swindon : Historic England , 2014 ), pp. 53 – Colin , p. 111.

, p. 77. , p. 93. 101. . 68;Gifford , p. McWilliam (

, p. 99.

1952 RogerH. ; repr. The builder’s companion, and

1840 , David Bath : ( Leech Edinburgh Making ofclassical t al. et Kingsmead Press Walker , Thetownhouse W.A. , 1/ 1768– 31/ : Edinburgh and University Brogden Book of Making : Yale John 4. , ,

119 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document

132 131 130 129 128 127 124 123 120 119 118 134 133 126 125 121 117 116 115 114 113 112 122

University Press , 2005 ), pp. 1 1700– 1860 ’, See CruickshankandBurton, than perpendicular, tothelineofstreet. modation forapolitefamily, thespatialorientationofhouseisparallel, rather anattemptto preserve thenecessary accom- deep): in plot (only20feet8 inches Thelatterrepresents aningenioussolutiontotheproblem presented byashallow 473/317/ RD,303209. NAI, Pembroke Papers, 2011/ 2/ 2/ 438/316/ 10. RD,282915. 325824. of 52feet,‘from theTop oftheBaseto theCopingofparapet’. RD,502/ fortheeastsideofMountjoySquaretopography: leases in1796specifiedhouses variation demandedfrom buildingheightsinresponse totheparticularsof RegistryofDeeds,Dublin(hereafter RD),412/ the widerworld David bundle titled‘Various accountsre Measuring – Measurements byothers’. NationalArchives ofIreland (hereafter NAI),Bryan BolgerPapers, unsorted PhD diss.,Trinity CollegeDublin,1997,pp.67–8. specifications’. Arthur Gibney, ‘Studies in eighteenth-century building history’, of Dublin’stownhousesdispensedwith‘theneeddrawings anddescriptive Arthur Gibneyerroneously maintainedthatthe‘repetitive designpatterns’ Christine Ibid Scotland, Acc9769/ 22/ 1/ 13. Lewis,‘BuildersofEdinburgh NewTown’, pp. 204– 5, citingNationalLibrary of 144: 10 ( 1966 ): 568 . the firstfloor storey heightadvocated byJohnLeadbeater (10feet4 inches). Compare too with (14 feet);andwithBedford Square, London(14feet6 inches). inLondon,andQueenStreet,and Frederick’s Edinburgh Place(13feet9 inches) feet) andAD2223(13feet),with RobertAdam’sRoyalTerrace, Adelphi (14feet) drawings, NationalLibrary ofIreland, Stapletondesigns AD 2353(14feetand 13 Compare thestorey heightsofthe William Pain Dublin Conor twice asmuchthoseforbrickhouses. another significantfactor: already bythe1720s,premiums fortimberhouseswere SeeCasey, ‘Dublin’sdomesticformula’.Theinfluenceofinsurance rates waslikely eenth century ’, John 200; EleanorButler, ‘TheGeorgian squares ofDublin’, Rsusn London Rasmussen, is identifiedinLewis,‘BuildersofEdinburgh NewTown’, p. 213. McKean, ‘TheincivilityofEdinburgh’s NewTown’, pp. 41– 2. Theparticularhouse See forexamplethepresent numbers57– 61 CastleStreet. Ibid Minutes 20/ 1/ 1790. 77– Lewis,‘BuildersofEdinburgh NewTown’, pp. 8, citingECA, Town Council Niall Haven andLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 2003 ), p. 126 . ., p. 79. ., pp. 78– 9, citingECA, Town CouncilMinutes,5/ 4/ 1786. Elisabeth McCullough Summerson Griffin Lucey ’, in Casey Gillian , ‘ Building dialectics: negotiating urbanscenography inlateGeorgian , , Irish Economic and SocialHistory , ‘ The building and furnishing of a Dublin townhouse in the eight- The builder’s companion Beazley ( Dublin : Four CourtsPress , 2012 ), pp. 91 – , Bulletin oftheIrishGeorgianSociety Dublin , , O’Brien Dublin: an urbanhistory GeorgianLondon

, pp. 191– 2. and .TheBuildingsofIreland 3( New HavenandLondon and Sam – Life intheGeorgiancity 2. Finola

Lambert piano nobile ( O’Kane ( London , 1769 ), p. 2 . London Rowena ( , ‘ , Dublin An Irishappetiser ’, (eds), 30 ( 2003 ): 24 – 522/ PleiadesBooks, : inthecollectionofarchitectural Dudley

: : 271151. There wasinfactsome Anne Street Press , 38 ( 1996/ 7 ): 25 – Portraits ofthecity: Dublin and Country Life , pp. 134– 49. , ‘ Fire insurance inDublin,

109.

51.

(5August1945), Architect’s Journal Designing houses

1945 39,fig. 1. 1989 ), p. 29 . ; repr. : : Yale

New 431/

119 120 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 120 154 153 152 151 149 148 Building reputations 147 140 139 138 146 145 137 150 136 135 144 143 142 141

StapletondesignsAD2223;

were amonumentalstoneentity. ElevationsofAdelphiinLondon, forexample,illustrate theRoyalTerrace asifit the SocietyofArchitectural Historians p. 86 Addison basements are ‘walled in stone’[024]or‘indicated as beinginstone’[096]. – Gilchristdraws attentiontotwodesigns – uniformlyofgrey washes whose dressings, remains anattributiononly. The landmarks of New York ThelandmarksofNew York architect livedatnumber317 ‘for manyyears’. of modesttwo- storey (withdormers)brickhouses,are giventoMcComb,Jr. The TwohousesinHarrisonStreet (formerly315– 317 Washington Street), astreet Stillman, ‘Architectural booksinNew York’, p. 167. 57: 2 ( 1976 ): 165 – University Press , 1968 ), p. 52 Walter Muir . p. 166 . life intheearly Republic reader inEnglish urban history1688– 1820 Damie during theagencyofBarbara Verschoyle ’, Guillery, belonged toafourthsortandfacednodesignrestrictions. ‘Mansionhouses’intendedfor‘citizensorotherpersonsofextraordinary quality’ architectural form. Thesewere the most prescriptive BuildingActsintermsoftheirinfluenceon 2( 1999 ): 105 . Peter mid- century. first floors;a‘two- room’ housewasthetypicalforminDublinandLondonfrom roomed house’refers toahousewithsinglereception room ontheground and University Press , 1982 ), p. 181 . Quotedin see Pennsylvania, 1977. For an early example of occupational clustering in New York history ofwealthyPhiladelphians,1775and1800’,PhD diss., University of SeeRobertJamesGough,‘Towards social atheory ofclassandsocialconflict: a Ibid. the justproportion ofdoorsandwindows’.Campbell, building ofatownhouse’,heconcededthat‘intowns[bricklayers]generally know AlthoughRobertCampbellbemoanedthefactthat‘there are butfewrulestothe Place (1foot3½inchestallerthanPain’s formula). more thanPain’s formula)isconsiderably morefeet 6 inches thanatFrederick’s scale betweendrawing- room andatticstorey heightsinRoyalTerrace, Adelphi(2 relative There isinfactmuchvarietyelevationsdesignedbyRobertAdam: the Stefan These ratios are basedonmeasurements madefrom thedrawing. terms ofground- floor footprint. allfirst- Thethree houses intheprevious drawing (AD2352) are rate houses,in Ars BuildingtheGeorgiancity Ayres, regulation inLondon 1189– 1972 BruceM. , p. 62.SeealsoMorgan, . Thewell- known houseat7StateStreet (1794),abrickbuildingwithstone Borsay

Stillman Muthesius

Gilchrist Small house Eve , ‘ Whitehill Wilkenfeld

Introduction , ‘ City living,Federal style ’, in McAulay , ‘ , 82. , John McComb,Sr. andJr., inNew York, 1784– TheEnglishterraced house

, pp. 282– 4; , ( Winterthur, DE Boston, a topographical history , ‘ Some problems inbuildingontheFitzwilliamestate , ‘ New York Cityneighborhoods, 1730 ’, ’, in ( Albany : Buildings ofMassachusetts

Saunders’s News-

Peter (London : Architectural Press , 1972 ), p. 50 . , p. 15.

C.C. 31 : 1 ( 1972 ): 10 – Knowles Borsay State University of New York Press State UniversityofNew York , Ibid. : : H.F. du Pont WinterthurMuseum , ( London : IrishArchitectural andDecorative Studies , p. 80. (ed.), CatherineE. Barbaralee and ( New HavenandLondon letter

P.H. Theeighteenth- century town: a Longman , 1990 ), p. 21 . 7Arl18.A ‘single- , 27April1789.A 21. London tradesman ( Cambridge, MA Pitt , pp. 100– 1.

Diamonstein- Spielvogel Hutchins , Thehistoryofbuilding New York History 1799 (ed.), ’, Journalof : : Harvard , p. 10. Everyday

2011 ), 1994 ), Agnes : Yale ,

121 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 178 169 177 164 163 162 161 166 165 160 176 175 174 173 172 171 170 168 167 155 156 157 159 158

ging from socialrelationships tempered byindividualcreativity’. ofthe‘field’,Guilleryrecognizes ‘allarchitectural designasemer- concept Guillery, Centre forArchitecture , 1989 ), p. 19 . Carl libraries andbookstoresthrough1800 Schimmelman Routledge Guillery Robin ‘ fourcenturies ofrepresentation Architecture anditsimage: the design of the Prince William County courthouse ’, Bricks andbrownstone Lockwood, Stillman, ‘Cityliving,Federal style’,p. 147,fig. 8. houseisillustrated in Square inBoston. McComb’sdesignfortheJohnB. Coles Square byDance inLondon;Beresford PlaceandRoyal Circus inDublin;Bowdoin Portland PlaceandFitzroy Square byAdaminLondon;Finsbury For example: Stillman, ‘Architectural booksinNew York’, p. 166. Pratt Street, Baltimore (1810). ExceptionstothisruleincludethePowel House,Philadelphia(1765)and913East n anwr vial rmNw York booksellersby1800.See and Pain were availablefrom New Illustrated in Town house Stewart, ( London , 1767 ), plate 19 . Thedesignisverycloseto Press , 1989 ), p. 186 . Adrian Cultureofbuilding Davis, Mechanick exercises Moxon, Makinghouses Rilling, catalogue’, 209. There are infactfourteendesignsfortownhouses.Gilchrist,‘Notesa Bricks andbrownstone Lockwood, Gilchrist, ‘John McComb,Sr. andJr., inNewYork, 1784–1799’,fig.11. Architectural Historians James ThePain designisarefinement ofadesignoriginally publishedin Catalogued asanunidentifiedpublicbuilding. Society (1763– Damie JamesFenimore paedia ofarchitects Edward K. of New York , 1991 ). Hudson Elizabeth ( Princeton, NJ : (ed.), Richard E. Press , 1988 ), pp. 11 – Intr dcin vernacularstudies andBritisharchitectural history oduction: ’, in Lounsbury Two centuries ofAmericanplanning Evans 1853) collection of architectural drawings in the New- York Historical Pain Stillman Forty ’, , 1987 ), p. 8 . (ed.), JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians Small house Blackmar , Spann , 2011 ), p. 4 Foglesong , , ‘ , Pain’s BritishPalladio AgnesAddison Objects of desire: design andsocietysince 1750 Objectsofdesire: design , Architectural projection ’, in PrincetonUniversityPress , 1986 ), pp. 62 – Built from below: British architecture andthevernacular Builtfrombelow: British ‘“ , , ‘ , Architectural treatises andbuildinghandbooksavailable inAmerican Cooper , ‘ The greatest grid: the New York planof1811 ’, in John McCombJr .’, in An elegant and commodious building”: William Buckland and An elegantandcommodiousbuilding”: William , 4vols( London : Collier Macmillan , 1982 ), vol.3,p. 134 . ,

Manhattanforrent,1785–

, 147.

39. , . 66.More recently, andfollowingPierre Bourdieu’s , p. , p. 76. . 46 : 3 ( 1987 ): 228 –

, lnigtecptls iy the colonial eratothe1920s Planningthecapitalistcity:

, p. 8. NotionsoftheAmericans

John , p. 252.

Gilchrist Crunden , pp. 11– 13. , p. xiii. ( London

(NewCastle,DE : Oak KnollPress , ,‘ Notes foracatalogueoftheJohnMcComb AdolfK. 40. , ( Convenient andornamental architecture Eve

Baltimore : , 1786 1850 Blau Placzek (repr. ), plate ( Ithaca, NY and New York Johns HopkinsUniversity (ed.), Journal of the Society of

3. Edward 28 : 3 12

( ( Montreal : Canadian . TitlesbyCrunden ( : : London : Macmillanencyclo- Cornell University Designing houses 1969 : : State University Kaufman Daniel Peter ), fig. 7. William Thames & 1999 ). ( JaniceG.

Guillery London Schaffer (eds),

Peter

and

: ,

121 122 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ally, thetraces ofartisanalinnovation were hardly eradicated. a sameness that became a signifier of British architectural culture gener- world, and through economic and technological standardization exhibited the ‘commonspatialanddecorative language’across thewiderAtlantic Charleston andfrom DublintoBoston.Butwhileclassicismwascertainly 1800, itwasthecharacteristic styleofeliteurbaninteriorsfrom Londonto refined approach tocomposition,ornamentandcolour( Plate 15 ). By sources, bothantiqueandmodern,byanincreasingly delicateand classicism wascharacterized byaneclecticandinventiveuseofclassical tectonic Palladian classicismfashionableinearlyGeorgian Britain,neo- and bynewbuildingdecorating technologies.Opposedtothearchi- by aburgeoning printculture, bythemovementofimmigrant tradesmen escence anddisseminationwithinartisanalcommunitieswasfacilitated centuries. Emerging inarchitectural circles duringthe1750s,itsefflor- interior designpractised duringthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenth part, known as the Federal style, remained the dominant language of The neoclassicalstyleinBritainandIreland, anditsAmericancounter- architects andartisansadoptinghisornamental lexicontypically‘lacked style hasoftenbeenmisunderstood. AlistairRowanremarked thatlesser the artisan’scomprehension ofRobertAdam’s pioneeringdecorative But as with the design of the terraced house, art- historical appraisal of recognized aspivotalagentsofitswider cultural andmaterial reach. of neoclassicism in Britain and America respectively, craftsmen are also like RobertAdamandCharlesBulfinchremain central tothenarrative eighteenth- have generally enjoyedabetterreputation inthehistoriography oflate refined buildingtrades, suchasplasterers, joinersanddecorative painters, Unlikethebricklayerandcarpenter, artisanswhopractised themore Decorating houses:style, taste and andearlynineteenth- century architecture. Whilearchitects h bsns o decoration of business the 3 1

123 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document components), andthrough ahighlevelofpersonalcorrespondence’. transatlantic shippingofbooksaboutbuildingsandsuppliesbuilding of ideasthrough migration (ofcraftsmen andconnoisseurs),trade (the for fashionablegoodtaste’,animpulse‘facilitatedbythedissemination responsive totheforward impulseofmodernityandtheconsumerdrive Daniel MaudlinandBernard Hermanrecognize howtheartisanwas‘highly found lackingwithoutcareful supervision’. with thecomplexintricaciesofneo- Classicism …mightwellhavebeen context overconnoisseurship.In sicism), influenced by cultural- historical perspectives, tend to prioritize interpretations of the artisanal relationship to classicism (and neoclas- of virtu’. ally describedRobertAdam’sorganisational abilitiesas‘themanufactory and socio- economic circumstances ( Plate 16 ). tive mannerintermsconsistentwiththeirparticularpedagogicformation consider theirindividualinterpretation ornegotiationofAdam’sdecora- exponents oftheneoclassicalstyleinIreland andAmericarespectively, and theAmericancarpenterSamuelMcIntire, bothlongrecognized askey Recently publishedmonographs ontheIrishplasterer MichaelStapleton an understandingofitssyntax’, the marketasaprofitable investment’, ‘the firstartmovementinhistorytobepackaged,advertisedandsoldon of revolution,1750– as avisualizedsignofeconomicmodernity. Inhisseminal architectural patronage, theneoclassical interiorsofelitetown houses as partofacommercial enterprise,andtherefore independentof‘polite’ the closingdecadesof eighteenthcentury. Decorated bytradesmen see, interiordecoration formedanintegral partofproperty speculationby ology thatremained thepreserve ofthebuildingartisan.And asweshall tangible than in the speculatively built town house, the architectural typ- within anincreasingly standardized brickshell.Nowhere wasthismore most effectivevisualandmaterialmeanstoreflect newarchitectural tastes at afraction ofthecost – decorative plasterworkemerged asoneofthe aesthetic andpragmatic qualities – possessingacovetedsculptural quality ately subjecttothevagariesoffashion.Endorsedby architects forboth its features, suchasenrichedplasterceilingsandcornices,wasmore immedi- in derivationthroughout theeighteenthcentury, thedesignofsuperadded tural character andproportion oftheinteriorremained essentiallyclassical to dictatethequalityandextentofinteriordecoration. Whilethearchitec- house builder, though theemploymentofqualifiedplasterers andjoiners, nature ofcontracting andsubcontracting alsoallowedthe architects: the serve hisautonomywithinaprofessional spaceincreasingly occupiedby of classicalornamentprovided theartisanwithanopportunitytopre- Ofcourse,theneoclassicaldecorative stylehasalsobeenrecognized 7

Inbuildingterms,theindustrializationandcommercialization 1800 (1989),AlbertBoimedescribedneoclassicismas 2

andforGeoffrey Beard, craftsmen ‘faced Building theBritishAtlanticworld

6 andJosephRykwertcharacteristic-

3 Ontheotherhand,recent 5

Decorating houses Art inanage (2016),

123 124 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 124 Building reputations elegance, particularly givenitsassociation withthisparticularstratum of there wasmore tothisphenomenonthanarchaeology, fashionandvisual tive ornamentthatwaswhollyprepared inadvanceandapplied components. However, while such methods necessarily produced ‘repeti- expense ofthe‘mechanical’neoclassicalstyle,assembledfrom pre- baroque andrococo styles,oftenattributedtoindividual‘hands’,atthe the ‘organic’ hand- modelled sculptural workofearlyeighteenth- within thebroader historiography, isanart- historical biasthatvenerates malaise incraft production. Implicitwithinthiscriticism,andstillprevalent plasterwork thishasbeenunderstoodasmarkingthebeginningofawider of traditional lime- based mortars. In the extensive literature on decorative technologies, specifically the adoption of quick- setting gypsum in place a developmentinbothmaterialsandtechniquespredicated onnewplaster work (buildingmanufacture) thatbecamemore commonfrom mid- craft) characteristic oftheearlyGeorgian era, andthemouldedapplied classically schooledpatrons. distinct from thoseencountered byclassicallytrained architects andtheir from DublintoPhiladelphiawere realized inresponse tocircumstances grand tourism. a fashionableclassicaltasteconsonantwiththe enlightened aimsof architects suchasRobertAdamandSirWilliamChambersdeveloped ental Europe, andinspired byexcavationsatPompeii andHerculaneum, ally oriented.Trained inthedrawing schoolsand academiesofcontin- middle oftheeighteenthcenturywasmore archaeologically andideologic- Europe sincetheRenaissance,neoclassicalstylethatemerged inthe Although classicismhadbeenthe Adamesque artisan The technology. it isclearlyamistaketothinkofbuildingcraft asseparate from building sical tastewithinthecontextofurbandomesticarchitecture. technologies, thehousedecorator emerged asakeyagentoftheneoclas- in architectural booksandbynewsophisticatedbuildingsystems cism) asbeingfundamentallyreciprocal. (gypsum) andadecorative styledependentonrepeat patterns(neoclassi- might alsounderstandtherelationship betweenanewplastertechnology century, replacing architectonic transformed elitedomesticinteriorsfrom thelate 1750s tothecloseof Robert Adam’seclectic and inventiveapproach totheclassicalidiomthat sense, atechnologicalsystem’. the relationship betweenpeopleandtools,‘buildingculture isitself, inone ‘unartistic’ or‘inoppositiontocraft processes’: indeed, asanexpression of Related tothisisadistinctionbetween 8 AsHoward Davishasrecently argued, technologyneednotbe

11 Ofthese,itwasthe‘kind ofrevolution’ embodiedin 9

From adesign- historical perspectivewe ornaments sine quanon 10

Facilitated byaflourishingtrade in situ withapplied ofarchitectural designin hand- modelling (building decorations en série century; century . 12 But cast ’, 125 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document tice andformaldesigninstruction. ment printsandpatternbooks,reflected bothcontemporary craft prac- which theuseofcommercially available publications,intheformoforna- tion ofartisansinearlymodernBritainhaveemphasizedtheextentto in Ireland. paragons ofarchitectural tasteforemerging designersandpractitioners schools, emphasizing the importance attached to English pattern books as as George Richardson andMichelangeloPergolesi foruseintheirdrawing acquired booksbyLondon- based designersofneoclassicalornamentsuch clusively definesneo- classicism as‘astyleofthought’. reflecting ondifferent processes ofintellectualtranslation, Coltmancon- within contemporary schoolcurriculaasaprocess of‘Romanization’,and interiors. Describingthedominanceofclassicallanguagesandliteratures antique artefactsandornamentalmotifsincontemporary BritishandIrish century public school pedagogies and the citation and transposition of and action – Coltmanpositsasymbioticrelationship betweeneighteenth- as asystemofacquired patternsor‘dispositions’ofthought,perception Bourdieu’s theoriesofcultural capitalandthe and its subsequent expression in material terms. With reference to Pierre 1800 Georgian society. In antiquity inbookform’. resulting inwhatViccyColtmanhasdescribedasthe‘packaging of of theeighteenthcenturyrelied innosmallwayontheprintmedium, The revival ofclassicaltasteacross continentalEurope from themiddle Neoclassicism andthebook ‘determining structures’; namely, classandeducation. perception ofneoclassicisminresponse towhatBourdieu definedas architecture inBritainandIreland, itisimportanttoexaminetheartisan’s the hierarchical paradigm thatpersistsinthehistoriography ofclassical the contentsof thecelebrated Englishplasterer JosephRose’spremises in cultural competence,thatis,thecode,intowhichitisencoded’. work ofarthasmeaningandinterest onlyforsomeonewhopossessesthe tive styles,itispertinenthere toconsiderBourdieu’s contentionthat‘a instruments bywhichbuildersandcraftsmen assimilatednewdecora- and furnishingacross thewiderBritishAtlantic world. architectural books became important agents of neoclassical decoration most centres ofornamentprintproduction throughout theperiod,English classical idiomthrough awidevarietyofprinted media. fier ofélitetaste’,thebuilder decorator acquainted himselfwiththeneo- was certainly‘vitalwithin thepatternsofsocialconsumptionasasigni- lication of Robert and James Adam’s Aswesawin , ViccyColtmanconsidersthescholarlyoriginsofthisdecorative style,

15 Giventhatbooksandprintsformedoneoftheprincipal Chapter 2 Fabricating theantique: neoclassicism inBritain,1760–

17 AlthoughParis andAugsburg remained thefore- , recent studiesconcerningthedesigninstruc- 14

Duringthe1780s,DublinSociety The works in architecture habitus 18

13 Butwhilethepub- – –

broadly defined Decorating houses Theauctionof in 1773 16

Given 125 126 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 126 Building reputations Herculaneum volume of frizes in thestileofantiquegrotesque range ofbooksandprints,includingGeorge Richardson’s – Irish equivalent had in his possession a similar if less comprehensive ures and Bernard deMontfaucon’s sical ornament. it alsopointstoamore inclusiverelationship tothegrammar ofneoclas- tion from thoseoperating outsideofBritain’smajormetropolitan centres, titles isnowgenerally understoodtoreflect demandforartisanalinstruc- Darly claimedit‘themostusefullWorkmans Bookextant’. that ‘mostcapacitys,bypractice andattention,maydraw’; inthisrespect, tect, oryoungartist’s instructor in architecture alike. Asearlyas1769,andthuspreceding thepublicationof concerned withrendering thestyleaccessibletoarchitect andartisan from Adam’sloftyobjectiveof‘capturingthespiritantiquity’,thesewere had already embraced thevogueforneoclassicaldecoration. Quiteapart the bibliophile to the bricklayer. April 1799,forexample,records titlesaimedateveryclass of reader from motifs andtheir representative qualities: here, an‘OrnamentalCeiling’ for tainly reveal theextenttowhichhewasat leastcognizantofarange of Stapleton wasengagedto decorate theprincipal reception rooms, cer- dated c.1777– 80, andcorresponding totheperiodinwhichMichael less easilydetermined.Building accountsforPowerscourt House, Dublin But anequivalentunderstanding ofthesemiologyclassicalornamentis fostered aviable,workingknowledgeoftheneoclassicaldecorative style. predicated onthepatternbookasbothpractical andpedagogicaltool – titles suchasPietro Bartoli’s Nicholas Revett’s included RobertWood’s artisan. AswellaspublicationsbyAdamandChambers,Rose’slibrary of publishedmaterialavailableto,andutilizedby, theeighteenth- ator, thevolumesfrom hisstudiolibrary nonethelessreflect thediversity Rome andVenice in1769– 70 sethimapartfrom theaverage housedecor- association withtheAdamarchitectural practice andhisGrand Tour to other practical Treatise’. of the‘verygreat Revolution’inarchitectural taste‘vainlysoughtinany (1774), whichincluded‘agreat Variety ofusefulandelegantExamples’ timent wasexpressed inthepreface toWilliamPain’s Infact,bythe1770sbooksaimedexclusivelyatbuildingindustry With this in mind, it is clear that the design education of artisans – Withthisinmind,itisclearthatthedesigneducation ofartisans – (1719). Dublin plasterer Michael Stapleton – (1719).Dublinplasterer MichaelStapleton – Joseph Rose’snearest (1767)andThomasMartynJohnLettice’stranslation ofthefirst Le antichita diErcolano andakeysourcebook fordecoration bysomefouryears,MatthiasDarly’s 24

The antiquitiesofAthens The ruinsofPalmyra 23

Whilethedidacticintentionimplicitinthese presented ‘Antique Ornaments’inamanner Admiranda romanarumantiquitatum L’Antiquité expliquée etreprésentée enfig- 20

While Rose’s longstanding professional , publishedin1775as (1776),JamesGandon’s (1762),aswellantiquarian (1753)andJamesStuart all’antica The ornamentalarchi- The practicalbuilder The antiquitiesof A bookofceilings

22 A similar sen- . 21 Six designsof

The works century (1693)

127 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Iconologia Iconology of Dublin,numbered amongthesubscriberstoGeorge Richardson’s significant thatplasterers, includingJosephRoseandEdward Robbins Boys &SphinxesEmblemsofLoveandImmortality’. cing figures alludingtotheuseofRoom’and‘RoundLarge Circle an unspecified room was to incorporate four ‘Oblong Pannels [with] dan- room’ ( functions, including‘aDrawing orDining- room’ and‘aLady’sdressing- (1774– industry. Designs forentablatures publishedin sical ornamentswasafeature ofthewiderliterature aimedatthebuilding ferent toneoclassicalrhetoric,adviceonthesignifyingproperties ofclas- texts, indicatingtheirintendeduseinthehandsofhouse- decorators indif- Crunden, WilliamPain andotherscontainnocorresponding explanatory other classicallyliterate architects. ButwhilethepublisheddesignsofJohn painted insetsemployedinthedecorative schemesofRobertAdam and between classicalallusionandroom useinthefigurative bas- reliefs and repertoire; asuppositiongivenfurthercredence bythegeneral congruity dining- not tomentionthevarietyofspacesfrom entrance hallsandstaircases to example, including5ElyPlace,9Harcourt Street and17Stephen’sGreen, plate XVI) in a variety of properties decorated by Michael Stapleton, for figure ofPan withahermaphrodite (from their richlyassociativemeanings.Indeed,the unlikely appearance ofthe Dublin, itappearsthattheywere oftenemployedwithoutregard for most characteristic ornamentaldevicesoftheneoclassicalinteriorin able forready purchase from so- called ‘plastershops’andoneofthe avail- as focalpointsforceilingcompositionsandmural decorations: selection ofclassicalfigurative scenes,intheformofplasterbas- impedimenttothisisthearguably inappropriate ating circles. A singular Stapleton cannot be assumed to represent the ‘norm’ within house- Nonetheless, theapparent levelsofliteracy enjoyed byRose,Robbinsand types, from thehallandstaircase (‘solidityandstrength’) tothedining on theselectionofornaments/ motifs appropriate toa varietyofroom widely circulated bookinearlynationalAmerica tooffertextualadvice by carpenterAsherBenjamin andplasterer DanielRaynerd, wasthefirst entertaining, andintelligibletoreason, tasteandjudgment. to boththeapartmentandpossessor;wouldthusrender hisartsingularly the placehedesignstoembellish,andavarietyofcircumstances relative expressive wouldenabletheartisttosuithis decorations andsignificant: it to the ornamentsthatadornsidesandceilingsofapartmentsgreat, An assiduous study of allegory, would be the most effectual means of rendering 78), forexample,were customarilyindexedtoparticularroom parlours anddrawing- rooms, suggeststhearbitrary useofastock Figure 3.1 Figure 3.1 ). (1779),aneoclassicalinterpretation ofCesare Ripa’scelebrated (1603).Inthepreface to 27

The American builder’s companion Iconology Le antichità diErcolano , Richardson suggested that: The builder’s magazine 25

(1806), composed Itisalsoperhaps 26 Decorating houses

, vol.1, reliefs, decor-

127 128 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 128 Building reputations paradigm. perceived acquiescenceofthebuildingtradesman withinthis hierarchical situation thatreflects boththeprivilegedrole accorded thearchitect andthe century buildingtradesmen havereceived littlecomparable attention;a methodology and creative accomplishment, the portfolios of eighteenth- enquiry inarchitectural histories,illuminatingbothanarchitect’s design While thestudyofdrawings represents animportantavenueofacademic Mindless replication orcreative adaptation? room (‘anythingthatdenoteseatingordrinking’). dressing- room; andhall)(plate 22)from 3.1 their roles asexecutors associated with theplasteringfirmsof MichaelStapleton(the‘Stapleton a situationreflected inthecontentofalbums anddrawing collections However, whilecustomarilyemployedto executethedesignsofothers, decorative effects. concerned principallywithgenerating credible, albeitgeneric,‘antique’ sical imageryasevidenceofadifferent engagementwithneoclassicism, might insteadinterpret theoccasionallyindiscriminateuseofallusiveclas- ‘Designs for entablatures for rooms’ ( 30 Asaresult, thebiographies ofartisanshaveoftenemphasized 29

of designattheexpenseoftheir careers The builder’s magazine top tobott om : drawing- or dining- room; lady’s (London, 1774– 78).

28 Withthisinmind,we

in design. 129 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document tary sketchesinpencil. presentation designsininkandwatercolour together withmore rudimen- Stapleton Collectioncomprises158drawings andincludesfinelyexecuted aesthetic sensibilityamongcertainclassesoftheartisancommunity. The also confirmstheconstituencyofdesignforpractice andhintsatasuperior the thirtyyearsofStapleton’spractice ( hands, itrepresents animportantworkingcompendiumassembledduring hallmarks oftheAdamstyle)( Figure 3.3 ). including aconcernwithcreating anintegrated visualeffect(oneofthe also reveals aproficiency withtherudimentsofneoclassicalidiom, occupied withinteriordecoration thanhisLondonorDublincounterparts, The contentsofSamuelMcIntire’s portfolioofdrawings, thoughlesspre- others ( Plate 16 ); theautographed designscontainedinthe ‘SketchBook plex patterns are derived from the publications of George Richardson and rectangular frames. Objectively, the‘Stapleton’designswithmore com- based around ovals,diapersorchamfered octagonalforms setwithin Collection, andtypically feature simplegeometric compositions,often were capableofsettingoutacompetentdesigntheirowninvention. of OrnamentedFrizes’), itisabundantlyclearthatthesesameindividuals Collection’) andJosephRose(the‘SketchBookofRose’the‘Sketches 3.2 one individuallotsofdrawings, includingmore than300ceilingdesigns. Rose’s studioandproperty, held overtwodaysinApril1799,itemizedsixty- Design for adecorative overdoor from theStapleton Collection. Designs forceilingsform the principalcategorywithinStapleton

32 Whilethedesignsare identifiablybyavarietyof Figure 3.2 ).

33 TheauctionofJoseph Decorating houses

31 It 34

129 130 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 130 Building reputations designs beingoftenveryslightvariationsonthose prototypes. identifiable (andtypicallyengraved) antiquesources; their‘original’ Sir WilliamChambersandJames‘Athenian’ Stuart havebeentraced to with contemporary architectural practice: ceiling designs by Robert Adam, The artisan’s reliance on pattern book sources in fact stands comparison unusual innovation’( part, leadingGeoffrey Beard toconcludethat‘there isnothingthatledto of Rose’,thoughsmallinnumber, demonstrate asimilaraptitudeonRose’s MA (dem.), 1795– 98. 3.3 from patternbooks.Butgiven theshared interest increating decorative between designsadapted from archaeological booksanddesigns adapted differencedistinction betweenprimary andsecondarysource materials: a intellectual capacityfordesign. Thepointofdifference appearstorest ona as notedabove,thepractice hasbeenunderstood asevidenceofareduced traced topublishedexemplarsare seenatbestasderivative; more often, thosewhosedesignscanbe not beenafforded thesamelatitude: instead, from theclassicalcanontodomesticBritishinterior. Buttheartisanhas Europe, designsfrom theirhandsare qualifiedascredible transliterations on theirformationinthedrawing schoolsandacademiesofcontinental SamuelMcIntire, designs for theoval room at theDerby Mansion,215Essex Street, Salem,

Figure 3.4 Figure 3.4 ). 35 Butthispointdemandsqualification.

36 Based 131 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document evidently discarded priortoits translation from paper toplaster.) whichwere 177) andplate34(no. from plates30(nos.145and146) 1777 and1792.(Anoriginal drawing, now lost,alsoincludedelements in theEtruscanandgrotesque styles Originaldesignsofvases,figures, medallions,pilasters,andotherornaments MichelangeloPergolesi’s plate30(no. 144) from (nos. 184and185) and so- manipulation ofprintedsources. Thecompositionoftheceilingin the the designs illustrate how creative invention was realized through the tainly theworkofplasterers RobertWest orMichaelStapletonboth – opento question – Street (completedc.1786) remains althoughitiscer- authorship ofthecelebrated interiorsatBelvedere House,Great Denmark published designswere nottypicallyregarded assacrosanct. Whilethe as anexampleofartisanalacquiescencetoarchitectural authority. But – the book)andat52StStephen’sGreen cancertainlybeinterpreted North Great George’s Street (byFrancis Ryan,anamedsubscriberto at 32StStephen’sGreen (byEdward Robbins,discussedbelow),at34 – across three different housesinDublinduringthe1770sand1780s tice ofadaptationbeprivilegedoveranother? schemes thatsignifiedanotional‘spiritofantiquity’,whyshouldoneprac- Book of Rose’. 3.4 Joseph Rose, Jr, ceiling design for ‘Lord Grimston’s inGrosvenor Square’ from the‘Sketch called ‘Diana’drawing- room isanimaginativecombinationof plate35 The direct replication ofplate2from George Richardson’s publishedininstalments between

Decorating houses Ceilings 37

The

131 132 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 132 3.5 Ceiling design for theVenus drawing- room at Belvedere House, Great DenmarkStreet, Dublin, c.1786. Building reputations others’, hisreaders ‘mightformnewdesigns according to theirfancy’. designs, takingRichardson’s advicethat‘by blendingparticularparts,with were concernedmore withtheabstract, ornamentalproperties ofprinted fbt h ieadapidat: premiums awarded bytheSocietyof of boththefineandapplied arts: This infactaccorded withthetypeofinstruction approved forstudents Pierre Mignard. engraving ofthepainteddecorations inthePetite GalerieatVersailles by representing astronomy, paintingandsculpture, are replicated from an painting by François Boucher; the putti in the lunettes of the outer panels, copied from an engraving a by Gilles Demarteau (published in 1773) after figurative centrepiece depicting‘Vénus Couronnée parlesAmours’is ents ofthedesigntobecitationsfrom continentalEuropean sources: the doctrinaire approach toorthodox‘antique’models( ceiling ofthe‘Venus’ drawing- room, ontheotherhand,exhibitsaless 32 ofGeorge Richardson’s McParland establishedtheprincipalsource forthiscompositionasplate part 5, plate8). part 5, of ornamentsfrom theAdambrothers’ 38

JosephMcDonnelllateridentifiedtheremaining elem- Insuchinstancesitseemsclearthathousedecorators A bookofceilings The worksinarchitecture , togetherwiththeaddition Figure 3.5 Figure 3.5 ). Edward (vol.1,

133 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document the classicalorders ( Figure 3.6 ). olous’ attentionpaidbymodernarchitects totherulesandproportions of Adam architectural practice, who in1773criticizedthe‘minuteandfriv- an artisanalaudienceexampleoftheartisticlicence advocatedbythe entablatures inWilliamPain’s tive schemesforhisspeculative housesinHarcourt Street and Mountjoy designs intheStapletonalbum ofdrawings, and bythenow lostdecora- and more formalornament’,atrait perhapsbestexemplified byseveral reflected the‘goodtasteandcharmwithwhich [Stapleton]marriednatural enrichments modelledbyhand. According to Curran, theseDublin ceilings tomary geometricalformsandcastornamentswere combinedwithfoliated Curran preferred thosespecimens of Stapleton’s oeuvre where thecus- which itsmechanicalnature wascompromised. Writingin1967,C.P. ations of the neoclassical style has generally focused on the extent to various prints’. Arts, forexample,were oftenbasedondesignsandornaments‘takenfrom practical builder 3.6 Design for ‘A moderncomposed capitalfor acolumn’ (plate 22)from William Pain, Perhaps unsurprisingly, academicinterest invernacularinterpret- (London, 1774). 41

Moreover, designsfor‘ModernComposed’capitalsand

The practicalbuilder 42

(1774)represented for Decorating houses The 133 134 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 134 3.7 Ciig ein rm h Saltn Collection. Stapleton the from design Ceiling Building reputations istic ornament’( Figure 3.9 ). similar workinDublin’withits‘occasionaltouchof very effectivenatural- that oneisaccustomedtoconnectwiththenameofAdam’, being‘verylike classical interiorsas‘beautifulinasimilarbutrather stronger mannerthan quality inthehousesofRoyalCrescent inBath,describingtheirneo- agency. British architectural culture, towards agreater diversityofcreative the ‘surfaceofapparent stylisticandspatialsameness’ofashared Square ( Greek, andRoman architecture new collection ofchimney pieces ornamented inthestyleofEtruscan, example, George Richardson’s more appreciably Adamesquefolio tarian octavovolume of thechimneypiecesare derivedfrom WilliamPain’s decidedlyutili- of the‘Americanization oftheneoclassical villa’,thecarvedenrichments based ornamentdesigners suchasRichardson, Pergolesi andothersin the limitedcirculation ofthelarger volumespublished byLondon- Such adaptationsofAdamneoclassicismallowus tolookbeyond 45

Figures 3.7 AtHomewoodinBaltimore (1802),animportantexpression and The practicalhousecarpenter 3.8 ). 44 43

SirCharlesHerbertReillyadmired asimilar (1781). 46

Butwhilethiscertainlyreflects (1797),andnot,for A 135 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 3.9 3.8 Ceiling of front drawing- room at 5Royal Crescent, Bath, c.1775. Ceiling of front drawing- room at 4Harcourt Street, Dublin(dem.), c.1786.

136 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 136 Building reputations in thecolonies. of thefewAdamesquepatternbooksthatenjoyedcommercial distribution as PlacidoColumbani’s architectural practices, itwouldcertainlyhaverivalledpopulartitlessuch business (JosephRose&Co.)alongsidethoseofLondon’s mostrenowned the mostaccomplishedexamplesofFederal style inNewEngland. of wealthymerchants inearlynineteenth- century Salemnumberamong devoted totheAdamdecorative vocabulary – hisinteriorsforthehouses British Palladio inventory ofhisestatein1811,builder’shandbookssuchas as itdidonprintmedia – ofthesixarchitectural titlesrecorded inan neoclassical vocabularyapparently relied asmuchonbuiltprecedent in LondonandDublin. of townhouseinteriorsinBostonandPhiladelphiacompared withthose further waystounderstandthelessappreciably Adamesquecharacter imported Britisharchitectural booksfortheAmericanartisan,suggests assistant Indeed, OwenBiddle’sjustificationforcomposing available tothetrade. artisan forcreating aplausibleneoclassicismfrom thesources readily America atthistime,italsounderlinestheimportantrole ofthebuilding Birmingham ( the trade cataloguesofornamentmanufactorieslikeJeeandEginton of large foliovolumesofdesignerslikeMichelangeloPergolesi butalsoto the bookwasintendedforpublication,itslayoutbeing comparable to the indexes – than byarchitect (Adam,Chambers,StuartandWyatt),boasting two Organized bymotif(bucranium, patera, anthemionandpalmette)rather of which‘were madefrom thedesignsofmosteminentarchitects’. described asbeingfrom ‘originalmodels’inRose’spossession,many 331 individuallynumbered designsover106pages,thecompositionsare frieze designs compiled in 1782, is particularly interesting. Comprising Ornamented Frizes’, aMoroccan- bound manuscriptvolumeoffinelydrawn to Rose’sapparently retrospective compendia.Ofthese,the‘Sketches of the functionalnature oftheStapletonandMcIntire portfoliosasopposed or annotatedinanycoherent manner. Thisdistinctionperhapsreflects with thoseofJosephRose,unlikeRose’salbumstheyare notorganized for creative ambitionandintellectualcapitalsomaybecompared decorative plasterwork( Figure 3.11 ). rare distinction ofbeingthefirstAmericanauthorpublished designs for in1806,Boston‘stuccoworker’Daniel Raynerd achieved the America: arbiter ofnewmodesarchitectural taste,were especiallysignificantin While the Stapleton and McIntire drawing collections signal a claim in1805,describingthelimitedusefulnessofmany including an ‘Index for different Rooms’ – includingan‘Indexfordifferent Rooms’ – itseemscertainthat Figure 3.10 Figure 3.10 (1786)represented theonlyidentifiableprintedsource

50 Instancesofartisanturned author, and by extensionas 49 49

Variety ofcapitals,freezes andcorniches

AlthoughAmericancarverSamuelMcIntire’s ). Featuring accomplisheddesignsofthefamily

The youngcarpenter’s (1776),one Pain’s Pain’s 48 48

137 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Raynerd, 3.11 3.10 Designs for ‘ornamental stucco ceilings’ (plate 27) from AsherBenjaminandDaniel Frieze designs by Joseph Rose, Jr, from ‘Sketches of Ornamented Frizes’, compiled 1783. The American builder’sThe American companion (Boston, 1806).

138 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 138 Building reputations Designs ofMess.Adams,Chambers andStewart[ proficiency in the ‘Antique Taste’, having worked ‘some Years under the recently arrivedfrom Londonand‘versedintheStuccoArt’,announcedhis Thomas Cooley. edge ofBritishNeoclassicism’ – hadbeenawarded totheEnglisharchitect the RoyalExchangeinDublin (nowCityHall) – abuilding‘atthe cutting from coincidental: less thanamonthearlierthepremium forthedesign of grant artisanasanagentofthattaste. vincial styles’ – butrather withemphasizingitsdependenceontheimmi- ‘little more thanafewdelicateneo- classical motifsgrafted ontothepro- adaptive failure ofAdamneoclassicisminAmerica – oncedismissedas concerned notwithreiterating outmodedappraisals ofthesupposedly the terraces ofLondonandDublin.Thatsaid,thepresent narrative is approximate thelevelofembroidered enrichmentalready ubiquitousin the interiorsofhousesinmetropolitan centres likeBostonandPhiladelphia manufacturers from EnglandandIreland duringthe1790s.Onlythendid Federal style blossomed only with the arrival of composition ornament subscription networkstoEnglisharchitectural andpatternbooks,the the workofEnglisharchitects andartisansresident inIreland andthrough patronage ofRobertAdamandotherarchitects basedinEngland,through North America. While Ireland encountered neoclassicism through direct tural distancesbetweenBritainandIreland andbetweenBritain and transmitted. Here wemustremind ourselvesofthespatialandcul- we nowturnourattentiontohowthattastewaseffectivelyintroduced its different iterations in towns and cities cross the British Atlantic world, Having establishedthecharacter ofartisanalneoclassicismandsome craft The In anoticepublishedinthe British agents of theIrish Adamesque deepening understandingofBritishneoclassicism. the historicalrecord contributeslayersofmeaningandcomplexitytoour emulation, sotheintroduction ofnewand/ or marginalized namesfrom have problematized traditional ‘trickledown’theoriesofreception and the Federal styleacross British NorthAmerica.Justasdesignhistories biguously underlineshisrole asapivotalfigure forthedevelopmentof other hand,hasrecently beenthesubjectofamonograph whichunam- the progenitors oftheneoclassicalmovementinDublin.Wellford, onthe ation inIreland, Robbins’sprofessional milieuinfactplacedhimamong the admittedlylimitedliterature oneighteenth- century interiordecor- Robert Wellford inearlynationalAmerica.Althoughlargely absentfrom Edward RobbinsinIreland, andtheEnglishornamentmanufacturer deemed theemployment ofanEnglish architect forthis particularproject ThissectionwillconsidertheworkingcontextofEnglishplasterer sman asagent of taste

53 Justas‘enlightened’Irish architectural discoursehad Dublin Journal 51

of4April1769,ThomasWeston, sic ]’. 52 Histimingwasfar 139 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document fashionable Adamstyle,tohisadvantage. sought toturnhisLondonexperience,andknowledgeofthenewly to light,andhewascertainlybackinEnglandby1780,Weston doubtless from 1765. own architectural anddecorative designsattheSocietyofArtistsinLondon for theRoyalExchangeinthatyear, andhadalready begunexhibitinghis in 1769: he wasinfactoneoftheBritish entrants tothe Dublin competition the Adamarchitectural practice before embarkingonanindependentcareer decoration in the Adam style’, Richardson enjoyed a long association with Howard Colvinas‘anaccomplisheddraughtsman anddesignerofinternal Richardson (1737/ these,ScottishauthoranddesignerGeorge Irish neoclassicalinterior: of neoclassical style. opportunity toestablishhimselfinIreland asanunrivalledexponentofthe number of competitors) – so it would appear that Weston had identified an no fewerthanthirty- three Britishsubmissions(or60percentofthetotal – as being ‘too obvious to be insisted upon’ the competition generated clearly soughttoprofit bythisassociation. apprentices takenbyJosephRose&Co.duringthe1750sand1760s,he a familiaritywiththeRosefirmbeyondperimeterofLondon. in theearlynumbersof predate RobertandJamesAdam’spublicendorsementofRose’sabilities is of special importance for our narrative: not only does this announcement fact thattheRosenamewasinvokedinthismanneraDublinnewspaper Mr. RoseofLondon’. original advertisementtorecord thathehad‘servedhisApprenticeship to British cities. elite townhousesacross Dublin,aphenomenonthatfindsnoparallel in rococo plasterwork’were executedinstairhallsand drawing rooms of careers, the 1760s was the decade when ‘hundreds of fine passages of like AdamandChambers enjoyed Irishpatronage from earlyintheir ating trade. Thesignificanceofthisiseasilyoverlooked.Whilearchitects looking toclaimapositionofauthoritywithinDublin’sburgeoning decor- and gentry, thisreference toRosesuggeststhathemayinfacthavebeen while Weston’s advertising rhetoric was clearly aimed at the Irish nobility and wasrecognized asanimportant pedagogicaltoolwithin thedrawing 1776, represented animportantsource forhousedecorators inIreland originally issuedineight‘numbers’ ofsixplatesapiecebetween1774and the wider geographical reach of his designs: as we have seen, his of otherlateeighteenth- century architects’. own designsare lessimportantthanhisengravings oftheexecuted works more than thirty years, however, Eileen Harris argues that ‘Richardson’s Otherseffectedamore substantialcontributiontothecharacter ofthe AlthoughThomasWeston’s namedoesnotappearintherecords of 60

Inspiteofacareer inarchitectural publishingthatspanned 58

Althoughnorecord ofhisworkinIreland hassofarcome

54 38– Someweekslater, on27April,Weston amendedhis 55 c. 1813) is oneofthemostsignificant.Describedby c.1813) is

The worksinarchitecture 59 61

Butthisofcourseistoignore Theseparticularsaside,the in1773/ 74, butitsuggests Decorating houses 57

Ceilings Indeed, , 139 140 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document the antiquegrotesque 3.12 140 George Richardson, ceiling design for an‘anti- chamber’ (plate 20) from Building reputations considerable economicinvestment. pledge topurchase thecomplete bookatacostof£34s.represented a plasterer inDublinduringthisperiodamountedto12s.perweek, the 1770s, Richardson’s numerous patternbooksofneoclassicalornament issuedduringtheearly his longtenure withtheAdampractice; according toEileenHarris,ofthe and publicizedbytheDublinbooktrade. being RobertWood’s wasoneofonlytwoEnglisharchitectural titles,theother noteworthy: it eenth century, theunprecedented interest inIreland forthe to English architectural treatises and pattern books throughout the eight- to theboundvolume.AlthoughIrishnobilityand gentrysubscribed Plate 16 ). Of particular significance was the number of Irish subscribers schools that operated under the aegis of the Dublin Society ( plasterers. for onlythirteenofthe217subscriptions,fullyone third ofthesewere Richardson’s astutemarketingofhisbooks ofdesignsmademuch (London, 1776). 63

Bearinginmindthattheaverage industrialwageofaskilled

Ceilings Ruins ofPalmyra represented ‘themost damagingtothenovelty

(1753),thatwere activelypromoted 62

Moreover, despite accounting A bookof ceilings inthestileof Figure 3.12 Ceilings and is 141 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document terer inrealizing theneoclassicaldecorative style. practitioners – izing thesedesigns – acting asatypeofexclusivedirectory ofcompetent edition published in 1776.) Not only did this promote their efficacy in real- (All namedindividuals,itshouldbenoted,were subscriberstothebound Edward RobbinsatLord Montalt’sHouseinStStephen’sGreen, Dublin. at Sir Laurence Dundas’s House, St Andrew’s Square, Edinburgh; and fies anumberofplasterers, including ThomasClaytonandJohnConey bas- his designs‘intownandcountry’.Inthe‘Explanationofpictures and viduals whohad,bythedateofpublicationinNovember1776,executed mention ofhisworkinthe Dublindecorative plasterwork eue itiuinfo okadpitslesotieo odn one secured distribution from bookand print sellersoutsideofLondon: with thepublicationof boundeditionofthe least inpart,toRobbins’s agency. Indeed,itwouldappear thatitwasonly cedented numberofIrishsubscribers tothe parts ofGreat BritainandIreland’. able to declare that several of his designs had been ‘executed in different other hand,whenadvertisingtheboundvolumeof their Irishclientbase – thisneverinfacttranspired. Richardson, onthe and exclusivityofthe by theminGreat BritainandIreland’ of the Indeed, althoughtheAdambrothers’ advertisementsforthefirstnumbers Dame Street, wasoneoftwodistributorssecured forRichardson’s that theIrishdistributorof general tobeofstucco’. the book’splatesinpractice, thedesignswere specifically‘intendedin greatest attention: not onlywouldtheplasterer, ‘inparticular’,benefitfrom tourist tothebuildingtradesman, itistheplasterer whoisaccorded the the broadest demographic concernedwitharchitecture, from thegrand designs. the (noted above)nodoubtheldgreater appealfortheaspiringdesignerthan Richardson’s advicethatartisansinnovatefreely from theprintedsource number ofthe the relative successofthesetitleswithinbuildingcircles – aguineaforone throughout 1775– 76 indicatethatEdward Robbins( Stephen’s Green alone. Irish readers were advised ofitsavailabilityfrom Robbins’spremises inSt tion ofthefourthfascicle the original agent for Richardson’s designs in Ireland. When the publica- Works inarchitecture Althoughhedoesnotfeature prominently inC.P. Curran’s seminal reliefs’, describingeachdesignanditsappositelocation,heidenti- Works 68 Indeed,whileRichardson’s textisclearlyatpainstoaddress claimed that it would contain designs ‘invented and executed butitalsoservedtounderlinethecriticalrole oftheplas- Works compared with8s.foronenumberofthe Works 71

Withthisinmind,itseems certainthattheunpre- , Adam’s‘publicitybrochure’ ofalready executed Moreover, Richardson alsoidentifiedthoseindi- A bookofceilings ’. 65 (1967) and is known principally for the Withthisinmind,itisperhapssignificant Works inarchitecture Ceilings

67 Althoughcostwascertainlyafactorin 66

– anattempt,nodoubt,tobroaden inMarch 1775wasannounced, , noticesinthe Ceilings Ceilings 70 fl.

mustbeattributed,at 1774– 91) wasinfact Ceilings , WilliamWilsonof Hibernian Journal thatRichardson Decorating houses in1776,was Ceilings Ceilings – – .

141 142 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 142 Building reputations Matthias Darly’s and mural decorations ofthestairhallare transcribed from platesin first patternbooksdevotedtothe‘antiquegrotesque’ style;theceiling stuccoists JamesMcCullaghandMichaelReynoldsin1774,utilizedthe Powerscourt House,SouthWilliamStreet, forexample,completedbythe theinitial phaseofinteriordecoration at from Londonbooksellers: house decorators were already usingthemostprogressive printedmatter development oftheAdamdecorative styleinDublin.By1775,Dublin’s unequivocally placeshiminaverysignificantposition with respect tothe temporaries, Robbins’sprofessional associationwithGeorge Richardson literature oneighteenth- century interiordecoration byhisIrish- born con- Alexander, laterEarlofCaledon.Infact,althoughovershadowedinthe gentry suchasWillsHill,EarlofHillsborough, andthe‘nabob’James orative style,Robbinsenjoyedthepatronage ofIreland’s nobilityand industry as both agent and practitioner of Richardson’s Adamesque dec- sense ofexclusivity andashared socialidentitythrough importing British Upton andAmyHenderson haveshownhowAmericanelitescreated a apiece inBath,Oxford andEdinburgh, buttwoinDublin. Adamesque istypicallyunderstood insimilar, strictlyBritishterms. political administration’s colonial relationship to Britain – so the American for examplebeenargued thatthestyleunambiguouslysignified theIrish acknowledged itsprofound debttoBritish architectural authority – ithas Just asthehistoriography ofIrishneoclassicalarchitecture haslong British and Irish agents of Adamesque theAmerican architectural stockanditsmarketappeal. publishers across BritainandIreland generally were cautiousabouttheir the more significantwhenoneconsidersthatprovincial booksellersand neither born noreducatedinIreland. favours sincehecameintothiskingdom’,itisclearthatRobbinswas returned histhankstothenobilityandgentryofIreland for‘themany identity. BasedonaDublinnewspapernoticeofOctober1782,whenhe concern ushere, national butoneimportantfactrequires elucidation: his established inDublintheinterim. Adamesque manner – or should that be taken byMichaelStapletonin1778– 80, reveals that amore appreciably between thisdecoration andthatinthe principal reception rooms, under- of ornamentsinthePalmyrene taste advertisement concerningthe certainly inDublinbyMarch of1775, thedateoffirstIrishnewspaper or thepurposedateofhisarrivalinIreland hascometolight.(Hewas information concerninghisapprenticeship, hisformativeyearsinpractice masons variouslyfrom BathandLondon share the samefamilyname,no Robbins’sbiography remains frustratingly incompleteanddoesnot The ornamentalarchitect A bookofceilings. 76

(1771).

While a numberof plasterers and Richardsonian 73

(1769) and N. Wallis’s (1769)andN. Wallis’s

Today, the formalcontrast ) Uniqueinthebuilding manner – 72

Thisisall hadbeen A book 77

Dell 143 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ideology. America, there were manifestdifferences inmaterials,ornamentandeven sicism signifiedashared architectural identitybetweenBritainandNorth neoclas- based onoversimplifiedtheoriesofcentre andperiphery: while which emphasizescultural hybridityasopposedtosimpledichotomies this infactaccords withrecent scholarshipontheBritishAtlanticworld ‘a questionofinterpretation rather thanofdeclaration’. their visualequivalencewithAdam’sdecorative mannerrepresenting London’, are neoclassical only if we admit a very generic use of the term – (built 1769– 74), although indisputablytheworkofartisans‘latefrom interiorsofthe Chase LloydHouse Annapolis remains questionable: the at different timesindifferent locations.Early‘evidence’incitieslike the tyranny ofEuropean tastes’. American artisansanddesigners,likeAsherBenjamin,‘failedtoescape Gabrielle LanierandBernard Hermanhavecommentedonhow‘avowedly’ Atlantic world narratives with their focus on complex systems of cultural (typically English)craft tradition, whilesimultaneouslyembracing new narratives ofindentured craftsmen inthecolonialera andanimported patetic artisan. Curiously, this position complements the established Recent scholarship,however, hasreasserted theimportance oftheperi- architectural goodsandstylesfrom chimneypiecestofanlights, neoclassical styleinAmerica: regarded asthe‘primaryinfluence’ondisseminationofBritish dependence onaspecificallyAdaminterpretation ofneoclassicism. the Federal styleas‘thefirstnationalstyle’,despiterecognizing its knowledge andexperience. architects, relying insteadonanartisanclasswithvaryingdegrees of Americanelitesdidnotcustomarilysolicitdesignsfrom English cern: century. classical ornamentwasdevelopedinthefirstdecadesofnineteenth interior decoration inthatcity( the early 1760s, neither appears to have had any immediate influence on late 1780s – though,liketheworkofAdamandChambersinDublin Woodlands (intermsofplan),builtontheoutskirtsPhiladelphiain cing are theinteriorsofTheSolitude(intermsapplieddecoration) and the neoclassicalstyle‘often followedEnglishprototypes more closely’. pattern bookssources being‘relatively rare’ – theAmericanexpression of understood tohaveinnovatedfrom theprintedpage – precise copiesfrom Samuel McIntire. importance foranentire generation ofNewEnglandartisans,including first essaysinthestyledatefrom theearly1790sandwere ofsingular Adamesque was introduced by amateur architect Charles Bulfinch, whose English booksandtheirAmericancounterpartshave traditionally been TheoriginsoftheAdamstyleinAmericaare difficulttodis- 81 Asweshallsee,aspecificallyAmericanvocabularyoffigurative 84

Itisalsounderstoodtohavedeveloped

85 whilecolonialcraftsmen are generally Figure 3.13 Figure 3.13

79 Others,paradoxically, havedescribed ). InBostonamore credible Decorating houses

83 More convin- 78

while

80 But 86

143 144 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 144 Building reputations at mid- ceilings’ and‘PlainorInriched Cornices’from PhiladelphiatoCharleston Irish plasterers were, nonetheless, already advertising‘ornamentson themes’. lantic transfer ofneoclassicismtoAmericaanditsadaptationAmerican ornament manufacturer RobertWellford as‘amajorvehicleforthetransat- more subsidiaryrole. architectural tastesbetweenBritainandAmerica,affording thebooka described theimmigrant artisanasthe‘firstandforemost’ conduitfor across thetownsandcitiesofChesapeakeBay, CarlLounsburyhas exchange. Inhisaccountofthedesignprocess amongbuildingoperatives 3.13 uncommon inAmerican domestic architecture generally. town houseincitiesacross BritainandIreland, suchenrichments were interior schemes,and tastes represents themore convincingthesis. above, theimmigrant artisanasthepre- eminent agentoffashionable culating amongAmericanbuildingcommunitiesat thistime,described Ceiling plasterwork inthe dining- room atThe Solitude, Philadelphia, c.1788. Althoughadecorated ceilingwas‘oftenthekey’toRobertAdam’s century. 88 Indeed,giventhecharacter ofthearchitectural literature cir-

90 In1771,John RawlinsandJamesBarnes, originally 87

MarkReinberger haslikewiseidentifiedémigré de rigueur forthebettersortofartisan- 89

Britishand

built 145 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Plaistering line’ ( Fallon, described as‘anativeofIreland’ and‘anartistintheStucco are consistentwiththepresence inthatcityofindividuals suchasJohn Gaillard- Notable examplesofthe neoclassical styleinCharleston,includingthe of themid- Baltimore issimilartoworkinAnnapolisofthemid1770s(andDublin and latestFashions’ butwhosesoledocumentedworkatMountClare, Kennedy ofDublin,whoin1789wasworking‘inthemostapproved discern theirinfluenceondecorative tastes;asindeeditisofJoseph for Ceilings’were afeature oftheirpractice itis,however, difficultto worked indifferent partsofMarylandandVirginia. Although‘designs Carving inStucco’businessAnnapolis,andbythemid- 1780s had of London,announcedthecommencementtheir‘Plaisteringand 3.14 sonably attributedtoIrish handsand‘theirloveofnaturalistic details’. work ofMichaelStapletoninDublin(describedabove) – hasbeenrea- with itscombinationofclassicalandfoliateornaments – similartothe at Willow Brook (1799) and Clifton Mansion in the same city (1803), Ceiling plasterwork inthe hallat Joseph Manigault House, Charleston, c.1803. Bennett House(1802)and theJosephManigaultHouse(1803), 1740s). Figure 3.14 ).

91 Thatsaid,theAdamesquedecorative plasterwork 93 93

Decorating houses

92 92

145 146 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 146 Building reputations the ‘toprungofFederal periodhouses’. Dublin, thetimberandcompositionchimneypiecewasassociatedwith constituted thematerialsofchoiceforelitetownhousesinLondonand throughout theFederal era. Whilecarvedmarbleandscagliolainlay American houseandtheprincipalsignifierofeliteclassicaltaste chimneypiece remained theforemost architectural ornamentofthe statuary. Wellford, a year earlier of George and in New York Andrews, a Dublin the arrivalinPhiladelphia1797ofEnglishornamentmakerRobert Federal stylefrom themid- 1790s intothe1810scertainlycoincidedwith demand iscomplexanddifficulttodisentangle,buttheflourishingof tory ofinteriordecoration inAmerica. idiom. featured amantelenrichedwithcompositionornamentsintheclassical as Lancaster, Pennsylvania andSalisbury, NorthCarolina, customarily By 1800,housesfarfrom themajormetropolitan centres, intownssuch trade in imported English manufactures from printed catalogues. ition chimneypieces’inPhiladelphia1785,stimulatingaflourishing Matthew Armourwas,itseems,firsttoadvertise‘fullenrichedcompos- re – gree a titlethatreflected ashiftfrom makingproducts withanEnglishpedi- Wellford’s OriginalAmericanManufactoryofCompositionOrnaments’, ating onanationalscale.In1807,herechristened hisbusiness‘Robert independently andquicklybecameoneofthefew manufacturers oper- with establishedPhiladelphiacompanies,by1801 Wellford wasintrade oration inAmericajustasitwasdeclineEngland.Working initially 1770s, hetookadvantageoftheemerging demandforAdamesquedec- such adistinguishingfeature oftheEnglishbuildingindustryearly of theprominent Londonmanufactoriesofsynthetic‘stone’thatwere with ‘Great allowancemadetoBuilders’. ture’ were offered byanumberofretail merchants across thecity, often the mid- 1790s, ‘Completesetts’ofornamentsfor‘interiorarchitec- capitalism. Wedgwood, MatthewBoultonandotherchampionsofindustrialized ( Figure 3.15 alism andthedemocratization ofdomestically produced luxurygoods have beeninterpreted asasignofhissympathies forRepublicannation- ornaments, were created inthewakeof1812warwithBritain,and such ashisautographed ‘GoddessofLiberty’and‘BattleLake Erie’ consciousness. Patriotic figurative scenesforchimneypiecetablets, – moulds These singularexamplesofdecorative plasterworkaside,the RobertWellford, likeMcIntire, enjoysasignificantplaceinthehis- 98 98

derivedfrom commonlyusedprintedsources and/ or inherited

towards ornamentsthattappedintoaburgeoning political Here, theagencyofimmigrant artisanwasparamount.

). Inthisrespect hehasbeenfavourably compared withJosiah

99 Apprenticed toJohnJaques,one

94 Londoncarpenterandbuilder 96

Thequestionofsupplyand 95

By By 14 7 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document supersede thecreative capacityofindigenouscraftsmen. duit forneoclassicalimageryfrom EnglandtoAmerica’,theydid not Jersey toSouthCarolina (Figure 1.24). routes, Wellford developedanetworkofagentsanddistributorsfrom New for its‘local’character andits‘decorative andcoloristiceffects’. style, knownas‘punch- became more ‘American’ dialect oftheFederal (Federal). A distinctive as interiorsbecamemore ostensibly‘English’(Adamesque)they also ( Figure 3.16 ). with compositionornaments used in combination suggest, itwas often without the pejorative associations that such a designation might sical vocabulary, andsometimesreferred toas‘Carpenter’sAdam’ Ostensibly atimberjoiner’s approximation oftheAdamneoclas- as it allowed him the space – as itallowedhimthespace – literally andfiguratively – todistinguishhis and newspaperadvertisements.Wellford, itseems,preferred thehandbill tage ofadvertisingandmarketingstrategies intheformoftrade cards to changingmarketsbydevelopingnewproducts andbytakingadvan- threat from serialproduction andunskilledwagelabour, artisansadapted shrewd. Astraditional craft practice andskilledpieceworkcameunder in thefirstdecadesofnineteenthcenturywasalsocommercially 3.15 nificence’. and tounderlinethesignificanceofdecoration forarchitectural ‘mag- ornaments from the‘rudelyconstructed’ ornamentsofhiscompetitors, Rbr Wlfr, Gdes f iet’ opsto ornament. composition Liberty’ of ‘Goddess Wellford, Robert But while ornament manufactories were certainly ‘an important con- Wellford’s creation ofadecidedlyAmericandecorative repertoire 100

Usingestablishedtrade links alongbothinlandandcoastal 103

andgouge’ decoration, haslongbeenadmired Decorating houses

101 Ironically,

102

147 148 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 148 Building reputations ations ofalargely speculativebuildingindustry, itspopularity mustalsobe widespread adoptionmaybeunderstoodin termsoftheeconomicmotiv- the Atlanticworldby beginning ofthenineteenthcentury. Whileits parlour, theso- called ‘two- room’ plantypewasubiquitousincitiesacross an axiallyalignedentrance hallandstairhall, flankedbya front and rear house were subjecttosimilarprocesses ofstandardization. Composedof domestic architecture, sootherspatialandvisualelementsofthetown an autonomousagentofneoclassicism. building industry, andtheimplicationsarisingfrom thehousebuilderas of housedecorating, consideringtheimpactofstandardization withinthe throughout theBritishAtlanticworld.Thissectionexaminesbusiness that decoration formedanintegral partofproperty speculationincities the builderandconsumer. However, itisbecomingincreasingly clear fier oftasteandsocialcultural identity;respectively, theprovince of between building as a commercial enterprise and decorating as a signi- frequently characterized asamanifestationoftheearlymoderndistinction The dichotomybetweenplainexteriorsandrichlydecorated interiorsis The businessof interior decoration 3.16 Punch andgouge chimneypiece at Upsala,Philadelphia, c.1800. Just astheunarticulatedbrickelevationbecame

de rigueur forelite 149 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document were builttothisrear- stair, two- room model. teenth century. of row houseserected inthosesamecitiesthefirstdecadesofnine- 1621 ThamesStreet inBaltimore (c.1790),andindeedofthebettersort in Americancities,suchasthePowel HouseinPhiladelphia(1765)and and itwascertainlyfavoured forthebetterclassofbespokehouseerected of thisplantypeinthearistocratic estatesofLondon’sWest Endby1800, pattern bookandthescaleofspeculativebuildingas‘effectiveagents’ the research ofElizabethMcKellar andFrank Kelsall, hasidentifiedthe tury, reveals that forty- seven of the fifty- five surviving houses (85 per cent) city’s foremost aristocratic enclavethroughout theentire eighteenthcen- gies atParnell Square inDublin,builtbetween1755and1785the ofplantypolo- both convenienceanddisplaywere paramount. A survey understood in terms of the demands of the elite consumer market where conformed tomore practical archetypes. of similarapartments’ – hisspeculatively builthousesinthatcitytypically of theAncientsinthispoint,are apt tofatigueuswithadullsuccession cizing ‘modernarchitects [who],bypayingtoolittleregard totheexample – types androom shapesforhisbespoketownhousesinLondon criti- the architect Robert Adam had imaginatively introduced a variety of plan (dispensing withthenecessityofaconcealed service stair).Indeed,while second floorandsomayhavebeenintendedforadifferent demographic street, whichhebuiltinthesameyears,stairrisesfrom ground to frontage (41feet);innumbers39(27feet)and41(32onthesame Henry Darleyutilizedthisconfiguration forahouse with a wide street Street, Dublin(built1786– 88) thestonemasonandproperty developer the socialperformativityof type wastoterminatetheformalstaircase atthefirstfloor, emphasizing where ‘flexibilityandadaptabilitytranscended aestheticideals’. seems thatthechoiceofarchitectural planwasadecidedlypragmatic one, confirm its general appeal to builder and consumer alike. Universally, it (20 feetfrontage) andatSansom’sRow,Philadelphia(18feetfrontage) when spacewasatapremium; examplesatQueenAnne’sGate,London the centre- stair plan,atypehabituallyusedforplotsofnarrow frontage of enrichment differed across theBritishAtlantic world,by1800the ceilings andchimneypieces rather thaninelevation orplan.Whiledegrees – and Chinoiserietoneoclassicism isbestappreciated inornamented able eighteenthcentury architectural taste – from Palladianism via rococo through thisreason applieddecoration: for theprotean nature offashion- the increasingly standardized apartmentsofthetypicaltown housewas ceilings screens tocreate picturesque scenographic effects;andbarrel- and cantedrear elevationstoformdistinctiveroom shapes;columnar While interior space might be enhanced in a variety of ways – Whileinteriorspacemightbeenhancedinavariety ofways – bowed all’antica

105 – – Onewaytocreate spatialdistinctionwiththisrear- thechiefmethodemployedtocreate visualinterest in piano nobile

106 AttheAdelphi,Adamemployed . At42NorthGreat George’s

104 Peter Guillery, drawing on Decorating houses 107

vaulted stair 149 150 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 150 Building reputations mason James Hillanddecorated forhimbyplasterer JamesDickiein1789, drawing- some choiceandcontrol overtheinteriorfitting- out ofthebuilding’. and concludingthat‘evenwithspeculativedevelopmentsconsumershad this position,identifyingparticularindividuals‘customising’theirhouses an earlierperiod,hasrecently presented corroborating evidencesupporting to suitthetasteandpurseofconsumer. ElizabethMcKellar, describing roof’, before offeringitforsale. – erecting ‘the carcase of a house simply a brick shell with floors and a London’s speculative house builders as being concerned exclusively with able tasteandcultural capital.SirJohnSummersonregarded theworkof decorative interiorembodyingtheowner/ occupier’s concernswithfashion- brick enveloperepresenting theprovince ofthebuilder/ developer, andthe the between theprocesses ofbuildinganddecorating theurbanhouse: ture generally, asthereceived wisdomcontinuestoadvanceadistinction the eighteenthcentury. interior wentfrom aluxurytodecencynecessityoverthecourseof consumer economy – andparaphrasing NeilMcKendrick – thedecorated contractors. Indeed,through thecommercial imperative ofaburgeoning of interiorfinish;afinish,moreover, dictatedbyhousebuildersandtheir better sortofspeculativelybuilthousecustomarilyfeatured ahighlevel based ‘onthepricereduction thatstandardisation mightbring’. wondering iftheywere aimedatadifferent marketoriftheirappealwas choices aboutinteriorfinisheswere notavailableinhousesbuiltbyBarbon, marketing ofhousesinthe public press (the subject ofthe next chapter ). The many instancessuchenrichments formedakeypartoftheadvertisingand of thoseindividualswhoaspired totheimproved statusoftastemakers.In tectural ornament, it might also be taken to express the competing claims be read asthematerialsignofadeterminedlyeconomicapproach toarchi- never varies.’ further observedthat‘Thedesignofpanellingandstaircases ofhishouses ‘all verymuchalike,economicallyplannedtothepointofmeanness’,and Nicholas Barbonbetween1670and1700,Summersonfoundtheinteriors However, indescribingnowdemolishedhousesbuiltbythedeveloper housing market. ment andrefinement inorder toclaimashare ofthepotentiallylucrative builders oftentooktheopportunitytocreate interiorsofgreater enrich- tive builders encouraged standardization and uniformity, it is also true that is correct tosuggestthattheinteriorfitting- out ofaproperty byspecula- tectural formandornament,bothinsideout.ButwhilePeter Guillery more widely appreciated that builders rather than consumers dictated archi- ally reiterate verbatimSummerson’soriginalposition,itisnowbecoming while recent historiesoftheeliteLondonhousehavetendedtouncritic- Here we must address the historiography on urban domestic architec- rooms ofatenementbuildinginRoseStreet, Edinburgh builtby 111

Inresponse tothis,McKellar raised thequestionastowhy 113

So,whilethedecorating ofhousespriortosalemight 108

109

The interior would then be completed Theinteriorwouldthenbecompleted

112 Indeed, Indeed, 110 110

151 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document has beendatedtotheearlyGeorgian period. this typeofstandardized production fortimberconstructioninLondon boards andnewelpoststodoorswindowframes, andevidenceof the repetition ofregular formsandpatternsforitseffect,from skirting 1812. Clouds’ toplasterer WilliamThackara, Jronthree separate occasionsin Edward Evansrecords thesaleofanapparently ready- made ‘Glory& and rosettes ofvarioussizes,thedaybookPhiladelphiaornamentmaker (1761), plasterworkwasan‘ingeniousart,thatrequires taste’; Joseph Collyer’s period under review: in which fashionable,decorative tastewasroutinely effectedthroughout the late as1831,JohnNicholson’s of JosephLoweandPlayer&Co.inDublinduringthe1780s1790s. related stockin‘patentmetal’,forexample,were availablefrom thefirms ornamentalfanlights,stairbalustrades and across BritainandIreland: an importantsteptowards systembuilding, onethatwasparalleled incities Manufactory inLambeth,London,founded1769,isalsorecognized as and Patterns’. chimneypieces andbuststo‘Brackets, Vases, Urns,&c.ofdifferent Sizes totwelvepagesofpre- (c. 1790) extends prepared ornamentfrom statues, Cases, Halls,&c.’, andthecatalogueofJohnHarrisinTheStrand, London of Bass- reliefs, welladapted forallKindsofCeilings,DiningParlours, Stair newandcuriousCollection Anglesea Street, Dublinadvertisedin1779 ‘a modification ofthearchitectural interior. William Salmon, astatuaryof by theplastershopsofLondonandDublinevidencesgrowing com- ingly extendedtodecoration, andthecommercial sculpture produced This standardisation ofthematerialcomponentshouseunsurpris- acted as‘anappealingadvertforthosewantingtoliveintheNewTown’. city’s buildingindustry, Anthony Lewishassuggestedthatthismayhave of festoons,roses and‘Gothick’ogeemouldings: in hisrecent accountofthe for example,were evidentlyabundantwithplasterworkornamentintheform lexicon oftrophies, drapery andfestoonsintimber. prompted carverandjoinerSamuelMcIntire toapproximate theAdam the absenceofcastplaster ornamentinlateeighteenth- century Salem potential clientsfortheirconsideration ( once formedpartofamanuscript catalogueofcompositionspresented to two orthree toasinglefolioandindividually numbered, suggest thatthey bas- room elevationsoftenincludeillustrations ofidentifiablestock- designsforceilingsand standardization ofmuchstuccoedenrichment: of building’. considerable portionofitseffect,andwhoseartisrequisite ineverykind terer as ‘a workman to whom the decorative part of architecture owes a Asnotedinthe previous chapter , thetownhouseaestheticrelied on reliefs availablefrom plaster shops; sheetsoffriezedesigns,often 118 Aswehaveseen,plasterworkwasrecognized asthemediumby 120

117

Drawings intheStapletonCollectionfurtherconfirm Aswellasinnumerable references to‘blocks’,paterae The operativemechanic Figure 3.17 Figure 3.17 Parent and guardian’s directory

115 Coade’sArtificialStone 121 ). Ontheotherhand,

describedtheplas- Decorating houses

119 intrade andas 114 114

116

151 152 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 152 Building reputations (£1 1s.)and‘A fableofthefoxand crane’ (£15s.). price book ornamented and enriched’, priced at 3s. per running foot, (Dublin, 1793) refers to a ‘Cove Cornice of the first Magnitude, completely whilePhilipLeviHodgson’s cific enrichments: finishes suchasplasterworkcornicesandfriezes,wellmore spe- or ‘estimators’,includedpricesforincreasingly standardized interior 3.17 ment manufactory byeighteenofPhiladelphia’s foremost housecarpenters ition flowers,&c’. drawing- included provision for‘goodmarblechimney- pieces’ intheparloursand ‘substantial house’inDublin, publishedinthe typical Londonhouse;anestimate forthecostoflabourandmaterialsa ornaments, enrichments,andmouldings’forthereception rooms ofthe Fuller Pocock’s spec- ways andreveals thedegree ofembellishmentexpectedthetypical, process ofdecorating alsoinformedtheliterature inmore prescriptive Numbered designs for plasterwork friezes from theStapleton Collection. By thelateeighteenth- century, booksofbuildingmensuration, ul os ytebgnigo h ieenhcnuy William built housebythebeginningofnineteenthcentury: room and ‘fancy’ cornices with ‘a frieze enriched with compos- (London, 1789) itemized costs for an ‘Apollo’s head and rays’ (London, 1789) itemized Modern finishingforrooms 123

Thepublicendorsement of RobertWellford’s orna- (1811)illustrated the‘suitable Irish builder’s guide

122 The modernmeasurer Thisproto- The builder’s industrial (1813),

153 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Salmon (twolots). Thorp (sixlots)andthestatuarysupplierofcastornamentWilliam James McCullagh(fourlots),MichaelStapleton(three lots)andCharles leaseholders includedtheplasteringfirmsofJamesButler(twolots), property developer. AtMountjoySquare, laidoutfrom 1789,theoriginal cities, andwhere theplasterer/ stuccoworker wasamore conspicuous or ‘stuccoworkers’,were apparently more numerous thaninotherBritish the practice wasinDublin,acitywhere specialistdecorative plasterers, it isinteresting, ifnotentirely surprising,tonotehowwellestablished classical taste,especiallyinprovincial townsandcities.Withthisinmind enon. Theyalsounequivocallysituatethehousebuilderasanagentofneo- of professional andcommercial motivationsthatgaverisetothisphenom- of housesbuiltinpairswithequivalentinteriorschemesreveals therange around 1800.Theevidenceprovided bythebuiltenvironment intheform the eighteenthcenturyinBritainandIreland, andinthecitiesofAmerica comitant partofaproperty venture emerged duringthelastdecadesof is perhapsunsurprisingthatthepractice ofdecorating housesasacon- growing standardisation ofboththeconstructionanddecorating trades, it Camden Crescent inBath(begun1788). as that between John Morgan, carpenter, and Mark Fowles, plasterer, at decorators formedmutuallybeneficialhouse- building partnerships,such latively built houses in Harley Street; played ‘afairlysignificantrole’ inthedesignanddecoration ofspecu- for thehousingmarketinthatcity. in 1811isfurthertestamenttotheimportanceofpre- prepared ornament present 33– 35 Gardiner Place,toaJohnHayesEsq. of Gardiner PlaceandthecornerofTemple Street, corresponding tothe manufacturer ofDublin,letthree adjoininglotsofground onthesouthside them ontothereal estatemarket.InAugust1790,WilliamCrosbie, asilk trades – eighteenth centurymasterbuilders – eitherwithinorwithout thebuilding building industryinitsentirety, itisclearthatinthelastdecadesof and documentaryevidence.Attheoutset,considering thespeculative business ofbuildingbyatleastthe1780sisprovided byextensivematerial Confirmation that the business of decorating was a constituent part of the Decoration andproperty speculation worker’ in that city during the 1790s. played ‘amajorrole’ inthecareer ofDanielRaynerd, ‘theleading stucco was acquired bytheRtHon.Lady MarthaSaunders. ‘Brick House’at33Gardiner Place,describedas‘latelyerected’ byHayes, was soldtoCharitySmith, widow,andinApril1792theinterest inthe the siteof35Gardiner Place‘togetherwithall buildingsandimprovements’ Giventhelargely speculativenature ofdomesticarchitecture andthe customarilydecorated theirproperties inadvanceofintroducing

125 Inmid- 1770s London,theplasterer JohnJohnson 124

127

126 128 In other instances, builders and in Boston, speculative building

130

129 Builttothestandard InNovember1791, Decorating houses 153 154 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 154 Building reputations modelled by hand, thefront and rear drawing- room ceilingsat64and65 a smallerfinancialoutlay forthereal estate investor. Although clearly and technicaldemandon thecontracted decorator, andsorepresented orative schemeacross twoormore housesnecessarilymadelesscreative practice ofsubcontracting are taken intoaccount: the duplicationofadec- tical stuccoedinteriorsis fully comprehensible whencapitalriskandthe described in1800asthe‘dwellinghouseofNihill Esq’. 1795 respectively; theadjoininghouse(58MountjoySquare, dem.)was were leasedtoSirFrancis HopkinsandtheRev. JosephPratt in1797 and developed bythedistillerChristopherNihill,numbers 59(dem.)and60 inaccessible). Nearby, onMountjoySquare West, onground ownedand houses (number34likelycontainsidenticalenrichments butisatpresent plasterwork ceilingstothefront drawing rooms andentrance hallsinboth oration wasevidentlypartofthebuildingprogramme, seenintheidentical two- 3.18 ( Figures 3.18 60), indicatesthatallthree were plannedandexecutedconcurrently rooms inallthree houses,ofwhichonlyonesurvivesintact(number ceilings tothefront andrear drawing- rooms andground- floor dining- Ceiling plasterwork infront drawing- room at 59 Mountjoy Square (dem.), Dublin,c.1795. room, rear- stair plan,withidenticalIonicdoorcases, the interior dec- and 3.19 ). Ofcourse,thedecisiontofitproperties withiden-

131 Theidentical

155 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document one another. though nowaltered tovaryingdegrees, alsohavemuchin commonwith to thearchitect SamuelSproule andthepaper- stainer George Kent in 1786, The interiorsofthepresent 36– 40 Merrion Square, builton ground leased and decoration. style detailing,theterrace’s interiorswere identicalinplan,construction that cityintermsofitsmonumental,regular elevationandrefined Federal- and supplierswhoeachreceived thetitledeedstooneproperty. Uniquein Robert Millsin1816(dem.),involvedaconsortiumof buildingtradesmen Row inBaltimore, aterrace oftwelvehousesdesignedbythearchitect is identical,withsimpletripartite ceilingcompositionsandplasterfriezes. Pemberton in1790,thesurvivingoriginaldecoration inbothentrance halls Mountjoy Square, builtonground leasedtothebricklayerWilliam reveal asimilarapproach todecorating pairsofhouses.At53and54 mining decorating contracts ofthisnature. design intheStapletonCollectionsuggestsarole fordrawings indeter- corresponding 1787, are similarlyequivalentincompositionanddetail: a Merrion Square, builtonground originallyleasedtoHallLambEsq.in 3.19 Ceiling plasterwork infront drawing- room at 60Mountjoy Square, Dublin,c.1795. Needless tosay, speculativehousesundertakenbybuildingtradesmen

135 Evidently built as a block – Evidentlybuilt asablock – eachindividual houseboasting 133

132 ThebuildingofWaterloo Decorating houses

134

155 156 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 156 Building reputations and marblechimneypieces ( Figure I.2 pine’, indoorshuttersof‘the bestkind’,stuccocornices,mahoganydoors ‘gentleman’ – 1810 and1812 – andleasedvariouslytotwo merchants, adoctorand Philadelphia, arow offourhousesbuiltbycarpenterJacobVogdes between in the Dublin ‘measurer’ orquantitysurveyorBryanBolger( and ornament. of circular andsemi- circular compartments, are alsoequivalentinform ceilings of the front drawing- rooms at 10 and 13 Bedford Square, composed – Square Bedford Square isidenticaltothatinthecorresponding room at1Bedford tified asnumbers1and10.Theceilingoftherear drawing- room at10 finishing’ ofthehousesinvolved‘several ofmyownaccount’,nowiden- in 1781,itseemsthatLeverton’s‘principalconcernpromoting the the interiorsof6and13Bedford Square, forwhichheobtainedalease architect andspeculativebuilderThomasLeverton.Aswellasdesigning by anumberofhousesinBedford Square, decorated todesignsbythe an elegantdiapermotif. A corresponding practice inLondonisrepresented 36– 38 were evidently cast from the same mould; and the stair halls of numbers 36 corresponds withthatat37;thefriezesinentrance hallsof37and work decoration across all five properties: the rear drawing- room ceilingat – doorcase the sameparapet height,patternoffenestration andtripartiteAdamesque finishes of425– 427 SpruceStreet inthesamecity, builtbetween1790and and composition ornamentsinhousesbuiltpairsacross thecity( cipal staircases inbothproperties, apractice confirmedbycomparingthe Composition’, referring totheornamentationof tread endsoftheprin- built housesinTemple Street included‘86CartouceBrackets &putingon the carpenter’sworkexecutedbyJohnLowforHall Kirchoffer’s twonew- system decorating, equivalenttosystembuilding,wasnotentertained. the notionthatthere existedintheeighteenthcenturyawiderculture of to one controlling influence in the decorative treatment of these houses’ – Stucco centers’overthesideboard recesses indining- friezes andcornices,‘stuccoflowers’forhallceilings, and‘Ornamental Temple Street inDublin,duringthecourseof1790/ 91, included enriched Plasterer’s workbyGeorge Potter forpairsofhousesinMountjoyPlace and orative workundertakenbyspeculativebuildersacross theAtlanticworld. the PhiladelphiaContributionshipprovides furthercluestotheextentofdec- property insurance companiessuchastheMutualAssurance Companyand held attheNationalArchives ofIreland, andtherecords ofPhiladelphia 40 inclusiveshare anidenticalbarrel- vaulted ceilingornamentedwith Extensivedocumentaryevidenceprovided bythesurvivingaccountsof 3.21 ). Survey ofLondon icuigterptto ffgrtv ne aes – includingtherepetition offigurative insetpanels whilethe 139

there are numerous consonanceswiththesurvivingplaster- Fire insurance surveysfor257– 263 SouthFourth Street, reveal that the interiors were fitted with floors of ‘best yellow

136 While such duplications and repetitions were recorded (1914) – (1914) – observingthatitwas‘afactwhichpoints ). 140

Thefinematerialanddecorative fl . 1787– rooms. Figures 3.20 138

1818), now In1792, 137

157 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document tical drawing- room overdoors featuring hand- modelled cartouches offloral ground leasedin1768tocarpenterThomas Browne, includes almostiden- terwork inthepresent numbers1and2Great DenmarkStreet, builton rococo plas- date theintroduction ofthesenewplastertechnologies: the builder. (Thatsaid,earlierexamplesofsystemdecoration apparently pre- in turn created a market distinction for the house decorator turned house repetition andshallowrelief wascertainlybestsuitedtothisprocess; this houses ofthe1780sand1790s: the neoclassicalstylewithitsinsistenceon duction andfacilitatedthegreater degree ofplasterenrichmentfoundin or castingplaster)from mid- century onwards increased therate ofpro- Indeed, thegaugingoftraditional limeplasterwithgypsum(plasterof Paris as partofaspeculativeventure, apractice particularlycommoninDublin. the increased insurance rates issuedforbothproperties in1793/ 1792 byhousecarpenterWilliamWilliams,almostcertainlycontributedto 3.20 35 NorthGreat George’s Street boastsoneofthemost comprehensive leased in 1784 to the Hon. Valentine Browne (later 1st Earl of Kenmare), and rocaille ornament. Composition ornament at 53Mountjoy Square, Dublin,c.1791. Plasterers turnedproperty developersroutinely decorated theirhouses 142

)Builtby‘painterandplaisterer’ Francis Ryanand

Decorating houses 94. 141

157 158 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 3.21 Composition ornament at 54Mountjoy Square, Dublin,c.1791. 158 Building reputations were equivalent in composition and ornament. including the tympanum over the door leading to the front drawing- 1789– 45 MountjoySquare (allnowdemolished),erected byMichaelStapletonin reception rooms andcirculation spaces.Photographs oftheinteriorsat43– enriched ceilingsandmural decorations throughout allofitsprincipal decorative schemesfoundina‘typical’three- bay terraced house,with to haverepeated thesamedecorative scheme athisself- built properties the mostrichlydecorated. Robert Philips (number 9), are unsurprisingly among 17, 31 and 47) and erected by Thomas Utterton (numbers 16, economic pragmatism: houses tration ofdecorative enrichmentwhilebetraying thesameconcernswith by plasterers turnedproperty developers similarly boastahigherconcen- ties ( a publisheddesignofMichelangeloPergolesi inmanyofthesameproper- 1777– speculative ventures inHumeStreet andNorthGreat George’s Street (built use ofasimpledesignconcentriccircles inthedrawing- rooms ofhis terer CharlesThorpalsoillustrate thesamepractice, seenintherepeated Figure 3.22 90, confirmthatprominent elementsofthedecoration ineachhouse, 90), andofpaintedceilingcentrepieces ofApolloinaphaetonafter ). InBedford Square, London,housesbuiltonspeculation 144

Edinburgh plasterer JamesNisbetappears

143 Houses built by the plas- room, 159 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document chimneypieces thatexhibitedsomevariety withinastandardized system. finished inside’,beingenriched withcarvedjoinery, cornicesanddecorated latively bybusinessmanJoseph Wetherill in1810– 11, were also‘fashionably lower downthesocialscale, suchas233– 241 Delancey Street, builtspecu- both properties. included ‘ornamentalwork’overthefoldingdoorsin thefront parlours of William JonesontwoadjoininghousesinFourth Street, Philadelphiathat 1812, ‘measurer ofplastering’Edward Evansvaluedworkbyplasterer mental terraces or rows first became economically viable. In September the firstdecadesofnineteenthcentury, whenthebuildingofmonu- in George andQueenStreets duringthe1790s. other ornaments intheEtruscan andgrotesque styles fi g.88from Michelangelo Pergolesi, 3.22 Ceiling painting inrear drawing- room at 10HumeStreet, Dublin,c.1787, andplate 21, including ‘ornamentedmantels’ onbothfirstandsecondfloors. Streets (nowmuchaltered), evidentlyextendedtoidenticalinterior finishes of thetwenty- two housesofSansomStreet, betweenSeventhandEighth tury. Builtspeculatively in1800– 2, theuniform sizeandspatialorganization common feature ofhousesbuiltforsaleor rent bytheearlynineteenth cen- Philadelphia, for example, refined decorative finishes were an increasingly standardizing ofinteriorornamentwasfacilitatedthrough othermeans.In that enjoyedmuchpurchase incolonialorearlynationalAmerica, the reception rooms. that celebrated developmenttofeature ornamentalceilingsinitsprincipal as speculationbytheplasterer CharlesColes,isoneofthefewhousesin confined tothemajormetropolitan centres: 5 RoyalCrescent inBath,built Evidence for a similar practice in American cities generally dates from 147

146

Indeed, while decorative plasterwork was not a medium Indeed,whiledecorative plasterworkwasnotamedium

Original designs of vases,fi gures, medallions,pilasters,and (1777– 92).

145 Norwasthepractice Decorating houses 148

Houses Houses

149 149

159 160 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 160 Building reputations ject ofour next chapter . place, augmentingabuilder’spotentialrevenue andreputation – thesub- represented adistinctcommercial advantageinacompetitivemarket- early nineteenthcenturies,analready decorated speculativelybuilthouse cities throughout Britain,Ireland andNorthAmericaintheeighteenth response tothesizeablequantityoffirst- rate terraced housingerected in served asasortofshowhomeforprospective clients. hall andfront parlourlikelycomprisedthepublicarea oftheshopandso and asamplerof[the]wayscompo[sition]couldbeusedinhouse’: the Mark Reinberger hasdescribedas‘athree- dimensional catalog of his work and shopinTenth Street, Philadelphia,builtin1810,constitutedwhat of speculativehousesbybuildersanddecorators. RobertWellford’s house worker andthe site.’ the designprocess wasmovingclosertothe architect, away from thecraft- important role inarchitectural practice generally, ‘Thecentre ofgravity of a challengetothesupposition thatasdrawings assumedanincreasingly agent ofarchitectural tasteinitsownright.Thispositionalso represents and decorating speculativerow housesneverthelessemerges asacreative Adam orGeorge Richardson, theartisanalnetworkinvolvedinerecting cism whencompared withthedesignsofJames‘Athenian’ Stuart,Robert arts. Iflessimportantfrom astrictlyteleologicalperspectiveofneoclassi- in thehistoriography ofeighteenth- century architecture anddecorative the preserve ofthepatron, architect andmanufacturer ofluxurygoods ating thetasteforAdamdecorative style,arole thathastypicallybeen ornament, italsoplacedthebuilder/ developer inthevanguard ofdissemin- interior decoration necessarilyencouraged standardization offormand suchacommercially drivenapproach to lary requires elucidation: while builder- With respect totheforegoing materialanddocumentaryevidenceregarding Conclusion decorations availablefrom hiscommercial premises inAngleseaStreet. the interiorsostensiblyformedaconspectusofsortoff- plaster bas- reliefs as thefocalpointofplasterworkceilingsandoverdoors, ment onskirtingboards, stair treads anddoorwindowarchitraves, to 1789– supplier WilliamSalmon’sspeculativehousesinMountjoySquare (built itself. industrial products’ ofthecapitalizedbuildingindustryasbrickterrace specialist trades, theinteriorsoftownhousesbecameasmuch‘refined ornaments intimberandplaster, andthenecessarysub- contracting of Ornament manufactoriesalsotookadvantageoftheserialdecoration Giventheubiquityoftwo- room plan,theavailabilityofready- 152 1 a lohv ce nti aaiy from compositionorna- 91) mayalsohaveactedinthiscapacity: But there are other ways to think about this phenomenon. In asopposedtoconsumer- driven decoration, animportantcorol- 154

153

150 Dublinornament the- peg made 151

161 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 12 11 and regionally diverseadaptationofashared architectural culture. antique prototypes andtheirliterary significations,andrather acredible amismanagedsimulacrumofclassical contingent onitsrealization: less pretation ofthatidiomdemandsareading germanetothecircumstances an artisanclassofplasterers, joinersandornamentmakers,thenitsinter- sical appearance ofthetownhouseinteriorwasincreasingly dictatedby 13 10

negotiated neoclassicismincomplexways. ginal contextbutwithrelated setsofmeanings’,itisclearthattheartisan Arnold, ‘partofacurrency ofmaterialculture disembodiedfrom theirori- to whichthe‘remnants ofantiquity’hadbecome,inthewords ofDana Notes non- of influencebetweenthenationalandprovincial, theclassicaland of classicismintheeighteenthcenturysuggests…overlappingspheres and ElizabethMcKellar haverecently argued, ‘thereception andspread 14

2 1 3 7 6 4 8 5 9

Robert 2003),pp. 100 – For arecent accountofthisphenomenonsee Academic , 2014 ), p. 61 . h erincutyhue architecture, landscapeandsociety TheGeorgiancountry house: ( Chicago : University ofChicagoPress , Viccy 2006 ), pp. 11 – of DesignHistory grandeur? Antiquity, grand tourismand thecountryhouse ’, in Kjetil Alistair pp. 3 – material culture,1600– Bernard L. ( Tralee Daniel Anne Albert Museum American style text: Georgian Group symposium Geoffrey Joseph Rykwert Press , 1987 ) p. 60 Albert . Press , 2007 ). Maudlin andHerman,‘Introduction’, p. 7. turies C.P. Conor Howard While eruditeBritishandIrishpatrons mayhaverecognized thedegree classical, theeliteandeveryday’. Curran (London : Tiranti , 1967 ), p. 71 . Fallan Puetz 7. Boime and : : Coltman Lucey Maudlin Rowan

Churchill HousePress , Davis Beard James , ‘ Design instruction for artisans in eighteenthcentury Britain ’, , , Herman Designhistory: understanding theoryandmethod

, , Dublindecorative plasterworkoftheseventeenth andeighteenth cen- , Artinanageofrevolution,1750– ( Salem, MA , h tpeo olcin designsfortheIrishneoclassical interior The Stapleton Collection:

( London : Victoria andAlbertMuseum , 1988 ), p. 21 . Thecultureofbuilding , ‘ Robert Adam’scraftsmen ’, in , 16. , , Robert Adam and 12 : 3 ( 1999 ): 222 – Robert andJamesAdam arctn h niu: neoclassicism inBritain,1760– Fabricating theantique: Adam

(eds), Bernard L. 1850

, The works in architecture : : Peabody EssexMuseumandUniversityofNewEngland ( Chapel Hill uligteBiihAlni ol: spaces, places and Building the British Atlantic world: : : catalogues ofarchitectural drawingsintheVictoriaand 2007 (London : Georgian Group , 1992 ), p. 27 . Herman 3.

); (

Oxford Dean : : (London : Collins , 1985 ), p. 98 . University ofNorthCarolina Press , , ‘ Lahikainen Introduction : : 156

Oxford UniversityPress , 1800 Ifweacceptthattheneoclas- Giles ,vol.1,part 1 ( 155

( Dana AsBarbara Arciszewska Chicago 16. , Worsely Samuel McIntire: carving an

’, in Arnold : : ( Daniel University ofChicago London (ed.) London Decorating houses Dana , ‘ The illusionof (

Stroud : Sutton , Adamincon- : : Maudlin Arnold 2006 ), p. 13 Bloomsbury ,

1773 ), p. i .

Journal 2016 ), (ed.), 1800 and .

161 162 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 162 Building reputations 18 17 15 27 20 19 16 28 23 21 24 29 22 30 26 25 33 32 31 34

Acatalogueofthe valuablecollection collection ofemblematicalfigures ( c.1750– 1830 ( London : Weidenfeld &Nicolson , Thornton 1998 ), p. 180 . Michael Fabricating theantique Coltman, the antique craftsmen literally subscribedto in theirreproductive craft’. Coltman, the prestige ofthecollectorandhiscollectionancientartefacts: a prestige thatthe Hamilton’s notes that‘theinventivefabrications’ofarchaeological volumessuchasSirWilliam of manufacturers likeMatthewBoultonandJosiahWedgwood, ViccyColtman National College ofArtandDesign John Thebuilder’s magazine late ingeniousartistMrJosephRose, decd drawings and designs; Library of architectural and other books … The property of the Christie’sArchive, London, 2006), p. 32 . and designinEuropeAmerica1750– Abigail MA : Pierre a result oftheconditionstheirmaking’. Asher William Pain 1769), t.p. Irish Architectural Archive, Curran collection, 77/ 6. society since 1750 Puetz, ‘Designinstructionforartisans’, 220. From adesign- historical perspective,‘thewaythingslook is,inthebroadest sense, 1806), p. 47 . Matthias plasterers. For theperiodunderreview see Muchresearch todatehasfocusedonidentifyingtheengraved sources usedby nify speakingpictures, ordiscourseofimages’. Richardson describes iconologyasbeing‘derivedfrom twoGreek words, whichsig- p. 500. Ainsworth reportsonprivatecollections (IV, iii).For asummaryoftheoriginalbillsee NationalLibrary ofIreland, characters from Shakespeare’s Theceilingwasalsointendedtoincorporate afigurative medallionfeaturing century stuccowork anditsEuropean sources National Library ofIreland’, MAdiss.,NationalUniversityofIreland, 1985, p. 3. EugenieCarr, ‘A catalogueoftheStapletonfamilycollection ofdrawings inthe The drawings are numbered AD2214– 2371. Architects, London. ‘Sketches ofOrnamentedFrizes’ isinthecollections oftheRoyalInstituteBritish Dublin; the ‘Sketch Book of Rose’ is held at Harewood House, Yorkshire; the bound TheStapletonCollectionofdrawings isheldattheNationalLibrary ofIreland, Ireland , 1991 ). New HavenandLondon Harvard UniversityPress , Turpin Benjamin Bourdieu Harrison- Moore , Snodin Darly

, p. 77. omaddcrto: innovationinthedecorative arts1470– Form anddecoration: Collection ofEtruscan,Greek andRoman antiquities ,

, , ’, in A school of art in Dublin since the eighteenth century: a historyofthe Aschool ofartinDublinsince theeighteenth century: a The practicalbuilder

, , and and Theornamentalarchitect oryoungartist’s instructor Abigail Distinction: a socialcritiqueofthejudgmenttaste Distinction: a

(London : Thames&Hudson, 1987 ), p. 7 . Daniel (London,1774– 78), plateXXII,figs 1– 3. Maurice , knowledge,taste,and sublimity, introduction to‘Part I: Harrison- Moore : Yale UniversityPress , A catalogueofthevaluablecollection ofarchitectural Raynerd 1984 , p. 45. Timon ofAthens , 2vols( London , 1779 ), vol.1, p. i . Howard ( Dublin : Gill &Macmillan , 1995 ), p. 52 , 61 . ( London , 1774 ), p. 3 . , ), p. ), p. passim , , vol.2,ReportNo.29,‘Powerscourt Papers’, TheAmericanbuilder’s companion , ., 12April 1799. 2 and Adrian . Referringtotheneo- classical products raet asocialhistorysince 1450 Ornament: . 2000 Joseph Dorothy C.

George , including Phrynia and Timandra Forty ( ( 1996 xod: Oxford : uln: Dublin : McDonnell , Objectsofdesire: design and ), pp.

Richardson Rowe

Blackwell Publishing National Galleryof 54 – , were ‘stampedwith (eds), , 5.Seealso Irisheighteenth-

, Iconology; ora ( Architecture Cambridge, Fabricating ( ( London , Boston ,

Peter 1870 J.F. ,

163 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 50 41 35 53 52 51 42 57 37 36 43 58 44 54 60 59 39 38 45

40 55 46 56 48 47 49

Schimmelman, Britain Clementini ’, logues ofbooksellersinBoston,New York andPhiladelphiafrom 1796onwards. Puetz, ‘Designinstructionforartisans’, 221. ‘ career failstoaddress thisimportant aspectoftheirpractice. See recent overviewofJosephRose’s A more Beard, ‘RobertAdam’scraftsmen’, p. 26. a ‘BritishOrder’ and a‘ScottishOrder’ (Adamvol.7,nos.69and 163). of Adamdrawings inSirJohnSoane’sMuseumcontainunpublisheddesignsbyfor Christine DublinJournal Alistair Robert RobertandJamesAdam, OncepartoftheStapletonCollection,itisillustrated in 149 (figs203– 4); OsterleyPark, pp. 163– 4 (figs235– 6). University Press Eileen Cra, Dublindecorative plasterwork Curran, society inIrelandandEngland, 1710– 1770 Timothy (May 1774). work ’, 1995),pp. 810 – For abiographical overview see architects 1600– C.H. Reilly, ‘BathI’, and theRoyalExchangecompetition,1768– Freeman’s Journal University Press , 2005 ), p. 362 . OxfordJournal MDnel IrishEighteenth- McDonnell, century stuccowork Ibid Herman andMaudlin,‘Introduction’, p. 24. Antiquaries ofIreland 1776), p. i . George ticeship toRose,appeared firston27– 29 April. DublinJournal Damie Castle, DE : Oak KnollPress , 1999 and handbooksavailableinAmericanlibrariesbookstoresthrough1800 ). vision foravilla1802– 1761. For theRoseapprentices, see London,GuildhallLibrary, MS6122/ 3, Plaisterers Companycourt minutes1698– Lahikainen, JaniceG. pp. 12 , 14 – 1988’, unpublishedMS(photocopy). drawings andpapersofthearchitect/ McIntire ofSalem: the carver andhisfamily, Bdl, Young carpenter’s assistant Biddle, Joseph Roseandcompany ’, . (London : Phaidon , 1975 ), pp. 237 – Harris and Journal oftheRoyal SocietyofAntiquariesIreland Stillman Richardson Rowan Mowl Schimmelmann Casey

15. James Carving anAmericanstyle Burlington Magazine , ThegeniusofRobert Adam: his interiors , 4– 6 April 1769. of4– 6 April1769.Theamendedadvertisement,notingtheappren-

, 25March 1780. and , ‘ Homewood: an Americanvillaanditssources ’, , ‘ York andPhiladelphia.RobertAdamtheConcorsi New Architectural books 11. , , 1840 , 13– 16 August1768,cited in 2001 Dublin Adam

, Country Life Abookofceilings inthestileofantiquegrotesque Brian 102 ( 1972 ): 58 – ,3rd edn( New HavenandLondon 2002 ): Kedleston Hall, pp. 22– Hall, pp. 22– ): Kedleston 3 (figs 20– 1); Harewood, pp. 141, .BuildingsofIreland 3( New HavenandLondon , , Works inarchitecture Works inarchitecture Architectural booksinearly America: architectural treatises Earnshaw ,exh.cat.( Georgian GroupJournal

(21October1922): 515. Howard 124 : 950 ( 1982 ): 322 . , pp. 16– 18. Columbani’stitlesappearinthecata- , pp. 3– 4.

Geoffrey , , p. 87. 75. Baltimore : nislrrcc: architecture, politicsand Aninsularrococo: p 36– , pp. Norton,‘Samuel 7, citingPaul F.

Colvin (London : Reaktion , 1999 ), p. 180 . 44.

Beard , vol. 1, part 1, preface. ,vol.1,part 1, Thevolumes , vol. 1, part 1 (July 1773) and part 2 part 2 (July1773) and , vol.1,part 1 69 , pp. 28– 9, andplates 150– 9. , Edward AbiographicaldictionaryofBritish ’, Johns HopkinsUniversity , , Journal of the Royal Society of 20 ( 2012 ): 103 – Decorative plasterworkinGreat

( New HavenandLondon

C.P. McParland 70 : 1 ( 1940 ), plate IX . : Curran Yale UniversityPress BuildingHomewood, Decorating houses Ashleigh , ‘ , , ‘ Dublin plaster 18. James Gandon

( London , Murray

2002 ), ( : Yale : : New Yale

, , 163 164 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 164 Building reputations 81 80 78 61 82 72 62 77 71 73 63 64 79 74

75 66 65 76 67 70 69 68

Maudlin andHerman,‘Introduction’, pp. 7– 8. Publishing , 1985 ), p. 5 . Sterling Dell 28( 1995 ): 102 – of LondonandWilliamRobertsOxford. 1985),p. Cambridge UniversityPress , 1990 ), p. Eileen 388 . ‘well worthyofnotice…particularlytheballanddrawing rooms’. favourably described Stapleton’s work in the firstfloor reception rooms as being literature ofBritishdomesticarchitecture, 1715– The commercial incentive fortradesmen assubscribersisnotedin BeatriceB. did nothavemuchimmediate influenceonthearchitecture ofitsowncity’. to designsofEnglisharchitect JohnPlaw,was theexceptiontothisrule,‘[it] WhiletheBinghamMansion (dem.) onThird Street, Philadelphia, builtin1789 pp. Gazetteer andNew DailyAdvertiser Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 19– Journal century architecture’, PhDdiss.,Trinity CollegeDublin,1991, p. 28. abibliographical approach toIrish18th- ChristineCasey, ‘Booksandbuilders: Murray Three ofthefascicles ofRichardson’s ( Philadelphia : Philadelphia Museum ofArt , 1987 ), p. 38 . London : Yale University Press , 2006 taste, andmaterialcultureinBritain and North America, 1700– ), pp. 267 – Fourth Street, Philadelphia ’, in Ace, LiteratureofBritishdomesticarchitecture Archer, Irish subscriptionstoarchitectural booksseeCasey, ‘Booksandbuilders’,pp. 30– Thesewere MichaelMaguire, Edward Robbins,Francis RyanandRobertWest. On Saothar F.A. GabrielleM. DublinEveningPost 1741– 68, forwhichfigures are readily available. of 2s.(24d.)perdayoverasix- day workingweek.Thisiscalculatedfortheperiod Press , 1997 ), p. 127 atbuildingsandlandscapes Atlantic: looking . in Conor CaledonianMercury HibernianJournal Britisharchitectural books Harris, picturesque &descriptiveviewofthecityDublin quated’ intheaccompanyingtextualdescriptiontoplate31 TheplasterworkbyMcCullaghandReynoldswasdescribedas‘somewhatanti- pp. 141 – Gazetteer andNew DailyAdvertiser Ceilings Richardson, Britisharchitectural books Harris, Lynda 21 June 1776 (number VIII). All were available from Robbins’s premises in St 33 – Upton D’Arcy Lucey on24– 27 March 1775(numberIV), 13– 15 November1775(numberVI)and 4;

Harris Fraser Boyd 13 2,figs 10– 11. Mulvin 10 Amy , ( ,‘ Wages ofskilledworkersintheDublinbuildingindustry1667– . Englishplasterers whosubscribedtothe Architecture intheUnitedStates Garvan 1990 ): 21 – , ‘ Pattern booksandpedagogies: neoclassicism andtheDublinartisan , , Lanier , ‘ Public buildingandcolonialpolicyinDublin ’, TheAdamstyleinAmerica1770– Henderson 23. Britisharchitectural booksand writers, 1556– (ed.), , 12– 15 November1773;

, , 29October 1782. , 11September 1773. , p. i. Federal Athensofthewesternworld Philadelphia: the and

Thefusionofneoclassical principles 37.Thewageof12s.perweekisbasedonanaverage rate

, ‘ , Bernard L. A family affair: the designanddecoration of321South A familyaffair: the , p. 86. , p. 71. John , 19November 1776. , 19November 1776. Herman Styles Ceilings

(

Oxford ( and Baltimore : 1820 Public Advertiser 91. , were announced inthe 1842

, p. 17. Everydayarchitecture ofthemid-

Amanda : : ( New York andLondon ( Oxford UniversityPress , ( Cambridge, MA London Ceilings

( Johns HopkinsUniversity Dublin Vickery , 1830 includedRichard Cox 1799 Architectural History , 5January1774; 1785 : :

James ( New Haven and Wordwell John ). Maltonmore (eds), ( : : Cambridge : Archer MIT Press Malton ,exh.cat. Hibernian : : Garland Gender, , 1998 ), 2011 ), 1918 ’, , The , 1. A ’, ,

165 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document

105

104 103 102 101 100

87 97 96 95 90 88 86 85 98 99 94 93 92 91 89 84 83

pp. 41 , 54 . life intheeighteenth century For Andrews see Reinberger, Pennsylvania Packet Pennsylvania Packet the mid- Atlantic Pennsylvania Journal pp. 324– 5. Graham, ‘Interior finishes’,inCarsonandLounsbury(eds), 1973), p. Mark Hill : University ofNorthCarolina Press , 2013 TheChesapeake house: architectural investigationbyColonial Williamsburg ), p. 79 . Carson Kevin M AdamstyleinAmerica Boyd, Anthoensen Press , 1940 thearchitect), pp. ofSalem 10 SamuelMcIntire,carver: – London : Yale UniversityPress , 2004 Peter ), p. 69 . tory’. Lahikainen, ornaments valuedat$35,describedas‘themostvaluableitem intheshopinven- TheinventoryofSamuelMcIntire’s estatein1811itemizedcomposition Georgian Society Anthony Utilityandbeauty Reinberger, AdamstyleinAmerica Boyd, Utilityandbeauty Reinberger, ‘To thePublic’,handbill published6April 1801. plary monograph. Thefollowingprécis ofWellford’s career isindebtedtoMarkReinberger’s exem- kingdom, orinEngland’. boasted oftheirsuperiority‘bothindesignandexecution,toany everdoneinthis he advertisedcompositionmouldingsandornamentsin‘the neweststile’,and 1989),pp. BuildingtheOctagon Antiques Show Andrews’ compositionornamentintheearlyFederal period’, Reinberger, studies ofCharleston’sornamentalplasterwork’(1994). of Pennsylvania, 2006, p. 40, citing unpublished research by Richard Marks, ‘Case Gaillard- Ford, ‘Thedesignandfabricationoftheplastered cornicesofthe Frances H. Ibid Society ofArchitectural Historians RobertL. Gazette Carl Damie America Press Harold AdamstyleinAmerica Boyd, ., 134. Lounsbury , Reinberger Guillery and 1964 , Stillman , 28October 1774. (Newark : University ofDelaware Press , 2003 ), p. 49 . Ronald Bennett House,60MontaguStreet, Charleston,SC’,MScdiss.,University Duggan Sweeney 10

Raley 91 James . On the rarity of decorative plasterwork ceilings in America see Willie ), pp. Utility andbeauty , , x.ct Wsigo,D,18) p 145– , exh.cat.(Washington, DC,1988),pp. 7; , 123 , pp. 127– 38. , ‘ Design process ’, in Thesmallhouseineighteenth- century London Hoffman , ‘ Early Marylandplasterworkandstuccowork ’, 38 ( Thedecorative work ofRobert Adam , ‘ Parnell analysisofhousetypes Square: an ’, ,

, ‘ Carving anAmericanstyle Utility and beauty: Robert Wellford Utilityandbeauty: Robert andcomposition ornamentin 50 – Kirker . Andrews wasestablishedinDublinbyatleast1790,when , 6December1793; , 15March 1785. High- , 29December1763; 1995 ): 16 – ( Washington, DC 1;Lahikainen, , and Dublin EveningPost style vernacular:lifestylesofthecolonialelite ’, in Bulfinch’s Boston1787– , p. 171. , p. 255. , p. 176. ( , p. 102; LanierandHerman, , p. 104. , p. 15. Utility andbeauty P.J. Charlottesville 24 20 : 3 ( 1961 11. Albert .

Carving anAmericanstyle Cary : Federal Gazette (eds), American InstituteofArchitects Press South Carolina and American General , p. 230.

Carson ): 131 – : University Press ofVirginia , , 11September 1790. Ofconsuming interests:thestyleof , pp. 89– , pp. 89– 90; Nancy Davis, ‘George 1817 ( Portland, ME and 5. (

London ( , 3September 1795. Oxford CarlR. Everyday architecture of The Chesapeake House The 1988Washington

: Academy Editions Decorating houses : ( New Haven and BulletinoftheIrish . 219; , p. Oxford University Lounsbury Orlando

Southworth- : Journalofthe Kimball, ( Ridout Chapel (eds), 1994 ), Cary , , , , 165 166 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 166 117 116 115 114 113 112 111 Building reputations 122 121 120 119 118 110 108 107 106 128 126 123 127 124 125 109

Conor August 1794. Paula DublinJournal BirthofmodernLondon McKellar, Edinburgh, 2006, p. 207. A.R.Lewis,‘ThebuildersofEdinburgh NewTown’, PhDdissertation,Universityof Smallhouse Guillery, MKla, BirthofmodernLondon McKellar, GeorgianLondon Summerson, Kmal SamuelMcIntire,carver Kimball, 1831),vol.2,p. 168 . John Robert Campbell profitable’ branch oftheplasteringtrade requiring ‘Judgment and Education’. Robert Campbell,whoin1747haddescribed‘StuccoWorkers’, asa‘genteeland city, 1660– P.L. Ireland 3( Joseph trade asplasterer, measurer ofplasteringand‘casterornamentalstucco work’. 1812– HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania (hereafter HSP), ‘DaybookofEdward Evans of Collections plaster shopsoftherococo andneoclassicalera inBritain ’, Elizabeth London Neil Smallhouse Guillery, 1764), p. 9 . Robert Neil Lucey, ‘Thescale of plasterworkproduction’, pp. 211– 12. ( 1975 ): 1 – 52: 52: ‘Harley Street’, in Press , 2012 ), pp. 194 andtheearly moderninterior Ireland andEurope: ornament – W.F. book J. Britain andIreland ’, in pdf , p. 6,accessed13June 2017. at builder’s guide society: the commercialization ofeighteenth- century England Ribre, Utilityandbeauty Reinberger, Conor John University Press , 1982 ), p. 10 . Haven andLondon of thispositionsee ( London : Viking www.ucl.ac.uk/ bartlett/ architecture/ sites/ bartlett/ files/ chapter12_ harley_ street. Quinan South-

Hodgson (London , 1789 ), p. 124 . Pocock McKendrick McKendrick Nicholson Summerson 18’, pp. 14, 18,22.Throughout thisperiodEvansvariouslydescribedhis 18’, pp. 14, Murphy Lucey Lucey ( NewHavenandLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 2009 ), p. 117 . Collyer Adam McKellar East Marylebone 21. London , ‘ Daniel Raynerd, stuccoworker ’, 1720

, , ‘ The scaleofplasterworkproduction inthemetropolitan centres of 4 : 1 ( 1992 ): 39 – Modernfinishingforrooms , ‘ Statuaries andplastershopsineighteenth- century Dublin ’, in

, , , 7May1754; (ed.), , (Dublin , 1813 ), pp. 209 , 213 . Ruinsofthepalace oftheemperorDiocletian atSpalatro The modern measurer Parent andguardian’s directory ( , , Manchester , , , ‘ The consumerrevolution ofeighteenth- century England ’, in , Theoperativemechanic, andBritishmachinist 1990 : : , The Londontradesman Philip , Yale UniversityPress , John GeorgianLondon : The birth of modern London: the development and design of the

Yale UniversityPress , Dan , p. 285. , p. 69. Sculptorsandsculpture1600– 218. ), p. ), p. Christine Brewer Temple Cruickshank (

115 London : Dublin Journal : : 65.

, p. 111. Manchester UniversityPress , , p. 45.

; and

and , pp. 45– 7. and Casey

, p. 78. , p. 173. ( Yale UniversityPress , Rachel ( J.H. Colin and London and Dublin ( London (London , 1747 ), p. 141 . 2014 , 12August1780; Plumb Neil

Lucey Thom Stewart 2003 ), pp. ( , PleiadesBooks, : London 1793 , Burton (eds), Old- 1811 , (eds), ,p ), p. SurveyofLondon 518 – 2000. , ,p ), p. Time NewEngland ThetownhouseinGeorgian ); , , 1769 78 Thomas 20; Thebirthofaconsumer Decorative plasterworkin LifeintheGeorgiancity Artandarchitecture of 111 . For laterreiterations ( 2017 1999 Timothy ( Bloomington JournaloftheHistory Hibernian Journal ), p. ; Dublin : Thebuilder’s price ,2vols( ), availableonline ), pp. Humphreys

1945 266 , Clifford . Thisechoes vols 51 and Four Courts ; repr. 172 –

( : : London , London ,

Indiana , 3, 65 : 3– 4 , ‘ , New 178 . Irish The , 13

167 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 136 135 134 154 153 152 151 150 149 148 137 132 131 130 129 156 155 147 146 145 144 143 142 141 140 139 138 133

Andrew Casey, National Archives of Ireland (hereafter NAI), Pembroke Papers, 97/ 448/382/ RD, 288134 and444/ 197/ 288135. PrincetonArchitectural Press , Richard ( Bath : Building ofBathMuseum , n.d.,), p. 35 . Highlands, NJ : Athlone Press , 1990 decoration inGeorgian Bath,see For asimilarviewconcerningspeculativebuildinganditsrelationship tointerior repr. 1960 ), p. 224 . SteenEiler Stapleton Collection Lucey, Ibid Utilityandbeauty Reinberger, Surveys 3116and3117,3120and 3121. PhiladelphiaContributionship(Archives), ‘SurveyBook1794– 1809’, Insurance 117: 4 ( 1993 ): 331 – London W. Edward RileyandLaurence Gomme(eds), 427/327/ RD, 278972, 430/ 79/ 278973. 492/31/ RD, 318983, 511/ 82/ 330346, 528/ 452/ 442/8/ 347321. RD, 285711 and451/ 259/ 289795. 416/ 306/ 277145. MaryEllen RegistryofDeeds,Dublin(hereafter RD)422/ Preface to Arnold, ‘Theillusionofgrandeur?’, p. 109. University Press , 1999 ), p. 18 . City attributed toEdward Evans For adescriptionofthismanuscriptsee and‘Pratts 4thStSouthhouse’. erties are described as‘Pratts 4thStN. house’ HSP, ‘Edward EvansDayBook’,3,10and14September1812,pp. 26– 8. Theprop- See Lewis, ‘BuildersofEdinburgh NewTown’, p. 130– 1. BedfordSquare Byrne, Stapleton Collection Lucey, 280/177/ RD,181183,282/ 40/ 181184. Anthony Pennsylvania, MutualAssurance Company(Green Tree) records, policyno. 3641. 2517; Historical Society of Philadelphia Contributionship Archives, policy no. NAI, BryanBolgerPapers, bundle ‘K’. NAI, BryanBolgerPapers, bundle ‘R’. Giles intheField, partII pp. 256 – nineteenth centuryar 2004),p. approachesclassicism: new toeighteenth- century architecture Company papers and backlashinlateGeorgian architecture’, pp.143–61,inthesamevolume. , fig. 36. ., p. 23. Michael Dublin : : 67, 306 . Yale UniversityPress , Hill Garvan Byrne xxiii Barbara

Rasmussen Hayward , , p. 585. . Ontheperceived threat thatcommercialization posedtotheearly Designsandtheirconsequences Forsyth , (ed.),

efr qae anarchitectural study BedfordSquare: , vol.1( 8.

Arciszewska

and , , pp. 93– 4, 104– 7, 118, 132. chitectural profession, seeAbramson, ‘Commercialization Thearchitectural surveys1784– MutualAssurance 1794: the (London: LCC, 1914),p. 153. , Bath. London,theuniquecity , pp. 37– 8. , pp. 77– 86. Charles hldlha: Philadelphia : ’, Pevsner Architectural Guides( New Havenand

, pp. 107– 11. 1999

2003 Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography and

), pp. Belfoure ), pp. 73 , 95 . Christopher ), pp. Elizabeth 30 – Mark 146 – Mutual Assurance Company , , 1 . TheBaltimorerowhouse

Survey ofLondon 50;andAyres, Reinberger McKellar 550/ ( New Havenand London

Woodward ( JonathanCape London: , 277144, 425/ (eds), ( London andAtlantic , ‘ , , A plasterer’s daybook ( Building theGeorgian The buildingofBath Aldershot : Ashgate , Decorating houses , vol.5: ArticulatingBritish 301/ 46/ ( New York 277146 and Parish ofSt 2. See also 1976 ), Yale: 1934 ,

167 168 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document twelve tothirteenyears, London fortheperiod1730– 1830 indicates anaverage tenure ofamere surveyofoccupancyrates in Grosvenor Square, purchasing ahouse.A erties forshortperiodsrather thanenterinto theexpenseofbuildingor squares, thesehousesappealedtothosewhooftenpreferred toleaseprop- Forming aconstituentpartofexclusivelydesignedresidential streets and built terraced housefortheirpied- classes ofLondonandDublinoftentookanundistinguished, speculatively As wehaveseen,despitethepotentialaffront tosocialorder theupper the BritishIslesandinNorthAmericarequires reiteration here. London, DublinandPhiladelphia,thecharacter ofeliteurbanhousing in economic order incitiesacross theAtlantic world. convenience anddecorumwere reflected in,anddependenton,thesocio- how issues such as location, quality of structural and decorative finish, auctioneers andotherpoliteretailers. Particular consideration isgivento advertised theirownproperty portfoliosandnegotiatedthelanguageof eighteenth andearlynineteenthcenturies,thefocusisonhowbuilders newspaper. Beginningwithanaccountofreal estateadvertisinginthe marketed andsoldtheirproperties, principallythrough themediumof now havingbeenconsidered, thischapterwillexplore howbuilders way istoadvertise’. in 1770, the British architect Sir William Chambers counselled, ‘the Surest Asked aboutthemostexpedientwaytodisposeofaLondontownhouse only limitedattention. architecture, themarketingandadvertisingoftownhouseshasreceived to theproduction andconsumptionofeighteenth- century urbandomestic ureswr vdnl vial o iia iie eid: in1780 a quarters were evidentlyavailableforsimilar limitedperiods: Whileawell- appointed townhousewasamarkofsocialstatusin Building sales:advertising andthe 1

Nonetheless,despitedecadesofscholarshipdevoted

2 Theprocesses ofdesigninganddecorating houses rpry market property 3

andhousesinDublin’sfashionable residential à- 4 terre (orbuiltoneinasimilarstyle). 169 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document specialisms decreased as advertisinggrew exponentially. – on announcementsforrental accommodationforsaleorlease such late 1730s, for example, the by magnificenceofpromises andbyeloquence sometimessublimeand negligently perused,andit istherefore becomenecessaryto gainattention is commondespised.Advertisements are sonumerous that theyare very early. Already atmid- century, DrJohnsonwas movedtocomment: ‘Whatever erally occupied‘alarger andmore prominent proportion ofthepapers’. English press betweenthe1720sand1780s,howadvertising gen- ponds withJeremy Black’saccountofthegrowth ofadvertisinginthe the polity, probably amajorfactorrestricting readership’ amongcertainclassesof the costofnewspapersrose steadilyduringtheGeorgian era, and‘was upper classes’, that ‘initsearlystagesofdevelopment,[it]catered primarilytotheDublin world. RobertMunter’shistoryoftheIrishnewspaperindustrysuggests recognized byastuteprintersandpublishersacross theEnglish- supplements thatwere overwhelminglydevotedtocommercial notices’. In the American colonies after 1760, some publishers ‘issued special November 1797. available furnishedorunfurnished‘bytheweek,month,year’in Street’ was‘wantedforsixmonths’;twohousesinMerrionSquare were furnished house‘intheneighbourhoodofStStephen’sGreen orMerrion contain aboutfiftyadvertisementsofincreasing specialization’. tous andhighlyspecializedliterary sub- genre, andadailypaper‘might By themid- eighteenth century, newspaperadvertisingwasbothaubiqui- Advertising andthegenteel consumer designs’. entirely filledwiththeboxesandblockcutsofadvertisingnotices and cial mainstayformostnewspapers’,andbythe1790s ‘mostwere almost mid- was devotedtoadvertisements: by century, advertisingwas‘afinan- the Georgian periodconsistedoffourpages,whichonepage(atleast) complexes introduced toAmerica. Crescent inBoston,wastheideaofgrouping private residences intourban classes. Not until the 1790s, with Charles Bulfinch’s design for the Tontine conceived aspartofanenclavestrictlydevotedtothehomespoliter the ‘typical’aristocratic townhouseinLondonandDublin,itwasnot inscale,spatialorganization andinteriorfinish, (built 1765) approaches, freestanding buildings.Thus,whilethePowel HouseonSouthThird Street American citiesloudlyannouncedtheirsocialdistinctionthrough larger, that advertisementswere ‘theLifeofaPaper’. Concernsabouttheethicaldimensions ofadvertisingrhetoricwere raised 9 Wiesm aesseilzdi atclrgos – Whilesomepapersspecializedinparticulargoods inthe

6 advertisinghadthepotentialtoreach abroad audience,afact 7

andcontemporary Americanobserversacknowledged 4

Bycontrast, themerchant eliteofPhiladelphiaandother Dublin Journal enjoyed a veritable monopoly 8

A typicalnewspaperof A

10 Thiscorres- Building sales speaking

5 While 12 11

169 170 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 170 Building reputations ectly by the distinguished residents themselves. Dowager CountessofShelburnewere allbasedon‘proposals’ received dir- houses belongingtotheKnightofKerry, theViscountessKingslandand Dublininthe1770s,saleof potential tenantswithoutintermediaries: in classes foreitherfindinghousesorattracting thebettersortoftenant. architects and friends, represented othermethods preferred by the upper than other dailies. aimed attheupperclasses carriedahigherproportion ofreal estatenotices correlated positivelywithbookandreal estateadvertisements’,andpapers of theeighteenthcenturyfoundthat‘ahighsocial classofreadership pioneering research on London newspaper advertising in the first half in 1779. erties in Lower Grosvenor Street and Bond Street on behalf of Lady St Aubyn purchase ofahouseinGrosvenor Placein1773andlookedatseveral prop- source asuitablepied- Chambers andRobertMylnewere oftenprevailed uponbytheirclientsto sometimes pathetic.’ land countedamongthe earliest newspaper advertisements. tising andits‘associationwithlower- class retailing’. as JosiahWedgwood, loudlydecriedthevulgarityofnewspaperadver- throughout thecentury, andthatmanyluxurygoodsmanufacturers, such environment itselfemerged astheprimemeansofmarketingforretailers in Georgian London,forexample,Claire Walsh hasargued thattheshop to signifiersofgentility. Inherstudyofadvertisingandmarketingstrategies guage ofadvertisingdeliberately responded todistinctionsinpolitenessand strategies utilizedbyretailers andmanufacturers, suggestingthatthelan- sumer class,recent scholarshiphashighlightedthesophisticatedmarketing bills uponeverywindow.’ scouting houseseligibleforsaleorlease,advisingaclientin1773,‘Isee Chambers described the advantage of a neighbourhood perambulation for Responding tothefashionforeveningpromenades, architect SirWilliam to theconsumerofreal estateintheurbancentres ofBritainandIreland. more ‘genteel’methodssuchasshopdisplaysandexhibitions. sumers ‘shiedawayfrom overtreferences tocommercialism’, favouring strictures ofsocialdecorum,Walsh furtherargues thatmiddle- class con- Frederick FloodathishouseinMerrionSquare. Dublin in 1782, interested parties were advised to make ‘application’ to Sir a newbreed ofpaperdevoted tocommercial publicity, commencing with taken bythe in 1700property advertisingamountedto less than6percentofrevenue were availableonrequest toWilliamHamilton,theproprietor oftheestate. Hamilton Village,onthewestbanksofSchuylkill RiverinPhiladelphia, Infact,despitethetaintof‘pushycommercialism’, R.B.Walker’s Similarly‘polite’methodsofpurchase andacquisitionwere available

18 For thesaleofLadyCatherineToole’s houseinGardiner’s Row, London Gazette 22

Indeed, notices for the sale or lease of houses and 13

à- Againstthebackdrop ofanincreasingly literate con- terre inLondon: Mylne advisedLord Abingdononthe 16

Word ofmouth,ortheadviceandassistance , thenthelargest circulating titleinthecity, 19

20 Otherselectedtoappraise In 1800, buildings lots in In 1800, buildings lots in 14

Indeference tothe 15 15

Although 21 21 17

171 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document appraisal. Street (1793),tobepostedintheRoyalExchangeCoffeeHouseforpublic streets andsquares, includingBeresford Place(1790)andNorthFrederick Convenient Streets, customarily ordered plans and elevations of new builders. Dublin’splanningauthority, theCommissionforWideand the publicitymaterialutilizedbylandowners,surveyors,architects and of architectural drawings andengravings, increasingly formedpartof means of publicity’. meant thatretailers hadfewqualmsaboutusingthenewspaperas[a] has recently argued that‘therelatively flatsocialstructure ofthecolonies monalities anddifferences inadvertisingbetweenBritainandthecolonies, Hart,reflecting oncom- the real estatemarketinAmericancities: Emma Moreover, anxietiesaboutbreaching decorumappearnottohavetroubled the launchof 4.1 Age ofthe General Advertiser company’s premises inNewBondStreet ( play inboththedesignofficesGrosvenor Street andinthebuilding scaled drawing ofthescheme,measuringalmost9feetlong,wason dis- an engraving of the Royal Terrace, its principal ornament; an impressively- Adelphi schemeinLondon,architects RobertandJamesAdampublished Evening Post lotteries – proportionally smallwhencompared withbooks,patentmedicinesand consumption. year later, duringthecourseofconstruction,thiswasexhibitedforpublic a York: advertised amasterplanforrow housesonStateStreet, New detsn nBiihcte – advertising inBritishcities – suchashandbillsandtrade cards were with aseriesoffinelyexecutedpresentation drawings illustrating the tury, ‘themostpopularoptionforbuyersandsellers,lessorslessees’. houses through newspaperswas,bythelatterhalfofeighteenthcen- called ‘halfpennyreaders’) wasconfinedtorental properties only, selling options notroutinely availabletothecolonialretailer andmanufacturer. Robert and James Adam,elevation of the RoyalTerrace at theAdelphi, London, c.1768– 69. Bytheendofeighteenthcentury, visualmaterials,intheform 28 accountingforonly8.5percentofadvertisementsinthe In1815,Irish- born architect JamesO’Donnellprepared and Advertisers in1749/ 50 for 29 Aspartofthepromotion fortheirextensivespeculative Daily Advertiser in1736),inaugurated whathasbeendescribedas‘the

26 Hartfurtherargues thatthemore politemeansof ’. 24 Whileannouncementsofhousesalesremained example – example – in1730(quicklyfollowedDublinbythe andinthecheaperdailies(theso- Figure 4.1 Figure 4.1 ). 30 These,together Building sales London 27 25

171 172 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 172 4.3 . Thomas Sherrard, proposal for west sideof Mountjoy Square, Dublin(detail), 1787. 4.2 Charles Bulfi nch, design for Tontine Crescent, Boston from the vol. 6,February 1794. Building reputations Massachusetts Magazine tion of Charles Bulfinch’s design for the Tontine Crescent in Boston in the to generate interest amongbuilder- speculators wasbehindthepublica- for Building’inthisproposed scheme( was evidentlycreated forthepurposeofadvertisingground ‘tobeLet veyor ThomasSherrard’s elevationandplanofMountjoySquare in1787 a published eight- page catalogue and lottery tickets survive.) Dublin sur- Adam firmwaseventuallyforced toselltheventure inalottery, forwhich prepared toattract thebettersortoftenant.(Everpragmatists, the spatial organization ofonethesehouses,inplanandsection,were

in1794( Figure 4.3 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.2 Massachusett ). Inotherinstancesitappears ); asimilarmotivation s Magazine , 173 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document sumer: perhaps unsurprisingly, thenobilityandgentry inthosecities sumer: perhaps London andDublinnewspapers hastodatefocusedontheelitecon- Independent research regarding theadvertising oftownhousesin The language of real estate advertising enquiries tothesurveyorJohnBrownrigg ( Figure 4.4 ). of treating’ foranyofthenumbered buildinglotswere requested todirect Dublin, nearthenewCustomHouse’,publishedc.1790; parties‘desirous design isrepresented by‘A mapofpartthelineGardiner Street, This more pragmatic approach totherealization of‘enlightened’urban notices forbuildinglotsinLansdownCrescent, Bathadvisedbuilders that: in order tosolicitcapitalinvestmentfrom developers.In1787,newspaper that amodelorshowhousewasusedinconjunctionwithplandrawings 4.4 John Brownrigg, plan of building ground tolet at Gardiner Street, Dublin,c.1790. when submittedtotheirconsideration. built onthespot,tobebetterprepared toformarightjudgmentoftheplan time itisrequest, thattheywilltakeasurveyoftheground, andhousealready bation atanearlyday, ofwhichtheywillhaveprevious notice;inthemean A planisnowmaking,tobelaidbefore theprincipalbuilders,fortheirappro- 31

Building sales 173 17 4 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 174 Building reputations most superbstileofthepresent fashion’. fashionable, convenient, and well finished house’, being decorated ‘in the 1795, a house in Buckingham Street, Dublin was described as ‘a most both ofwhichhintattherole ofthe houseasanagentofsocialcapital: in with propriety), followedby‘convenient’ (meaningsuitableorproper), Dublin throughout theGeorgian era was‘elegant’(referring tobeauty Robert Liston in Arch Street, Philadelphia was clearly predicated on its 1797, adescriptionofthe‘mansionhouse’British Minister world: in estate advertisingbetween different citiesthroughout theBritishAtlantic This problem ofinterpretation furtherextends toacomparisonofreal the more casualuseofthetermbyproperty vendorsandauctioneers. its designationinthe1667 ActforRebuildingtheCityofLondonand describe properties ofaparticularscale,notingthedifference between market acknowledges the problem of interpreting terms like ‘mansion’ to or ‘fitfortheimmediatereception ofagenteelfamily’. commodious interiors. powdering rooms), goodstablingandcoachhousesfashionable, the mostup- spect, butalsoproximity tocentres ofcommerce andtoplacesofresort), demanded houseswithagoodsituation(thatis,qualityofairandpro- by thesocialseason’. that is,thosewhoseresidence inLondoncontinuedtobedetermined ‘intended toappealaselectandricherproportion ofitsreadership; ally ‘outofstepwithitscirculation levels’,indicatingthatadvertisers largely drawn from thoselowerdownthesocialscale – was periodic- edrhp: advertisinginthe readership’: London ‘may have targeted only a section of the capital’s newspaper that thoseadvertisinggoodsandservicesinlateeighteenth- appeal toa‘polite’audience.Infact,HannahBarkerpointsevidence mind, housevendorsdevelopedavocabularydesignedspecificallyto fortheinformationofNobilityandGentry Esteem seen inthestylewhichhemakesuseof. Heistomentionthe Addison identified‘thegreat skillinanadvertiser’asbeing‘chiefly to ‘capitalmansions’,andhouses‘fitforaNobleman orGentleman’, priateness formembersoftheupperclassesare evidencedbyreferences for theattentionof‘ladiesandgentlemen’. that onecreated agenteelaudiencebysimplyaddressing advertisements that gentilitywasasignifiertoattract anyonewiththemoneytopay, and Colonial America,however, Richard Bushmanmakestheimportantpoint apply’. and readers were advised only that ‘none but Persons of Fashion need instance inDublin1765,thelocationofhouse waswithheldentirely ThemostcommondescriptorforpatricianhousinginLondonand 39

, or RachelStewart’silluminatingaccountofLondon’s real estate General Reputation to- date domesticconveniences(suchaswaterclosetsand

33 32

Inhisaccountofshoppingandadvertisingin Withthesecriteriaforemost intheconsumer of things that were never heard of … Gazetteer

36 Collectively, degrees ofappro- – apaperwithanaudience 34

.’ .’ 35 35

Asearlyas1710,Joseph

38 Inoneremarkable Universal century

40 37

175 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 1794, forexample,a‘spacious occasionally reached thelimitsofasomewhatrestricted vocabulary. In advertising aimedatthepoliterclasses,sodescriptionofreal estate terms; and lived in by the Right Hon. Lord Sydney’, was offered on favourable Dublin, ‘inwhichSirEdward Newenhamlived,andlatelybelongingto in 1774, the leasehold interest in a house in Granby Row, Dublin: long animportantsellingfeature forcityresidences inLondonand their shopinnearbyAlexandria. and Connor, carpenters,offered frame housesofvariousdimensionsfrom and kit- firmofMunroe houses were availableintothe early1800s: the Philadelphia, buildingstandardization wasnotlimitedtothebrickhouse, less demandforthetypeofrefined housingstockfoundinBostonor tion in1790,frame buildingsoutnumbered brickhousestwotoone. With the earlydecadesofWashington’s development,followingitsfounda- specifically toaddress thedemandsoflocalizedconsumermarkets.In city in1774.Infact,itseemsclearthatproperty advertisingwasadapted than areference totheLondonsystemofhouserates introduced inthat likely a generic use of the term, meaning of the best class or quality, rather Years intheOccupationof lateEarlofEglinton’. size; American cities. usually reserved forthebetterclass ofbrickhouseinmore established frame two- storey houseinGeorgetown wasdescribedas‘elegant’,aterm of genteelproperty inregional newspapers: in 1796,forexample,atimber Street ‘duringthecontinuanceofpresent Parliament’. 2nd EarlAldborough) advertisedthelease ofahouseinMarlborough no needforatownhouse, theHon.Edward AugustusStratford (later of office. In December 1768, without a seat in government, and to takeupfulltimeresidence inthecity fortheduration ofhisterm established in1765,fortheviceroy (theking’srepresentative inIreland) in demandedforfashionablehousing’thewake oftherequirement, liamentary seasononDublin’selitereal estatemarket,noting‘a surge has alsoremarked upontheimpactofvice- regal courtandthepar- fashion andthetasteofmetropolitan elite’. and the ‘considerable significance’ attached to ‘considerations of novelty, ciation employedinmarketingandadvertisingalltypesofcommodities, evidence whatJohnStyleshasidentifiedasthecomplexmethodsofasso- movement of aristocratic families betweentheBritish Islesinfluenced furniture’ was available at a valuation. storeys; thepurchaser wasfurtheradvisedthatthe‘ boasted an‘ JustasClaire Walsh notedageneral restraint inthelanguageofretail Anassociationwithadistinguishedmemberofthenobilitywas 41

areference to‘firstrate’ housesinPark Street, Bostonin1810was

46 in1775,a‘convenient’houseMayfair, Londonwas‘many elegant 43

Hall’and‘spacious elegant

42 Thishadanimpactonthedescription house’inPortman Square, London, 44

Taken together, these notices elegant 45

rooms’ onitsprincipal elegant

47 Sarah Drumm

48 Indeed,the Building sales household ergo

175 176 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 176 the fineandrent reasonable’. Building reputations advantage alone: ‘A HouseintheneighbourhoodofMerrion- advantage alone: ‘A in Dublin,commandingaviewofnearlythewholeMerrion- Mount Street Upperwaslocatedin‘oneofthemostdelightfulsituations central toFitzwilliamandMerrion- squares’, whileahouseinnearby described as‘themosteligiblelotofground inDublin’,being‘nearly any prospective tenants: respectable family,any prospective sober, tenants: respectable andorderly.’ and quiet,neartobutnotonthemarket;asrequirements of airy, polite,pleasing location butclearastothequalitiesofarea: areas are vague,inaprivateandsomewhatexclusivefashion,astotheir newspapers, Elizabeth Gray Kogen Spera noted that ‘The residential are unusual.Inherreview ofreal estateadvertisinginPhiladelphia classes ofconsumer – – suchasnobleman,gentleman,ladyor merchant social exclusivity, andsoreferences toaproperty’s suitabilitytocertain racy nor class- dictated residential areas specifically designed to cultivate eti 77 – ment in 1797 a mere twenty- – three words in total prioritized this The builderNicholasKildahl’seconomicallyworded property advertise- exchange’ forahouseinDublin; in ‘anairypart’ofBath,England,wasoffered foraten- month period‘in the marketsinbothDublinandLondon: in 1774,a‘wellfurnished’house Fitzroy Square’. Titchfield Street wasdescribedin1793asbeingbut‘afewpacesfrom ‘commodious’, ‘handsome’ and ‘finished in the best manner’ indicate an Government andtheso- called ‘RepublicanCourt’;related phrases like pretension andwere clearlyinvokedtoattract membersofthenewFederal residential), terms such as ‘elegant’ and ‘genteel’ signified houses of some In acitydominatedbymixed- use properties (oftenbothcommercial and or accommodation,toderive commercial advantagewithin themarket. descriptive notices were used to make clear distinctions in terms of finish house’ infactspokeamultitude.Nonetheless,occasionally longer, more newspaper advertisingto1800,where theapparently conciseterm‘brick explains thetypicallylaconicdescriptionofPhiladelphia townhousesin could beeverybitaspotenttheprintedimage. consumption, notinginparticulartheuseofspecialist vocabulariesthat description’ thatoperated withinthecommercial axesofproduction and considerable significancetowhathecallsthe‘verballanguageofvisual corroborated byadvertisementsofsingularbrevity. JohnStylesattaches advertised intheIrishnewspapers. furnished Apartments’inthepoliteLondonsuburbofRichmondwere of thebestSquares attheWest EndoftheTown’; London was‘situatedinagenteelStreet, intheneighbourhoodoftwo more fashionableaddress. In1784,ahouseinanunidentifiedpartof street orsquare couldalsotakeadvantagefrom a‘borrowed’ viewofa Philadelphia,ontheotherhand,hadneitheranindigenousaristoc- 52

In1796,anundevelopedsiteinFitzwilliamStreet was

54 54

49 whilein1787,‘genteelandpleasant

50 Housesadjacenttoaprestigious 56

Thisalmostcertainly 51

ahouseinUpper square’.

55 square – square – Thisis

53 53

177 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document President’s House’. which theSecretary ofStatenowresides’ was‘withinonesquare ofthe (the Binghamhouseitselffronted onThird Street). William Bingham’shouse,thenthemostdistinguishedresidence inthecity advantage ofaproperty inFourth Street wasits‘fronting theGarden’ of early nationalAmericanreal estate.InOctober1791,thesoleadvertised standing ofaproperty’s current occupant,remained adesirable qualityin early republic, proximity toprestigious neighbours,orthedistinguished teeth ofdebatesaboutprobity andluxury, andthesocialvirtuesof appreciation ofdiscriminatingconsumertastesingeneral. Indeed,inthe ition. tation tofashionablestreets rather thantoitsarchitectural compos- ‘three fineFronts’, buthere theemphasiswas on itsadvantageousorien- Dowager Countess of Shelburne’s house in St Stephen’s Green boasted begun in1754 todesignsofarchitect JohnWood, madenomention of of genteelurbanplanning. In1787,thesaleofahouseinCircus, Atlantic world.Thisistrue evenofBath,longcelebrated astheepitome as asellingpointincontemporary property advertisingthroughout the in architectural discoursethroughout thecentury, itisrare tofindthis standing ofthetenant. tion of the houses but noted the eligibility of the location and the social 1796 andoneofthe city’s mostprestigious addresses, offernodescrip- for the Seven Buildings on Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, built from location was evidentlydeemedsufficientinandofitself: advertisements ‘yellow BrickFront’. commodious newDwellinghouse’inCherryStreet, New York, boasteda 1764,a‘Verythis asanimportantsignifierforthebettersortofhouse: in references tohouseswitha‘brickfront’ inAmericannewspapersconfirm diately marketablecommodity. association withoneofthefoundingfatherswaspatentlyitsmostimme- in themodernstile’wasobviouslyanadvantagehere, butitshigh- senator from SouthCarolina’. Thatthehousewas ‘almost newandfinished was describedasbeing‘inthepossessionofHon.Pearce [ the publicauctionofa‘large elegant’houseinHigh(nowMarket)Street House (‘beautifulstonefront’). Adam, specifically 20 Soho Square (‘the Elevation is superb’) and Chandos 1770s, findingreferences onlytohousesdesignedbythearchitect Robert dition anddecoration ofhouses’inLondonproperty noticesduringthe Stewart discovered ‘anotableabsenceofremarks ofboththeexteriorcon- presentation tothestreet, wasrarely mentionedinadvertisements.Rachel – the civicmilieu itisinteresting tonotethatelevation ofahouse,its tectural theorizing – beingaprivateconcernwithpublicobligationto Infact,whileuniformity and palacefront designsgainedcurrency Inaperiodwhentheurbanhousewasincreasingly subjecttoarchi- 62 Materialsaloneoftendistinguishedaproperty, andthefrequent 60

In1803,the‘elegant’houseinWashington ‘in 61

InDublinin1771,thesaledetailsof Inotherinstances,thereputation ofthe 57

Somemonthslater Building sales sic ] Butler, ranking 177 178 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 178 Building reputations modular design. able forsaleorlease,althoughnonemadereference toitscelebrated 1787and1789,anumberofhousesbecameavail- connoisseur: between privileged theconcernsofhouseholderrather thanthearchitectural Crescent, arguably theparagon ofeighteenth- century terrace design,also correct styleofarchitecture’. a housewhose‘principalfront’ was‘particularlyneat,andinanew enrichments’; adjoiningthis,onthecornerofRaceandNinthStreets, was modern architecture, withmarblesteps,&c.andwreath tablets,asexterior houses’ onRaceStreet were describedin1810as‘builtthebeststyleof ‘every convenienceforafamily’. garrets, three atticrooms, twodrawing- rooms, andtwoparlours’contained its exceptionalarchitectural elevation,focusinginsteadonhowits‘four classification asa‘capitalleasehold’. Mr. JamesWyatt’; nodoubtthearchitect’s reputation contributedtoits by beingbuilt‘from thedesigns,andunderimmediateinspection of finished’ houseonthenorthsideofBedford Square wasdistinguished manner’ or‘finishedinastyleofsingularelegance’. lative terms;beingbuiltin‘anexpensiveanduncommonly substantial name mightbeinvoked,ortheinteriorapartments describedinsuper- idiom ofthespeculativelybuiltterrace. Insuchinstances,thearchitect’s Robert AdamandSirWilliamChambersworkedwithintheplainbrick tion and/ wehaveseen,importantfigures like or interiordecoration: as employing anarchitect toadaptoraugmentitselevation,room distribu- in a handsome row’. finished house’onTwelfthbetweenMarketandFilbertStreets was‘situate character appeared onlyintheearlynineteenthcentury. In1804,a‘well- in Federal- era Philadelphia,speculativelybuilthousesof‘architectural’ Cumberland Place’. the elegant and uniform Range of Buildings on the West Side of Great in London in 1794, described as ‘adjoining together, and forming part of posited asadesirable assetrelates tothesaleofthree ‘capital’houses noted that: otherwise undistinguishedmid- terrace houseinBaggotStreet Lower, auction oftheformerhomeDublinarchitect ThomasPenrose, an stile’ ( Plate 1 younger, were describedas‘uniform,wellbuilt,andfinishedinacostly Alfred Place,aresidential enclavedesignedbyarchitect George Dancethe survey ofthepremises. were acquaintedwiththetasteoflateproprietor mustbesensible ofon been attendedto,notusualin thecommon- style of building,whichthosewho with thegreatest durability aswellelegance,andmanyconveniences have As thishousewasdesignedfor theresidence of Mr. Penrose, it has beenbuilt Thevalueofthe‘typical’Londonhousemightalsobeimproved by ). 67 Giventhebespokecharacter ofelitehouseproduction

65 A rare examplewhere architectural uniformitywas A 66

In1790,‘capital,brick- built, wellerected Houses’in 68

Four ‘new and elegant three story brick dwelling 72

AdvertisementsforhousesintheRoyal

71 In1792,theannouncementof 70

In1783,a‘nearly 179 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document pied the‘principalStory’. by architect RobertAdam,the‘TwoSuitesofApartments’whichoccu- cipal apartments’or, inthecaseof1MansfieldStreet, ahousedesigned references to ‘drawing rooms’, ‘prin- in London and Dublin were used: orative finish.Collectively, suchdetailconfirmsthewayinwhichhouses vidual rooms (particularlydiningparloursanddrawing- rooms) anddec- spatial organisation (number and type of rooms), the dimensions of indi- distinguish properties ofallgrades. guage isahallmarkofauctioneers’noticesgenerally, readily adaptedto in Ireland’. for example,describeditas‘builtuponthebestPlanofanyBrickHouse the EarlofMornington’shouseinUpperMerrionStreet, Dublinin1777, were alsorare andhabituallyreserved forbespokeproperties. Thesaleof common (describedbelow),references tothearchitectural plan While references tothenumberandtypesofroom becameincreasingly (and marketed)byacarpenter. to mentionan‘upstairs’drawing- room refers toan‘elegant’housebuilt it’s interesting tonotethatoneofthefewPhiladelphiaadvertisements vating the drawing- room storey above ground level. (With this in mind, few oftheverygrandest residents adoptedthearistocratic mannerofele- ally reserved forthebestparloursinAmericantownhouses,andonly a of individualstoreys. As notedinChapter2,theground floorwastypic- descriptive generally and correspondingly less prescriptive about the use Plan’. though onlyhalf- finished, wasbuilt‘uponamostelegantandapproved plan ofmodernarchitecture’. houses in Merrion Square in the same year were ‘constructed on the best Mountjoy Square was built ‘on a much approved plan’; two unfinished be enhancedwithcleverphrasing. In1794,atypicalthree- bay housein mention, the particular qualities of the standard ‘two- room’ plan could also house inDublin,andtheirspatialdistributionarguably warranted special 21 feet×25andadrawing- room 20feet×25feet. 27 feet;in1814,thehouseonnortheastcorner hadafront parlour side boastedafront parlour20feet×22andadrawing- room 21feet× arily referred toroom dimensions: in1812,themiddlehouseonsouth father Robert Morris,boasted‘alarge halllaidwithmarble’ and‘apublic almost certainlythenotoriously unfinishedmansiondesignedforfounding 1799, ahouseonthenorthwest cornerofChestnutandEighthStreets, interior flourisheswere typicallyreserved foroutstanding properties: in rere’. ceilings, &c.’, includingan‘eatingParlour, 16 feetby17feet,bowedinthe Street, Dublinboastedrooms ‘finishedinthebeststile,withornamented More commonwasthedescriptionofinteriorarchitecture, particularly AdvertisementsforPhiladelphiahouses,ontheother hand,were less 77 74 Announcementsforproperties inPortland Square, Bristolcustom- Whilebothofthesehouseswere larger thanthetypicalterraced 73

Inthesameyear, Belvedere House,Great DenmarkStreet,

76 In1790,an‘ElegantNewHouse’inDominick 75

Suchsophisticatedmanipulationoflan- 79

)References toparticularfeatures or 78

Building sales per se

179 180 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 180 Building reputations no preference, orparticularcharacter’. charged 2s.for‘advertisementsofamoderate length,andwhichrequire MP Richard Edgeworth 7s. 7d. (approximately ½d. per word). an advertisementof155words lengthinthe 1755, ‘moderate length’wasevidentlysubjecttoarange ofvariables: in spicuous partofthedailypapers,whatconstituteda‘cheaprate’ ora echoed ina1736editionofthe been muchwantinginthisCity’. added that‘advertisementsmaybeinsertedatacheapRate,[which]has insertion ( price ofonedollarforthree insertionsas opposed tofiftycentsforone of group rates per‘eachsquare oftwentylines’,includingtheattractive 1810s, the for alengthy periodoftime,beingsubject tovaryingdegrees oflegal a richmanner’. being ‘excellentlywellplannedandarranged’ withinteriorsfinished‘in house at the northeast corner of Race and Ninth in 1810, described as representative istheannouncementofa‘new,elegantandsuperior’ window’; and privatemahoganystaircase, oneofwhichislightedbyaVenetian word). News- letter 1795,anadvertisementforthesaleofahousein nentially: in end ofthecentury, inDublinatleast,thestandard rate hadrisenexpo- conductor. Street wasfully‘insured andelectrised’;thatis,fittedwithalightning in1775,athree- available totheconsumer: storey brickhouseinArch advertisements before 1800,there were othermodernconveniences specific room designationsordecorative finishesinAmericanproperty standard inEnglishpapers. ofacolumn(inthree- rate of2s.for2 inches column newspaper) was notices wasrelated to,andsubjectadvertisingcosts.Bythe1730s,a and commercially astute. design andconstruction,suchmovestowards safetywere bothprescient with handsomewainscoatingthroughout thetwolowerstories’. the commonstock,being‘large andexcellent’‘unusuallyfinished house in South Third Street described it in terms that distinguished it from ally. may haveencouraged thecreative designofadvertisingcopygener- typical ofmanyreal estateannouncementsinDublinatthistime, and advertisements by the quarter: the advertisements bythequarter: the for moneygiventhereductions offered bysomepublishersforbooking have offered onefree advertisement foreveryeightbooked. Animportantdeterminantconcerningthetextuallengthofproperty 89

Serialadvertising,ontheotherhand,represented bettervalue 88

Theseelevatedcostsclearlyinformedtheeconomy oflanguage 80

anadvertisementforthesaleofChiefJusticeBenjaminChew’s iue 4.5 Figure 83

cost8s.8d.foramere twenty- two words (or4½d.per Aurora Inacitywhere fire insurance increasingly dictatedbuilding

82 However, whilethere are certainlyfewerreferences to group ofnewspapersinPhiladelphiaoffered arange ). Giventhatahousemight remain onthe market 84

In1734,forexample,the

86 Dublin DailyAdvertiser Asadvertisingbecameamore con- Flying Post

85 Almostthisexactwording was Dublin Journal , forexample,appearsto , whichfurther costtheIrish Daily Courant 90

Inthelate Saunders’s

81 By the More

181 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document abandoning woodcutillustrations around 1740. erally, the‘constantpressure offindingspace’waskeytomany journals was asignalpartofthegrowing sophisticationofadvertisingforms gen- industry argues that while the introduction of illustrations in the 1720s consumer market. limited theirappealforthose seekingtoattract thepoliterendof – medicines significant, perhaps,was an earlyassociationwiththemakers of quack ticularly’. innovation’, specificallyemphasizing‘theuseofdisplaycopymostpar- era describesitas‘atimeofreal significance…intermsoftechnical John Strachan’s analysisoftheadvertisingculture ofthelate Georgian strategies Visual February, 27February and2 March. in editionsof by plasterer andbuilder- speculator CharlesThorp,appeared repeatedly of housesinHumeStreet andNorthGreat George’s Street, Dublin,built house vendors.In1787,thenoticeofleaseholdinterest inanumber and administrative bureaucracy, suchanarrangement likelyappealedto 4.5 motifs. and Figures’ thatconstitutedanalready conventionalrepertoire ofvisual catch the Reader’s Eye’, describing the ‘asterisks and hands’ and ‘Cuts great artinwritingAdvertisements,isthefindingoutaproper methodto process generally. expensive andregarded asanimpedimenttotheletterpress printing technique – rare duringtheeighteenthcentury: relying onadifferent relief printing asterisk, the NB’ – asterisk, theNB’ – butattributestheirdeclineto overuse. of ‘devicesemphasis’ before mid- account oftheEnglishadvertisingindustryalsonotes theproliferation Advertising rates for the 92

Theuseofimagesinnewspaperadvertisingwas, however, 91

Proselytizing in1710,JosephAddisoncommentedthat‘the woodcut as opposed to movable metal type – woodcutasopposedtomovablemetaltype – itwasboth aogtefrtt s lutae oie – amongthefirsttouse illustrated notices which likely Saunders’s News- 96 96

RobertMunter’shistoryoftheIrishnewspaper Aurora newspaper (Philadelphia), 1817– 18. letter ; firston2January, thenagainon16

etr – century namely‘thehand,the

94 RaymondWilliams’s

Building sales 95

More 181 182 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 182 4.6 House advertisement, Building reputations the they represented (theactualproperty) ( evidently selectedforwhat theysignified(‘mansion’)rather thanwhat paper, however, reveals theuseofdifferent imagesfor thesamehouse; comparison made between different editions of the throughout 1792: a Franklin, whose ‘mansion house’wasannouncedinthe 1800 wasprompted bythesingularfameofformeroccupant,Benjamin tisement’, newspapers ‘didnotbuildontheopportunities for illustrated adver- five bays’width( 17 feetfrontage isdepictedasafreestanding, three- storey buildingof thetextualdescriptionofa modest,two- point: here storey row houseof example from the what theyrepresent remains opentoquestionandmisinterpretation. An ( Figure 4.6 formal appearance ( house inFishambleStreet onthesamepagemore likelyapproximates its image accompanyinganannouncementoftheleasehold interest ofa that there isnoparticularproperty inquestion;ontheotherhand, principal arteriesisobviouslyaccompaniedbyageneric illustration given small convenienthouse’wantedinthevicinityofa numberofthecity’s advertisement of1791for‘a (Dublin) are equallydifficulttoappraise: an Just asMaxineBerg andHelen Clifford havedescribedhow Franklin Gazette 97

Independent Chronicle ). Moreover, of thosethathavecometolight,theveracity of sothere are fewillustrated real estatenoticesbefore 1800 Figure 4.7 ). e York Journal New Figure 4.8 Figure 4.8 ). fullyembraced thewoodcutillustration atatime (Boston), 15October1798. 98

A few examplesfrom the

99 A rare exampleinPhiladelphiabefore A rare in1767represents suchacasein Figures 4.9 ).

100 Bythemid- General Advertiser Hibernian Journal 1810s,

183 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 4.8 4.7 House advertisement, House advertisement, NewYork Journal Dublin Journal Dublin Journal , 5September 1791. , 7May1767.

184 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 184 Building reputations graphic conventionsofnewspapercolumn inches,employingsimple space. the printedpageor, more likely, pressure from thedemandforadvertising pages, mayrepresent anearlyexampleofcreating visualdistinctionon pendicular tothemaincolumnsinmargins ofthefront andback Intelligence Building’ it accompanies.) The unusual method undertaken by the no formalcomparisontothe‘twostoryBrickHouse’ ortothe‘Frame pose – text describingparticularproperties: the stockimagecreated for thispur- and 1820( appears in advertisements for various auctioneering firms between 1818 thesame‘stock’illustration, forexample, property salesandauctions: interest onthepageandtogroup commonelementstogether, suchas By thisdate,imageswere employed bytheprinterlargely tocreate visual when thetextualdescriptionofhouseswasbecomingmore sophisticated. 4.9 and 18July 1792. BenjaminFranklin’s houseadvertised in More typicalwere designsthatworkedwithinthelimitations ofthe 101

ofarather grand, three storey, double- fronted house – often bears

newspaperinthe1710s,ofprintingreal estatenoticesper- Figure 4.10 Figure 4.10

). (Thisisunderlinedbycloserinspectionofthe General Advertiser General Advertiser (Philadelphia), 22 March 1792 Dublin 185 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document and Houses’( with titlessuchas‘SalesbyAuction’,‘Valuable RealEstate’and‘Lands arate, made- up blocks – andthecorresponding useofsectionheadings mastheads anddividingspacelines – arranging advertisementsintosep- ‘SPACIOUS’ and‘ELEGANT’, butalso‘COACH HOUSES’, ‘OFFICES’ for ahouseinBloomsbury, London,for example,capitalizedthewords terms (eitherleaseorsale) andconveniences.In1777,anadvertisement ically thoserelated tolocation,scaleand finish (‘elegant’or‘capital’),to the useofallcapsforkeywords throughout thebodyof text,specif- in 1735andagain1741. Faulkner, printerofthe size. Asameasure ofhissuccessinattracting repeat business,George enlarge thesheetdimensionswhilesimultaneouslyreducing thetype a symptomoftheriseinadvertisingcopygenerally, whichsawprinters typographic emphasestocatchthereader’s attention.Thiswasofcourse 4.10 positioned withinthecolumns’. British Islesadoptedasystemof‘regimented blocksofnotices,cleanly Real estate section (detail) from The principaltypographical deviceusedinproperty advertisingwas Figure 4.11 Dublin Journal ). Bymid- century, qualitynewspapersacross the 102

Franklin Gazett Italsocoincidedwiththedevelopmentof 103

, reduced thesizeofhistypein1729, e (Philadelphia), 6 April 1819. Building sales

185 186 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document .1 ‘LandandHouses’ section heading, 4.11 186 Building reputations page. printed textandwhitespace),commandattention oneventhebusiest scale (smallcaps),fonts(roman anditalic)colour(theinterplay of description might,through thesimpleyetcreative manipulationof throughout the1780sand1790sillustrate howarelatively shorttextual occasionally produced designsofstrikingvisualimpact.Advertisements spacing), tracking (word spacing)andleading(verticallinespacing), and weights,aswelltypesettingtechniqueslike kerning(character description commonbefore 1800.Here theuseofdifferent pointsizes in thePhiladelphiapapers,enhancingcustomarybrevity oftextual gance offinishandprospect. bold emphasis on a single word (‘house’) and references to status, ele- manages tobebothvisually arresting and textuallysuccinct,withits tisement aimedspecifically atagentleman,publishedinMay1782, and ‘LEASEHOLD’. ition ( represents alocalizedresponse toastubbornlyprevailing buildingtrad- the emphasison‘brickhouse’inmanyoftheseadvertisements arguably

105 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.12 ). Inacitywhere frame buildingswere prohibited onlyin1796, 106

104 Hibernian Journal Hibernian Journal A rare exampleofaPhiladelphiaproperty adver- A rare Someofthemostinteresting examplesare found

107

(Dublin),7July 1788.

187 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document and Christie’sofPall Malldominatedthegenteelmarket in London; ( Figure 4.13 variously inscribed‘A PlanofanEstate’and‘Thisindenture witnesseth’ panying illustration, whichfeatures ascrivener’sdeskwith documents ‘Leases Securities’,anaspect ofhisbusinessamplifiedbytheaccom- Northumberland, notesthathe‘SellsHousesandEstates’ andprepares trade card ofEnglishauctioneerJohnRiddell,basedinMorpeth, embraced thepractice – andprintmediaplayedakey role. Themodish although themostastutebuilder- speculators, asweshallsee,soon The saleorleaseofproperty wascustomarilyhandledbyauctioneers – houses Selling 4.12 Packet Illustrated houseadvertisements, , 13August 1787;and ). Duringthe1770sand1780s, Langford’s ofCoventGarden Gazett e of theUnited States Pennsylvania Evening Post , 11March 1799. , 7May1782;

Pennsylvania Building sales

187 188 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 4.13 188 Trade card of John Riddell, auctioneer of Morpeth, Northumberland. Building reputations ically available inadvancebyapplication tothetenantorauctioneer. or publicauction,and‘printed particulars’describingaproperty were typ- Day, totheHousekeeper’. Twelve and Three, on sending Notice of their Intention on the preceding in fashionableHenriettaStreet wouldbe‘admitted betweentheHoursof the sameyearinDublin, ‘Ladies andGentlemen’interested inahouse in Bedford Square, London,notedthatitcouldbe‘viewedbytickets’;in Langford’s announcementoftheimpendingauctiona‘capitalmansion’ monopoly oflarge estateandproperty advertisements’. was alsothepublisherof Coffee House,theforemost venueforreal estateauctionsin1730sDublin, mutually sustainingrelationship’. America, ‘thenewspaperadvertisementandtheauction were lockedina and thenewspaperasaninstrumentofpublicity’, howbythe1760sin recently described ‘the synergy between the auction as a method of sale real estatepagesofthedailyandweeklynewspapers.EmmaHarthas course, theverysameauctioneersadvertisedtheirimpendingsalesin Shannon &Poalk, T.B. Freeman andPeirsol & Grelaud. Ironically, of early nineteenth- century Philadelphia, the most prominent firms included h ethue eevee yapitetol: inMay1778, The besthouseswere viewedbyappointmentonly: 110

Pue’s Occurrences Houseswere soldorletby‘privatecontract’

108 Richard Pue,theproprietor ofDick’s , atitlethatenjoyed‘near 109

189 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document used inproperty auctionsand is instructiveintermsofhow thisapparently c. 1787,entitled‘Onacertain Auctioneer’,mocksthehyperboliclanguage auctioneer wasnotabove suspicion orreproach. A satirical verse poemof by theCourtofChancery. case Bells’,wasevidentlypredicated ontheenforced saleoftheproperty contents ofthehouse,however, from thesedanchair tothe‘HallandStair- the termsofleaseandground rent ( ital MansionHouse’anditsgrounds are present andcorrect, aswell thedimensionsof‘cap- by theauctioneerJohnDavisin1804: here announcingthesale ofAntrimHouseinDublinwasproduced A handbill 4.14 Street) anda‘setofgenteelchambers’in2 James’sStreet, the Adelphi. lots), ahouseinFinsburySquare, ahousein NewmanStreet (nearOxford on 15Januaryattwelvenoon,ofthree housesinRussellPlace(inseparate of Broad Street announcedtheimpendingauctions,heldsimultaneously Public Advertiser century Londonfirmisglimpsedinthereal estatesectionofthe might constituteatypicalworkingdayinsuccessful lateeighteenth- Bill of salefor Antrim House, Dublin, 1804. Despite beingmore agreeable totheupperandmiddlingclasses, the for 10 January 1795: here, theauctioneerEdward Smith for10January1795: here,

111 Thevolumeoftransactions andsalesthat iue 4.14 Figure ). Theemphasisonthe Building sales Oracle and 112

189 190 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 4.15 190 Trade card of I.Shields,auctioneer of Staff ord Street, Dublin. Building reputations observation thatanauctionwas‘awhimsicalthing’,theauthorcontinues: elevated profession wasperceived inpopularterms.Openingwiththe in theFashions’ and‘aConnoisseurineveryArticlethatbelongstoa runner ofthemoderninteriordecorator ( Another popularoptionwastheupholder(orupholsterer), thefore- I’ll wait’tilltheBiddersapproach inathrong! Such aBargin – indeed’tissoldfora Song! Don’t missitI beg – there canneverbe found What sayye?’tisgoingforfourthousand pound, I knowtheywere donebythe Rooms The Which appeartoyourviewinthe On so I thinkonmyConscienceyoucouldnothave hit spacious It’s And givesuptononethatI evercould trace! Don’t affectitatall,’tisan Tho’s closetotheRiver, the Let’s firsttaketheHouse,whichis In bothI amsure he’sexceedingly great! If it’sHouseshesells,orapretty Estate, charming are all , commodious an lofty House , the , seethe , convenient elegant Place Floors nicely laid noise best inthe Trade ofa Barge adjacent ground! beauties around ample , and fit, , and Figure 4.15 , 113 large ,

, ). Possessed of‘Taste 191 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Silk DamaskandPaper Hangings’. William Hanna,upholsterer ofChequerLane,asbeing‘inGoodRepair, with of thehouse.In1758,ahouseinDawsonStreet, Dublinwasdescribedby the character and quality of interior finish was foremost in the description Street andMerrionSquare. the 1790s,butalsohadhisownportfolioofhouses in DameStreet, Capel Dublin, witnessed legal transactions on behalf of the Fitzwilliam Estate during Street andGrafton Street. Mayhew, upholsterers and cabinetmakers, offered housestoletinArgyll that mightappeal to aparticularsocialdemographic. and wasthuswellplacedtoidentifythosearchitectural features ofahouse House’, theupholsterer frequently actedasanappraiser ofreal property and housebuilderThomasCarstairs. the realm offinances,procuring amortgageof$1,000 onbehalfofcarpenter mechanics withthesaleoftheirproperties; hisservicesoftenextendedinto aspects ofbuyingandsellingreal property), assistedanumberofbuilding Philadelphia, JohnBonsall,conveyancer(alawyerwhospecializesinthelegal entailments andothercovenantscodicils.Inearlynineteenth- often acomplexlegaltransaction involvingmortgagesettlements,hereditary solicitors orpublicnotaries,areminder thatthesaleorleaseofaproperty was for 40LoadsofHay’). venience (‘Coach- house fortwoCarriages,aStablesixHorses, aLoft on architectural novelty(‘BackRoomsbowedtotheAtticStory’)andcon- well builtHouse’inMarlborough Street in1771,hefocusedexclusively Higly, upholderofLowerOrmondQuay, advertiseda‘verygoodmodern convenience necessaryfortheimmediatereception ofafamily’. advertised toletforsixmonths,being‘completelyfittedup,withevery fashionable MerrionSquare; in1797,oneofthenewlybuilthouseswas Grosvenor Square and twohouses‘situateinthe vicinityofSt.James’s’. a ‘handsome’houseinBerners Street, a‘commodious Family House’near notices inthe3October1789 editionof they evidentlycatered toboththeupperandmiddling sorts: in three separate Town orCountry’.LocatedinBrutonStreet, adjacenttoBerkeleySquare, specialized in‘theengagement ordisposalofHousesEstates,eitherin lator inhisownright. customers onbehalfofother vendors butsoonbecameabuildingspecu- upholsterer GabrielWhistler, whoevidentlyshowedproperties topotential Meeting HouseonPineStreet. Meade ‘athisOfficeforSaleofRealEstates’,situated oppositetheFriends’ Philadelphia in1782,interested partieswere requested to attend toGeorge commercial real estateagent.For thesaleofahouseinSecondStreet in of theeighteenthcenturyoffered servicesnowassociatedwiththemodern ible componentinproperty marketsacross theAtlanticworld,andbyend Houses were alsodisposedofthrough theintercession ofbrokers, 116

118

InLondonin1773,therenowned firmofInceand In1786hetookleasesonthree lotsofground in 117

121 More interesting stillwasthecareer ofDublin Suchspecialistsbecameanincreasingly vis- 122

In London, Crosby’s House Agency Office InLondon,Crosby’s HouseAgencyOffice

115 120

Ontheotherhand,whenNicholas The World William Shannon, a public notary in WilliamShannon,apublicnotaryin newspaper, theyadvertised 114

Inmanysuchcases Building sales 119

century century 123 123

191 192 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 192 Building reputations transaction wasinfactthrough theintercession ofanofficeclerk). to ‘Mr. JohnGrierson,atMess.Adams’s, in theAdelphi’(althoughhere the sale ofahouseinMansfield Street in1773, which wasbydirect application Christie’s forthedisposalof theirhouses.Anexceptiontothisrulewasthe brothers, thoughnevershyofpublicity, appearalways to haverelied on the impendingcollapseof theAdams’buildingbusiness. and …executedaftertheirDesigns’,wasalmostcertainly compelledby the RoyalTerrace, theAdelphi,describedas‘the property ofMess. Adams Street, Sir WilliamChambersadvertisinghisspeculativelybuilt housesinBerners isnoevidence,forexample,of moting theirownbuildingprojects: there shrewd. Thatsaid,itseemsthatarchitects, too,were reticent aboutpro- builders ashousevendorsmightnothavebeendeemed commercially tion betweenthepoliteandvulgaraspectsofbuilding process, house the emergence ofthearchitectural profession, whichcodifiedthedistinc- bricklayer’ tohisgalleryofrisiblemoderntypes.Moreover, viewedagainst the ‘depraved tastesofbuilders’,andMatthewDarlyaddedthe‘Macaroni Gwynn tookexceptiontotheproducts ofthebuildingindustry, decrying wehaveseen,John came from manydirections andinmanyguises: as capital from theirestates,contemporary criticismofthebuildingworld ance ofhousebuildersandreal estatespeculatorstothegeneration of with gentility. Indeed,whiletitledlandownersacknowledgedtheimport- effort, theirstockdidnotrunhighamongaconsumersocietyobsessed Associated with the related worlds of building economics and productive the period,asmechanicstheybelongedtoalowersocialrank generally. enjoyed varyingdegrees ofdesignandfinancialautonomythroughout discouraged in the eighteenthcentury social imaginary. Although builders auctioneers, theprudenceofbuilderssellinghouseswasinmanyways consumer? of it: why wasthere anapparent reluctance tosellthehousedirectly tothe selling houses.Havingbuiltthehouse,builderthenneededtodispose financial matters,there are infactcomparatively fewinstancesofbuilders demanded agoodbusinessheadandproficiency inmanagerialand by auctioneers, valuers and estate agents. While property speculation eighteenth centuryAtlanticworldwas,aswehaveseen,typicallyhandled and contracting labour – thesaleorleaseofreal estatethroughout the the house- building process – from raising capitaltopurchasing materials bricklayers andotheroperatives assumedeveryresponsibility related to houses. Here, however, wearriveataconundrum.Althoughcarpenters, tion, sowenowturnourattentiontohowbuildersmarketedandsoldtheir building mechanictotheworldofarchitectural tasteandeliteconsump- Just as the purpose of this book is to consider the relationship of the houses selling Builders Leavingasidetheobviousadvantageofemployingprofessional 124 andthecommercial announcementin1772of‘Several Houses’at

125 TheAdam 126

193 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document while references todecorative finishes, spatialdimensionsand room types in theformof‘compleathot andcoldbaths’waterclosets.However, chimneypieces and‘ornament ceilings’aswellmodernconveniences asbeing‘finishedin anelegantstyle’,itboastedmarble Street: described London (built1775– 83). In1788,Grews advertisedanewhouseinHarley Robert Grews, oneoftheprincipalbuilder/ contractors atBedford Square, in builder- caseinpointisthecareer ofcarpenter led advertising.A good business ofbuildingisonethemostimmediately tangibledifferences eenth century. Attheoutset,however, theintimaterelationship withthe key figures inproperty developmentinthelastdecadesofeight- in Dublin,acitywhere, aswehaveseen,housedecorators emerged as of architectural tastes and fashions. This was particularly pronounced they alsohadtheopportunitytocapitalizeontheir particular knowledge – of genteel, elegant and convenient houses from London to Baltimore – auctioneers, upholsterers andreal estatebrokers announcingarange anything, waspeculiarabouttheiradvertisingstrategies? how didbuildersnegotiatethesensibilitiesofagenteelaudience?What,if orizing – period whentheurbanhousewasincreasingly subjecttoarchitectural the- diate ReceptionofFamilies’. and NorthGreat George’s Street, allofwhichwere ‘ready fortheimme- was offering‘elegantnewHousesofdifferent Dimensions’inHumeStreet newspapers. In Dublin in 1787, plasterer turned developer Charles Thorp by reference tothe‘For Sale’and‘To Let’sections ofeighteenth- the relative prosperity ofindividualenterprises,canoftenbedetermined dence, andthescaleofindividualreal estateportfolios,andbyextension Success inthehousebuildingbusinessevidentlyinspired marketconfi- an opportunity to create a positive distinction in the real estate market. of multipleproperties atanygiventime,somebuildersclearlyrecognized While auctioneersandreal estateagentsmighthandlethesaleorauction its mostbasiclevel,there wasnobuildingbusinesswithoutsales. marketing andsellingtheirownhouseswaseconomicbutalsopragmatic: at possibility ofraising one’sprofessional profile, theimpetusforbuilders pages ofnewspapers in London,Dublin and Philadelphia?Asidefrom the Street andHillStreet intheNewTown. builder Daniel Lamb advertised houses in George Street, South Frederick side ofChestnutbetweenSeventhandEighthStreets. carpenter WilliamHamiltonhadsevenhouses‘nowfinishing’onthesouth and related toinnovationsinmarketingmethodsandtechniques. defined as‘atimeofmuchresourceful andhighlyimaginativeadvertising’ end oftheeighteenthcentury, concurrent withwhatJohnStrachan has Whilebuildersgenerally followedthetoneandcontentdevelopedby What encouraged thosebuilderswhodidadvertiseinthereal estate Instancesofbuilderssellingtheirownhousesappeartowards the yet remained the province of the speculative building industry – yetremained theprovince ofthespeculativebuildingindustry –

127 Throughout thecourseof1792,Edinburgh

128 In1802,thePhiladelphiahouse 129

Building sales century 130

Ina

193 194 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 194 Building reputations entrepreneurial building operatives chose to dispense with auctioneers, ment, itisperhapsunsurprising thatsomeofthemostdistinguishedand sary skillsforasuccessful career inhouse building andproperty develop- that hedescribedasbeing‘abouttwo- thirds finished’. economic instability, was predicated on his desire to dispose of a house erty inArch nearNinthStreet in1796,againstabackdrop ofpoliticaland Philadelphia carpenterWilliamPowell’s equallyprecise accountofaprop- back ditto,23- 6 by20- 6 feet,thethird room, 16- 6 by15feet’. dressing room andwatercloset,i.e.front drawing room, 34- 6 by22feet, storey – is singularinitsfastidiousenumeration ofalmosteveryroom onevery house thatwitnessedthemostsocialtraffic, Grews’s inventoryofthehouse were relatively commonatthistime,particularlyforthosepartsofthe clearly intendedtoattract potentialdeveloperstotheimminentauction. in MerrionSquare (requiring ‘about300l.tofinisheachhouse’)was room widthsandstoryheightsofanumber‘joistedslated’houses due to financial concerns arising from the French wars, the enumeration of with mountingarrears inground rents ontheFitzwilliamEstateinDublin, the disposalofspeculativelybuiltproperties inuncertainmarkets.In1794, worded advertisementsinothercitiesmayhavearisenfrom concernswith spective ofsomeoneinvolvedinthebusinesshouse building. Similarly to Christie’s,Langford’s andotherauctioneers – makessensefrom theper- dimensions anddistributionofapartments – augmentingaformatcommon to thegarret floor’. to withdrawing- room floor;No.7,builtuptotheatticstory; No.8,builtup in thatyearas‘Nos.1,2and9roofed inwithtimber;Nos.3to6,built up Bristol’, occasionedthesaleofanumberunfinished houses,advertised tious schemesundertakenduringtheheydayofspeculative building in tacular failure atCornwallisCrescent, describedas‘oneofthemostambi- and helateradmittedthat it had economic slumpthatarose duringtheAmericanWar ofIndependence, involved inspeculativedevelopment: Bedford Square hadbeenbuiltinthe As abuilderofsomestanding,hewaskeenlyaware ofthecapitalrisks petitive environment, Grews mayalsohavewishedtoexpeditethesale. anxious todraw attentiontotheparticularmeritsofproperty inacom- Giventhatafinancialcompetence andaheadforbusinesswere neces- With suchdifficultiesinmind,thecareful delineationofthehouse the value. obliged tosellforlessthantheycostus,andletothersconsiderably under and completinghousesthereon …several ofwhichwhenfinishedwewere found ourselvesundertheunfortunatenecessityoftakingbackGround, vidual buildingspeculators],thatsomewere compelledtostop,andwe so severely affectedmanyofthepersonsconcernedunderus[i.e.indi- noting,forexample,thatthefirstfloorcomprised,‘3large rooms, 132

135

134

In1794,thespec- 131

Nodoubt

133

195 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document by awoodcutillustration ( Figure 4.16 ). 1803, theproperty was‘calculatedforagenteelfamily’andaccompanied and ‘finishedinamodernexpensivestyle’;few monthslater, inApril December1802thehousewasdescribedas‘elegant’ Massachusetts: in Raynerd, utilizedanumberoftechniquestosellproperty inCharlestown, and elegant’‘genteel.’ ously advertisedhishousesinCharlesStreet as‘veryconvenient’,‘large 1808 and1809,theBostonplasterer turnedbuilderJosephBatsonvari- elicit apositiveresponse and Biddlesoughttheprofessional advice of between AprilandAugust ofthatyear, this tersenoticeevidentlydidnot polite Londonauctioneer: Vogdes’s advertisementispractically indistinguishablefrom thatofa sale potentialbyadvertisingintwodifferent newspaperssimultaneously, adjacent tothenewlyimproving Washington Square. Maximizingthe carpenter JacobVogdes (d.1816),whoin1803wassellingtwohouses exampleisthePhiladelphiahouse adopted byindividualvendors.A good made plain in both advertising rhetoric and in the marketing strategies directly tothemarket.Here, thedifferent degrees ofbusiness brokers andsolicitors,electingtoadvertisetheirownproperty portfolios ‘A New Three storybrick House’. American real estatenotices,Biddleadvertised hisproperty simplyas 1799– speculation, the present 525 Delancey Street in Philadelphia (built turned authorOwenBiddleattemptedtodispose ofhisfirstproperty workshop premises inthespringof1801,celebrated carpenter Gray directly, butwere alsoadvisedof‘A BillontheWindow’. parties were invitedtomakeapplicationbuilderandspeculatorEdward Hill Street nearBerkeleySquare, Londonin1772,forexample,interested advertising methodspreferred byupperandmiddlingsorts.For ahousein Not allwere asperspicacious.Havingremoved toanewhouseand Elsewhere, individuals embraced different aspects of the more polite genteel tenant. N.B. If the Eighth street house in not sold in short time, it will be rented to a VOGDES. much tothevalueofthosehouses.For furtherinformationenquire ofJACOB contemplated improvements onthepublicsquare, whencompleted,willadd west sideofthepublicsquare, intowhichtheoccupanthasafineview.The and icehouse,&c.Thelatterisahandsomewellfinishedonthe handsome stileofmodernarchitecture, togetherwithacoachhouse,stables large newbuilding,withloftystories,builtofthebestmaterials,andina – on LittleSeventhstreet, alittlesouthofWalnut street theformerisa For saleonreasonable terms,twohouses,oneonEighth,andtheother FOR SALE HOUSES 1800). Incontrast tothesuccinctyet considered wording of 136

138

Batson’scompatriot,thestuccoworkerDaniel

140 Appearingrepeatedly innewspapers 139

Building sales 137 Between nous are 195 196 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 196 4.16 Building reputations ydrc detsn nnwppr: plasterers likeCharlesThorp and by direct advertisinginnewspapers: best materialsandfinishedinaveryhandsome stile’. folio, CorbitadvertisedahouseinSansomStreet thatwas‘builtof the and ‘well- at length,andthehouse itself was thendescribedasboth‘convenient’ the locationanddimensionsofbuildinglotwere itemized Shannon &Poalk, auctioneersinMarketStreet. Undertheirguidance, described as‘exceededby none’. on LocustStreet in1811,‘forconvenience andsuperiorityofstyle’,was house Corbit, presumably a relative, shared similar marketing skills: a the saleofproperties in1804beingbyapplicationtohimalone.Jonathan Edward Bonsall,Corbitwassooncapableofconductinghisownaffairs – his earliernoticesclearlybenefitedfrom associationwithconveyancer ation’. describing thehouseasbeingboth‘wellfinished’ and‘inagoodsitu- notice for the sale of a property in Fifth Street was brief but to the point, necessarily besoverbose.In1799,thehousecarpenter JosephCorbit’s House advertisement, In Dublin, seasoned builders fully embraced the opportunities afforded 142

Later, in1804, andthenboastingasubstantialproperty port- finished’. 141

Gazett A successfuladvertisement,however, neednot A eer (Boston), 13April 1803. 144

143 Whilesomeof

197 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ( Figure 4.17 as ameansofsinglingout hishouseswithinanexpandingmarketplace building industry, Thorpfrequently invokedhisprofessional credentials (becoming Lord Mayorin1800).Confident ofhispositionwithinthecity’s rise through theranks oflocalgovernmentinthedecades thatfollowed the RoyalExchange(1768– important publicbuildingserected inDublinduringthe1770s – including Thorp isaparticularcaseinpoint.Contracted todecorate someofthemost the emerging cultural emphasisonindividualrather thanuniversalagency: Georgian consumptiongenerally, JohnStrachan findsanequivalence with retailing – they embraced oneofthekeymarketingstrategies ofeighteenth- of interiordecoration, butalso,crucially, shrewd businessentrepreneurs, of theirownspeculativelybuiltproperties. Well versedinthechangingmodes cifically, buildinganddecorating industries – frequently announcedthesale Michael Stapleton,keyfigures inthecity’sbuildingindustry – or, more spe- 4.17 House advertisement, city effortsmountedonbehalfofcontemporary advertisers. vidual genius,thenthecultofindividualiscertainlyapparent inthepubli- the Romanticperiodplacesgreat stress uponthecreative poweroftheindi- proprietors, whobecomefigures ofsomecelebrity…Ifthewiderculture of With theincreasing emphasisonbrands comesanattendantfocusontheir product branding. Notingtheriseofbrands intheworldoflate ). In1780,describingapair ofhousesinGloucesterStreet, Freeman’s Journal 79) – 79) – hesubsequentlyundertookanassiduous (Dublin),1March 1781.

145

Building sales century century 197 198 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 198 Building reputations sorts, headded‘itisrequested thatnonewillapplybutPrincipals’. the Kingdom’.To furtherdistinguishhisproperty, andattract thebetter allow (onInspection)itisthemostelegantfinishedofDimensionsin than that it is the most complete one he has built, and the best Judges must gant newhousetolet’, Thorp felt it ‘unnecessarytosaymore initsFavour, in NorthGreat George’s Street: with asimpleheadlineannouncing‘anele- further underscored when,in1787,hecametodisposeofhisownhouse and architect’ ofDublin,hadthree houses‘almostfitforReception’ tolet: by within theboundariesofdecorum. In1787,AnthonyO’Reilly, ‘carpenter sound constructiontohisown reputation, arguably remained more closely proprietor’ – to mindfulsupervision – being ‘builtundertheimmediateinspectionof However, withasubtleshiftintextualemphasisfrom brazen self- Here, situation,style,convenienceandpermanence are dulynoted. most pleasingViewofLord Earlsfort’sbeautifulImprovements’ Street in1788asbeingbuilta‘neatelegantstile’andcommanding‘a on finishandprestigious neighbours – describingapairofhousesinHarcourt were arguably more astute.Whileearlyadvertisementspredictably focused plasterers), noted that: Thorp, thenMasteroftheGuildStBartholomew(forbricklayersand as ‘anentertainingcastofresourceful self- ation – – porary architectural taste specificallyinteriorarchitecture anddecor- Architect’ issignificant: here hebothproclaims hisknowledgeofcontem- description ofhimself(only kingdom’ isalsosomewhattypicalofinflatedadvertisingpuff, Thorp’s monly invokedbyauctioneersatthistime,and‘cannotbeexcelledin While ‘moderntaste’and‘masterlymanner’are quintessentialtermscom- economical indetail,admirably meetsallconsumercriteria: tation. AnadvertisementforahouseinMountjoySquare in1793,though notices presented thesesamequalitiesthrough the lensofhisbuilding repu- Stapleton, saidSquare. being built under the immediate inspection of the proprietor. Apply to Michael of taste – noexpencehasbeenspared torender itconvenientandpermanent, AHousetobeletinthisbeautifulsituation,finishedthe mostelegantstyle Althoughtypicallylessverbose,MichaelStapleton’spromotional notices Houses willbefoundtoanswertheExpectationof capital BuildingsinthisKingdom the highest Perfection. The builder has had excelled in this Kingdom Work, andPainting, theornamentCielings,&c.entirely new,and terly Manner, underhisownInspection,particularlythePlastering,Stucco Every branch in these buildingsare executedinmoderntaste,andamas- andcorrespondingly joinstheranks ofwhatStrachan hasidentified Stapleton,althoughclearly linkingthebuilding’seleganceand 150 . No Expence has been wanting in finishing them to

his nameappearsinallcaps)as‘arefined , andflattershimself, thatonInspection,these publicists’. the Honour of compleating the most the mostrefinedArchitect 147 Thisapproach was promotion

149 cannot be – 148 later later

. 146

199 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document and thus,byimplication,elevateshisproperties abovethecommonstock. have been more reticent when it came to marketing houses. businesses across London,Boston,Philadelphiaandelsewhere appearto of theUnitedStatesCongress between1790and1800. as decorator oftheSenateChamberCongress Hall(built1787– 89), seat venient three storybrickhouse’,withnoallusions,forexample,tohis role (Delancey) Street, Philadelphia,in1804,itwasdescribedsimplyasa‘con- Equally, whenWilliamThackara, Jrcametodisposeofhisproperty inPowell tisement claimeditwas‘toowellknowntoneedcommendation’. Joseph Batson’shouseinBostonwasoffered forsalein1811,theadver- under whichitappeared ontheproperty market,whenstuccoworker selves oninspection’. Dublin suggestedthatthe‘houseandpremises willbestrecommend them- developer JohnScott’sannouncementofaproperty inMountjoySquare, subtleapproach wastoallowthehouse‘speak’foritself. The A more all pastFavours, particularly shrewdly announcing ‘his most sincere Thanks to his generous Patrons for house’ with‘three rooms onafloor, stonestair- case, andlarge garden’. described ahouseinadjacentGowerStreet simplyasa‘handsomenew and builder- speculator ofanumberhousesinBedford Square, London, station asarbitersofdecorative tastes.In1784,ThomasUtterton,plasterer who didadvertiseapparently soughtnoadvantagefrom theirprofessional these distinguishedarchitects. Thosedecorators turnedproperty developers genteel meanstodisposeoftheirhousesbasedonassociationwith appears tohaveadvertisedtheseproperties directly, and likely secured more was partnertoSirWilliamChambersatBernersStreet inthe1760s;neither Street andPortland Placeinthe1770s,andplasterer WilliamCollins & Co.,theplasteringfirmfavoured byRobertAdam,speculatedinMansfield fashion – quiet, almostcasualreference tothatmostubiquitoussignifierofstyleand street ofhousesdistinctlyaimedatthemiddlingsorts. vicinity ofsomePhiladelphia’smore prestigious neighbourhoods,wasa and more economicallybuilt.Equally, Powell Street, althoughwithinthe decorated inthatdevelopment,housesGowerStreet housewere smaller Utterton’shousesonBedfordtion: while Square are amongthemostrichly the character of these particular properties likely dictated their descrip- the highestperfection’, ortoMichaelStapleton’s Harcourt Street houses descriptions of Charles Thorp’s houses in Gloucester Street as finished ‘to decorating ofurbandomesticarchitecture inthatcitybefore 1800.Here, or lease,confirmingtheincreasing standardization inthe buildingand 1790s makeplainthathouses were increasingly decorated priortosale ).Advertisementsforelite Dublinreal estate inthe1780sand Chapter 3 Interestingly, StapletonandThorp’scounterpartsinthedecorating Relatedtothiswasthepractice ofsystemdecorating (asdescribedin a London partnership, training or business connection/

152 Despitethelessthanfortuitouscircumstances since hisReturn fromLondon 157 157

156 ’, O’Reillymakes Here, however,

154 Joseph Rose Joseph Rose Building sales 153

licence – licence –

151 155 155

199 200 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 200 Building reputations April 1815,theywere ‘builtinthemodernstyle’of‘goodmaterials’. to sellhisthree speculativeproperties inThird Street inthesamecity with stuccofriezes’; rooms furnishedwith‘handsomemarblechimneypieces’and‘enriched in1793,a‘stonefronted house’inGloucesterStreet boasted available: advertisements record specificdetailsregarding thedegree ofdecoration cotted andornamentedwithenrichedCornishes’. ‘two HandsomeParlours, andalarge Dining- Room’ asbeing‘neatlywains- keen toemphasizethedecorative qualitiesofitsjoinerydescribingthe the structural qualitiesofthebuilding’stimberconstruction,Priggwas advertised a‘veryneatStrong- built House’inKingSquare; intandemwith strategies for selling houses. In 1762, Bristol carpenter Peter Prigg Atlantic worldembraced thefullcomplementofavailablemethodsand fireplaces, cornicesandstairways’. houses inRaceStreet were ‘newlypainted,papered, &c.withhandsome Atlantic worldisdeterminedbyclosereading: in Philadelphia in1810,four builders decorating housespriortosaleinothercitiesthroughout the more discerningclassofconsumer. could be‘donetothepurchaser’s fancy’wasperhapsdirected towards a announcement in1797thatahouse‘nowfinishing’Belvedere Place tial distributionanddecorative finish – theDublinbuilderJohnRussell’s an era ofincreasing standardization – intermsofarchitectural form,spa- was already ‘papered, painted,andelegantlyfinished’. more desirable residential neighbourhoods, wasdescribedas‘handsome’ house’ inLombard Street, ‘betweenThird andFourth Streets’, oneofthe as simplya‘newthree- story house’;laterthatyear, a‘three storybrick property inSeventhStreet, thenarelatively undevelopedpartofthecity, January 1803,PhiladelphiacarpenterJosephCorbitdescribed a priate: in economies, sobuilderscreated different textualemphases where appro- Indeed, justashouseswere builttodifferent specifications and consumer ‘strongly builtinthemoderntaste…fitforimmediateoccupation’. the upper end of Merrion- square’ were described as ‘well finished’ and aristocratic housingmarket.In1790,‘TwoElegantHousesTo beLetat and confirm the desirability of already- decorated properties within the as ‘completelyfinishedinaneatelegantStile’,underlinethepractice such – stable topayfor, mustcertainlybeanobjecttothosewhodonotwant noting that a corner house in Hume Street ‘not having coach- house and might havebeendeemedacommercial disadvantageintoaproper virtue, building partnershipofHendyandGibsonBaggot Street turnedwhat Fitzgerald’s’, widowoftheKnightKerry. but didn’tneglecttodescribetheproperty as‘nextadjoiningtoLady Anne and wellbuilthouse’inGloucesterStreet in1793waseconomicaldetail, James Bowden’sannouncementoftheleaseholdinterest in a ‘Fashionable Withtheaboveinmind,itisclearthatbuildersacross theBritish withtheadvantageofresiding inoneofthebestpartscity’.

159 inFebruary 1794,a‘NewHouse’inEcclesStreet 161

163 WhencarpenterJamesLyndall came

165 Andinthesameyear, the

164 Dublincarpenter

160 Evidenceof 158

Other

162 In 166

201 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Burton in were themostreticent. A terse noticeplacedbytheLondonbuilderJames and ‘well- to keepupwithachangingcommercial vocabulary’. marketplace becamemore complex;challengingbothbuyersandsellers sumer politicsdescribesasituationwhere ‘thelexiconoftheconsumer of thenineteenthcentury. T.H. Breen’s accountofpost- Revolutionary con- advertisements cateringforsociallymobile audiences inthe first decades demand forhousesofdistinction.Correspondingly, wefindanincrease in cities after1800,anincreasingly widestratum ofsocietycreated a the wakeofrevolution, coupledwiththeexponentialgrowth ofAmerican stock andinformedamore reticent formofadvertising. Nonetheless,in social order intheAmericancoloniesfostered adifferent typeofhousing finishes andconvenientfixtures andfittings.Bywayofcontrast, theflatter the greater proportion ofadvertisementsdescribinggenteeldecorative more sophisticatedapproach tomarketinginthedailynewspapers,hence like LondonandDublinthroughout theeighteenthcenturydemandeda size didnotfitall.Thehigherproportion ofupper- class housingincities and ‘commodious’properties tobolstercommercial interest. Butone house sellersandquicklyadoptedtheirvocabularyof‘elegant’,‘handsome’ Self-promoting housebuildersemerged incompetitionwithprofessional Conclusion some 586housesduringthe‘difficult’yearsof1792– 1802. has beenestimatedthathebuilt2,366housesacross London,including as toBurton’sextraordinary businessacumen: between1785and1823,it Capital’. Butmore importantly, thisshortadvertisementprovides noclue no otherparticularrecommendation thantheambiguousmonikerof‘very haps theaddress wasdeemedsufficientinandofitself – thehouserequiring remained oneoftheforemost aristocratic squares inLondon,andsoper- Created inthe1660sbyEarlofSouthampton,BloomsburySquare Marylebone, builder Edward Gray wastheliaison forthesaleofSirJohn sales? Inconcert withhisownspeculative buildingprojects inMayfairand advantages accruedtothose whonavigatedtheworldofelitereal estate legal feesandassociated administrative costs, whatotherprofessional advertising. Butasidefrom rulingoutthe middleman,andsoreducing and soldtheirownhouses directly through themedium of newspaper Dublin – in thesecities – likeJosephCorbitinPhiladelphiaorMichael Stapletonin terrace, Bloomsbury. Bloomsbury- To beSOLD,theLEASEofaveryCapitalFAMILY HOUSE,inBloomsbury- Aswehaveseen,someofthemostsuccessfulbuilding entrepreneurs electedtobypasstheservices offered bybrokers andauctioneers, finished’. The Times square. For particulars,applytoMr. JamesBurton,Southampton- 167 for20September1797represents acasein point. Indeed,someofthemostsuccessfulentrepreneurs 168

170

169

Building sales place, 201 202 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 202 Building reputations 10 a house‘convenientandelegant’inMountjoySquare in1795. Michael Stapletontonotethat‘allpossiblepains’hadbeentakenrender concerns withpersonalandprofessional reputation likelyencouraged extension hisproperty – abovetheordinary classofhousebuilder. Such but itmayalsohave served toelevatehisprofessional reputation – andby these premises hewasnodoubtremunerated forhistimeandservices, Vernon’s ‘capital elegant villa’ in Thames Ditton in 1780. Rouse’s houseinHillStreet, BerkeleySquare in1772andforLadyHarriet 11 Notes appealed tohousebuyers. the burgeoning buildingclasses.Housebuilderspatentlyunderstoodwhat confirms aprofessional confidencewithrespect toconsumer tastes among from thecommonstockofspeculativelybuilthouses.More significantly, it performance andreputation asameansofdistinguishingtheirproperties were cognizantofthesemanticsadvertisingrhetoricandcapitalizedon activities, theevidencefrom property advertisementsreveals thatbuilders 13 12

1 8 6 3 4 9 5 2 7

Stewart To date,theadvertisingoftownhouseshasfocusedonconsumerviewpoint.See Mne, HistoryoftheIrishnewspaper Munter, University Press , 2009 ), p. 76 . advertising the IndustrialRevolution ‘at themore modest endofthescale’,seeHannahBarker, in London.Onproperty advertisinginthetownsandcitiesofnorthernEngland, (1726– 2007. Drummselectivelychoosesfrom asinglenewspaperoverlongperiod apply”: Dublin townhousesoftheIrishMPs’, MLittthesis,UniversityCollegeDublin, Quotedin Bak TheEnglishpress Black, DE : Oak KnollPress , 1993 ), pp. 105 – Independence T.H. University Press , 1967 ), p. 113 . Jeremy The Idler M.H. Ben Marketplace ofrevolution Breen, DublinEveningPost LondonJournal James Myers Claire Robert Pennsylvania Press , 1987 ), pp. 106 – European city: historicalperspectives tury London ’, in Whilehousebuildingandsellingwere principallyeconomic Breen Port and Walsh 1780) inDublin,whileStewartoffersasustainedlookatsingleyear(1775) Raven Munter , Black Town house , 20 January 1761, quoted in , ‘ aristocratic townhouse in London,1730– West Endpalaces: the , ( Michael Rachel The marketplace of revolution: how consumer politics shaped American The marketplace of revolution: how , ‘ The advertisingandmarketingofconsumergoods ineighteenth- London : , ‘ Serial advertisement in 18th- century Britain and Ireland ’, in , (Oxford : Oxford UniversityPress , 2005 ), p. 54 . TheEnglishpressintheeighteenth century , 20 : 1 ( 1995 ): 27 . ThehistoryoftheIrishnewspaper, 1685– Clemens , 24October1780and30November 1797. Stewart Harris ,pp. B.T. Batsford , (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 2017),pp. 166– , p. 26.SeealsoRaven,‘Serial advertisement’, pp. 106– 7. 76 – Wischermann (eds),

, 89 ThetownhouseinGeorgianLondon

; Sarah Drumm,‘ “None butpersonsoffashionneed

, p. 55. Serialsandtheirreaders 1620– (Aldershot : Ashgate , 2000 ), p. 8. 6. 1962 , p. 60.

and Blanche B. ), p. ), p. Elliott 109 Shore . Seealso

1760 Elliott ( Philadelphia Family andbusinessduring (eds), ( Cambridge ,

A history of English Raymond Advertisingandthe 1914 171

81 . As agent for ( 172 : : London : Yale ( New Castle,

University of :

Cambridge

79. Williams

1830 ’, Robin cen- , 203 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 17 16 15 14 38 31 19 18 39 35 32 26 25 24 21 20 45 44 43 41 40 36 34 33 28 27 22 42 37 30 29 23

the reignofGeorgeIII Ibid Town house Stewart, Dublin. of theIrishnewspaper Munter, Walsh, ‘Theadvertisingandmarketing ofconsumergoods’,p. 83; ‘Serial advertisement’,p. 108. ition, however, didnotpreclude Wedgwood advertisinginnewspapers.SeeRaven, Walsh, ‘The advertising and marketing of consumer goods’, pp. 89– 91. This pos- p. 172 Parker’s GeneralAdvertiserandMorningIntelligencer Ibid. of lifeintheeighteenth century BathChronicle Nebraska Press , 1963 ), p. 2 ; Munter, Raven, ‘Serialadvertisement’,p. 103. DublinEveningPost Town house Stewart, rbesi aeils n utr: selected essays Problems in materialism and culture: ( London : Routledge , 1993 ), p. 541 . Cited inDrumm,‘ “None butpersonsoffashion” ’, p. 69. TheTatler p. 248 . Carson England Town house Stewart, Emma Town house Stewart, notices incomparative context ’, Lucyle GazetteoftheUnitedStates 3– 5 January 1775. DublinJournal England John The World Centinel ofLiberty 1989), p. 32 . PhiladelphiaGazette Town house Stewart, DublinEveningPost Richard L. Hannah Irish Georgian in America ’, Dublin CityArchives, WSC/ Mins/ 11, 4May1792– 19 July1793,p. 274. Ibid R.B. BuildingtheOctagon Columbia MirrorandAlexandria Gazette Alistair ( 1970 ): 132 – EveningPost ( 1973 ): 112 – ., p. 75;Drumm,‘ “None butpersonsoffashion” ’, p. 74. ., 112. , 30November 1782. Walker Styles .

, Hart

Rowan Werkmeister ( Oxford : Clarendon Press , 1998 ), p. 33 . ’, in Ronald Barker , 12April1710,quotedinElliott, , 22January 1794. , ‘ , ‘ Bushman , ‘ Manufacturing, consumptionanddesignin eighteenth- 43. 30. John

(New York), 31May1815.See (New York), Advertising inLondonnewspapers,1650– A BritishAtlanticworldofadvertising?ColonialAmerican“For Sale” , 11– 13 June1771; , 11January 1787. , , Vaulting ambition: the Adam brothers, contractors to the metropolis in

Hoffman Newspapers,politics,andpublicopinioninlateeighteenth- , 8July 1796. Brewer , 26February 1782. , 13June 1795. , 21June 1797. , , p. 73. , pp. 74,218, n. 19. ; Drumm,‘ “None butpersonsoffashion” ’. , p. 76. , p. 77. ( London : Sir JohnSoane’sMuseum , 2007 ), pp. 14 , 52 . , ‘ Shopping andadvertisinginColonialAmerica ’, in ( Washington, DC , p. 56. Munternotesasimilarreticence, p. 56. amongmerchants in TheLondondailypress1772– and and , 9July 1800. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians Peter J. Roy ( Charlottesville : American Periodicals Dublin Journal Porter

History oftheIrishnewspaper Albert , 15October1796.Citedin : (eds), American InstituteofArchitects Press History ofEnglishadvertising (eds), Franklin Consumption andtheworldofgoods University ofVirginia Press ,

, 5– 8 March, 1774; Of consuming interests: the style Ofconsuming interests: the , 2July 1783. 24 : 2 ( 2014 ): 114 – 1792 Toker 1750 ( ( odn: London Verso: ’, , ‘ , Lincoln : BusinessHistory James O’Donnell: an James O’Donnell: an , p. 61. Orlando Dublin Journal Building sales University of 15. , p. 105.

, century Ridout century History

1980 1994 ),

Cary 29 : 2 15 : 2 ), ), , , ,

203 204 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 204 Building reputations 49 46 70 57 56 50 71 58 47 59 51 48 60 53 52 61 55 54 72 62 74 73 63 75 64 67 66 65 77 76 68 69

Faulkner’s DublinJournal 2010),pp. 138 – Faulkner’s DublinJournal TheWorld Federal Gazette p. 545. Styles,‘Manufacturing,consumptionanddesignineighteenthcenturyEngland’, Saunders’s News- letter architectural history involvement atBedford Square appearsin to (Bedford Square Northisatpresent numbers12to25).NomentionofWyatt’s MorningHerald 2nd edn( Washington, DC : Smithsonian InstitutionPress , 2003 ), p. 169 . Dunlap’s AmericanDailyAdvertiser Casey DailyAdvertiser JamesM. MorningPost andDailyAdvertiser Sarah Martin Washington Federalist Saunders’s News- MorningPost wider search undertaken bythepresent authorhasyieldednonewnotices. for onecalendaryear(1775),Stewart’sassessmentwouldappeartoholdtrue: a Stewart, from the University ofPennsylvania, 1980,p. 49. Thisisbasedonareview ofadvertisements the cityplanandarchitecture ofthecityPhiladelphia,1750– 1800’, PhDdiss., impactofcommerce on ElizabethGray Kogen Spera, ‘Buildingforbusiness: the Ibid. News- letter subject tothetaxforlightingorsecuringrails round thegarden’. square oftheSquare andHospitalGardens, and that withoutbeinginanydegree it commanded‘themostextensive and pleasingprospect ofanyhousein Rutland- of ahouseatthecornerGardiner’s RowandNorthFrederick Street notedthat London : Yale University Press , 2012 ). and DublinEveningPost Faulkner’s DublinJournal DublinJournal fashion” ’, p. 75. DublinJournal New York Gazette Saunders’s News- letter BathChronicle Gazzetteer andNewDailyAdvertiser TheWorld Ibid. DublinEvening Post St James’s Chronicle ortheBritishEvening Post Poulson’s AmericanDailyAdvertiser Ibid. Claypoole’s DailyAdvertiser , 20May 1797. , 6March 1788. , 21June 1810. (ed.), Drumm

Robinson Town house Pennsylvania Gazette Goode , 13June1789; , 22January 1794. , 1April 1794. Theeighteenth- century Dublintownhouse , 19November 1793. , ‘ “ , , 11– 13 November 1777. , 15November 1787. , 9– 11 August 1777,citedinDrumm,‘ “None but personsof , 21October 1791. , 12December 1772. 48. , 17December1783.Itisnotclearwhichhousebeingreferred

, Fine rooms increase wants”: town housesofIrishMPs ’, in , Capitallosses: a culturalhistoryofWashington’s destroyedbuildings , 23February 1764. letter JamesWyatt 1746– toGeorgeIII 1813: architect

, 10November 1792. , 2January 1790.

( London andNewJersey , pp. 84– 5. Althoughlimitedtoonenewspaper( , 7January 1803. , 28March 1796 and 4May1796.Inthesameyear, thelease , 25May 1787. , 28February 1794and1May 1794. , 19– 22 March 1774. , 12– 14 April 1774. , 11– 13 June 1771. Saunders’s News- letter, fortheyears1749/ 50, 1760,1770,1780and1789/ for1799/ 1800. , 8November 1784. , 28February 1792. , 29September 1804. , 8March 1790.

, 20December1773– 1 January 1774. Andrew : 22March 1793. Athlone Press , ( Byrne Dublin : , efr qae an BedfordSquare: Four CourtsPress ( New Havenand Daily Advertiser 1990

); or Saunders’s Christine John 90; ) , ,

102 101 100

105 104 103 96 95 94 93 83 82 81 85 84 80 79 92 86 99 91 90 78 98 97 89 88 87

Walker, ‘Advertising inLondonnewspapers’,p. 127. Styles, ‘Manufacturing,consumptionanddesign’,p. 541. Williams, ‘Serial advertisement’,p. 115. in Irish newspapers has been attributed to the lack of advertising duty. Raven, Munter, pp. 100– 20. OntheuseofimagesinnewspaperadvertisingseeRaven,‘Serialadvertisement’, Studies inEighteenth- Century Culture ‘secured inevery partfrom fire bypatentiron plates’. Square, London was ‘finished in a superior style of taste and safety’, having been Pennsylvania Packet Poulson’s AmericanDailyAdvertiser Folder 23,undatednewspaperadvertisement, c. 1819. HistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania (hereafter HSP),ChewFamily Papers, Box131, Black, newspaper advertisementinlateseventeenth- century Londonwas2s. 2d. James 10 January 1795. AuroraGeneralAdvertiser GazetteoftheUnitedStates p. 221 . TheTatler Cambridge UniversityPress , 2007 ), p. 3 . in Munter, Character andare ofmoderate Length,are takeninatTwoShillingseach.’ Cited Thepaperannouncedthat‘Advertisements thatrequire noparticularPlaceor Munter, Raven, ‘Serialadvertisement’,p. 109. Walnut andFourth Streets. Notethatoneoftheseimageswasusedforahouseonthe northeastcornerof HibernianJournal John Raven, ‘Serialadvertisement’,pp. 109– 10. Walter New York Journal Maxine length noticebefore 1760.Munter, Muntersuggeststhatafour- orfive- line advertisementconstitutedamoderate History advertising and the trade card in Britain and France tury: ’, fashion”’, p. 57. of D/ 1567/ E/ 1/ Public Record Office ofNorthernIreland (hereafter PRONI), StaplesPapers, National Library ofIreland, EdgeworthAccounts,MS1522, f. 27. tising costs‘were seldomlisted’. Pennsylvania Journal MorningPost andDailyAdvertiser Raven, ‘Serialadvertisement’, p. 117. ment’, p. 112. 1725 alsocontributedtothereduction intype size. SeeRaven,‘Serialadvertise- illustrations were abandoned at this time. In Britain, the Stamp Acts of 1712 and (an ornamentalprintingblock designedtocarryanoutsizedcapitalletter)and Strachan The Englishpress

4 : 2 ( 2007 ): 146 . Tierney Ison History oftheIrishnewspaper Berg History oftheIrishnewspaper , 12April1710,quotedinElliott, Problems inmaterialismandculture History oftheIrishnewspaper , 3. Receiptdated23May1795.CitedinDrumm,‘ “None butpersons TheGeorgianbuildingsofBristol and , , ‘ , Advertisingandsatiricalcultureintheromanticperiod Advertisements forbooksinLondonnewspapers,1760– , 7May 1767. , 22August1791and7September 1791.

Helen , 20March 1775.In1795,a‘genteelresidence’ inFinsbury , 31January1787;

, p. 62. SeealsoElliott, , 8June 1799. Clifford , 2February 1796. General Advertiser , 21May 1777. , ‘ Selling consumptionintheeighteenthcen- , 21June 1810. History oftheIrishnewspaper

, p. 60. A more consistentuseofillustration, p. 60. 30 Pennsylvania Packet . 59.Earlierdeviceslikethefactotum , p. , pp. 61– 3. Hefurtherobservesthatadver-

( History ofEnglishadvertising 2001 ): 159 , p. 172. OnthispointseealsoJohn , p. 172. , 7May 1791. ( History ofEnglishadvertising London : . Thestandard charge fora Oracle andPublic Advertiser Faber andFaber , , 18August 1787. CulturalandSocial , p. 63. Building sales ( Cambridge : , pp. 104–

, p. 97. 1952 ), 1785 ’, 5. ,

205 206 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 206 Building reputations 139 138 137 140 136 135 134 133 132 131 130 129 128 120 119 106 118 117 116 115 114 113 112 111 110 109 108 107 121 127 126 125 124 123 122

Ibid. Columbian Centinel DailyAdvertiser December 1803. Raynerd, stuccoworker ’, Poulson’s AmericanDaily Advertiser AuroraGeneralAdvertiser 1809 and 1824. Ison, GazetteoftheUnitedStates Saunders’s News- letter Quoted inByrne, TheWorld Advertisingandsatiricalculture Strachan, PhiladelphiaGazette University ofEdinburgh, 2006,p. 250. A.R.Lewis,‘ThebuildersofEdinburgh’s NewTown, 1767– 1795’, PhDdiss., Saunders’s News- letter Donna chant, in1790.Seealso interest inthree lotsofground of30feetfrontage eachtoWilliamWarren, mer- RegistryofDeeds,Dublin,419/ February 1786. $500 fine. A1796ordinance hadprohibited theerection oftimberstructures onpainofa advised tocontactWhistler, who‘willshowtheConcerns’. For thesaleorleaseofahouseinDominickStreet in1786,potentialbuyerswere St James’s Chronicle ortheBritishEveningPost Faulkner’s DublinJournal Faulkner’s DublinJournal Robert Campbell George Villiers (attrib.),‘OnacertainAuctioneer’(London,c. 1787). Worcester. in thissameeditionincludedfreehold estatesinWarwick, Buckinghamshire and Oracle andPublicAdvertiser PRONI, AntrimPapers D2977/ 5/ 9/ 1/ DublinEveningPost 3001. HistoryoftheIrishnewspaper Munter, Hart, ‘A BritishAtlanticworldofadvertising?’,116– 17. Pennsylvania EveningPost century America Conor 1850 the namesofthosewhoworkedinadifferent capacityhaveyettobe established. 1774. Whilesomeofthedraughtsmen employedbyAdamhavebeenidentified, St James’s Chronicle ortheBritishEveningPost PublicAdvertiser William Chambers,forhisownresidence’. in BernersStreet whenitwasdescribedashavingbeen‘builtbythelateSir Thearchitect’s reputation was,however, usedasasellingpointforhisownhouse TheWorld (1787) IndependentGazette ( 2009 ): 121 – , 8December1802; ( Philadelphia : University ofPennsylvania Press , 2001 ), p. 58 . Georgian Bristol Lucey Rilling , 22November 1788. WilliamJ. 3. , ‘ To belet ’, ,

Making houses, crafting capitalism: builders in Philadelphia, 1790– Making houses, crafting capitalism: builders , 21March 1772. ( ChapelHill : University ofNorthCarolina Press , 1996 ), p. 67 . , 26September 1772. , , , 3October 1789. Bedford Square The Londontradesman , 30March 1808;1November 1809. , 19September 1778. , 23December 1802. , 14September 1782. Novak , pp. 231– , pp. 231– 2. Thesamehouseswere beingoffered forsalein , 1May 1794. , 2January 1787. Dublin EveningPost , 2– 5 March 1771. , 25– 29 April 1758. Gazetteer JournaloftheRoyal SocietyofAntiquariesIreland Old- Time New England , 7May 1782. , 8November1803; , 2February 1796. , , 10January1795.Otherproperties offered bySmith Thepeople’s welfare: law andregulation innineteenth- 517/ , p. 154. , 13April1803.Quotedin , 17April 1801. 274913. Thisrecites thetransfer ofWhistler’s , p. 159. ( London , 1747 ), pp. 169 – , p.27. Morning Post , 19December 1797. , 30December1773– 1 January 1774. 65 : 3– Gazette oftheUnitedStates , 30December1773– 1 January 4 ( 1975 ): 1 – , 5October 1814. Dublin EveningPost Jack Quinan 21.

70.

, ‘ Daniel

, 21

139 , 25

207 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 161 160 159 158 157 156 155 169 168 167 166 165 164 163 162 154 153 152 151 150 149 148 147 146 145 144 143 142 141 172 171 170

Poulson’s AmericanDailyAdvertiser HibernianJournal Saunders’s News- letter Irish architects 1720– 1940 Samuel Sproule for George Putlandin1783.‘Sproule, Samuel’,in between AntrimHouse(dem.)andthepresent 64LowerMountStreet, builtby DublinEveningPost JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians Conor Poulson’s AmericanDailyAdvertiser 31 July1784; and NewDailyAdvertiser a ‘handsomeNewHouse’andinOctober‘NeatCompacthouse’. InFebruary 1784theproperty wasdescribedsimply asa‘house’;byJuly, itwas 2014),p. 138 . RogerBowdler, ‘Burton[Haliburton],James(1761– 1837)’, inthe TheTimes Poulson’s AmericanDailyAdvertiser Ibid. Saunders’s News- letter GeorgianBristol Ison, Saunders’s News- letter AmericanDailyAdvertiser Lewis made eachthemostelegantinarea’, withoutproviding anyexamples. Edinburgh’s New Town ‘usuallycarriedclaimsthattheplasterworkanddecoration AnthonyLewisoffersthetantalizingproposal thatadvertisementsforhousesin Columbian Centinel Ibid. Ibid. Saunders’s News- letter Freeman’s Journal Saunders’s News- letter Michael StapletonandCharlesThorp ’, Lucey was replaced with‘refined artist’ ( in early 1781, and the copy was slightly revised: interestingly, ‘refined architect’ ( 2007 ): 266 – Strachan, Saunders’s News- letter Advertisingandsatiricalculture Strachan, Ibid. Poulson’s AmericanDailyAdvertiser Ibid. PhiladelphiaGazette tionary of national biography Saunders’s News- letter March 1780. DailyAdvertiser Marketplace ofrevolution Breen, 50182?docPos=1 , accessed28January 2015. , 17December, 1793. , 11March 1793. , 31March 1787. , 22July 1811. , 30November 1799. , , ‘ newspaperadvertisementsfrom Decoration andproperty speculation: Lucey ThebuildersofEdinburghNewTown 1767– , 20September 1797. Advertising andsatiricalculture 71. , ‘ Owen BiddleandPhiladelphia’sreal estatemarket,1798–

Morning HeraldandDailyAdvertiser

, 21March 1772; , 17February 1794. , 7July 1788. , 9March 1811.Quoted inQuinan,‘DanielRaynerd’. , 21October 1801. , 9March 1790. Thehousesreferred toevidently stood , p. 174.Theentrance hallwas‘panell’d’. , 22March 1793. , 15March 1793. , 25February 1797. , 8May 1793. , 16November 1787. , 24June1780.Author’semphasis. , 27April1795. , 14February 1784; , 18April 1815. , online, www.dia.ie , accessed1March 2015. , online, , p. 56. Freeman’s Journal , 21June 1810. , 6February 1804. , 22Januaryand5March 1803. , 29September 1804. www.oxforddnb.com.elib.tcd.ie/ view/ article/

IrishArchitectural andDecorative Studies Gazetteer andNewDailyAdvertiser , p. 15. . 7.Thesehouseswere still‘tolet’ , p. Morning HeraldandDailyAdvertiser 75 : 1 ( 2016 ): 30 . , 15October 1784.

1795 , 1March 1781).See ( Reading :

Building sales Spire Books Dictionary of Oxford dic- Gazetteer Anthony 1806 ’, Conor , 6 ,

10 , ,

207 208 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document is borneoutbyanadvertisementpublishedinthe or representative capacities. improper useofexotic,non- classical decorative stylesandtheir signifying ectly tothelinkbetweenmodernityandnovelty;humour residing inthe arches, garden seats, palings, obelisks, termini’s, &c. bearing titlessuchas As averypointedsatire aboutcontemporary booksofarchitectural design, Friend’: sent’, authorRobertMorrisannouncedanewpublicationonbehalfof‘a (1751), concerning‘thepeculiarFondness ofNovelty, whichreigns atpre- In asatiricalpostscripttothepreface of September 1758: Paladian, Roman,VitruvianandEgyptian. of Roomsafterthetaste Arabian, Chinese, Persian, Gothic,Muscovite, both townandcountry, Pavillions, SummerRooms,SeatsforGardens, allsorts TheophilusHardenbrook, surveyor, designsallsortsofbuildingswellsuited to Manner Barn Racks andadmirableSheep- Folds; according tothe delightful Cow- Cribs, superbCartHouses,magnificent BarnDoors,variegated Five Barr’d Gates,Stiles, andWickets, elegant Pig- styes, beautiful Henhouses,and There isnowinthePress, andspeedilywillbepublished, To whichare added,someDesignsof Houses English Originally printedintheSeraglio atConstantinople,andnowtranslated into Gulielmus DeDemiJenescaiQuoi Two Parts, onForty Pewter Plates,undertheimmediateInspectionof and Genius ocuin te ule rehabilitated? builder the Conclusion: inthe by ; a worknever Jeremy Gymp of Muscovite England New designsforChinesebridges,temples,triumphal (tillnow) . Thewholeentirely new,andinimitablydesignedin . and 1

2 Thatthiswasnotanentirely facetiousparody Arabian attempted Architecture; alladaptedtothe , ChiefArchitect tothe Fly- . 3 The architectural remembrancer

Traps, Bees Palaces New York Mercury (1750), this spoke dir- Turkish A Treatise onCountry Grand Signior , and and Persian Latitude Emmet of25 Don .

209 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document eighteenth- commercially astutepragmatism – hasbeenaleitmotifofthis study. as evidenceofageneral architectural illiteracy orofacreatively adroit and The question of how we interpret this appraisal of the artisan’s competence – at theupperend oftheproperty market( Figure C.1 ). the present day, speaktoadifferent classofartisan- led buildingpractice 1826), bothofwhichhave sustainedexclusiveprivate residences downto Square inDublin(laidout1792) and Louisburg Square inBoston(begun members ofthebuildingcommunity – thefinebrickterraces ofFitzwilliam in Londonare undoubtedlyatestamentto sharppractice amongsome porary newspapereditorialsdecryingthecollapseofpoorlybuilthouses ‘clowns’ certainly operated throughout the period under review – into thespeculativebusiness’demandsqualification: ‘any clownofabricklayerwithsomespare cashinhandcouldplunge tically witheringcommentthat,withtheriseoffree marketeconomics, profits (building).Withthisinmind,SirJohnSummerson’scharacteris- concerned asmuchwithmakingdesign(architecture) aswithmaking pattern booksandportfoliosofdesigns – itisclearthatsomeartisanswere focusing on drawing schools and builders’ academies, artisan- the tradesman’s engagementwiththeprocesses ofarchitectural design – necessarily preclude a concern with building aesthetics. By considering house builder – inotherwords, aconcernwithbuildingeconomicsdidnot speculative housingwasnotthesolemotivationofeighteenth- century the financialrisksinvolvedinrunningabusiness,capitalreturn from by regulations institutedbyprivatelandownersandcitycouncils an emerging standardization in construction and materials production, of New York’s real estatemarket. and ornament: O’Donnell unequivocallyresponded totheprevailing tastes were resolutely intheAmericanFederal styleintermsofscale,proportion façades ‘corresponded tothestylehehadacquired inIreland’, thehouses and consumer. Althoughanearlyaccountofhiscareer suggestedthatthe that domesticarchitecture wasadelicatebalancingactbetweenproducer State Street, New York, built1815– 17 (dem.),serveasapotentreminder cultural andeconomicfactors.Irisharchitect JamesO’Donnell’shousesin refuted, anddesign,aswehaveseen,wasinformed by a multitude ofsocial, was equalpartscommercial enterpriseandcreative endeavourcannotbe and industrializedcapitalism.Thathousebuildingintheearlymodernera expression oftherelational effectsbetweenurbanization,contracted labour aesthetic correspondingly understoodprimarilyasthevisualandmaterial and Philadelphiahasconsequentlybeenprioritized,thetownhouse carpenters andplasterers responsible forthestreets andsquares ofLondon design. The economic and managerial proficiency of the bricklayers, have typicallyemphasizedbuildingproduction attheexpenseofbuilding The richandcomplexhistoriesofurbandomesticarchitecture in andearlynineteenth- century BritainandNorthAmerica 4

Nonetheless,whileclearlyinformedby 6

whileindividual Conclusion authored contem-

209 210 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document C.1 210 Lusug qae Bso, eu 1826. begun Boston, Square, Louisburg Building reputations tastes ofthearistocratic andgentryclasses whoinhabitedthem.And artisan classofplasterers, carpentersandjoiners rather thantheenlightened house interiorsinLondon, DublinandPhiladelphiaishere ascribedtoan stituent partofspeculative building,theformandcharacter ofelitetown as opposedtotherow house. interior have been almost exclusively concerned with the bespoke mansion agent ofarchitectural anddecorative tastes,althoughstudiesoftheFederal ture, bycontrast, haslongunderstoodtheimportanceofartisanasan interpretation ofAdamesqueclassicismparticularly. (TheAmericanlitera- coming oftheneoclassicalstyledecoration generally, andoftheartisan asashort- ally produced plasterornamenthasbeenhabitually regarded Britain and Ireland, where the widespread use of pattern books and seri- specifically thecharacter oftheurbaninterior. Thisisparticularlytrueof home, hasalsobeendetrimentaltoourunderstanding oftheurbanhouse, on eighteenthcentury domesticlifeandthematerialcultures ofhouseand ography oftheterraced townhouse,stillprevalent intherecent literatures The separation of house building and house decorating in the histori-

7 )Recognizingthatdecoration formedacon- 211 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document multivalent identityoftheearlymodernartisan. a strictly‘production- centred definition’whenconsideringthecomplex, writing foranearlierperiod,JamesFarr hascautionedagainstassuming luxury goods manufacturers, auctioneers and polite retailers. Although tising rhetoric,andemployedasophisticatedvocabularythatemulated that builders were cognizant of the semantics of marketing and adver- newspaper advertisements,trade cards andotherprintmediareveals incentive forbuildingmechanicstoinvestinreal estate,theevidencefrom ture ofhisworkinglifeappears.Whiletheprofit margin wasaprimary the buildingtrades incontemporary printmedia – amore complexpic- professional mobility;appraising thetextualandvisualrepresentations of cing thewiderdiscoursesconcerninggentility, socialperformativityand eighteenth- sional distinction. cial billhead,unambiguouslysignalledsuchaconcern forcreating profes- Leoni’s transcription oftheportrait ofPalladio from thefrontispiece toGiacomo head’ withinthecity’smercantile Lawnmarketdistrict,coupledwithhis maker andhousewrightFrancis Brodie’s premises ‘atthesignofPalladio’s the heartofearlymodern‘British’architectural taste. diverse andstylisticallyinnovativeresponses totheclassicalparadigm at decoration inhousesfrom PhiladelphiatoCharleston,forexample,are London andthedistinctivelyAmericanvocabularyof‘punchgouge’ Adamesque manner’ofplasterer JohnJohnson’sinteriorsinHarleyStreet, notion ofauniversalacquiescencetoarchitectural ‘personal authority: the design andornamentacross theAtlanticworldthatcontradict thereceived printed sources fostered distinctvocabulariesanddialectsofneoclassical to theclassicalidiom,tradesman’s creative adaptationfrom these although indebtedtoanestablishedandburgeoning printculture devoted artisan. by Defoetothe‘middlesort’whopopulatedsocial stratum above the nomic mobilitythatmighthaveallowedhimto‘livewell’, astateattributed statement thatthey‘feelnowant’hardly accountsforthesocialand eco- uals encountered inthepreceding chaptersofthisbook;buthisqualifying tion ofMichaelStapleton,AsherBenjamin,JosephRose andotherindivid- to culture andsocialperformance’ was‘avitalmeans of maintainingor JohnBrewerincreasingly hasargued, visualizedsemioticfield: as ‘access Key tosuccesswasperformance,andperformance operated withinan of theirhouse- building businessesinbothcreative andcommercial terms. construction industryatany onetime,evidentlyaspired tomakeasuccess necessarily confinedtoaminority oftheartisanworkforce involved inthe and architect, thecharacters thathavepeopledthisnarrative, although Reflecting on the broader social and cultural contexts of the DanielDefoe’s‘workingtrades’ mightatfirstglancefitthedescrip- 11 The architecture ofA. Palladio, infourbooks Occupying a professional space between journeyman tradesman and early nineteenth- – century building tradesman embra- 10

(1715)forhiscommer-

9 Edinburgh cabinet- 8

Conclusion 211 212 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 212 Building reputations of fashionableconsumertastes,mustfollow. his facility for design and decoration, and his knowledge and appreciation his businesscompetencehasbeenrestored inacademic scholarship,so design clearlyremained withinthejudiciousartisan’sreach. Andjustas does notwithstandscrutiny: all aspectsofbuildingproduction andbuilding architecture, manifestedinthecaricature ofthe‘Macaroni bricklayer’, the manualandintellectualdimensionsofeighteenth- century building/ might atfirstappear. Aswehaveseen,theapparent dichotomybetween tising, the building artisan was clearly a less ridiculous character than he books, andanaptitudeforthenuancedlanguageofmarketingadver- ticeship, atastefordesignfostered through drawing classesandpattern of buildingconstructionandmanagementformedonsiteinappren- of amusementforthecontemporary viewer. Butwithanunderstanding gentility (dress) andvulgarformationintrade (trowel) provided thesource figure ofarchitectural modernity. Here, theconflictingsignsofaspiring

attaining socialstatusandofestablishingdistinctions’. Notes Mechanics andTradesman, from secretary in1787topresident in1818. paralleled byhistrajectory through theranks oftheGeneral Societyof builders anddesignersinearlynineteenth- aposition century New York; McComb, Jr established himself as the one of the most distinguished in 1790as‘anintelligentsober&industriousyoungMechanic’,John pre-

7 4 1 8 3 2 5 6

Arecent exampleis Franklin prison inNew York in 1775. although heisknowntohavedesignedtheBridewellworkhouse anddebtors’ Robert Morris furniture foragrandPhiladelphia house 52: ‘HarleyStreet’, in Press , 2017 ). undermines theintegrityoftownhousetypologylongestablished inAmerica. the rows ofRegency[ his suggestion that ‘with a few modifications they might have been found among O’Donnell’s stylecorresponded tothe‘conservativetastes’ofNew York society, but Society ofArchitectural Historians New York Mercury New York during the 1750s. WilliamHalfpenny, theauthorofthisparticularbook,produced manysimilartitles John Haven andLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 2003 ), p. 53 . century London,see For aretrospective viewofeditorialresponses tobuilding malpractices ineighteenth- of London Thisreturns usneatlytothe‘Macaroni bricklayer’,thatconspicuous eminence wasindeedoftenconcurrent withsocialprestige. Described South- Summerson Toker , 2vols( London , 1810 East Marylebone

, , , ‘ , The architectural remembrancer ae ’onl: anIrishGeorgian inAmerica James O’Donnell: ’, , , 25September1758.Hardenbrook remains ashadowyfigure, Philip Alexandra A. GeorgianLondon JamesPeller sic ] housesonKildare [ Temple ( London Kirtley ), vol.2,pp. 390 – and Malcolm : :

Yale University Press , 29 : 2 ( and Colin London ( New HavenandLondon ( Peggy A. 90) 1970 134 ): , Anecdotesofthemannersandcustoms Thom PleiadesBooks, : (London , 1751 ), pp. xv – sic 1. ] orMerrionSquares inDublin’ ,

Olley SurveyofLondon . Toker acknowledges that

, Classicalsplendor: painted 2017 ), availableonline at 1945

12 : : Yale University Professional Journalofthe ,vols51and ; repr. xvi.

New 13

Harold C. ( London : Routledge , 1995 ), p. 348 . JamesR. p. 6, accessed13June 2017. tion of culture 1791 www.ucl.ac.uk/ bartlett/ architecture/ sites/ bartlett/ files/ chapter12_ harley_ street.pdf (ed.), Peter Nicholson’s the divisionofresponsibilities onthelateGeorgian buildingsiteisrepresented in 1997), p. 56 (p. 23);thebuilderwasone‘whocontracts tobuild,orrear upedifices’(p.139). directs theworkmen,conductswork,andmeasures andvaluesthewhole’ person ‘skilledintheartofbuilding,whoformsandestimatesdesignsedifices, billhead ofFrancis Brodie ’, Francis Daniel Defoe, 1840 John as acommodity, 1600– ( New York : Columbia UniversityPress , 1963 ), p. 376 . ’, Brewer Furniture History TheartisanandtheEuropean town,1500– Bamford Farr Syrett . Ontheotherhand,amore rigidlyhierarchical contemporary viewof , ‘ “ , : : , ‘ Cultural analysisandearlymodernartisans ’, in The Review word, image, and object in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries The mostpoliteageandthevicious”: attitudes towards culture , , ‘ Dictionary ofEdinburgh wrightsandfurniture makers,1660– ThepapersofAlexander Hamilton The architectural dictionary 1800

19 , 25June 1709. ( Regional Furniture 1983 ): 49 ’, in

Ann

Bermingham . Seealso 4 ( 1990 ): 81 – (1819):here, thearchitect was the Sebastian and ,vol.7: 1900 Brewer Pryke September 1790–

99. ( leso Aldershot Ashgate : , (eds),

, ‘ The extraordinary Geoffrey Theconsump- Conclusion Crossick January

213 214 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Articles ofthecarpenterscompany ofthecityandcounty ofPhiladelphia Adams, George Adam, Robert and James Adam, Anecdotes ofthemannersandcustomsLondon,duringeighteenth century Contemporary secondary sources andtreatises Acatalogueofthestatues,bassreliefs,bustos,&c.Charles Harris, statuary Acatalogueofthecapitalandextensive collection ofarchitectural modelstheprop- Campbell, Robert Thebuilder’s price book Thebuilder’s magazine Thebuilder’s dictionaryorgentlemanandarchitect’s companion Bottomley , J. Acatalogueofthevaluablecollection ofarchitectural drawingsanddesigns;library Columbani, Placido Columbani, Collyer , Joseph Chambers, William Benjamin, Asher Benjamin, Asher Benjamin, Biddle, Owen 1764). 2 vols(London, 1810). erty ofthelateingeniousartistMrJosephRose 1734). Mr Joseph Rose of architectural andotherbooks; n.d.). 1805). 1806). Robert

Asher Placido

. A bookofdesigns . The youngcarpenter’s assistant Theruinsofthepalace oftheemperorDiocletian atSpalatro . . . . The parentandguardian’s directory . . . Geometrical andgraphicalessays and . . The builder’s assistant Country builder’s assistant The Londontradesman . . . . . (London, 1799). A treatise oncivilarchitecture Vases and tripods A newbookofornaments Daniel (London , 1774– 78 ). (London , 1789 ). Slc bibliography Select . . The worksinarchitecture Raynerd (London , 1793 ). . … (London , 1775– 76 ). TheAmericanbuilder’s companion (Greenfield, MA , 1800 ). (London , 1747 ). the propertyoflateingenious artist (Boston , 1798 ). ( Philadelphia , 1805 ). (London 1775 ). (London , 1759 ). ( London , 1791 ). (London, 1799). , 2vols( London , 1774/ 79 ). (London , 1761 ). ,2vols( ( Philadelphia , ( (London, ( London , London , Boston , , 215 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Halfpenny , William Gwynn, John Gwynn, John Haviland, Elmes, James Defoe, Daniel Columbani, Placido Hodgson, P.L. Hawney , William Darly , Crunden, John Hodgson, P.L. Langley , Jee & Humphreys , Thomas Langley , Jee& Jacques, John Pain , William Pergolesi , Pain , William and Pain , William Neve, MacPacke , Leadbeater , Nicholson, Morris, Robert Moxon, Morrison, Richard Morris, Robert Nicholson, Pain , William. Pain , Nicholson,Peter. Pain , Pain , William Pain , assistant columns inarchitecture n.d.). ( London , 1740 ). 1703). grotesque Style medallions, friezes,pilasters,pannels andotherornaments,intheEtruscan distributions forsmallvillas;chiefly uponoeconomical principles 1831). (London, 1819). derivation of the terms employed by architects, builders, and workmen 1823). 1769). Eginton William William

William Eitn Eginton. Matthias Richard Joseph Batty Batty John Michelangelo Peter John John . . . (Philadelphia , 1833 )...... [illustrated catalogue . ] ( London, c.

Jose London andWestminster improved An essayondesign Listofornaments,manufacturedbyJee, Eginton,andCo . Thepracticalbuilder, orworkman’s generalassistant . A setoftablessolidandsuperficialmeasure The modernmeasurer The practicalhousecarpenter The practicalhousecarpenter The builder’s pocket treasure The practicalhousecarpenter The builder’s goldenrule,ortheyouth’s sureguide ...... Lectures onarchitecture The builder’s companion, andworkman’s general assistant The complete English tradesman . . Twelve designsofchimney pieces . The city and countrey purchaser, and builder’s dictionary Convenient andornamental architecture Rural architecture An essayindefence ofancientarchitecture Mechanick exercises: or, thedoctrineofhandyworks Thecityandcountry builder’s andworkman’s treasury ofdesigns Theornamentalarchitect, oryoungartist’s instructor Thebuilder’s chest book;oracomplete keytothefiveordersof . . . AnimprovedandenlargededitionofBiddle’s young carpenter’s . . The gentleman and tradesman’s compleat assistant An architectural dictionary, containing acorrect nomenclature and Theoperativemechanic, andBritishmachinist The compleat measurer [ James Pain. . . Thenewpracticalbuilder, andworkman’s companion . . (London , 1777– 85 ). . . Useful andornamentaldesignsinarchitecture Practical architecture James A varietyofcapitals,freezes andcorniches . . The Irishbuilder’s guide . Agreat varietyoforiginaldesignsvases, figures, (London, Peacock

Pain’s BritishPalladio (London , 1749 ). (London , 1750 ). (Dublin , 1793 ). ]. 1727 ). (London , 1823 ). iii,o usel: beingichnographic Oikidia,ornutshells: ( London , 1724 ). (Dublin , 1730 ). (Boston , 1794 ). (Boston , 1796 ). (Philadelphia , 1797 ). (London , 1790 ). (Dublin , 1813 ). ( London , 1726 ). ( Birmingham , n.d.). (London , 1766 ). 1785– 98 ). (London , 1786 ). ( London , 1767 ). (London , 1728 ). (Dublin , 1774 ). (London , 1776 ). Select bibliography ( London , 1781 ). ( Dublin , 1793 ). ,2vols( ( ( ( ( ( London London London London London .( Birmingham , ( ( ( London , London London , London , , , , 2vols , , , , , , , , 1769 ). 1703 ). 1770 ). 1785 ). 1774 ). ,

215 216 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 216 Baer , Ballantyne, Richardson , George Salmon, William Barker , Select bibliography Ayres , Richardson , Barker Phillips, Abramson , Daniel M. sources Secondary Richardson , Swan, Swan, Abraham Stitt, William Stewart, Archer , Ames, Alexander , Adamson, Glenn Ware , Isaac Wallis , N. Wallis , N. Thomas, William Richardson , Price, Francis Pocock , W.F. Arnold, and History Press , 1996 ). the Etruscan,Greek, andRoman architecture and New York : Routledge , 2006 ). scape andsociety ( London , 1779 ). England rts lsiim newapproaches toeighteenth- British classicism: century architecture tecture tesque ( London , 1771 ). Oxford UniversityPress Society ofArchitectural Historians ( New York : Oxford UniversityPress 1977 ). ( Aldershot : Ashgate , 2004 ). ( London, 1758 ). 1818). house MA : MIT Press , 1985 ). W.C. , James Kenneth Abraham John Hannah Dana Hannah BelginTuran Richard John

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George A complete bodyofarchitecture . . George . ‘ The illusionofgrandeur? Antiquity, grand tourismandthecountry Modern finishingforrooms TheliteratureofBritishdomesticarchitecture, 1715– . . . The practicalarchitect’s ready assistant BuildingtheGeorgiancity The builder’s guide Dana CriticalobservationsonthebuildingsandimprovementsofLondon . ‘ Robert MillsandthePhiladelphiarow house ’, . . .

...... Barbara . . Newspapers,politics,andpublic opinioninlateeighteenth- A collection ofdesignsinarchitecture The Londonandcountry builder’s vademecum ThebookofEnglishtrades;andlibrarytheusefularts Thinking throughcraft Original designsinarchitecture Family andbusinessduringtheIndustrial Revolution TheBritisharchitect, orthebuilder’s treasury ofstaircases . ‘ ...... New designsinarchitecture Arnold Anewcollection of chimney pieces, ornamentedinthestyleof Architecture asevidence ’, in ( Stroud : Sutton , 2003 ). Abookofceilings, composed inthestileofantiquegro- Özkaya ‘ Commercialization andbacklashinlateGeorgian archi- Iconology; or, acollection ofemblematicalfigures . Arciszewska atr agae towns,buildings,construction Apatternlanguage: , 2017 (ed.), (eds), ethinking architectural historiography 316. (Dublin , 1758 ). (London , 1773 ). ). The Georgian country house: architecture, land- TheGeorgiancountry house: architecture,

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217 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Borsay , Borsay , Boyer , M. Christine Beard , Bonwitt, Bonehill, Black, Beard , Beard , Geoffrey Barnard , Beard , Blumin, Stuart M. Berg , Bell, Boyd, Borsay , Peter Blackmar , BlytheGerson , Berg , Bermingham, Bold, Boime, Binney , Architectural HistoriansofGreat Britain , 1987 ). ( Cambridge, MA : MIT Press , 1983 ). town 1680– 1770 Publishing , 1985 ). ( New York : Holmes andMeier , 1981 ). Sandby’s London ’, urban culture c.1680– Row , 1983 ). ( New HavenandLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 2004 ). Press , 1989 ). ( Edinburgh : Tholis Publishing , 2008 ). text: Georgian Group symposium town: a reader inEnglishurbanhistory1688– 1820 Michael play andsellingnewconsumergoodsineighteenth- century England of Pennsylvania Press , 1987 ). American city, 1760– 1900 ( Aldershot : Ashgate , 1998 ). text History andthetradetury: advertising card inBritainandFrance ’, ( 1990 ): 75 – Chicago Press , 1987 ). Architectural History domestic architecture ture ( London : Routledge , 1995 ). John. Dorothy Maxine Maxine Jeremy Sterling Geoffrey Geoffrey Albert Peter ’, in Geoffrey : Peter Marcus W. W. Toby John word, image,andobjectintheseventeenth andeighteenth centuries Elizabeth ‘ The designofahouseformerchant, 1724 ’, 4 : 2 ( 2007 ): 145 –

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, . ‘ George Andrews’ compositionornamentintheearlyFederal period Wages ofskilledworkersintheDublinbuildingindustry1667– . Dublindecorative plasterworkoftheseventeenth andeighteenth cen- eighteenth- Dan ‘ Changingideals in modernarchitecture, 1750– and lsia pedr paintedfurnitureforagrandPhiladelphiahouse Classicalsplendor: and Dan 53 : 2 ( 1994 ): 139 – . . , . . . Thearchitecture ofIreland . . ‘ The practice ofarchitecture, 1600– . The cultureofbuilding Eighteenth- Alan . ‘ The beginningsofthearchitectural profession inScotland Dublin 1660– 1860 StephenP. ‘ Building adiscipline: early institutional settingsforarchitectural . ‘ designandthecompetitivespiritinearly Plan andcontrol: . ‘QueenAnne’sGate .’, and (Oxford : Blackwell , 1991 ). arctn h niu: neoclassicism inBritain,1760– Fabricating theantique: ‘ materializedmemoryandthe Place, timeandarchitecture: and . ‘ Class bynameandnumberineighteenth- century England Plastering Industries anti , 1967 ). : Tir Jules ( Douglas 1987 ): 38 – O’Day Peter Neil Lubbock 29 ( 1986 ): 68 – century England 37. (eds), .‘ William Thackara, Jr., master plasterer of early Dorsey etr rln: colonyorancien- century Ireland: Wyld Fisher Burton 1913 61,repr. in ( 83. Manchester . (London : Routledge , 1996 ). Architecture: art of profession? 300 years of archi- (London : Cresset , 1952 ). . and The making of modern Irish history: revisionism ThemakingofmodernIrishhistory: revisionism ( Cheltenham andNorthampton,MA . London: the artofGeorgianbuilding London: the . h uoenmcocnm: growth,inte- TheEuropean macroeconomy: (Oxford : Oxford University Press , 2006 ). 1890 LifeintheGeorgiancity 46 : 3 ( 1960 ): 27 – 182.

Ralph Cole Georgian GroupJournal , exh.cat. ( Washington, DC, 1988 ). ’, ( London : Batsford , 1982 ). Alexandra Alevizatos ’, Penelope JournalofDesignHistory 1830 : : JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Manchester UniversityPress ( e York New : Hall Corfield 1840 1840 . 37. Georgetownhousesofthe 1950 ’, in ,4thedn( New Haven (ed.), Architectural Book ( Select bibliography ( régime? 2 ( 1992 ): 56 – Howard Kirtley Montreal London : Viking , Language,his-

12 : 3 and ’, in ( Colvin : Edward : : London : ( , , McGill- 1999 ): 1994 ). 1918 ’, Peggy 1800 D.G. 67. , A ’, ’, ’,

219 220 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 220 Eco, Select bibliography Dickson, Duggan, Drury , FitzGerald , Donald, Drumm, Drumm, Dickson, Diamonstein-Spielvogel Foglesong , Richard E. Evans, Dixon, Caroline Wyche Dickson, David Epstein, Elliott, Blanche B. Foner , Fallan , Forty , Ford Farr , Foyle , Georgian Society Dublin , 1986 ). Irish perspectivesonurbandevelopment,1500– in eighteenth century ’, the developmentofdecorative plasterwork technology inBritainduringthe Courts Press , 2010 ). The artisanandtheEuropean town,1500– 1900 books andotherpossibledesignsources ’, Connolly cities Christine the IrishMPs1750– 1800’, MLittdiss.,NationalUniversityofIreland, 2007 . Haven andLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 1996 ). University ofNew York Press , 2011 ). ephemera ’, land ofarchitectural research ’, 28: 2 ( 1981 ): 118 – tion anddiversity industrial Europe ’, ( New York : Routledge , 1997 ). ( Princeton, NJ : Princeton UniversityPress , 1986 ). MA : MIT Press , 1997 ). University ofPennsylvania, 2006. Gaillard- Press , 1976 ). Hudson , 1987 ). University Press , 2004

, Frances H. James Umberto Adrian Andrew P.J. Eric Robin Kjetil Neil Diana Sarah David Anthony Sarah S.R. David ’, in ‘ . ‘ Cultural analysisandearlymodernartisans ’, in . Joseph Rose senior’s site workshop at Audley End, Essex: aspects of Joseph Rosesenior’ssiteworkshopatAudleyEnd,Essex: aspects Desmond . ‘ . Tom Paine andRevolutionary America Bennett House,60Montagu Street, Charleston, SC’,MScdiss., . . (ed.), ‘ Craft guilds,apprenticeship, andtechnological changeinpre- Leach Casey . . Translations fromdrawingtobuilding,andotheressays Paul Architecture in action: travelling with Actor- Architecture in action: travelling Network Theory in the Objects of desire: design and societysince 1750 Objectsofdesire: design . ‘ townhousesof “None butpersonsoffashionneedapply”: Dublin . ‘ . ‘ thesemioticsofarchitecture Function andsign: ’ ( . . ‘“ . . ‘ reflections onthree Irishcases Second citysyndrome: ’, in Bristol The age of caricature: satirical printsinthereignofGeorgeIII Theageofcaricature: satirical Dublin: the makingofacapitalcity Eighteenth- Century Ireland/ Iris anDáChultúr Large- . ‘ Parnell analysisofhousetypes Square: an ’,

A historyofEnglish ‘The design and fabrication of the plastered cornices of the ierosices at” townhousesofIrishMPs Fine rooms increase wants”: ’, in (ed.), Butel Kingdomsunited?Great BritainandIrelandsince 1500: integra- (ed.), 38 ( 1995 ): 16 – (Dublin : Four CourtsPress , 1999 ). . Pevsner Architectural Guides ( New Haven and London 42. . ‘ Early Irishtrade- cards andothereighteenth-

scale developersandthegrowth ofeighteenth- century Irish Journal ofEconomic History , lnigtecptls iy the colonial era to the 1920s Planning the capitalist city: .‘ Ezra Waite’s architectural The MilesBrewton house: and Antiquaries Journal Barbaralee Theeighteenth- century Dublintownhouse ). ehnigacietr: areader inculturaltheory Rethinking architecture: L.M. Architectural TheoryReview Cullen 24. .

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221 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Glaab, Charles N. Goode, James M. Gilje Gilchrist, Agnes Addison Goodman Gomme, Glennie, Glaab, Charles N. Girouard , Fraser , Garnier , Friedman , Alice T. Garvan, Gough, Robert J. Fries , Sylvia Doughty Garvan, Beatrice B. Garnier George , Mary Dorothy Gentry , Garrison, J. Ritchie Gilchrist, Agnes Addison Gibney , TheGeorgianSocietyrecords ofeighteenth century domesticarchitecture anddecor- Press , 1963 ). ( Bristol : Lund Humphries , 1979 ). and housing ’, century crafting socialidentity, 1750– 1995 JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians ( Washington, DC : Smithsonian InstitutionPress , 2003 ). UrbanStudies London : Yale UniversityPress , 1990 ). 28( 1995 ): 102 – University Press , 1977 ). Museum , Philadelphia experience, 1750– of NewEngland , 2003 ). Howard B. 12( 2002 ): 163– Company papers in anageofchange,1785– 1800’, MAdiss.,MontanaStateUniversity, 1988. ( Philadelphia : Philadelphia MuseumofArt , 1987 ). College Dublin, 1997 . ation inDublin ( London : British Museum , 1935 ). the departmentofprintsanddrawingsinBritishMuseum 1799– 1859 JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians 1853) collection of architectural drawings in the New- York Historical Society , Paul A. ThomasSamuel , Murray Arthur Richard Anthony Paul Richard A.H. ). , Phebe S.

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Two carpenters: architecture andbuildinginearly NewEngland, 23. 214. ThegardensquaresofBoston , vol.1 ( Philadelphia : Mutual Assurance Company , 1976 ).

, . . eea hldlha theAthensofwesternworld Federal Philadelphia: Jenner Paul A. Thearchitectural surveys1784– MutualAssurance 1794: the .‘Specializedresidential andbusinessdistricts: Philadelphia Theurbanidea in colonial America Catalogueofthepoliticalandpersonalsatirespreservedin . ‘ . .‘ Notes foracatalogueoftheJohnMcComb(1763– : University ofTennessee Press , 2006 ). John McComb,Sr. 1784– andJr., inNew York, and

Gilje Hutchins 1850 BryanD.G. 1800 and ( 51. Baltimore ( Winterthur, DE GeorgianGroupJournal (ed.), Robert (New York : Little

hpn ainlclue the Shapinganationalculture: : : Asher ( Hanover John HopkinsUniversityPress , 31 : 1 ( 1972 ): 10 – 28 : 3 ( Bristol,anarchitectural history (eds), Macmillan , 1967 ). : : 1969 ): 201 – ( Homewood, I H.F. du Pont Winterthur GeorgianGroupJournal ( , NH Philadelphia : Temple

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221 222 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 222 Herman, Bernard L. Henderson, Amy H. Henderson, Amy H. Select bibliography Heal, Hayward , Mary Ellen Hastings, Hart, Hayward , Mary Ellen Hayward , Mary Ellen Griffin, Hart, Harris, Guillery , Greig , Gregory , Guillery , Graham , Hafertepe, Guillery , Hanson, Greenhalgh , Harris, Street, Philadelphia ’, in Philadelphia homes,1790– 1800’, PhDdiss.,UniversityofDelaware, 2008 . London : Yale University Press , 2006 ). and materialcultureinBritain andNorthAmerica,1700– origin anduse city, 1780– 1830 illustrated hist Biography notices incomparative context ’, Atlantic world ( New York : Princeton Architectural Press , 1999 ). Baltimore ’, tury ’, ( Oxford : Oxford UniversityPress , 2013 ). 1556– 1785 Hafertepe Museum (10December 1985). work inPhiladelphia1760– 1840’, unpublishedpaper, H.F. du Pont Winterthur Brunswick, NJ : Rutgers UniversityPress , 2003 ). Chesapeake house: architectural investigationbyColonial Williamsburg Architecture: the wholestory ( London : Routledge , tory 2011 ). ukn constructing authority Ruskin: University Press , 2001 ). 1840– 1915 Hill : University ofNorthCarolina Press , 2013 ). 2003). London : Yale UniversityPress , 2004 ). Emma Emma Ambrose Eileen David Hannah Eileen ’, in Willie Stacia Peter Peter William Bulletin oftheIrishGeorgianSociety Brian Peter Kenneth . ‘ . . Guillery . ‘ The buildingandfurnishingofaDublintownhouseinthe18thcen- Building Charleston: town andsocietyintheeighteenth- BuildingCharleston: town century British . Paul A BritishAtlanticworldofadvertising?ColonialAmerican“For Sale” and 19 : 2 ( 1967 ): 164 – ThegeniusofRobert Adam: his interiors and . . ‘ vernacularstudiesandBritisharchitectural his- Introduction: . . ‘ Interior finishes ’, in . ‘ plaster- “In themostapproved andlatestfashions”: ornamental (Cambridge : Cambridge UniversityPress , 1990 ). ( Amherst : University ofMassachusettsPress , 2007 ). . . ‘ builders’ classicism Georgian: ’, in . Winterthur Portfolio London tradesmen’s cards of the XVIII century: an account Londontradesmen’s oftheir cardsoftheXVIIIcentury: an Thesmallhouseineighteenth- century London . ‘ Philadelphia microcosm ’, (ed.). ( Charlottesville : University ofVirginia Press , 2010 ). h eumne fashionablesocietyinGeorgianLondon Thebeau monde: (Baltimore ory : Johns HopkinsUniversity Press , 2004 ). (New York : Dover Publications , 1968 ). Architects andthe‘buildingworld’fromChambersto JamesF. ‘ . ‘

( Chapel Hill : University ofNorthCarolina Press , 2005 ). Town house: architecture and materiallifeintheearly American ‘unsigteRpbia or: building anddecorating ‘FurnishingtheRepublican Court: A familyaffair: the designanddecoration of321SouthFourth and (ed.), Nicholas Thecountry builder’s assistant .‘ Urban vernaculararchitecture innineteenth- and Frank R. h essec fcat the applied arts today The persistence of craft: Built from below: British architecture Built from below: British and the vernacular John O’Gorman Savage (London : Thames &Hudson , 2014 ). 80. Charles

Shivers Styles 16 : 1 ( 1981 ): 33 – ( American Periodicals Cary abig Cambridge : , (eds), and Britisharchitectural booksandwriters, , Jr(eds). Belfoure Carson Amanda Pennsylvania MagazineofHistoryand 38 ( 1996– 97 ): 24 – Americanarchitects andtheirbooks, and Thearchitecture ofBaltimore: an Cambridge UniversityPress : text andcontext : text ’, in . ( New HavenandLondon 63. Vickery TheBaltimorerowhouse Carl 24 : 2 ( 2014 ): 110 – 1830 Denna Lounsbury (eds), ( New Havenand 39. ( New Havenand Gender, taste, Jones (eds), Kenneth ( Chapel century (ed.), ( 27. : : New Yale The ,

223 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Hitchcock, Henry Russell Hoppit, Hobsbawm, Hill, Klein, Klee, Kirker , Kimball, Kelsall Joyce, Herman, Bernard L. Jeacle, Ison, Hubbard , Kostof , Kostof , Knowles, Jackson, Ison, Walter Kostof , Jacobus, Jay , Robert University Press , 1999 ). 299– 1895 and pamphlets on architecture and related subjects published in America before ( 1990 ): 305 – century architecture McKellar century Deptford andPhiladelphia ’, in ( Oxford : Oxford UniversityPress , 1977 ). century England ’, in Vernacular Architecture Forum University Press , 1964 ). Southworth-AnthoensenPress , 1940 ). ( London : papersgivenattheGeorgianGroupsymposium1991 architectural practice: University Press , 1987 ). Auditing andAccountability Journal Missouri Press , 1987 ). Review culation, andexchangeincommercial andcollectingspaces ’, ( London andNew York : Thames &Hudson , 2005 ). ( London : Ar centuries word,image,andobjectintheseventeenth andeighteenth tion ofculture: Faber , 1948 ). ( London andNew York : Thames &Hudson , 1999 ). JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians 1800 ’, role ofdrawing inthedesignofinteriorspaceEnglandc.1600– once”: the Richard Walter Jeffrey Lawrence , Ingrid Patrick Spiro Spiro Harold Julian Frank Spiro A. Laura 320. ( Minneapolis : University ofMinnesotaPress , 1962 ). Fiske C.C. Philippa . ‘ The façadeofSirJohnSoane’sMuseum: a studyincontextualisation Architectural History , 74– ,75 (Spring 2012 ): 30 – . . . . ‘ Civic order onBeaconHill ’, E.J. Thetradecardinnineteenth- century America . . TheGeorgianbuildingsofBathfrom1700to1830 . The GeorgianbuildingsofBristol (London : Routledge , 1995 ). . ‘ . (eds), and (ed.). Thecityshaped: urban patternsandmeanings throughhistory Georgian Group . ‘ . .‘ The architect asspeculator ’, in The city assembled: elements ofurbanformthroughhistory Thecityassembled: elements (ed.), The historicalmeaningsofwork ( and . Accounting andtheconstructionofstandard house ’, . ‘ On “whetheramancouldseebefore himandbehindbothat Designsandtheirconsequences ‘ The tramping artisan ’, Attitudes tocredit inBritain,1680– . ‘ Politeness socialidentitiesinearlyeighteenth- forplebes: some chitectural Press , 1972 ). SamuelMcIntire,carver, thearchitect of Salem 22. . ‘ Trade cards in18th- century consumerculture: movement, cir- P.H.

James Articulating British classicism: new approaches toeighteenth- ArticulatingBritishclassicism: new and h rhtc: chapters in thehistoryofprofession Thearchitect: Pitt ( Aldershot : Ashgate , 2004 ). . Ann . Peter American architectural books: a list of books, portfolios, American architectural books: a Kirker Thehistoryofbuildingregulation inLondon1189–

, 1992 Bermingham 31 ( 1988 ): 148 – Guillery . 15 ( 2008 ): 43 – Bulfinch’s Boston1787– ) . 46. 16 : 4 ( 2003 ): 582 – Economic HistoryReview . ‘ Negotiating classicismineighteenth- BuildingsandLandscapes: Journalofthe and ( Bath : Kingsmead Press , 1952 ). Barbara 59. ( New Haven and London John 57. 51 : 4 ( 1992 ): 417 – Giles 1790 Brewer Arciszewska

( 605. Worsley ’, Cambridge : Cambridge Columbia HistoricalJournal 1817 (eds), ( London Select bibliography (NS) ( (ed.), ( Portland, ME MaterialCulture Oxford : Oxford and : : Theconsump- University of 29. 3 Accounting, ( : : Faber and 1950– 51 ): ,2ndedn Elizabeth Georgian 2ndedn Yale:

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223 224 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 224 Select bibliography Lubbock, Lowe, Patricia Ann Longmore , Lockwood, Lees-Maffei Lahikainen, Kuykendall, Erin E. Lucey ,

Lewis, Michael J. Lewis, Lewis, Leech, Roger H. Lounsbury , Lounsbury , Lucey , Lewis, Michael J. Lane, Langford , Lounsbury , Carl R. Lanier , Gabrielle M.

University andtheCollegeofCharleston, 2010 . library catalogandthedesignofDrayton Hall’,Master’sdiss.,Clemson ( Chapel Hill : University ofNorthCarolina Press , 2013 ). architectural andsocialhistory Delaware, 2011 . working worldofThomasNevell1762– 1784’, MAdiss.,Universityof 1550– 1960 Dunne Hsoi England, Historic2014 ). Books , 2014 ). of Edinburgh, 2006 . design, craft andart ’, University Press , 1997 ). Courts Press , 2010 ). Architectural Historians the designofPrinceWilliamCountycourthouse ’, ( Tralee : Churchill HousePress , 2007 ). 1500– 1900 Christine Studies intheHistoryofGardens and DesignedLandscapes 1848 Hafertepe Essex Museum , 2007 ). tatc looking atbuildingsandlandscapes Atlantic: ( Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan , Fintan 2010 ). Chesapeake Caedn Press , Clarendon 1989 ). h hspaehue architectural investigationbyColonial Williamsburg TheChesapeake house: Fintan A.R. Conor Anthony Conor (Amherst : University ofMassachusettsPress , 2001 ). Jules Charles Paul ‘ThebuildersofEdinburgh NewTown 1765– 1795’, PhDdiss.,University and Jane , Carl Lane Dean Carl . ‘ Classicism orcommerce? Thetownhouseinteriorascommodity ’, in Grace . ‘ William Thompson,classandhisIrishcontext,1755– . Casey and . h tpeo olcin designsfortheIrishneoclassical interior TheStapleton Collection: . . (NewHavenandLondon : Yale University Press , 1995 ). ( Turnhout : Brepols , 2008 ): 175 – . ‘ Residential patternsofthe Liverpoolelite,c.1660– Thetyrannyoftaste: the politicsofarchitecture anddesigninBritain ‘ “ . ( Charlottesville : University ofVirginia Press , 2011 ). . Paul

ThebuildersofEdinburghNewTown 1765– (ed.), oieadcmeca epe England1727– Apoliteandcommercial people: . Thetownhouseinmedievalandearly modernBristol ‘ William Birch andtheculture ofarchitecture inPhiladelphia’ ‘ Owen Biddleand sasi al mrcnacietrlhsoy aviewfromthe Essaysinearly Americanarchitectural history: SamuelMcIntire: carving anAmericanstyle ‘ Design process ’, in and . JamesF. An elegant and commodious building”: William Buckland and An elegant and commodious building”: William . ‘Volumes that speak: the architectural booksoftheDrayton .‘Volumes thatspeak: the Bricks andbrownstone: the New York rowhouse,1783– 1929, an (ed.), ‘hldlhacretr,cbntaesadcpan: the ‘Philadelphiacarpenters,cabinetmakersandcaptains: and Janssens Linda Politics, society and the middle class in modern Ireland Bernard L. Journal ofDesignHistory Theeighteenth- 46 : 3 ( 1987 ): 228– 40. O’Gorman Sandino (eds), ( New York : McGraw- Hill , 1972 ). The youngcarpenter’s assistant Living in the city: elites andtheirresidences, Livinginthecity: elites , ‘ Dangerous liaisons: relationships between (eds), Herman Cary century Dublintownhouse Americanarchitects andtheirbooksto Carson . 92. Everydayarchitecture ofthemid- 17 : 3 ( 2004 ): 207 – ( and atmr Baltimore : CarlR. JournaloftheSociety ( Salem, MA 1795

32 : 1 Lounsbury ( Johns Hopkins ( Reading : Spire 1783 ( 1800 2012 ): 35 – ’,in 19. Dublin : ( : : ( Swindon : 1833 ’, in Peabody Kenneth Oxford : (eds), John Four ’, in 49. ,

225 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Lucey , McParland , Lucey , McParland , McParland , Lucey , McKellar , McKean , McLeod, Richard Alan McDonnell, McCullough, Niall McAulay , McAulay , Lucey , Lucey , McKellar , McKendrick , McKendrick , Irish GeorgianSociety Dublin architecture inthelate18thandearly19thcenturies ’, Paula ( 2013 ): 135 – Ireland ( Dublin : Four CourtsPress ornamentandtheearly modern interior , plasterwork inIrelandandEurope: 2012 ). of BritainandIreland ’, in Cullen Record of Missouri, 1971 . and thewiderworld Dublin development, 1500– 1900 ( Edinburgh : Rutland Press (ed.), ( Dublin : National GalleryofIreland , 1991 ). Indiana UniversityPress , 1982 thecommercialization ofeighteenth- ). society: century England the Grand Canal,1816– 1880’, PhDdiss.,Trinity CollegeDublin, 2003 . ( 1999 ): 98 – Journal oftheSocietyArchitectural Historians city 1660– 1720 agency ofBarbara Verschoyle ’, eighteenthcentury architecture Elizabeth twentieth- Brewer cialization ofeighteenth- century England Neil Press , 1982 ). Conor Conor Conor Conor Conor McKendrick Eve Charles Elizabeth Eve Elizabeth Theneo- contributionsclassical tourbandesignsince town: Scottish 1750 Murphy (eds), ’, in 25 : 4 ( 1972 ): 120 – vol.3( London : Yale UniversityPress , 2014 ). and ‘ Strategy intheplanningofDublin ’, in Edward Joseph Edward Edward . ‘ Building dialectics: negotiating urban scenography inlateGeorgian . ‘ The scaleofplasterwork production inthemetropolitan centres . ‘ Owen BiddleandPhiladelphia’sreal estatemarket,1798– . ‘ British agentsoftheIrish Adamesque ’, . ‘TheoriginsandearlydevelopmentofthePembroke estatebeyond Neil . ‘ Statuaries andplastershopsineighteenth- century Dublin ’, in Neil . ‘ Some problems inbuilding ontheFitzwilliamestateduring century creation ofthe“Georgian ” ’, in McKellar Gillian 117. 70. J.H. . ‘ The incivilityofEdinburgh’s NewTown ’, in . ‘ The commercialization offashion ’, in . ‘ The consumerrevolution ofeighteenth- century England ’, in . . (ed.), iisadmrhns French and Irish perspectivesonurban Citiesandmerchants: . Dublin: an urbanhistory . (Manchester : Manchester UniversityPress , 1999 ). . ‘ Summersonandthe Populism versusprofessionalism: John : . ‘ The papersofBryanBolger, measurer ’, . ‘ theirimportancefor The WideStreets Commissioners: ThebirthofmodernLondon: the developmentanddesignofthe Irisheighteenth- century stuccowork anditsEuropean sources , Plumb .‘ThePhiladelphiaartisan1828– 1850’, PhDdiss.,University O’Brien John (eds), ( Dublin : Four CourtsPress , 2012 ). Sculptorsandsculpture160 15 : 1 ( 1972 ): 1 – Brewer (eds), ( Dublin : Trinity CollegeDublin , 1986 ). 31. and , 1996 ). Christine riuaigBiihcascs: newapproaches to ArticulatingBritishclassicism: (Aldershot : Ashgate , 2004 ). Finola and h it facnue oit: thecommer- Thebirthofaconsumer society: IrishArchitectural andDecorative Studies J.H. Casey 50. O’Kane ( Dublin : Anne Street Press , 1989 ). Plumb ( and loigo Bloomington : (eds), 75 : 1 ( 2016 ): 25 – (eds), 0– 2000 Conor Barbara Portraits ofthecity: Dublin Architectural History Thebirthofaconsumer Lucey Neil . Art andarchitecture of Paul Indiana University Select bibliography McKendrick (eds), Arciszewska DublinHistorical ( Butel W.A. 47. Bulletinofthe Bloomington : Decorative and Brogden 1806 ’, , and John L.M.

225 226 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 226 Select bibliography Muthesius, Munter , Mowl, McWilliam, Massey , Morgan , Keith N. Maudlin, Mowl, Murtagh, William John Murray , Mowat, Ian R.M. Maynard , W. Barksdale Matthews, Christopher N. Morrison, Maudlin, Nash, Gary B. Nenadic, Nash, Gary B. Maynard , W. Barksdale Moss,Jr., Roger W. Moss,Jr., Roger W. Annapolis’s Georgian architecture ’, in Architectural Historians society inIrelandandEngland,1710– 1770 Edinburgh Club Scotland 1600– 1800 Architecturally speaking: practices of art, architecture and the everyday ( New HavenandLondon : Yale UniversityPress 1984 ). Virginia Press , 2008 ). ( Farnham : Ashgate , materials ofexchange between BritainandNorthEastAmerica,1750– 2013 MarkS. ( Bristol : Redcliff , 1991 ). Charles E. 103– Cambridge UniversityPress , 1967 ). tory ofagreat industry and London : Yale UniversityPress , 2002 ). Routledge, 2000 ). University ofVirginia Press , 2009 ). world: spaces, places, andmaterialculture,1600– Maryland case ofPhiladelphia ’, 1982). Elizabeth tradition 1620– 1820 Puig of NorthCarolina Press , 2016 ). the nationalperiod ( 1968 trades’, PhDdiss.,UniversityofDelaware, 1972 . Timothy Timothy Ashleigh and Doreen Robert 18. Stana Daniel ): 54 – Daniel Hugh Stefan Colin Warner (Knoxville : University ofTennessee Press , 1998 ). ‘ City planningandpoliticaltensionintheseventeenthcentury: the Foyster ‘ Michael . . ‘ andclothinginthelongeighteenthcentury’ Necessities: food , in Peterson and A historicalperspectiveonearly Americanartisans ’, in 73 . To buildthesecond city: architects andcraftsmenofGeorgianBristol . . ‘ . ‘ and ‘ , . ‘ .

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Proceedings oftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety (Radnor, PA : Chilton BookCo ., 1976 ). ‘ style and ideology in Part of a “polished society”: BuildingsofDelaware Earnshaw 16 : 4 ( 1957 ): 8 – naoi at: historicalarchaeology inAnnapolis, Annapolispasts: ). Buildingearly towardthehis- America: contributions ’, in and (eds), John Herman Daniel . An insular rococo: architecture, politicsand Aninsularrococo: architecture, 101. TheAmericancraftsmanand theEuropean Whatley Gifford 13. Paul A. (eds). Maudlin ( New Haven (London : Reaktion , 1999 ). GeorgianGroupJournal . (eds), Edinburgh ( hrotsil Charlottesville : Shackel BuildingtheBritishAtlantic and 1850 Ahistoryofeveryday lifein JournaloftheSociety ( Chapel Hill : : Robin .BuildingsofScotland , Yale UniversityPress Paul R. 1760 1850 Alan ( Peel BookoftheOld Charlottesville : ( University of ( New Haven Mullins (eds), Cambridge : : Read

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227 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Puetz, Quimby , Ian M. Nenadic, Ogborn, Porter , Norton, Paul F. Olsen Pollard , Powel , Martyn J. Novak, William J. Peterson , Charles E. Park , Port , O’Kane, O’Driscoll, O’Gorman, James F. O’Brien, Powell , Power , O’Neal, William B. O’Gorman Ogborn, of DesignHistory and London : Guildford Press , 1998 ). LondonJournal the marketforexpertise ’, JournalofBritishStudies 1976). Enlightenment Library, Peabody EssexMuseum,Salem, MA. tect/ JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians ( New Haven andLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 1964 ). David graphics 1732– and world Society sonifying theevolvingprofession ’, America ( Merrion Square ’, in meanings ofmacaroni effeminacy ’, in Architectural andPlanningResearch in Birmingham,Englandand Baltimore, Maryland, 1700– Construction History (ed.), house text: an overview and Lanham,MD : Bucknell UniversityPress , 2013 Studies inephemera: text andimageineighteenth- ). century print Basingstoke : P M.H. Helen ,

Anne Roy D.J. Garrrett Mary Christopher G. carver andhisFamily, 1988’,unpublishedMS(photocopy),Phillips Gillian Miles Miles Finola Stana (Dublin : Four CourtsPress , 2012 ). ( Dublin : Four CourtsPress ). , James F. Buildingbythebook ‘ West aristocratic Endpalaces: the townhouseinLondon,1730–

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103 : 4 ( 2013 ): 1 – . ‘ . Sally . ‘ Design instruction forartisansineighteenth- century Britain ’, (ChapelHill : University ofNorthCarolina Press , 1996 ). onpann nLno: theeighteenth andnineteenth centuries Town planninginLondon: A listofarchitectural booksavailableinAmericabefore theRevolution . . . ‘ Gwynn’s plans forGeorgian London Designs onthecity: John Dublin’s tradeinbooks1550– (ed.). ‘Samuel McIntire of Salem: the drawings andpapersofthearchi- ‘SamuelMcIntire ofSalem: the . ‘ . ‘ “ . and . ‘ acomparative studyoflongtermleases Entail intwocities: Spaces of modernity: London’s geographies 1680– Spaces of modernity: London’s . ‘ What kindofmandotheclothesmake?Printculture andthe Architect-

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h epeswlae lawandregulation innineteenth- Thepeople’s welfare: agisi iw: the Fitzwilliam family’s development of Bargains in view”: 1986 20 : 1 ( 1995 ): 117 – ‘ Some architects’ portraits innineteenth- century America: per- algrave Macmillan , 2005 ). . ‘ aGeorgian buildingfirmatwork Cobing andhelling: ‘ The Philadelphiaarchitectural drawing initshistoricalcon- Thepoliticsofconsumption ineighteenth- century Ireland (ed.). Finola Thecraftsmanin early America 12 : 3 ( 1999 ): 217 – ’, in HaydnTrevor 15 ( 1999 ): 3 – ( Christine JamesF. Philadelphia : (eds), builders in London and Edinburgh, c.1750– 1800, and Buildingearly America O’Kane 94. 43 ( 2004 ): 15 – ( Historical Journal Charlottesville Drawingtowardbuilding: Philadelphia architectural

Casey O’Gorman (eds). 38. 14. Mason 39. University ofPennsylvania Press Transactions oftheAmericanPhilosophical 9 : 4 ( (ed.), Portraits of the city: Dublin andthewider Portraits ofthecity: Dublin Kevin 1800 39. (eds), 1992 ): 315 – , : Jeffrey A. Theeighteenth- century Dublintown University Press ofVirginia 55 : 3 ( 2012 ): 597 – Murphy ( ( Mendham, NJ Oxford ( 20 : 3 ( 1961 ): 115 – New York The secular city: studies in the Thesecularcity: studies T.D.

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227 228 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 228 Select bibliography Quinan, Raley , Robert L. Reinberger , Rowan, Rilling, Rubenstein, Harry R. Quinan, Raven, Rasmussen, Steen Eiler Saumarez- Smith Salinger , Sharon V. Ridout, Rykwert Roach, Hannah Benner Rykwert, Rowan, Rock, Howard B. Rauser , Amelia F. Rawson, Rees, Reiff , Daniel D. Reinberger , Boston between1800and1830 ’, ( 1975 ): 1 – Architects Press , 1989 ). Courts Press , 2010 ). of Architectural Historians interior inEngland JournalofInterdisciplinaryHistory America Press , 1995 ). crafting socialidentity, 1750– in Christine 1850 Century Studies ( Cambridge, MA: MIT Press , 1980 ). in thereignofGeorgeIII tory JournaloftheSocietyArchitectural Historians Myers Press , 1982 ). Castle, DE : Oak KnollPress , 1993 ). Dormer ( 2012 ): 844 – architecture, 1738– University Press , 1997 ). Press , 2000 ). Magazine ofHistoryandBiography Helen Howard B. James Donna Alistair , ( Albany : State University ofNew York Press , 1989 ). Orlando Alistair Jack Jack Joseph (Philadelphia : University ofPennsylvania Press , 2001 ). Michael Joseph and . ‘ Patterns ofmaking: thinking andmakinginindustrialdesign ’, in (ed.), Mark Mark (Newark : University ofDelaware Press , 2003 ). . ‘ Some aspectsofthedevelopmentarchitectural profession in . ‘ Daniel Raynerd, stuccoworker ’, . ‘ Serial advertisementin18th- century BritainandIreland ’, in Casey . 21.

. Houses from books: treatises, pattern books, and catalogs in American . ‘ thetownhousein capital ofNorthBritain Edinburgh: ’, in ‘ Early Marylandplasterworkandstuccowork ’, Making houses, crafting capitalism: builders in Philadelphia, 1790– Making houses, crafting capitalism: builders and Vaulting ambition: theAdambrothers,contractors tothemetropolis Michael . , (ed.). 51. . . ‘ .

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229 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Stewart, Stanton, Smith, Margaret Supplee Smith, Billy G. Spera , Elizabeth Gray Kogen Siddle, Shivers, Natalie W. Sennett, Richard Schweitzer , Mary M. Sharples, Stewart, Smyth, Smith, Ryan K. Schimmelmann, Janice G. Sheridan, Scott, Scott, Snodin, Spann, Edward K. Snodin, Snodin, Nikolaus Pevsner Concerning architecture: essays onarchitectural writersandwritingpresentedto diss., UniversityofPennsylvania, 1980 . the cityplanandarchitecture ofthecityPhiladelphia,1750– 1800’, PhD NY NY University Press , 2000 ). Group Journal Press , 1988 ). Baltimore rowhouse Press , 2001 ). and Yale UniversityPress , 2004 ). University ofCaliforniaPress , 1971 ). 1800 treatises andhandbooks availableinAmericanlibrariesandbookstoresthrough University Press , 2009 ). (ed.), American founder Society ofArchitectural Historians market: nineteenth centuryrow housinginBoston’sSouthEnd ’, History JournalofInterdisciplinaryHistory ( Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan , 2010 ). in The rococo in England: a symposium Therococo inEngland: a 1714– 1837 1986). Haven andLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 1996 ). Katie Mel Fintan : Cornell UniversityPress , 1990 ). Jim Michael Michael David Rachel Anngret Rachel Michael Phoebe (NewCastle,DE : Oak KnollPress , 1999 ). Joseph Two centuries ofAmericanplanning . Edel . ‘ The menofproperty: politics andthelanguageofclassin1790s . ‘ The Waddesdon trade cards: more thanonehistory ’, 17 : 1 ( 2004 ): 91 – Americancityplanningsince 1890 . Lane

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. ‘ The West Endhousec.1765– 1785: a gambleand forfeit ’, (London : Victoria andAlbertMuseum , 2004 ). . and Robert Morris’s folly: the architectural andfinancialfailuresofan Robert Morris’s folly: the and . . . ThetownhouseinGeorgianLondon . ‘ The sources ofPugin’s Migration,mobility, andmodernization . ‘ Trade cards and English rococo ’, in Simms ‘ The greatest grid: the New York Planof1811 ’, in Liverpool The

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100. rhtcua ok neryAeia architectural Architectural booksinearly America: . ‘Building for business: the impactofcommerce on .‘Buildingforbusiness: the Howard JohnC. Dublinthroughspace andtime (London : Penguin Books , 2008 ). . Design and the decorative arts: Georgian Britain, Designandthedecorative arts: Georgian 48. 52 : 2 ( 1993 ): 159 – 24 : 1 ( 1993 ): 31 – . Moorhouse Ornament: a socialhistorysince Ornament: a 1450 ( London : Contrasts ( ( Berkeley, LosAngelesandLondon: Baltimore , ‘ , ( New Haven andLondon Architecture andthehousing Victoria andAlbertMuseum ’,in 57. 78. : : Johns HopkinsUniversity John ( 1810 iepo Liverpool Liverpool : ( Charles Dublin Select bibliography Summerson JournalofDesign ’, in Daniel 1800 Journalofthe : : Four Courts Hind John Georgian Schaffer ( Ithaca, (ed.), (ed.), ( Brady : : New Yale ’, ’, ,

229 230 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 230 Temple , Select bibliography Sweeney , Kevin M. Turner , Olivia Horsfall Strachan , Styles, Styles, Stieber , Thornton, T Thompson, Taylor , Trentmann , Sutcliffe, Summerson, Summerson, John Tatum , George B. Tatum , George B. Thompson, Stillman, Stillman, Stillman, Stillman, oker , Press , 2004 ). seventeenth- century Britisharchitecture France 1780– 1914 goods h Cambridge UniversityPress , 2007 ). England Carson ( Oxford : Oxford UniversityPress , 2001 ). ( London : Weidenfeld &Nicolson , 1998 ). Books , 1964 ). Press , 1976 ). itics ’, Society ofArchitectural Historians Ergut Books , 1953 ). Press , 2006 ). and NorthAmerica,1700– style oflifeintheeighteenth century Virginia , 1994 ). of itseighteenth- century neighbors in printsanddrawings ( London : Yale University Press , 2008 ). Editions , 1973 ). ( London andNew York : Routledge , 2006 ). Everyday life in the early Republic books to1848 Museum , 1994 ). Kenneth John Franklin John Nancy Charles Philip Damie Anthony Damie and John (London : Routledge , 1993 ). Damie Journal ofBritishStudies Damie Peter , and Frank F.M.L. E.P. . ‘ Manufacturing, consumptionanddesignineighteenth- ’, in Ronald Hafertepe (ed.). . ‘ Space, time,andarchitectural history ’, in John . . ‘ . BelginTuran . . . Advertisingandsatiricalcultureintheromanticperiod . ‘ .

Amanda . ‘ City living,Federal style ’, in Englishneoclassical architecture . Form inthedecorative arts1470– and decoration: innovation

John ae ’onl: anIrishGeorgian inAmerica James O’Donnell: ’, ThemakingoftheEnglishworkingclass . Penn’s great town: 250 years ofPhiladelphiaarchitecture illustrated

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Towards theplannedcity: Germany, Britain,theUnitedStates and Georgian London ‘ Thedecorative work ofRobert Adam . Gentrificationandtheenterpriseculture,Britain1780– SurveyofLondon High- Hoffman Architecture inBritain,1530– Brewer ( Oxford : Blackwell , 1981 ). (ed.).‘ and Vickery ( Philadelphia : University ofPennsylvania Press , 1961 ). style vernacular: lifestyles of the colonial elite style vernacular: lifestyles ’, in James University ofMassachusettsPress , 2007 ). Özkaya and and h irro ra rti’ nationalidentityin ThemirrorofGreat Britain’: 1830 (eds). 48 : 2 ( 2009 ): 283 – Roy O’Gorman P.J. (London : Pleiades Books , 1945 ). (eds), ( New HavenandLondon , vol. 47: 29 : 2 ( 1970 ): 132 – ( Winterthur, DE Gender, taste,andmaterialcultureinBritain Porter Albert ( Middletown, C ( Reading : Spire Books , 2012 ). ( Rethinking architectural historiography (eds), hrotsil Charlottesville : (eds), Northern ClerkenwellandPentonville (eds), ( Durham, NC ,2vols( CatherineE. Consumption and the world of 307. Americanarchitects andtheir fcnuigitrss the Ofconsuming interests: 43. 1830 : : London Dana H.F. du Pont Winterthur H.F. du T: T: Wesleyan University ( (odn (London: ( University Press of : odn: London Academy : Arnold odn: London Pantheon : : : Zwemmer : Duke University Hutchins Yale University Journalofthe ( , Cambridge : ElvanAltan Penguin century , , (ed.), 1988 ). 1980 1870 Cary

231 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Twomey , Wainwright , Nicholas B. Vickery , Williams, Turpin , Woods , Mary N. Upton, Upton, Walker , Wainwright , Nicholas B. Van Horn , Wilton-Ely Wilkenfeld, Bruce M. Wittman, Upton, Ward Walsh Usher , Werkmeister , Watkin , Whitehill, Walter Muir West ,

Macmillan , 1995 ). domestic architecture inAmerica,1800– for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire and London : Yale UniversityPress , 2009 ). ( Chapel Hill,NC : University ofNorthCarolina Press , 2017 ). ( 1976 ): 165 – ( 1984 ): 107 – ( Dublin : Four CourtsPress , 2005 ). detsn n h uoenct: historicalperspectives AdvertisingandtheEuropean city: 1964). of GeneralJohnCadwalader Contributionship , 1952 ). Verso , 1980 ). c University Press , 1976 ). century America 1998). Ashgate 15: 2 ( 1973 ): 112 – (ed.), century London ’, in ( Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan , 2012 ). ( New HavenandLondon : Yale UniversityPress , 2008 ). Cambridge UniversityPress , 2000 ). 20: 1 ( 1978 ): 3 – Eighteenth- Century Life Nebraska Press , 1963 ). University Press , 1968 ). , entury France , J.R. Shearer Dell Claire Dell Dell John Robin R.B. David Amanda Raymond Richard ‘ Speculative building at Bristol and Clifton, 1783– Thearchitect: chapters inthehistoryofprofession , Brendan . . ‘ ofthetransformation of Pattern booksandprofessionalism: aspects John Jennifer . Another city: urban lifeandurbanspaces Anothercity: urban inthenewAmericanrepublic . ‘ , Architecture intheUnitedStates .‘ The advertisingandmarketingofconsumer goodsineighteenth- Aschool ofartinDublinsince theeighteenth century 2000 Lucyle . Advertising inLondonnewspapers,1650– . ‘ The Darly macaroni prints and the politics of “Private Man (ed.). . ‘ The riseoftheprofessional architect inEngland ’, in

ProtestantDublin,1660– architecture andiconography 1760: 82. 50. From craft to profession: the practice ofarchitecture From crafttoprofession: the in nineteenth- . . Behind closed doors: at homeinGeorgianEngland Behindclosed doors: at ( New York andLondon : Routledge , 2007 ). . Architecture, printculture,andthepublicsphereineighteenth- ). ). . 18. . ( Berkeley : University ofCaliforniaPress , 1999 ). Problems in materialism and culture: selected essays Problemsinmaterialismandculture: selected . SmithfieldandtheparishofSt. Paul, Dublin,1698– ‘ New York Cityneighborhoods,1730 ’, Thepowerofobjectsineighteenth- century BritishAmerica 30. i onSae theRoyal AcademyLectures SirJohnSoane: TheLondondailypress1772– . Boston,atopographicalhistory

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231 232 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 232 Select bibliography Yeomans , David T. Yeomans , David T. Woodward , Youngson , ( 1986 ): 13 – Group Symposium,28October1995 Bath ( 1988 ): 3 – Press , 1966 ). ’, in A.J. Christopher. Neil 20.

Themakingofclassical Edinburgh 33.

‘ Managing eighteenthcentury building ’, Burton ‘ Early carpenter’smanuals1592– ‘ “ (ed.), In thejellymould”: craft andcommerce in18thcentury Georgian vernacular: papers givenat theGeorgian Georgianvernacular: papers (London : Georgian Group , 1996 ). ( Edinburgh 1820 ’, : : Construction History Construction History Edinburgh University

2 4 233 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document detsn 16, 52–4 advertising 174, 181 Joseph Addison, 86, 80, 75, 53, 42, 18, 9, Robert Adam, 118n110 John Adam, 141, 139, 132, 125, 83, James Adam, Page numbersin italics relatetoinformationfoundinfigures. agae f 173–81 , 198 of language 185 , 182 –4, 181–7, and houses 63, 147 61, 55, handbills 169–73 and customers genteel and 169–70 ethics 180–1, 205n86 costs broadsides 61, 62 188, 190 187, 184, and auctioneers 126, 125, worksinarchitecture, The speculativebuildingand 124, 126 Royal Terrace, theAdelphi 122, and neoclassicism London 83, Street, Mansfield 138, 139 and Ireland house forBaron Ord Edinburgh 76, 93 Square, Charlotte London 177 House, Chandos collapse 192 business bespoke townhousesand advocated by 133 licence artistic 186, 187 139, 141 132, 171, 192 119n135, plate 15 144, 130, 171, 192 171–2, 4 95, 9699 94,

83 149 102, , 149 , 174 , 178 Index

mrc America Fdrl era/ style Federal see also speculative order 201 social mobility in 35 social sources printed neoclassicism, market, housing designs house 89, 83, 16, 13, 10, 7, 3, national early gentility 15 of culture integration 16 cultural associations in 31 craft houses 149 town 136, 138 bespoke 49, 29, 16, and artisans profession and 10 architectural system in 30 apprenticeship trade cards see also strategies 181–7 visual and 185–6 typography tradesmen/ artisansand advertising 180–1 serial 171, 175 170, and retailers 169, 171 accommodation rental designs 171–2 of publication and 170–1 property 142, 139, 138, 55, 54, 53, newspaper

and post- revolutionary 91, 112 169, 211 147, 136 building 83 104–12

201 53–4, 147

234 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 234 Index artisans 22n44 ria class 27–32 artisan architecture 80–1, 33 , 18, publications architectural 10, 1243 7, architects 30, 7879 apprenticeships 146, 165n97 62, 61, George Andrews, American War ofIndependence 138, 142–7 Adamesque American ecpin f – 2 , , , 75, 212 9, 7, 1–2, of perception 130, 136 and books pattern and 122–3 neoclassicism 138, 123, 122, 16, immigrant and 32–6 portraits identities, and 76, 77 designs house 114n29, 126 and education design 128–9 78–81, 9, 7, and design colonial 143–4 77, 123 75, and classicism capitalist 3 building as and 4–6, 7 architecture and 131 authority architectural adaptation/imitation and and 27, 29 mobility social 29, 3031 sorts middling classes 27–8 middle master-craftsman hierarchies of 29 overlapping craft, craft guilds and apprenticeships 30 America 29 in 81, 112 11, building versus and 4–6, 7 artisans pattern books see also 134, 132, 131, 125–7, neoclassical 89–91, 136 81, American tradesmen and 53 107, 83, and building speculative 6, 9 – 10 of emergence profession, era/ style Federal see also origins of 143 144–5, 146 and artisans immigrant and 143–4 artisans colonial chimneypieces 146 and 143 artisans British 144–5, 146 130, 209 136, 139–40 124, 211 85, 149, 192

31 28, 29 95

194 , Bso , 8 – 9 105 , 199 89–90, 9, Boston 140, 138, 131, 127, subscriptions book John 191 Bonsall, Edward 196 Bonsall, Bryan 156 Bolger, 164n82, 177 136, 195–6 William 79, Bingham, 66, 29, 9, Owen Biddle, 89–91, 81, 29, 13, 2, Asher Benjamin, Gunning 34 plate 7 Bedford, 97, 97, 96, John Baxter, 195, Joseph Batson, 13, 5075 11, Bath Pietro 126 Bartoli, James 144–5 Barnes, John 80 Barlow, 45, 150 17, Nicholas Barbon, Baltimore 99, 97, 96, 95, Alexander Balfour, utoer 187– auctioneers Society 31 Housewright Associated hsnt Street 89 Chestnut Charlestown 195 Street 195 Charles Hill 90 Beacon 135, 134, 92, 82, Crescent Royal Crescent 173 Lansdown Circus 177–8 Crescent 153 Camden Brook 145 Willow 117n85 , 155 104, Row Waterloo Street 149 Thames houses 149 row Clare 145 Mount Homewood 134 Mansion 145 Clifton 187, 190 cards trade house and 113n8 architecture vernacular houses and 75 town 19, 210–11 18, and taste 43, 211 social status 29, 27, and mobility social and 37–42 media print of 32–6 portraits 141, 164n70 211, 137 127, 107, 90, 89, 159, 178 plates 5, 6 211, 212 ae ad 17 191, 192 187, and sales 6 1 , 7 3 , 35, 32, 27, 17, 16, 193, 194 8,

199

235 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document rclyr 0 4 , 49, 5051 48, 30, bricklayers Francis 40, Braidwood, Joseph 53–4 Bowes, James 200 Bowden, 146, 162n16 55, Matthew Boulton, François 132 Boucher, ulig industry 6–9 building 85 , 84, builder’s magazine,The 34, 3536 Builder’s EveningAcademy(Dublin) 34, William Buckland, 173, John Brownrigg, Thomas 157 Browne, Thomas 64, Brown, 191, 193 brokers Francis 211 Brodie, 93, 14–16, world Atlantic British Bristol 5, 200 83–4, 104 bricks 51, 72n97 49–50, brickmakers of Company Bricklayers advertising, trade cards and 172, 169, 104, Crescent Tontine building 153 speculative Street 175 Park 209, 210 Square Louisburg 136, 143 interiors Street 90 Hancock otmoay criticism of 192 contemporary American 89–90 building 116n49 speculative Square 92 Queen Square 179 Portland Street 92 Orchard Square 200 King Terrace 194 Cornwallis Clifton regulations 92 building Street 92 Bath 59, 6165 56, 56, 55, cards trade and 46, 66 status social mobility 66 professional 43–4, 209 of perception economic/managerial of 82–3 criticism associations craft apprentices and 30 0 , 127, 128 107, 125, 143 Philadelphia proficiency of 92 51, 52 209 31 55, 61 , 88, 86, 12 Charleston 15 83, 41, 35, 9, William Sir Chambers, 129– 123, ceilings Richard 100 88–9, 107 Castle, 86, 86, 85, John Carter, Thomas 191 Carstairs, (Philadelphia) 79 Company Carpenters’ apnes 3 , 44, 4850 30, carpenters 43–4, 39, 7, 6, Robert Campbell, Colen 80 Campbell, James 153 Butler, James 201 Burton, 143, 122, 104, 89, Charles Bulfinch, buildingversusarchitecture ulig regulations 47 building legislation building oeh aial House 145 Manigault Joseph Gaillard- BennettHouse cards 57, 60 trade identity and 7 professional perception of 16 economic/managerial and 78, 79 skills draughting associations 31 craft apprentices and 30 and 147 neoclassicism Adam legislation building see also design and urban and 46–7 building speculative 95, 112 94, 93, and Edinburgh Bristol and 92 regulations building see also City RebuildingAct(1667) Building Acts(1767,1768,1774) Act forRebuildingtheCityof 153, 151, 150, 148, standardization of 9, 46 perception 82, 112 of industrialization 29–30, 44 hierarchy 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 , 6 , 178, 192, 199 168, 139, 130, 126, 124, 154 , 155, 156 145 , 144, 144, 137, 135, proficiency of 46 169, 172 3 102, 103 93, London 200, 209 199, 175, 156, , 4875 174 209 , 133–4, 131 , 130, 32, 92 145

11 102 , 81 – Index 3 , 78, 112

235 236 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 236 Index ls dsicin 13, 1566 distinctions class Christie’s ofPall Mall Thomas 4, 80 Chippendale, 148, 146–7, 134, chimneypieces Chase LloydHouse,Annapolis Darly, Matthew(andMary) Henry 149 Darley, 84, 83, younger) (the George Dance, William 35, 36 Cuming, Thomas 34 , 66 Cubitt, George 66 110, 127 Cubitt, 110 , 86, 65, John Crunden, 47–8, George Cruikshank, Crosby’s HouseAgencyOffice William 153 Crosbie, John 52 Cromwell, Alexander Crawford, 93, 9496 James Craig, guilds 31, 78 craft corporations 78, 79 200, 201 196, Joseph Corbit, Jonathan 196 Corbit, Thomas 138 Cooley, John 141 Coney, Commission forWideandConvenient 58, 136 Placido Columbani, 77 , 151 48, 44, Joseph Collyer, William 199 Collins, John B. 107 Coles, Charles 159 Coles, Stone Artificial Coade’s John 34 Closterman, Thomas 141 Clayton, 20n18–19 5, classicism eo, ail 0 1 , 28, 211 10– 11 , Daniel Defoe, Bernard, 126 Montfaucon, de 48–9, 5167 William Darton, and Mary Matthew Darly, see also 39–40, 41 38, and dress nolsiim Palladian neoclassicism; see also sorts 156, 159 , 126 43, 42 , 38, 42–3, 41, plate 1 178, Streets Manufactory classicism upperclasses ;

middleclasses socialclasses 171

151 ; working classes workingclasses 8 , 192, 194 187, 6 , plate 8 96–7, , 5 77, 123 75, , ; ; socialmobility middling middling 7 3 , 40, 38 , 37, , 191 143 142, 192

; Dublin 14 rs 8 39–40 38, dress 78–9, 81 11–12, draughtsmanship doors/doorcases John 101 Donnellan, Doneraile House,Kildare Street, House 188 Coffee Dick’s James 150–1 Dickie, 93, 80, 78–9, 11–12, education design design Salem, MA 130 Mansion, Derby Gilles 132 Demarteau, os dsg and 99– 104 design house Street 188 Henrietta 135 , 133, 127, 103, Street Harcourt 157, 179 Street Denmark Great 199, 200 197 –8, Street Gloucester 173, Street Gardiner Place 153–4 Gardiner 100, 102 Estate Gardiner Street 176 Fitzwilliam Square 209 Fitzwilliam 102 100, Estate Fitzwilliam Place 127 Ely Street 200 Eccles Doneraile House,Kildare Street Street 179 Dominick Street 191 Dawson Street 191 Dame Commission forWideand Street 191 Capel Street 174 Buckingham 15, 23n68 and design British Place 171 Beresford Place 200 Belvedere 132, 179 131–2, House Belvedere 102, 178 Street Baggot 189, House Antrim rwn shos n 79, 209 and schools drawing 78–9, 93 and apprentices draughtsmanship see also 12–13, 913 the ‘street house’and and builders house 78–81, 76, 75, and artisans 199–200 Convenient Streets 1 , 151, 156 110, Dublin 142 , 126, 132–3 114n29, 128–9, 209 100 , 1 66, 212 41, , 4 9 , 0 , 0 , 109, 108, 102, 97, 94, 171 81–91

, 191, 194 100 237 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Eibrh 50, 93–9 Edinburgh John 91 Ducker, Dublin Society for Improving DublinSocietyforImproving oten e Town 93 New 151, 193 Northern 92–9, 75, 10, Town New Estate 93 Moray Street 193 Hill Street 94 Hanover 99 , 98, 97, 96, 94, Street George Square 94 George Street 94, 96 Frederick 95, 9698 93, 92, façades 82, 76, Square Charlotte plate 7 96, 94, Street Castle 95, 112 94, 93, regulations building materials 104 building 118n110 Square Adam leases,controls stipulated by Street 100 Kildare 193, 200 159, 158, Street Hume 175, 176 103, market housing epe Street 156 Temple 158, 160 157, building speculative Smithfield 91 141, 131, 127, Green Stephen’s St Royal Exchange(CityHall) residential areas, leasesand 177, 175–6, advertising estate real 126–7, House Powerscourt Square 149 Parnell 171, 204n53 North Great George’s Street Street Frederick North 112, 100, Dublin Square, Mountjoy 100, 156 Place Mountjoy 169, 179 101, Street Merrion 169, 155–6, 100–1, Square Merrion 175, 191 Street Marlborough 159, 193 Useful Arts Husbandry, Manufactures andother 169, 177 138–9, 197 179, 182 178, 142, 162n25 157–8, 193 149, 199, 202 198, 172, 179, 160, 172, 158 , 158, 157, 155, 155, 154, 153, 133–4, 119n127, 200, 101 194, 191, 179, 176, 170,

11 , 12 , 54 , 79 93 36, , , 94

125 131, 168–9 100 154, , , 140 140 102 102

odmt, Oliver 18 Goldsmith, glaziers John 100–1 Gibson, 32, 26 , 15, (politeness) gentility General SocietyofMechanicsand Walter 79 Gedde, James 126 Gandon, 151, 152 137, designs frieze T.B. 188 Freeman, 182, 184 67, Benjamin Franklin, Mark 153 Fowles, era/ style Federal George 185 Faulkner, James 211 Farr, 67, 145 John Fallon, façades 166n118, 159, 151, Edward Evans, emigration 21n30, 4183 9, James Elmes, see education Philadelphia 9, 178 92, 105 York New and 147 craftsmen indigenous of 92, 99 ornamentation 106, 108 York New London and 99 95, 9698 93, 92, and Edinburgh 101, 102 100, 99, Dublin artisans immigrant see also Town 93 New Western 94, 9597 93, council town Street 96 Thistle 96, buildings tenement building 158–9 speculative Street 193 Frederick South Society ofMasterBuilders,Wrights St 96, 150–1 Street Rose Street Queen Street 94, 96 Princes 118n110 96, 94, Town Old 65–6, 192 Tradesman 136 167n147 118n110, 150–1 and Masons plates 5, 6, 8 nrws qae 94, 141 Square Andrew’s , 79 18 13 16 155, 209 146, 143, 138, 15–16 dsg education design

212 4 9 , 6 12 159, 112, 96, 95, 94, 31 , 4 14 15 122, 105, 104, 14, 9, Index 237 238 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 238 Index uls 3 , 78, 198 31, guilds 189, 194 30, rents ground 92, 91, 82, 48, 46, leases ground Joseph 92 Grindon, John 192 Grierson, Robert 193–4 Grews, Britain Great 195, 201–2 Edward Gray, Gwynn,John os advertisements house Levi 152 Philip Hodgson, 54, 72n107 James Hoban, James 150–1 Hill, Nicholas 191 Higly, William 100 Hendy, Gibson 200 and Hendy William 91 Hendrick, John 153 plate 7 Hayes, 97, 97, 96, John Hay, Henry 92 Hawkins, Theophilus 208 Hardenbrook, William 191 Hanna, 170, 193 William Hamilton, William 80 Halfpenny, os bidr builders house oil class 29 social with 14 relationship Ireland’s education 11, 12 design integration 16 cultural colonies 15 distinctions 15 class class 29 artisan at, ries f 3 4 , 7 3 , 52, 32, 17, 13 –14, of arbiters taste, rank 192 social reputation and 52 taste and 26 polite 46, 5177 7, of perception 192–201 187, and selling house and 101–2 guidelines and 192 autonomy financial 196–7, 201 and advertising direct and 6, 192 autonomy design 91–3, 112 52, 12–13, and design and 45–6 controls skills and 30 business books and 80 architectural 172, 173 114n29 55, 153 186 , 187 185, 183–4, ,

192 192 47 ,

, 83

11 182, 181–7, , 85 ,

neir eoain 3 4 , 148– 53 , 191 13– 14, decoration interior Mayhew 191 and Ince 138, 123, 122, 16, artisans immigrant identity George 58 Hutchison, 88, Thomas Humphreys, William 60 Hughes, 187–201 sales house 79, 122 58, 54, 29, 27, painters house , 87, 86 , 85, 85–91, designs house 124, 193 decorators house rs Adamesque 138–42 Irish 136, 211 houses town American 138, 142–7 Adamesque American artisanal, print media and and 32–6 portraits artisanal, and 174 vocabulary vendors’ and 192 valuers and 191 solicitors and 191 notaries public and 188 particulars printed and 192 agents estate direct selling,buildersand and 191 conveyancers contract 188 private by 192–201 and builders and 191 brokers sale 189 of bills 191, 192 187–8, and auctioneers view 188 to appointments 193–4, 191, and advertisements of 16, 30 perception 100, 104 75, terraces uniform American houses, town try egt 7 9 , 0 , 106 102, 92, 87, heights storey 87, relationships proportional and books pattern 100, 104 99, 75, front palace York 104–12 New (London) 103 rates house interior painters; house see also 144–5, 146 196–7, 201 195–9 89–90, 119n134– 90, 103 108, 115n39 103–4, 112 102, 99–100, decoration , 196, 200–1 , 5

6 104, 86, 88, 152 37–42

, 110, , 239 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document eetn Thomas 156 Leverton, Lettice, John Giacomo 211 Leoni, 100, 91, 46, 45, system leasehold 87, 102 87 , John Leadbeater, Henry 83 Benjamin Latrobe, 41, 56, 81 Batty Langley, Langford’s ofCoventGarden Daniel 193 Lamb, kit-houses Hall 156 Kirchoffer, 106, Rufus King, William 81 Killigrew, Nicholas 176 Kildahl, Jacob 91 Keyser, George 155 Kent, 54, 145 Joseph Kennedy, Henry 80 Keene, Andrew 79 Keay, John 40 Kay, 92, 211 27, 9, journeymen William 159 Jones, Inigo 49, 50 Jones, 10, 169 Samuel Johnson, 153, 211 John Johnson, B. 57, 58 Johnson, jerry-building,brickhousesand Eginton 136 and Jee Jaques (John)ofHolborn , 33, 33, George Jameson, Adamesque Irish Ireland punch andgougedecoration 123, 13, and speculation property and 123–5 neoclassicism rts aet of 138–42 agents British and 138 neoclassicism 14, 23n67 and Britain Great education 11–12 design systemdecoration 160, 199 159, of standardization 123–4, and building speculative 102, 168–9 188, 194 48, 82–3 73n123, 146 148, 153–61 150–1, 15361 175 126

156 , 58, 36 157 , 79, 98 , 187, , 199 211

, 210 210

London 5 John 65–6 Locke, Robert 174 Liston, Limerick 9, 88 Whitechapel 29 West End 15 Street 176 Titchfield Upper 82, 77–8, 44–5 , houses terraced 116n46 , 44, building speculative Place 189 Russell Royal Terrace, theAdelphi Richmond 176 176, 175, 174, advertising estate real Gate 149 Anne’s Queen Square 175 Portman Place 199 Portland Street 189 Newman Estate 5 River New 175, 201 Mayfair 71n82, 201 46, Marylebone Street Mansfield 103, 175 James’s Street, theAdelphi system rates house 195, 202 Street Hill 153, 193 Street Harley Grosvenor Square, leasesand Place 178 Cumberland Great Street 199 Gower F 92, 189 Square Finsbury absence of 80 institutions, design City RebuildingAct(1667) Circus, The 84 Street 91 Charlotte Square 80 Cavendish specifications 91 building 102, 78, and legislation building 114n16, 201 Square Bloomsbury Bridge 72n91 Blackfriars 192, 199 191, Street Berners Square 202 Berkeley Square Bedford Estate 91 Bedford 188, 192 187, auctioneers plate 1 178, Place Alfred eeik Place 102 rederick 112–13, 116n46 153, 171, 192 171–2, 149, 119n135, 177, 178 103, 174 194, 199 193, 178, 158

, 5 , 158, 156, 77, 75, 2 ,

3 83, 199 83, 102–3 102, 189 168 Index

239 240 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 240 Index yn, Robert Mylne, Daniel 53 Murphy, 4–5, 112 Joseph Moxon, 101, 85, 85–6, 81, 80, Robert Morris, John 153 Morgan, 117n85, 104, 83, Robert Mills, Pierre 132 Mignard, 31, 211 30, 29, 13, sorts middling John 36 , 37 Middleton, classes 27–8 middle Bank 31 National Mechanics George 191 Meade, Joseph 28 Massie, Mechanic Charitable Massachusetts Thomas 126 Martyn, Peller 27 James Malcolm, Alan 16 Richard McLeod, Alexander 58 McLeod, Samuel 18 McIntire, McCullagh, James 104–12, 92, 12, Jr John, McComb, 66, 38, 37–42, bricklayer macaroni 32–3, 70n55 macaroni James 200 Lyndall, trade 55, 65 goods luxury Joseph 151 Lowe, John 156 Low, ersnain of 38, 39 representation politeness and 66 society and 32 polite gentility and 66 caricatures and 39 middling sorts see also 130, 129, 123, and style neoclassical and 136 decoration interior 129, 136 of portfolio drawings, esnl irr 80, 105 library personal 109, 106, 104–12, 89, designs house materials 104 building and 104 construction brick and 105 houses bespoke 179, 208 plate 2 155, Association 143, 151 136, plates 12, 13, 14 212 192, 212 70n52,

7 72n91, 170 47, 31 4 , 153, 164n76 142, an, ae 35, 86 James Paine, 101–2, 86, 80 , 65, 56, William Pain, Anthony 198–9 O’Reilly, 94, Baron Robert, Ord, 209, 212n4 171, James O’Donnell, Roger 45 North, 99, 158–9 80, James Nisbet, Christopher 154 Nihill, 84, 103 Peter Nicholson, John 151 Nicholson, newspapers e York 104–12 New Richard 44 Neve, 122–37, 210 14, 11, 3, neoclassicism John 11 Nash, tradesmen/ artisans,advertisingand 180, 181 advertising serial and 170 advertising retailers, 169, 170 readership 181, 182 and illustrations 171, 170, 169, advertisements house advertising, housebuildersand costs 180–1 advertising elevation 105 street variable Street 107 Vandam State 109, 108 , 104, houses row plate 13 107, Street Queen and 105 planning advertisements 182 house 120n152 Street Harrison Federal- era 106, 108 façades lt hue in 105– houses elite Council 105 Common Street 177 Cherry Street 107 Charlton 132, 131, 125–7, and publications 123–4, 134 and decoration interior and 122–3 artisans 122, 143 105, and America , 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 , 133, 133, 134, 136 134, 127 , 126, 111, 110, 142, 147 139 , 138, 55, 54, 53, 181–7, 110–12 134, 136 tet 171, 209 Street , 183–4, 185 182, , 171 92, 105 6 95, 9699 211

241 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document Philadelphia 9, 105 131, 125, 58, Michelangelo Pergolesi, Thomas 178 Penrose, Pennsylvania Academyofthe Grelaud 188 and Peirsol Wilson Charles Peale, 21n30, 4685 James Peacock, Thomas 92 Paty, 80–1, 143 58, books pattern Alexander 104 Parris, paper-stainers Andrea 211 Palladio, 81, 80, 23n56, 5, classicism Palladian 180, 194 Arch Street MeetingHouse 174–5, Street Arch 125, and ornament neoclassical 104, 86, and designs house and 126 education design 142, 209 136, 130, and artisans ae tet 18 180, 200 178, Street Race companies 156 insurance property Powell Street 149, 169 House Powel manufactory 152–63 ornament 91, 180 Street Ninth Street 200 Lombard Street 196 Locust 182, 186 advertisements house Street 91 High Village 170 Hamilton Row 104 Franklin 159, 177 156, 3, Street Fourth 156, 180 and insurance fire Street 196 Fifth 159, 179 Street Eighth academies 79 drawing 195, 199 159, Street Delancey 146, chimneypieces 179, 193 Street Chestnut specifications 91–2 building 91, 112 industry building 164n82, 177 Mansion Bingham plate 2 83, House Chew Benjamin auctioneers 188 136, 158 Fine Arts 140–1, 210 108, 115n39 102, 113 101, 9 155 199

34 148 9 ro, hms 3 , 42–3, 70n52 39, Thomas Prior, 122, 211 media print Peter 200 Prigg, Rev. 154 Joseph, Pratt, William 194 Powell, George 156 Potter, Maine 104 Portland, 26, 3266 (gentility) politeness Fuller 152 William Pocock, Co. 151 & Player John 164n82 Plaw, 125– 124, 123, plasterwork lsees 30, 153 plasterers John 80 Phillips, Robert 158 Philips, Academy 12 Architectural Philadelphia avriig architectural advertising; see also caricatures 37–40 and 37–42 identities artisanal (neoclassicism) patterns repeat pre- castcomponentsand 60 , 6465 59, 57–8, cards trade speculative draughtsmanship and 12 131, 127, and subscriptions book Woodlands 143 Square 195 Washington chimneypiece at 148 Upsala, Street 178 Twelfth 169 Street Third Street 156–7 Spruce 112, 30, building speculative 143, 144 The Solitude, 159, 200 Street Seventh Street 191 Second Row 149 Sansom’s 159, 196 Street Sansom houses 149 row Court’ 15 ‘Republican 176–7, advertising estate real pattern books publications 124, 157 124, 151 156, 157 128 , 127, 152, 151–2, 133–4, 1579 141, 164n70 156–7, 15960 178, 179–80 ulig and building ; newspapers; ; , 180, 200 3 137, 37, 61,

Index 241 242 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 242 Index ere, ihe 6 17 , plate 3 107, 86, Michael Searles, John 199 Scott, Paul 38 153 , 160 Sandby, 151, 62, 61, William Salmon, 136, 151 Massachusetts Salem, 35, 114n29 Academy Lane Martin’s St 131, 157 Francis Ryan, 66, 200 John Russell, 12, 3283 7, Academy Royal 149, 160 78, houses row oe Jsp 8 2 – 6 , 2 , 199, 211 127, 125–6, 18, Joseph Rose, 138, 141–2 131, 127, Edward Robbins, Cesare 127 Ripa, 187, 188 John Riddell, 139, 129, 125, 80, George Richardson, 142, 164n76 Michael Reynolds, Joshua 34–5 Sir Reynolds, Nicholas 126 Revett, 171, 175 170, and advertising retailers, brokers 193 estate real 127, 90 , 89, 89–91, 81, Daniel Raynerd, John 144–5 Rawlins, Daniel 53 Quigley, 7, 89 A.W.N. Pugin, Richard 188 Pue, notaries 191 public e Yr 0 , 0 , 109, 108 , 104, York New building 199 speculative ‘Sketches ofOrnamented Frizes’ ‘Sketch Bookof Rose’ and 126 Tour Grand 136, 137 129, of portfolio drawings, collection/library book auction ofstudioandproperty and 139 apprentices endorsement brothers’ Adams 140, 141 131, 127, and subscribers newcollection ofchimney pieces, A 127, 162n26 Iconology 132, 131, 126, bookofceilings, A 110–12, 171 136, 137 129, 125–6, 129 of 139–42, 140 140, 141 140, 195, 196 153, 137, 136, 139

2 , 130, 131 129, 126

134 134 tpeo, George 66 Stapleton, 157, 158 156, 151, staircases Samuel 155 Sproule, 153, 81–2, 30, 18, building speculative Society ofMasterBuilders,Wrights Society fortheEncouragement ofArts, Artists 139 of Society status 211–12 social 19, 66–7 16, mobility social oil classes 27 social 7, 8183 John Sir Soane, Smith, William Robert 41 Smith, Edward 189 Smith, Adam 29 Smith, 57–8, 59 G. Silk, Shields, I. 190 172, Thomas Sherrard, William 191 Shannon, 188, 196 Poalk and Shannon Senate ChamberofCongress Hall euain ad 46– 7, 209 and regulations construction 44 of quality 134, 157–9 133, and plasterers 45, 46 –8 of perception marketing/advertisingand legislation and 78 123 – 4, 13, and decoration interior drawings and 91 and 150 interiors customised risks of 194 capital from 209 return capital 149, 192 107, 83, and architects 168, 186 and houses town and 46, 66 bricklayers 27 16, and artisans architects and 10 27, 2943 and artisans America and 35 middling classes; middle see also class 28, 29 working classes 30 lower bourgeoisie 28 29, 68n13 and Britain and 201 America 148 199, 209 and Masons Manufacture andCommerce sorts , ; oil mobility social ; 150–1, 15361 94 31 , 3 , 5 211, 212 35, 32, 168 11 199 243 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document ercd houses 1 terraced and J. 80 I. Taylor, 125, 192 53–4, 26, 13, taste 45, 71n82 Jonathan Swift, 154–5, 160 123, 13, 12, subcontracting stucco-workers 126, 42, (‘Athenian’) James Stuart, 82, 8593 9, streetscapes 33, 43 stonemasons 85, 116n62 William, Stitt, 57, 59 Thomas Stibbs, 128–30, 103, 84, Collection Stapleton tpeo, ihe , 3 1 , 92, 18, 13, 2, Michael Stapleton, perception of 45 nobility and 82, 77–8, 44–5, 13, 12, and London Dublin and 99 85–7, 86 12, 5, and design 5, 83– 4 of appraisal and 138 artisans immigrant 26, 17, 13–14, and builders house agent of 138 as craftsman distinctions and 13 class 19, 210–11 18, and artisans plasterers see also Collection Stapleton see also 133–4, 158 and building speculative and 99–100 reputation Powerscourt House,decoration of and 123 style neoclassical Mountjoy Square and 142, 126–7, and decoration interior 198, 201 197, and selling house 199–200 198, 103, Street Harcourt 112, 103–4, 102, 99–100, and design collection/library book and 131 House Belvedere advertisements 198 112–13, 116n46 55, 192 32, 153, 195 145, 142, 130, 160 155, 152, plates 3,9,10, 11, 16 151, 145, 136, 134, 129, 126–7, 142 198, 202 199–200 158, 155, 151, 145, 131, 133–4 129–30, 197, 211 82 2 5 , 7 16 138, 136, 67, 54, 12, 78

0 , 5 , 158, 153, 100, 126

ra dsg design urban classes upper 190–1, 193 (upholders) upholsterers journeymen and 9 ‘tramping’, 10, 1127 tradesmen 54– cards trade 148–9, 123, 110, 75–6, houses town timber-frame construction merchants 30 timber , 6 153 66, 36, 35–6, Charles Thorp, 151, 199 Jr William, Thackara, lvto daig, use of 92 drawings, elevation regulations and 92 building coherence and 92 architectural and 170 tenants speculatively builthousesand and 169 newspapers and 168 leases 174, 201 and marketing house and 66–7 mobility social and 65– 6 gentility and 164n70 subscriptions book advertising and 53 58, 6064 57–8, and plasterers trade and 55 goods luxury 55, 211 and builders house and 55–65 designs carpenters and 57 56, 5961 56, 55, and bricklayers 188, 190 187, and auctioneers designs; house see also standardization of 148 terraces 77–8 standard 168, 186 and status social house 85 town 160, 179 small 154, 149, 148, types plan pianonobile 149 6–7, 26 1, of perception of 123–4 interiors neoclassical marketing/advertisingof design and 179, 210 176, 169, 149, American 196–8, 197 193, and selling house hue ein ; town houses designs; house see also terraced houses 173–4, 1756 168, 209 158 83, 175 , 181 6 7 , 113, 151 77, 76, 65, 211 44, 168,

168 , Index 243 244 Review copy © Copyright protected it is illegal to copy or distribute this document 244 Index er Alex 79 Weir, 146, 55, 4, Josiah Wedgwood, Washington, DC 107, 101, 83–4, 45–6, 35, Isaac Ware, Wallis, N. 142 William 79 Waldron, 156, 195 66–7, 3, Jacob Vogdes, architecture 113n8 vernacular 158, 199 Thomas Utterton, (industry) 26, 32 usefulness 13–14, architecture domestic urban rw oss terraced houses; row see also 14, world Atlantic British 162n16, 170 109, 118n94 houses 149–50, 209 17–18, 150 ; town houses ; 175, 177 isn William Wilson, 53, 157 William Williams, Gabriel 191 Whistler, Joseph 159 Wetherill, 138, 139 Thomas Weston, Edward 59 Weston, Robert 131 West, 138, 63, 63–4, 6, Robert Wellford, yt, ae 3 178 53, James Wyatt, Robert 96 Wright, Christopher 34 Sir Wren, classes 28, 29 working 126, 140 Robert Wood, 81, 177 75, 11, John Wood, 96, 95, 94, 93, 90, 87, 84, 82, windows ulc nosmn of 152–3 endorsement public 146–7, 147 and chimneypieces and 147 advertising 144, 146 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 111, 151 107, 106, 103, 102, 100,

141