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Marijuana: a Reference Handbook, 2Nd Edition Marijuana Recent Titles in the CONTEMPORARY WORLD ISSUES Series Hate Crimes: A Reference Handbook, third edition Donald Altschiller Illegal Immigration: A Reference Handbook, second edition Michael C. LeMay Obesity: A Reference Handbook, second edition Judith S. Stern and Alexandra Kazaks Solar Energy: A Reference Handbook David E. Newton Prescription Drug Abuse: A Reference Handbook David E. Newton Th e Minimum Wage: A Reference Handbook Oren M. Levin-Waldman Juvenile Justice: A Reference Handbook, second edition Donald J. Shoemaker and Timothy W. Wolfe Th e Global Water Crisis: A Reference Handbook David E. Newton Youth Substance Abuse: A Reference Handbook David E. Newton Global Pandemic Th reats: A Reference Handbook Michael C. LeMay Same-Sex Marriage: A Reference Handbook, second edition David E. Newton DNA Technology: A Reference Handbook, second edition David E. Newton Modern Sport Ethics: A Reference Handbook, second edition Angela Lumpkin Books in the Contemporary World Issues series address vital issues in today’s society such as genetic engineering, pollu- tion, and biodiversity. Written by professional writers, schol- ars, and nonacademic experts, these books are authoritative, clearly written, up-to-date, and objective. Th ey provide a good starting point for research by high school and college students, scholars, and general readers as well as by legislators, business- people, activists, and others. Each book, carefully organized and easy to use, contains an overview of the subject, a detailed chronology, biographical sketches, facts and data and/or documents and other primary source material, a forum of authoritative perspective essays, annotated lists of print and nonprint resources, and an index. Readers of books in the Contemporary World Issues series will fi nd the information they need in order to have a better understanding of the social, political, environmental, and eco- nomic issues facing the world today. This page intentionally left blank CONTEMPORARY WORLD ISSUES Marijuana A REFERENCE HANDBOOK Second Edition David E. Newton Copyright © 2017 by ABC-CLIO, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Newton, David E., author. Title: Marijuana : a reference handbook / David E. Newton. Description: Second edition. | Santa Barbara, California : ABC-CLIO, [2017] | Series: Contemporary world issues | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifi ers: LCCN 2016042067 (print) | LCCN 2016055665 (ebook) | ISBN 9781440850516 (alk. paper) | ISBN 9781440850523 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Marijuana—Th erapeutic use—United States. | Marijuana—History. | Drug legalization—United States. Classifi cation: LCC RM666.C266 N48 2017 (print) | LCC RM666.C266 (ebook) | DDC 615.3/23648—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016042067 ISBN: 978-1-4408-5051-6 EISBN: 978-1-4408-5052-3 21 20 19 18 17 1 2 3 4 5 Th is book is also available as an eBook. ABC-CLIO An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 www.abc-clio.com Th is book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America For Mary Agnes (Mickey) With many very fond memories! This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface to the First Edition , xv Preface to the Second Edition , xix 1 BACKGROUND AND HISTORY , 3 Introduction , 3 What Is Cannabis Sativa ? , 4 Hemp versus Marijuana , 10 Th e Cannabis Plant in History , 12 Cannabis in China , 12 Cannabis in India and Central Asia , 17 Cannabis in Africa (and Beyond) , 21 Cannabis in Europe , 23 Cannabis in North America , 29 Industrial Hemp in the United States , 38 Industrial Hemp Worldwide , 41 Conclusion , 42 References , 42 ix x Contents 2 PROBLEMS, ISSUES, AND SOLUTIONS , 53 History of Cannabis Prohibition , 54 Prohibitions on Cannabis: Ancient Cultures , 55 International Concerns, 1910–1925 , 56 Prohibition of Cannabis: Th e United States , 58 Cannabis Legislation in the States , 62 Federal Cannabis Laws , 63 State Marijuana Laws , 80 Patterns of Marijuana Use in the United States , 82 Attitudes about Marijuana Use , 86 Current Controversies about Marijuana Use , 87 Legalization and Decriminalization of Marijuana , 88 Arguments in Favor of Decriminalization or Legalization , 89 Arguments in Opposition to Decriminalization or Legalization , 99 Legalization of Marijuana for Medical Uses , 105 Arguments in Favor of Legalizing Medical Marijuana , 105 Arguments in Opposition to Legalizing Medical Marijuana , 109 Current Status of Medical Marijuana in the United States , 110 Legalization of Recreational Marijuana , 112 Resistance to Legalization , 115 Conclusion , 116 References , 117 Contents xi 3 PERSPECTIVES , 133 Introduction , 133 Marijuana Is Not Safe and Is Not Medicine: Peter Bensinger , 133 Th e Waiting Game: Mary Jane Borden , 138 An Eff ective Public Health Approach to Reduce Marijuana Use: Robert L. DuPont , 141 Government Research Support and Marijuana Legalization Brightens the Spotlight on the Endocannabinoid System: Rachele Hendricks-Sturrup , 147 Medical Marijuana: A Perspective: Arthur Livermore , 151 Lies and Deception: Th e Origins of Today’s Federal Marijuana Policy: Duane Ludwig , 158 Th e Th reat of Big Marijuana: Clara MacCarald , 162 Is Marijuana Medicine? Th e Answer Is Yes, No, and Maybe: Kevin A. Sabet , 166 Common Sense Marijuana Policy Revisited: Douglas McVay , 170 4 PROFILES , 177 Introduction , 177 Americans for Safe Access , 177 Harry J. Anslinger (1892–1975) , 180 Steve DeAngelo (1958– ) , 183 Lyster Hoxie Dewey (1865–1944) , 185 Drug Free America Foundation, Inc. , 186 Drug Policy Alliance , 189 xii Contents European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction , 191 Barney Frank (1940– ) , 194 Jon Gettman (1957– ) , 196 Hemp Industries Association , 198 John W. Huff man (1932– ) , 201 International Association for Cannabinoid Medicines , 204 Marijuana Policy Project , 206 Raphael Mechoulam (1930– ) , 208 Tod Hiro Mikuriya (1933–2007) , 211 Ethan Nadelmann (1957– ) , 214 National Institute on Drug Abuse , 216 National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) , 218 Offi ce of National Drug Control Policy , 219 William B. O’Shaughnessy (1809–1889) , 222 Raymond P. Shafer (1917–2006) , 225 Keith Stroup (1943– ) , 227 UN Offi ce on Drugs and Crime , 230 U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration , 232 5 DATA AND DOCUMENTS , 237 Introduction , 237 Data , 237 Table 5.1. Marijuana Use by Persons Aged 12 Years and Older in the United States, 2002–2014, Past Month , 237 Contents xiii Table 5.2. Marijuana Use by Persons Aged 12 Years and Older in the United States, 2002–2014, Past Year , 238 Table 5.3. Marijuana Arrests 1980–2014 , 239 Table 5.4. Marijuana Use by U.S. High School Students by Gender, Ethnicity, and Grade Level, 2013 , 240 Table 5.5. 2014 Domestic U.S. Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program Statistical Report, 10 Largest States , 241 Table 5.6. Attitudes and Practices Concerning Marijuana among U.S. 12th Graders, 1975–2015 , 241 Documents , 243 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1895) , 243 Marihuana Tax Act (1937) , 246 Th e Marihuana Problem in the City of New York (1944) , 247 Leary v. United States, 395 U.S. 6 (1969) , 248 Controlled Substances Act (1970) , 251 In the Matter of Marijuana Medical Rescheduling Petition (1988) , 257 Interpretation of Listing of “Tetrahydrocannabinols” in Schedule I. 21 CFR Part 1308 [DEA-204] RIN 1117-AA55 (2001) , 259 Hemp Industries Association, et al. v. Drug Enforcement Administration , 333 F.3d 1082 (2003) , 261 Gonzales, Attorney General, et al. v. Raich et al. , 545 U.S. 1 (2005) , 263 Rohrabacher-Farr Amendment (2005) , 266 FDA Statement on Health Eff ects of Marijuana (2006) , 268 xiv Contents Memorandum for All United States Attorneys (2013) , 270 Legitimacy of Industrial Hemp Research (2014) , 272 Coats v. Dish Network (Colorado Supreme Court Case No. 13SC394) (2015) , 274 United States of America, Plaintiff , v. Marin Alliance for Medical Marijuana, and Lynette Shaw (2015) , 275 6 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY , 279 Books , 280 Articles , 289 Reports , 300 Internet , 306 7 CHRONOLOGY , 323 Glossary , 337 Index , 343 About the Author , 371 Preface to the First Edition Cannabis sativa is one of the oldest crop plants known to humans. One form of the plant known as hemp has been used for the production of textiles, rope, canvas, paper, and other products for at least 6,000 years, and probably much longer. Another form of the plant, known by a variety of names such as marijuana and hashish, has been a part of religious and mysti- cal ceremonies for just as long. It has an especially long cultural tradition in India, where the Hindu god Siva is said to have sought comfort after a family quarrel by resting under a canna- bis plant and eating its leaves. Th e story explains Siva’s alternate name of the Lord of Bhang (bhang being a special concoction containing marijuana). Marijuana has also been used for centuries as a recreational drug, a mind-altering substance that allows users to experi- ence a form of the world around them often very diff erent from that experienced in daily life. Archaeological research has found evidence of vessels apparently used for smoking mari- juana that date as far back
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