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AUTHOR Malan, Vernon D. TITLE The Dakota Indian .. Community Studies on the Pine Ridge Reservation. South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 470, May 1958. INSTITUTION South Dakota State Univ., Brookings. Agricultural Experiment Station. SPONS AGENCY Department of Agriculture, washington, D.C. REPORT VO SD-IXES-Bn11-4,70 PUB DATE Mav 58 NOTE 72p.

RDRS PRICE Mr-$0.83 HC-$3.50 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Acculturation; Community Change; *Communit- Study; Cultural Events; *Cultural Factors; *Family (Sociological Unit) ; Family Characteristics; Family Struc-tere; Group Membership; Local History; ; Moral Values; *Reservations (Indian); Sex Role; Social Histor Y; Sociocultural Patterns; *Socioeconomic Influences; Tribes IDENTIFIERS *Sioux (Dakotas); *South Dalota (Pine Ridge Reservation) ABSTRACT The.traditional organization of the_Dakota Indians was compared with contemporary patterns of family livingon the Pine Ridge Reservation. Effects of the cultural change on the economic and social conditions of the present day Pine Ridge Indians were evaluated. The study revealed remnants of the traditional kinship pattern and.the nature of the changes which had tahen place in the family organization during tha transitionalpromss, and offered suggestions to guiea the direction of future change on the reservation. Three communities, located in a contiguous area on the Pine Ridge Reservation, were characterized as traditional,_ transitional, and transpositional. During the summers of 1956 and 1957, information on 86 from these communities vas gathered- using a series_of previously_prepared questions. Among the findings were: the traditional community had the smallest average family size and number of children per family and had mast nearly retained elements of the Dakota kinship pattern; in the transitional community, over half of the families were broken by , separation, or death; the transpositional community had the largest average family size and number of children per family and had most fully accepted a non-Indian family system resembling that in non-reservation areas; and although changes in Dakota culture were tremendous, many child-rearing practices and sharing patterns were retained. (NQ)

Documents acquired by E_ IC include many informal unpublished materials not available from othersources. ERIC makes every effort to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginW reproducibilityare often encountered and this affects the quality of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available via the ERIC Document ReproductionService (EDRS). EDRS is not responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions supplied by EDRSare the beet that can be made from the original. Bulletin 470 May 1959

RURAL DE PAR1MENT AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION SOUTH DAKOTA STATE COLLEGE, BROOKINGS

THE DAKOTA INDIAN FAMI LY

LI S DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH, EDUCATION wELFAME NAVONAL INSTITUTE 1F EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HASEtEEN REPao OUCED EXACTLY AS -THE pc /ISON OR ORGANRECEIVED pRom ATI Nu IT AcHNTS OF ZA TIO IONIGIN VIEW OR OPINIONS STAIED DO NOT NECESSARILY 'EFIRk SEMIOFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITJTE OF EDUCATION POSITION opPOLICY

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fr Contents L Goals Of the Study 3 I L Area of investigatkwi 4 The Reservation Community 4 7 . The Communities Surveyed HI. Traditional Kinship Organization 12 Childhood . 12 and Marriage 18 The Kinship Group 01 IV. c...:( itcmporaly Family Organization 29 Thc Huh% ideal 29 Tiv. Nuclear Family 34

Kinship Re tnna nu . . ,38 V, Evaluation and Implications of Culturc Cho ge 57 Economic Conditions ot the Family 57 Isolation of the Fznnily 61 Acculturatiq_m oi the Family 63

Suggested Reading I,ist _ ,71

I..isof Tables 1 Indices of Acculturation 9 2. Educationr_l Achievement of Children 9 .3. Land Ownership, Utilization, and Alienation 10 4. Nuclear Family Characteristics 39 3. Nuclear Family C =position 39 .6. Indices of Community Participation 51 7. Purchasing Practices 59 .S. Average Distance of Fa_inilies from Services 62 9. Percentage of Families wit_li Communications Available_ 63 List of Figures 1. Map of the Reservation Communities 8 2. Nuclear FamiliesTraditional Community 37 3. Nuclear FamiliesTransitional Community 38 4. Nuclear FamiliesTranspositional Commu i _ __ _ ,.. ___ 39

5. Kinship PatternTraditional Community_ _ 41 6. Kinship PatternTransitional Community_ 43 7. Kinship PatternTranspositional Community. 45 8. Shating PattemTraditicmal Community, 48 9. Sharing PatternTransitional Community 49 10. Sharing PatternTranspositional Communi ' 50 11. Visiting PatternTraditional Commtmi 50 12. Visiting PatternTransitional Commum . 33 13. Visiting PatternTranspositional Community . 54 The DAKOTA INDIAN FAMILY Comrn Jnity ft-uclies or the Pine nidge Resent

Goa k of the Study rine HIdu Indians of Sitiththen is to offer suggostions to guide tJkt iirm ;1 nnique oppor-the direction of hitnre changcwi tiality tor thc sociological sflidy the reser-v:ition. Such suggestions honilies of:dengoing cultural transi-w;II he designed to penrit the per- tion.'= initior goal of this bulle-fection of these changes with a tin is to (1es eribe the traditinnal kin-minimum of personal and social dis- shiporganization olthe D:tkotaorganizatioo. I Khans' and to compre it with 'Associate Bora! SueioIiitSooth offamily conteniporarypatterns kw-itStale (Thllege lsxperi- ou the Pine Ridge Reserva- mein Station. tion. This stiffly of the family in'Cultural mill mu ot cultural change is selectedreservathmcoirwiiiiities general process emlnacing all m the should reveal: (1) any remnants of reittlinstment,tota minorityethnic the traviitioilal kinship path_ rn group soch as the Dakota Indians as they itting at the present time, and (2.1 shift from thdr triulitional ways of living the nature of the changes which to the practices of the dominant society. `in this bulletin thc term kinship Will refer have taken place in the blind\ or- In the large group of individuals rclated ganization during tho process of lry blood or marriage which was rccog- transition, ni.,ed as constituting !he traditional Aa attempt will be [(lade to el, al- falnity, Thesmaller unit typical of our society, usually including , nate some of the results of the cul- , and off-spring, will he referred to as tural change on the economic and ntielrar fIiiiHlV social conditions of the present dav 'Dakota Ilidians will refer in this study to Pine Bicige Indians.Specifically, ancestors of the Indians now located on ehimger, in family organization have reservationsin South Dakota. Most of been associated with other eco- the descriptive material in this bulletin will he Ltken from ilecuunts of the kin- nomic and social conditions which s'iip organization ul the w'estern or Teton will be described am] explained. ,akotas atthe tiu ie of their first contacts The seconan, goal of this stridy with Western Cis ilization.

4 "Zh' Daltu government wore itceeoted by thetend along the win )(led streams On eseryation residents without much thePineBldg('licservation.ln difficulty. As long:istheI rdians some ot the, communities, churches %VON' permitted to live hi their kin- or schools have been established to ship neighborhoods. tluy were will- serve the local people, hut they are ing to ;_tecept the cool:stoves ;Ind not as important as kinship ties in other equipmentissue..1 bythe holding the community together. ,Igeof, and they even ,ulopted someThe small, caulked log cabins and of the practices of the non-li [Lune! shacks at e irregularly spin...eel They were fregnently discouraged along the crock. In sot ne places two and clintriscd. and or more cabins arc clustered on the unused, hv the inconsistynt and un- :la liltlunnestc..ad, whili in others :I workablepoliciestontudated hysolitary residence way be situated the goverinnent to speed their as-severalmilesfromthenearest Theseinconveniences neighbor. could he enthired or -ignored as long The gre,majority of homes have as they did not interfere with activi-(nu. or two rooms and arc verv ties of the kinship groups Ill theircrudely furnished. lam- of the close-knit communities. cabins are poorly constructed and 'lliere are a large number o'r these linty be difficult to beat during the small rural counnunities today scat- vinter months. Tlw roofs are nsu-

Many of the Indian homes are one-room log cabins.

!:a "be Dal ladian ram' 11,

goverument were ficceuted bv the tered along thr ss. .1.1 streams On eseryation residents without much thePineBldg('Beservatioo,lii difficulty. As long:is Im bans some ot the communities, churches %VON permitted to live in their kin- or schools have been established to ship neighborhoods. they were will- serve the local people, hut they are ing to ;_iccept the cool:stoves ;Indnot as important as kinship ties in other equipmentissuedbythe holding the community together. and they even adopted someThe small, caulked log cabins and ot the practices of the non-li [Lune shacks ale irregularly spaced lliiv svcre fregocntly discouraged along the croek. In sm no places two and (( 011 USC(I Ul III sullictiirws or more cabins are clustered on the ninscd, hv thr inconsistent and un- :la MC homestead, while in others workablepolicies1m-undate1 hy solitary residence may be situated the government to speed their as- seveni-imilesfromthenearest similatUin.Theseiileonvenklices neighbor. could be endiired or igno Ted as long The great majoritv of boincs hayc as they did not interfere with activi- One or two rooms and arc verv ties of the kinship groups in theircrudelyfurnished. lam- of the close-knit vonimunities. cabins arc poorly constructed and 'lliere are a large number Trulybe difficult to beat during the small rural communities today scut- winter mouths. The roofs are mill-

Many of the Inclit homes are one-room log cabins. Dakota Experimou Station Balletia 470 illy made of rough has covereda dirt or gravel road connecting th tarpaper or sod. The mainreservation villages, and the road roi no is used for all household fune- may be also used as a school bus timis,especially eating, sleeping,route, The !muses arelikelyto and visiting. A stoveislikelyto belocatedatleast100yards have a central location in the roo from this road, and in sonie cases and may be used for cooking asseveral miles. The nearest paved well as heating. highway is U. S. 18, which runs -nw iimiwsteA is likely to have athrough the southern edge of the shade, one or more mail-order wallreservation, and is more than 50 tents, a corral, a root cellar, andIn miles from some of the more s outhouse located in the vicinity ofla ted reservationcommunities cahin. Simie is tisc.d iii theDuring the winter inonths the roads summer in much the same way asare treacherous, if not impassable, the cabin in the winter, for a vari-and many families depend on horse- eb,-of householdactivities. Somedrawn wagons during this season protection from the elements, espe-tor traveling. cially from the hot noon-day sun, is Small rural villages arc located at ,ifforded by the shade which is cmi- %ie points throughout the Pine s to[(Jed with pine boughs placed Ridge Ileservation. Here are avail- on a frame supported by four cor-able a limited number of economic ner poles. Tents are used for sleep-services. The most important is that ing in both summer and winter, andafforded by the general store or most frequentiv when the cabinstnuling post which has a virtual become uncomfortable, overcrowd-monopoly on the sale of most con- ed, or when relatives come visiting.sumer goodsparticularly groceries The corral may containalew and other daily household needs. horses used for riding Or working,One or two service stations or ga- althoughitisoften empty sincerages and a small restaurant are livestock is customarily permittedlikely to be the only other business to run on the acreage owned by theestablishmentsinthe village. A family. Odd pieces of equipment,number of government buildings bodies and motors from wreckedand homes are usually situated in cars, and considerable debris arethe villages centered around a well- usually scattered about the home-constructed government day school. stead. And quite frequently theOne or more churches may be whole placeis surrounded by afound among the shacks which are fence badly in need of repair. randomly located in the generalvi- These homesteads are connectedcInityofthetradingpost and by trails consisting of two nits ondschool. a high center. They usually have a The population on the Pine Ridge noticeable amount of use from rela-Reservation has tended to increase tives visiting back and forth. Mostin the last 50 years. There was a of the communities are located nearsteady indrease in total reservation 1141, (IUlfl Fa populatkm from 6,619 iu 190( Traditional Con nunityOf the 8,370 in 1931.6 lb the latter part ofthree communities this one exhib- the 1930's and the early I9-10's theited the greatest resistance to ac- reservationpopulationdeclinedceptanceofnon-Indiancultural somewhat because of depressionvalues, and was classified as a tra- and war. but since 19-4(3 there hasditional community. There were been Li1,)0plilati011ilicrease. Theseveral indices which seemed to in- birth rate has remained relativelydicate a lower rate of accultura- !doh; thus the growth of populationtionainongthe281 aminesin has heen lanie,elyaresult of de-the community (table 1) :(1) the creased infant mortality and in-educationJ level was low; (2) the creased life expectancy. 'rho aver-scores on the socioeconomic scale age family size is a little more thanaveraged low; and ( 3 ) the percent four members snick there are aboutol adults of pure Indian extraction 1,900 families making up the esti-was high in comparison with the mated 7,700 populatim. Sixty 1x,r-other two communities. cent of the population is over 21 The adult males had achieved a years ot age. In the imirriageableslightly higher educational level in age group there are approximatelyterms of grades completed than the 120 females for every 100 males-zudult females (5.84 years to 5.12 The Indians of pure bakota extrac-wars ). The average for both adults tion are estimated at about 40 g ofand children was 4.:32 years. The the total population.7 educational level of (he chiklren, of The Communities Surveyedcourse, will depend in some degree ontheirage.The educational The interviewing for this study wasachievement of children at various done during the summers of 1950ages is reported in table 2. and 1957. A field worker and an in- terpreter asked a series of previous- Measurement of socioeconomic ly prepared questions and gathered]status was attempted by the use of as much information as possible onthe short form of the Sewell Socio- each family. The three communitieseconomic StatusScale for farm families.9 On this scale the average inwhich intensiveinterviewing was carried out are all located in a 'Land Planning Committee, Indian Land contiguous area on the Pine Ridge Tenure, Economic Status, and Populo- Reservation. A map indicating the tOn Trends, page 67. 'Warren Cardwell, An Introduction to the location of families from which in- Modern Oglida Sioux, page 11. terviews were obtained is present-"The method of this study can not he in- ed in figure 1. These communities cluded in this bulletin, but a mimeo- have been characterized as tradi- graphed description is aailable from the tional, transitional, and transposi- Bural Sociology Department, South Da- tional for reasons which will be kota State College. 'William U. Sewell, "A Short Form of the apparent from the following sepa- FarmFamilySocioeconomicStatus ratedescriptionsofeach com- Scale," Rural Sociology,(Vol.VIII), munity 5 1943. fiages 161-170. r FIG.1

DISTRICT MAP

I TRANSPOSITIONALL COM M U N ITY LO :-SCHOOL TRADNG POST

TRADITIONAL 'COMMUNITY

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1 TR NS ITIONAL COMMUNITY

mssw.m 4meime ne Dakota ian Family Table 1. Indices of Acculturation _ Years of sociocconomicPare Indian Education SCOre Extraction (%) Traditional Community 4.32 47.8 89.8 Husband 5.84 92.0 Wife 5.12 87.5 Transitional Community 5.64 51.5 64.3 Hu sba nd 6.70 63.0 Wife 6.68 65.5 Transpositional Community 5.99 53.5 53.8 Husband 7.75 50.0 Wife 7.58 57.9

Table 2. Educational Achievement of Children

Age 0-5 Age 6d 0 Age 11713 Age Over % ,, No. of Corn- Com- Pre- [Acted pleted psiethted School Avg, 2nd Avg. 6th Connnunities Children No.GradeGrade No.Grade Grade No.Grade Grade _____ ..______Traditional ,_, 21 9 1,8 66.8 11 5.1 36.4 14 7.6 64.3

'fransitional..., 17 23 7..? 69.6 -726 6.4 69.2 30 8,8 80.0 Tranvositional . 13 18 3,1 83.3 12 6.7 76.7 17 9.6 94,1 Totals 51 50 2.4 73.7 49 6.1 60.8 26 9.2 92.1 family scoreforthetraditional tnunito retain certain elements of community was 47.t3, indicating athe ancient Dakota culture are more level of living much below the aver-a result of community values and age farm family)" This was appar-sanctions than any physical or ent from the total lack of electrici_ logical characteristic of the people. telephones,runningwater,andAlthough high degree of Indian other conveniences in the home,blood and resistance to accultura- and the limited space in the livingtionarefrequently observedto quarters. appear concurrently,theexcep- The percent of adults_ of puretional cases indicate that the rela- Indian extraction (92.0 for males and 87.5 for females ) seemed to 'Althoughno comprehensive comparisons justify were undertaken, it appears reasonable its description as a "full- to estimate that the average farm family blood community" by the people in in South Dakota would sccire between 70 the area. However, this description and 75 on the short form on the Sewell also seemed to connote the attitude Socioeconomic Status Scale. Since this oftheresidents_ toward culture scale was standardized for non-Indian families, it may not be very accurate in change. It is likely that efforts by distinguishing differences in low-income' members of the traditional corn- Indian communities.

1 0 SouthDa Evv,riavai Sia0,1a Ball,qin 470 tiOliShl1) between these two factorsthe fact that in the last 5 years eac h is not direct. family has lost an average of 165 The use of land for agriculture isacres through sale or lease, while additional consideration in un-the land gained has been negligible derstanding the traditional emu-( table 3). minlity. Most of the land on the TransitionalCommunity - On fiats along the creek valley in which the three measures of acculturation, the community is located is usedthe :30 families in the transitional for grazing. Occasional attempts arecommunity were intermediate he- made toraise small grains andtween the traditional and transposi- vegetables in favorable situations.tional communities ( table 1). The While 71.-1',-; of the families owned Average grade achieved was 5.6-1 some grazingland,only32.1!,- tor both adults and children. It was owned lind suitable tor other fann-6.70 for adult males and 6.6S for ing practices. Nearly a fourth of theadult females. The average family families owned no land of any kind,score on the socioeconomic scale eithergrazingorfarming. Thewas 51.5, indicating sonic increase otherthree-fourths owned someOver the traditional communit in land, but much of it was leased tOlevel of living. The group of pure non-Indian cattle operators. MoreIndian extraction constituted 64.3% than half of the families (57.1V )ol the adults, and the percentages were unable to raise cattle or crops,were 63,0 for and 65.5 for The rest were using an average of. . On the basis of these indices ahm it 105 acres which is grossly in-ofacculturationthis commun ado I!ate in that part of the coun-was classifiedas tramitional be- try. The average hind ownershiptween the traditional culture and for each family was about 350 acres,the reservation adaptation to the but nearly 90(1 of the land waswestern regional culture. leased, and only a little over 10'1 The land use situationin the was used by the owner. The trendtransitional community is similar to in the land use is also apparent fromconditions in the traditional coin-

Table 3. Land Ownership, Utilization, and Alienation

Ownership Utilization Alienation* Percent Average Average AverageAverage of Average Acres Acres Acres Acres Communities Families Acres Utilized Leased Percent Lost Gained TrAitional 78.0 350.8 105.0 309.8 47,9 165.0 2.1 Transitional 75.0 27L0 225.6 158.2 50.0 120.0 26.9 Transpositional 86.4 439.3 384.8 194.4 59,1 280.0 9.3 Average of Communities 79.8 353.7 238.5 219.5 50.7 188.3 12.8 5 years. 1 1 The Dakota liulian Fai,,il y

Some families utilize tents for either temporary or permanent housing. uninity. e e Tllyu higher than in the first two coin- myned less land on the average,iminities. Fifty percent of the hos- they did utilize the land to a slight- hands and .57.94- of the wives were h u'reater estent ( tahle :1 ).Three-of pure Indian eztraction. The total fourths Of the families owned some of 53.S, of adults in the "full- grazing land aud one-fourth, someblood- category islowest of the farminglain!.Sincethose whothree communities. This communi- owned fanning land ids° owned ty was classified as transpositional grazingland,one-fourthofthe because it appeared to have nearly families wa.re landless. About one-completed the change to the west- lialf of the himilies were making anern regional culture, although Occu- attempt to farm at least a part ofpy ing a somewhat different position their land. Thek were utilizing anhceatise of reservation location and average of 225 acres per family.conditions. When the land owned is averaged Land ownership and 11win- lotall the residents the result is 271creased in the transpositional com- acres.Less flmi one-half ofthemunity as shown in table 3. More total acreage is leased to uon-lndian fainilies had some land (86.ti). All ranchers. Land losses in the last 5of these owned some grazing land, years have averaged 120 acres, andand about one-third of them owned they have gained alittle oyer 25sonic farming land. Only 13.6',/ of acres per family, the families were landless. Nearly TranspoNitional C o ut in fl hit,jtiOfi of the land owned was worked The 22 Eunilics living in this com-hy the owner, and a little over 40/ munity appear to have the highestwas leasedtonon-Indiancattle rate of acculturation on the indicesoperators. There were 14 Indian reported in table1. The averageoperators in the communitv utiliz- grade achieved was 7.75 for 'Dis-ing 385 acres per family. Land band, 7,58 for wives, and 5.99 forlosses lw sale or lease in the last 5 everyone. Average score on the so-years have amounted to 250 acres cineconomic scale was 53,5, slightlyper family, and they have gained

1 2 South Dakota Everi-itSwint.Bulletin -ITO only about 10 acre.; per family. Thefamily system. This bulletin is or7 trend toward landlessness aprearsganizedonthisconceptionof to be taking place more rapidly herechange The traditional kinship or- than in the two other communities.ganization is descnbed in Section Thesethreecomnumitiesde- In Section IV, the modern fam- scribed and classified as traditional,ily organization is described and transitional,a n dtranspositionalcompared, and in Section V. the provide a pattern of change inchanges are evaluated, and sugges- social organization from the kinshiptions for future changes are recom- vsteiu toward the contemporarymended.

I! l. Traditional Kinship Organization

The kinship system, which played ChildhoodPerhaps the most vi- such an important role in tbe livestalkinshiprole in early Dakota of the Dakota Indians inearliersoruety was the provision of affec- times, may he_viewed from severaltion and guidance by to levels of social organization. Sincetheir children. The ideal parents any social group is made up of in-loyed their children, Erst of all, but dividual human beings, one possi-loving parents were secondly con- ble viewpoint considers the influ-cenied with proper home training. ence of the kinship system on eachThey wished to impress their chil- person in the group. Secondly, thedren with the fact that tbe actions biological fairiily, consisting of par-of every person reflected on the kin- ents and off-spring, is a small groupship group. They attempted to pro- which can be viewed as a part of thevide adequately for the material total kinship system, A third viewneeds of their children, since giving of a larger social group is possiblefood, clothing, and personal orna- by studying the kinship pattern inments to children was an indication the band. To the Dakota Indiansof their care and affection. They the real family unit was composedtried to treat the child as a person of close relatives held together byof dignity and pride, avoiding phy- a system of extended kinship prac-sical punishment which might en- tices. And finally, the intergroupslave or subjugate the child's spirit. relationships among bands, sub-Ideal parents regarded their chil- tribes. and tribes within the Dakotadren as rational creatures and al- nation provide a fourth view of thelowed them to exercise their powers workings of traditional kinship or-of choice and responsibility. They ganization. In this section the ma-never roughly or unnecessarily re- terial will be presented in the orderproved their children, andaad- suggested by these four viewpoints.monishment seemed advisable, it

13 The Dakota Indian Family was gentle and reasonable in orderbeen since quite early the child was not to hurt the child's feelings. taught to endure physical hard- Child training began when theslilps without whimpering. To the newborn infant was placed on astrict disciplinarian of contempo- cradle board and lifted to the moth-rary non-Indian society, Dakota er's back. Since the infant was con-children appeared to be excessively stantly with its as she wentindulged by their parents and rela- about her work, and she was readytives. The permissive attitudes of to provide for any need of the child,Dakota parents fostered an intoler- the attachment between motherance of restraint in the children. and infant was very strong and se-But as Francis Parkman observed, it cure. If the mother was tired ofwould be hard to find parents who toting her infant about, she mildwere fonder of their children. He hang the board from a tree, bul. h,described an instance of parental or tipi pole, so that the baby couldpride in which a would seat look at the world from an uprighthimself upon a buffalo robe, "place position rather than from a distort-his small favorite upright before ed angle lying on itsback. Thehim and chant in a low tone some baby-board was shaped to supportof the words used as an accompani- the small form of the infant andment to the war dance. The little encouraged the baby- to grow withfellow, who could just manage to arrow-like straightness. balance himself by stretching out When the young boy outgrew theboth arms, would lift his feet and cradle board, he continued to fol-turn slowly round and round in low his mother about as she carriedtime to his father's music." Park- out her daily tasks. Children wereman commented that this father kept interested and occupied bywas delighted with his son's per- the light work and informal train-formance and looked around to see ing given them. They were espe-if the precocious performance of his cially encouraged to develop theiroff-spring were being admired by powers of observation. Educationhis guest"- in useful knowledge and training in of children was not confined necessary skills was provided theto biological parents in .the tradi- youngchildren,contributingtotional Dakota kinship system. Close their assurance and ability in self-relatives, especially , s upport. aunts, and uncles, often gave as If a youngster were disobedientmuch attention to the infant as the to his mother, she reminded him ofactual mother and father. These his duty to his family and socialsecondary parents were likewise re- group. A reprimand, which shamedsponsible for the child's training the child before the kinship groups,and discipline, and they accepted was probably more effective in dis-the child as their own whenever his ciplining the child than any sort of"Francis Parkman, The Oregon Trail, physical punishment would have page 195.

14 14 Sauth Dakota Ex:twin:et!: Bulletin 470 natural parents were gone or lost.when successful warriors returned Grandmothers were especially like-from battle and were proclaimed as ly to assume the mother's role in anchampions as they circled the camp emergency. The following accountby the public voice of the village. by the missionary, Stephen Riggs,The names of the victors were is not unusual: called out in honor of their exploits. Seineweeksago,anelderly Younger warriors were incited to woman with a young babe begged emulate feats of bravery, to Reit rne for clothing for the little one. I against great odds rather than leave asked her ifit were her child. She the field without honor, and to gain replied that it was her grandchild, glory by outwitting the enemy by that its mother died last summer, stealth as well as in open combat. and that she had nurseditever Me boys, observing this warlike since. At Era she had no rnilk, but she contirmed nursing it, until the pageant, early learned the lesson milk flowed for the little orphan.r2 that the highest status was reserved for those who gained martial re- Dakotachildrenreceived nown. early informal education in all of the things needed to prepare them FortitudeClosely related to bra- for their station in life. In additionvery, the second great virtue of Da- to training in skills and crafts, theykota life was the courage to accept learned a great deal about the ge-continued hardships, to suffer pain, ography, botany, and zoology ofand to endure self-irdlieted tortures. the northern plains. The legendsThis quality was learned by the and history of the Dakota peoplechildren at the Sun Dance as they were transmitted to the youngerwatched respected warriors strug- generation and principles of correctgle for hours to release themselves use of the Dakota languages werefrom thongs tied to strips of skin likewise emphasized. Properre-on their chests because they had spect for age and wisdom was notmade a vow to participate in this neglected. Children who were edu-ceremonial. It did not require un- cated to exhibit self-control in ac-usual powers of observation for the tion and 'in speech were highlychildren to infer that those people regarded. with the greatest fortitude also ex- The socialization of Dakota chil-hilAted the finest character. dren depended in large measure Generosity The willingness to upon their internalization of thegive away all their possessions to principle virtues of Dakota life em-their kinsmen was a third basic vir- bodied in the moral code. Gordontue of Dakota life. The "give-away" WicGregor concluded that the moralceremony was a dramatic means of code contained four essential vir-honoring others and gaining social tues. prestige. Gifts were always made HonorChildren were constantly'Stephen K Riggs, Mary and 1: Forty presented with examples of bravery Years With the Sioux, page 131.

15 The Dakota Indian Faarily 15 in honor of someone, often a childbrothers ira games of hunting, fight- or a deceased member of the im-ing, and riding. The adults were mediate family, as a demonstrationconcerned that the young men learn of love or grief. The younger mem-a maximum of self-confidence and bers of the group learned that theaggressiveness in their pursuit of giver was acclaimed and respected,game and the enemy. The counsel especially by the recipients of theof adults was always given without gifts, according to the degree thatstrong . The boys were he impoverished himself. trained to control their behavior and to overcome any weakness WisdomMoral integrity was thewhich would restrict their effective- fourth essential virtue of Dakotaness as a linater and fighter. life. It was an ideal of behavior re- ceiving the g reatest emphasis 'The most important training of among the older inen in the kinshipthe girls in Dakota society was de- groups. Leaders should always besigned to prepare them to function -wise and composed, and those whoeffectively as a skilled helper and spoke and showed good insightadmiring companion to their war- and judgment were elected to therior husbands. Since the male was councils. In the family the grand- mbued with such a sweeping invi- were respected for theirtation to be master of the female, it wisdom and were expected to passwas logical that the girl's training it on to their grandsons."n shouldemphasizesafeguarding pre-marital chastity. After marriage The moral code embracing theher glory was a reflection of her virtues of Dakota society was pre-husband's deeds. She could only sented to youth through examplegain attention when he demon- rather than the compulsion of theirstrated his bravely irl battle or was elders. This was usually the case insuccessful intbe chase. At some training young people in the correctceremonies she could sing of the kinship practices, although certainbravery of her brothers, and at the avoidances were verbally expressedSun Dance she could mentally share and saoctioned by ridiculing gos-her brother's tortures. sip. These "taboos' were of a social nature, and did not relate to the The kinship practice of extend- body and physical habits. Theying relafionships brought all boys were first applied to the relation-and girls of the younger generation ship between brother and sister.into the primary avoidance pattern. After the age of six, boys were toldThis behavior served as a model for that they should no longer speak orlater adult avoidance patterns, and play with their sisters. The girlsitalso introduced the values of were advised tn stay near theirhelpfulness and generosity to the and participate in activi-young people- The young girl who ties which would prepare them forwas old enoughtoavoid her household duties, while the boys'3Gordon Nie-regor, Warriors Without were encouraged to join their older Weapons. pages 106-107.

16 Swab Dakota ET:,ritiit Station Hulktb, 470 brother was learning to use her skillto hint directly, or working at his in sewing and embroidery in orderside. to make beautiful gannents for her As the boys approached manhood future husband and children. Herthey began to prepare for a more brother, in turn, learned that theserious adult role in life. They were besttrophies won orcapturedexpected to "seek a vision" while should be brought back as a presentundergoing an ordeal to prove their for his sister. fortitude and courage. The youth- The role of the young girl in Da-ful Dakota male would present gifts kota society emphasized a "self-to an older man who would give conscious" attitude of respect forhim guidance during the ordeal. her brother. She learned to acceptThe boy was advised to purify him- the fact that boys occupied a su-self in the sweat lodge, and in- perior position in the household;structed in the proper ceremonials that to trouble or embarrass themand prayers that were to be pre- would be a serious violation of kin-sented to the spirits during the shiprules.She was constantlyvision quest. Going away by him- warned that slw must dev(-lop theself, the young man fasted, prayed, habit of doing small tasks for herand punished himself until the ex- brother that did not involve talkingpected vision finally appeared. Then

The older people like to carry on the traditions of their anccstors

1 7 Tbe Dakota Indian Family 17 he returned to camp singing a songrecognized the gifts by singing the of victory. Since he could not un-praise of the child. They believed derstand his vision, be returned tothat everyone benefited by the be- the counselor, who interpreted theloved child's mere existence, and dream, told him what powers hetherefore, he had special claims had acquired by thevisitation,upon the loyalty and support of his what dances he must perform, andtribesmen. what objects should be placed in his Another ceremony which estab- medicine bundle to protect himlished a special role for a child had from harm. Now the young manthe meaning -to sing for someone." was ready to engage in his first warThe name applied to the child with party. Again purifying himself inthe leading role in the ceremony the sweat bath, he invited severalwas hunktt. Frances Densmore has young warriors to a feast, and askedrecorded the purport of the cere- that he might be peimitted to ac-mony as described by Looking Elk, company them in a minor capacitya Teton Dakota: when they next went out to meet The great result of this ceremony the enemy. Now the carefree days is that the man who performed it of Dakota childhood were oVer, was regarded as a father by the and the young man was inducted child for whom he performed it. Fie into the hazardous life of the adult made a solemn vow taking that warrior. child under his protection until one There were special roles which or the other died. He became like a brother to the man whose children might be given to some Dakota chil- he sang over and painted with Ehr dren because of unusual circurn- hunka stripes. In all the great cere- stances. The practice followed by monies of the Sioux there is not one some parents of great liberali.y in that binds two men together so giving away gifts in behalf of their strongly as this." especially loved child increased the respect shown the child by the kin- Learning the required and ac- ship group, since they expected himcepted modes of behavior of the to excel in living up to the highestkinship system was the basic re- standards of conduct The extremesponsibility of children growing up expression of such ascribed prestigein Dakota culture. In general they was in the "child-beloved" whowere expected to learn the neces- from birth was privileged inall ry patterns for each relative in things because of the bege amountthek grandparents', parents', and of Foperty constantly given awaysiblings' generations. The system in his name. On the occasion whenwas not as complicated as it might great gifts were to be given, theappear because once the children herald announced the event and thelearned to recognize the proper be- me of the child receiving thehavior for these three generations, honor. The recipients of the gifts, "Frances Densmore, Teton Sioux Music, usually older, unfortunate kinsmen, page 70,

1 8 18 South Dakota Experiment Stasis,: Bulletin 470 the basic patterns could be modi-an unmarried girl who had repulsed fied for different relatives in eachall suitors and while honoring her, category. At any rate the correcther father was also suggesting that kinship terminology and behaviorit was time she faced her duty to were such fundamental elements ofmar7.15 the_ Dakota culture that from their The courting process was consid- earliest experiences in life childrenered legitimate only if carried on in were constantly urgedtolearnpublic, and any hidden meeting of them to the best of their ability. a young man and womanwasre- Courtship and Marriage Thegarded as unquestionably indecent. young warrior who returned fromHowever, since the men played his first successful war party wasthe aggressive role in courting as in fighting and hunting, the desirabil- ready to embark upon a new adultity of virginity in girls at marriage role in life. In this new role he needhad to be defended and protected no longer be bashful and reticent inby the young lady and her close the presence of young women. Itfemale relatives who served as her waswith pardonable pride that he groomed himself, put on his finestchaperons. If a young girl went clothes, and 'strutted about the vil-away from the camp for any pur- lage bearing himself with airs ofpose, she must always have a chap- gallantry toward the females. It waseron, or her virtue could no longer thus publicly recognized that hebe maintained. If the girl went to was ready to begin a period offetch vtr with a chaperon, for courtship. example, it was still possible for a young warrior to idly station him- The role of the Dakota maidenself in a convenient place in the dining courtship _was characterizedhope that he might be able to de- by recognition of virtue and insist-tain the girl of his choice for a ence upon irreproachable chastity.little gay chatter or a confidential Those young women of marriage-talk. This simple act was sufficient able age who demonstrated suchto warn the maiden that the young purity were honored by feasts andman desired to court her. She could ceremonials whore their prestigeignore his attentions and indicate was enhanced by the property givenby her manner that 'she was not away in their honor. It was incum.interested in him. In fact this was bent upon the men to expose any-considered appropriate behavior at one who falsely claimed these hon.first even if the young man were ors. A girl who was honored by theacceptable to her. The persistence Virgin Fire feast before marriage,of the young man's suit was likely might qualify for continued recog-to depend on circumstantial evi- nition through an honorable mar-dence of her interest in him rather riage. Tlus feast could be given by the woman herself, and this- was re-'Jeannette Mirshy, "The Dakota!' in Co- operation anti Comoath:H.;Among Prim- gardeA as all the more honorable, itive Peoples coitedby Margaret Mead, or it might be given by the father of pages 410-411.

1 9 Tfr Dakota Indian Family 19 than any open avowal of affection. working every minute of his stay As the courtship process pro- so that he might see how capable gressed the resistance of the female she was and how good it would for him if they should share a tipi. At was subjected to the test of male an hour when it was likely she persistence. If the young girl were would be attheriver drawing a highly virtuous and a dc girable water, he would stecil past as if by marriage partner,several young accident, and after a time theeve- braves might sit outside her tipi for ningcame when, wrapped in his many hours in the evening in the courting blanket, he met her and hope that she would come out to pulleditclose about them both. talk to them. Instead they might Then it was he told her that he only receive courtesy food. from the would give her brother two horses, girl's mother, and never have an op- that he could provide plenty of buf- falo tongues for her, and that she portunity tc nlead their cause with was a good woman who would Ow lady of their choice. It was pos- work well and bear sturdy sons. sible that she required further evi- And it was agreed that after he had dence of their achievements and fulfilled his vow and given the Sun bravery. The warriors might ad- Dance she would come to him." vance their suit by again going on the warpath, banging horne horses There were undoubtedly many and war honors, and thus enhanc-variations in the course of the suc- ingtheir prestige inthe wholecessful courtship, and, of course, camp. there was always the possibility of a violation of the rules or an acci- The later phases of the courtship dent or loss which might complete- are well described in the followingly disrupt the usual seriesof events. account of a young man who hasAn example of such an mlorseen returned with honor from the war-event.is found inastory frequently path: told among the Teton Dakotas. One Heavy with his new importance, version of this story is as follows: Kills Many Enemies proudly ac- cepted the admiration of the people. A young woman bad promised to And when the maiden Red Elk marry a man, but he wished to passed by, as she did very often "make a name for himself" before now, her face newly painted and marriage took place. He had been her freshly braided hair thin ing on the warpath, but he wished to with bear's oil, he gazed through go again that he might distinguish himself by valor. When the war her as if she mattered not in the party returned they said he had least to him. But he was young and been killed by the Crows. Sometime full rlife, and Red Elk was beauti- afterward in the course of tribal ful. So, when shehadbeen suffi- wanderings a camp was made at ciently humbled by his indigerence, he began to visit the girl's home the place where, according to the with the excuse of talking to her report of the war party. the young brother. On these visits Red Elk I"EdwinR.Embree. Indians of ihe Amer- spoke no word but bustled about, icas: Historical Pageant, page 148.

2 20 S3u11, Dakota Everiment Station Bulletin 470 man had been killed. Dressing her- publicly recognizing the nuptials self in her best attire, the maiden was held. In others the ceremonies went to the edge of the cliff, and were limited to the kinship groups after singing (a) song and giv- of the bride and bridegroom. Again ing the shrill "woman's tremolo," jumped into the river below," the bride was purchased. The act of accepting the payment of a speci- Assuming that the courtship offied number of horses made the tak- the young warrior were successful,ing of the girl to her new home a and the couple became engaged, itrecognized marriage. The married was then necessary to make planscouple might sit side by side in the for the with the approvalshade of a buffalo robe for half a and consultation of the kinshipday, in order that everyone in camp groups involved. The young _mancould observe that ihe marriage called his relatives together for a was official. feast and announced his intentions Elopement was an alternative to be married. If _they approved Msfor those young people who could selection,they brought the bestnot obtain the coment of their rela- presents they had to him, and thesetives. Through the help of a friend gifts were placed before the lodgethe man might entice tV girl away of his future bride. Theirelatives offrom the camp in order to run off the girl were then called to thewith her, or be could resort to the lodge where food was spread be-magic of the loyer's flute to lure his fore them, and they learned theidol to steal lway with him_ for a particulars of the proposed mar-clandestine nice ti n g. Although iage. They discussed the characterthese elopements were frowned and qualification of the expectantupon and occasionallyannulled, husband, and reached an agree-usually the kinship groups reeog- ment for or against the marriage. Ifnized the married status of the the decision were favorable, thenyoung people. by sending gifts and visiting the Wife stealing was not unknown tipi of the man's family they indi7among the Dakota Indians, but the cated :heir willingness to proceedculprit had to compensate the in- withthe marriage ceremony. Dis-jured husband with adequate gifts approval of the was in-in order to avoid tL vengeance of dicated by the girl's relatives if theythe rightful . An offended rejected or returned the gifts placedhusband who tried to coerce his h&ore her lodge. In this case thewife to return to him_ against her unhappinessofthe young manwill was disgraced before his peo- might cause him to wantonly de-ple and might even be driven from stroy the gifts in order to indicatethe Parnp. If the wife of a highly re- his mortification. spected man were stolen, however; The actual marriage might behe was acclaimed by the whole consummated in several ways. Incommunity if he disposed of her by some instances a special ceremonial'Densmore,op.cit., page 494

2 1 The Dakota Indian Family 21 running her out of t e camp. Anbeing a good relative to other group excellent description of the atti-members was the ultimate goal of tudes and feelings of the DakotasDakota life. The kinship system concerning the theft of a wife fromprovided a much needed, but pleas- her husband by the great Chiefantdisciplinefor groupliving Crazy Horse is presented in his bi-There were occasional violations of ography written by Mari Sandoz."the rules, but the sanctions support- Newly married couples preferredingthekinship demands were at first to live with the husband'sstrong enough to keep serious viola- parents. However, since the avoid-tions minimal and offenders were ance taboo between the wife and hisconsidered socially irresponsible,bo father was very strict, it was soon The Dakota culture was inti- more convenient for the newlywedsmately bound together with the to set up housekeeping in their ownkinship system in a close-knit coop- tipi near the husband's parents _inerative society. In this society the the camp circle., In rare cases thetiyospaye was an intermediate unit couple might live with the wife'sbetween the individual and the parents, but again the avoidancelarger units of social organization. necessary between the husband andKinship group membership was hismother-in-law_ made thisar-ascribed on the basis of biological satisfactory. rangement even less relationshipsestablished through Living with parents had the addi-ancestry. Membership implied that tional disadvantage of prohibitingtheindividual would abide by the wife from demonstrating herestablished practices and maintain home-making talents upon which aspecific attitude toward other her ultimate prestige was based. inembers of his group. The group The Kinship CroupCoopera-was expected tprovide its mem- tive living requires an elaboratebers with a pninary focus for their system of rules and regulations gov-interests and loyalties. It was the erning the social behavior in orderduty of the members to cooperate to keen friction and strife at a mini-with and assist each other and to mum. The Dakota Indians_ foundplace group interests above their their solution to the problem ofown. They were closely and contin communal living in a complicateduously in friendly interaction. just kinship system, The kinship groupas members of a family were bound or tiyospaye, as it was called in thetogether by ties of affection as well Dakota language, has been appro-as common interest, quarrels be- priately characterized as "a schemetween kinship group members were of life that worked." it worked be-considered more reprehensible cause _it was an all-inclusive system "Mari Sandoz, Crazy Horse, pages 240- providing rewards and obligations 240. for every member of the group. Ella Delcnia, Speaking of Indians, parea Observance of kinship rules and 24-74.

2 2 Sou& Dakota Experiment Sta Bulletin 490 than quarrels between membersmarry the wife of his deceased kola, and ou ts i de rs or brother of ceremonial . The tiyovaye was essential to It was a commonly accepted the continuation of tribal life in Da-pratice that a man should not marry kota culture. It was symbolized inanyone in his own kinship group. the camp circle where each nuclearExogamous marriage was required family unit had its established placeto the extent that no man could side by side with their close rela-many a woman having a common tives. The kinship group formed agrandparent. However, the mar- complete circle which simply ex-riage relationship in the nuclear panded to fit a new family in itsfamily was of secondary importance proper place or contracted when ato the consanguine or kin.ship group family visited relatives or sojournedattachment which could not be dis- for some time in another Dakotasolved by divorce. Irrespective of camp circle. where a man lived, lie continued The pattern of kinship in Tetonthroughout life a primary relation- Dakota society can be described asship with parents, grandparents, an extended family emphasizinguncles and aunts, brothers, sisters, generation, sex, and relationship asand composing his kinship the determining factors in the re-group, and his wife in the same way spect and familiarity shown by onewas devoted to her close relatives. member of the system to another.If the nuclear family were broken The smallest unit in the kinshipby divorce, the wife returned to her group was the nuclear family rarelykinship group and the husband to including more than a married cou-his. Children of the divorced couple ple and their off-spring. This basiccould usually decide where they unit can be diagrammed as follows:wished to live, but it was morecom- mon for girls to go with their moth- n_mme ers and boys with their fathers. 0FEMALE Custody of the children might be = = MARRIAGE resolved by the fact that the role of grandparents in rearing children permitted them to assume great re- sponsibility for their support, and In the nuclearfamily monoga-the children stayed with grandpar- mous marriage was highly virtuous,ents who had previously cared for although was occasion-them. ally practiced by men who were Residence customarily de te r- able to support more than one wife.mined the specific kinship group If a second wife were taken, sheclaimed by a new child, but it was was often a sister of the first. Or ifpossible, because of the vague resi- a man's brother were killed, he feltdence requirements, for boys in the an obligation to marry his widowed'Ilalph Linton, The Study of Man, page sister-in-law. He was obligated to 162.

23 Tbe Dakota ian Family family to claim their father's anders or cousins and female members girls their mother's kinship groups.sisters or cousins. The above dia- This determination was involved ingram can be expanded to demon- the correct designation of relativesstrate this: in the extended family, and influ- enced the term of address and con- ventional behavior since it made a difference whether a youth called a man father or uncle. Perhaps the system can best be viewed diagrammatically. The nu- clear family previously symbolizedThe same classificationis made may add the grandparents' genera- or affinal as for consanguine rela- tion in lineal descent as is shown intives with the addition of the in-law the following diagram: terminology. The four important factors in the kinship system deter- GRANDPA AT mining degrees of familiarity and respect were generation, sex, mar- TIABARENT'S GENERATION riage, and line of descent. This might be symbolized: EILACTIADRETCS DENERATIOD

P'"":"919 ---)CRANDEARENT Then if we expand the parents TEA generation collaterally the diagram m4."GE becomes more complicated: BLOOD RED T DOC T CLOSE RELATIVE DISTANT RELATIVE

TAMILIARITTc CT Brothers of lineal descent, for ex- ample, would practice great famili- arity they are of the same In addition to their own parentsgeneration, sex, and family. At the the children considered their fath-otherextreme,greatestrespect er's brother and mother's sister aswould be given by a man to a fe- father and mother. Their father'smale in-law of the grandparents' bister and mother's brother are auntgeneration who was not in the di- and uncle. These kinship categoriesrect line of descent.2' were likewise extended to all other Varying degrees of familiarity. - relatives in the kinship group, soand respect among relatives be- that all male members of the par:came so well established in the Da- enrs generation were either calledk.ota kinship system that they can father or uncle, and female mem-be classified. The four principle bers were called mother or aunt. patterns were: ( 1 ) friendly and in- In his own generation each indi-'Royal B. Hassrik, "Teton Dakota KM- vidual extended hisrelations so ship System," American Anthropologist, that all male members were broth- Vol. 46, 1944, pages 344-5.

2 4 24 South Dakota Expert'',;el Bullnin 470 timate;( 2) tenderness and affec-might exhibit elements of friendly tion; (3) reserve and respect; andintimacy and tender affection. The ( 4) avoidance. Each of these modeswife indicated her affection for her of treatment involved specific atti-husband by making a good home tudes and correct conventional be-for him, waiting on him, and doing havior which should be describedthe work around the camp in ap- in greater detail. preciation for his efforts in provid- ing subsistence and protection for Friendly and IntimateA man inher. Dakota society was expected to maintain in association with his sis- Tenderness and AffectionThe ter-in-law an attitude of easy-goinggreatest love and devotion was friendshipthatusuallyinvolvedshown in the attitude of brother to teasing and joking. Brothers andbrother and sister tosister, and cousins were often times leaguedsomewhat less intensely the same togetherinthe almost universalattitudes prevailed among cousins joking carried on with one another'sof the same sex. It was not uncom- wives and sisters-in-law. In muchmon for a man who had lost his the same way this friendly and inti-brothers or cousins in warfare to mate relationship was establishedsay am related to nobody," even between a woman and her broth-though he still had many fathers, ers-in-law. In case of the death of amothers, uncles, aunts, and even -pouse of a sister-in-law or brother-sons and daughters. This attitude in-law they became possible mar-resulted from the fact that more de- riage partners of those who are inpendence intimesofdifficulty this friendly and intinwte relation-could be placed upon a brother ship with them. This pattern wasthan upon any other relative. even more intensified between hus- Sisters practiced the same frank band and wife because oftheand loyal devotion toward each deeper emotional bond related toother. They must always present a consummation of sexual life. Theunited front to outsiders, permit- role of the husband as head of theting no criticism and speaking loud- family perhaps mitigated the reci-ly in their praise of each other. This procal joking with his wife to somesister group combined to counter7 degree, and some cases were com-act the males who were leagued plicated by . Thus totogether against them in the joking -make the generalization that allrelationship. Since a woman might married couples engaged equally inbe given to her brother-in-law in this pattern of friendly joking ismarriage, she had to be so devoted probably unwarranted. Althoughto her sister that they could live to- men usually regarded their wivesgether in harmony under all cir- with stoical indifference in public,cumstances. they were likely to indicate affec- The attitude of an individual tion for them in subtle ways, so thattoward his parents was one of ten- the relationship between spousesderness and affection shading into

2 5 -4e Dakota Indian Family 25 reserve and respect Love and re-female cousins, and father-in-law. spect for parents was required, andThe same was true for a woman in the parents returned love and cher-regard to her brothers, male cous- ished their children. The grand-ins, and mother-in-law. The pattern child had a similar relationshipof separate activities for brothers with hisgrandparents involvingand sisters when they were chil- even greater gentleness, frankness,dren, previously mentioned, was and respect. The aged grandpar-carriedover intoadultlife. A ents often played an important rolewoman showed respect for her in child-rearing, exercising a kindlybrother by applauding his bravery and indulgent dominance over theirand making gifts to please him, but grandchildren that ouhveighed pa-she would never talk directly to rental influence. him or sit near him. Marriedcouplescouldshow An excellent illustration of the re- their affection for their parents byspect and avoidance relationship is taking the responsibility for theircontained in this description of the care in their later years. Althoughassociation of a bride with her there were always some problemsmother-in-law. of avoidance,the aged parents The parents-in-law like to receive were usually taken into their chil- food at the hands of their daughter- dren's households. If the avoidance in-law and brag endlessly about it; taboo could not be ignored, a grand- in the same spirit they will "show mother might establish a home near off" the moccasins or dress made by her for them. This admiring, help- the _tipi of her daughter where she ful attitude must be adhered to even could be assisted with food and if the women are not well suited to care and at the same time enjoy her each other. For such women to daughter's company and help with quarrel or fight, to merit the label the children, "She who fights with her mother- Reserve and RespectThe ac- in-law" is a complete admission of cepted mode of behavior toward loss of self-respect, of prestige. And conversely,shouldsuch women aunts and uncles, and nephews and during the passage of years grow nieces was dominated by an at close together, they may not show tude of constraint and deference. this warm personal feeling by laps . The degree of reserve depended in ing into an easy informality. A large measure upon the distance of, woman may not discuss with her the relatives and the sex. A nephew mother-In-law anything that per- would exhibit greater reserve in the tains to sex, she may not express her presence of an aunt who was dis- ideas, her philosophy of lifethat tantly related than to an uncle who is reserved for sisters and cousins. was a brother of his mother. Across the affinal line no personal note may pass.22 Partialavoidanceofrelatives was usually related to the attitudesThis same attitude of respectful of reserve and respect. It was re-cooperation was apparent between quired of a man for hissisters,;minsky, op. it., pages 401-402.

2 6 24 South Dakota Event ifStation BulLnin 470 the husband and his father-in-law,ferences or moi.distant genera- although in time the avoidancetions. It was this fact that gavea practice was modified toward great-kinsinp group a sense of unity with er opportunifor reserved associa-others related through marriage. tion. Greater respect was expected from Complete AvoidanceThe ideal-childrenfortheirgrandparents istic expression of respect and lovethan their parents, and for a grand- was found in the complete avoid- of the opposite rather than ance between a man and his moth-their own sex, but if theperson er-in-law,_ and a woman and herwere an in-law of the older genera- father-in-law. It was in theseasso- tion he received the greatest pos- ciations that avoidance reached itssible respect. highest point, They were forbidden It is evident that there weremany to talk directly to one another, tovariations in these four primary stay in the same tipi, even to looktypes of association. The degrees of directly at each other. Awomanaffection,respect, and' avoidance would notlistento any gossipwere slightly different for each kind which might in the slightestwayof relationship. If two senior rela- detract from the extreme respecttives had the same relationship toa she had for her father-in-law. Shechild, he reacted toward themas might cook or_ make gifts for him,they acted to each other, but with but using a child as an intermediarygreater respect in deference to their would say, "Give this food (or gift) generation. When there were no to your grandfather." generational differences, sex differ- The father-in-law always defend-ence increased respect. Thus a man ed his son's wife in quarrels withopenly expressed the greatest affec- members of his family, even if shetion for his brothers, and while the were wrong. He gave gifts to heraffection for his sisters was great, through the son, sayin g, "Myit was expressed with reserve and daughter-in-law may like_ this." ifrespect. his son's wife died, he wouldmourn Success in all affairs of the tip- for her, but would not look directlyspaye was thought to depend upon at the corpse. Rather he would lookthe attitude of cooperation thatwas off in the distance as he spoke of hisembodied in the kinship patterns. respect for his daughter-in-law whoTo the Dakota Indians it appeared had fed and clothed and cared forthat those hands which complied him, It was a boast among many oldwith the regulations were most for- men that they could not tell whattunate in cooperative living. The their daughters-in-law looked like,individual was honored for the since they had never looked directlyprestige that he gave to his kinship at them. group, and one vvay be could gain Intensification of the respect rela-respect from other bands was by tionship was greater as a result ofproper kinship behavior. Noncon- marriage than as a result of sex dif-formity was subject to severe criti- The Dakotanth-a cism, ridicule, and gossi p, andwas considered a courteous act for might eventually cause the shameda child to bring an older person person to be driven from the camp.home where he would receive food The most severe punishment a manprepared by the child's mother. could receive was exile from theGiving generously of one's most vital kinship group without whichcheiished possessions while singing his existence was perilous. songs of praise and joy made the The most sought after role for thegiver brave and stiong in the hearts young man in Dakota society wasof other members of the group. characterized by willingness to risk In addition to these honored roles everythingforthe welfare andthere were a number of special roles honor of the kinship group_ A sys-that might be practiced in Dakota tem of decorations was used to svm-, society. A typical special role was holize special exploits in defense ofthat of adoption. Small children of the group. In battle, for example, ifan enemy tribe whose parents had a warrior received a severe woundbeen killedinbattle might be without showing pain, he was ex-adopted by a Dakota woman who hibiting the kind of brave spirit thatbad lost a child in infancy. An would make it possible for hini toadopted child assumed full rights meet death fighting for his peopleand responsibilities and was raised and thus gain the highest glory. in exactly the same manner as the As a man grew older, and hismother treated any of her other chil- ability to do battle with the enemydren. Even more exceptional was declined, the most honored rolethe adoption of a murderer to take which he could attain was a leaderthe place of the person he killed. in the council. Just zLs he won deco-The relatives of the murdered man rations as a defender of his peoplemight agree to win the culprit's in youth, as an elder statesman heloyalty through kinship rather than could achieve respect and honor byto punish him. This was actually wisely advising the kinship groupdone by adopting him in the place in their hunting and fighting activi-of his victim. ties. There were several other typical The most honored role availableexamplesofspecialrolesthat to other band members was basedshould be mentioned, One was the ontheir conceptofgenerosity.man who played the part of a wom- Women who brought food to thean because he was unable or disin- council tipi or gave gifts to the re-clined to engage in the strenuous turning warrior were fulfilling thislife of the warrior. He took the dress highly recognized role. Providingof women, and did women's work food for older people wbo might besuch as sewing and embroidering needy and helpless was also valued.in which he might develop great Children were taught to share inskill. He was thought to have re- this generosity by being instructedceived this role in his vision quest, to take gifts to indigent persons. Itand thus was not a subject of ridi-

28 South Dakota Exp;7rimcnt Station Bil in 4 70 cule Or disdain. Another was thewere often referred to as a band or role of the fop "whose solepurposecamp circle. The group might at was to win women counts rathercertaintimescallipwithother than war eours. Ile was thought tobands, especially those with which have had an "elk vision" and thusthey had friendly z.aid cooperative dcquired great power over womeninterband relations heeause of through the use of his-clk lovestiong tics of intermati iage. Since medicine," Hc WiLS likely to spenda man must marry outside his own much time in brushing hishair,group,hischildrenalways had grooming himself, and elaboratelyloved and respected relatives in at dressing, decorating, and perfum-least two bands. ing himself in order to improve his The bands, which usually hunted chances in his game of conqueringindependently during much of the women. A third role was the clownyear, came together in the spring who had :1 "frog or night hawk vi-with other related bands and sion' and therefore the recipientformed a tribe, putting up their acted like a fool the rest of his lifelodges at a central location, each for the amusement of the band2r1 band occupying its appointed place As long as members of Dakotaso- in the great camp circle. From each ciety knew and played their rolesof the bands leaders were selected well, this was truly "a scheme of lifeto participate in the tribal counsel that worked... Harmonious lifewaswhiA took charge of the camp. The possible becausc the rights of oth=chiefs selected for the counsel were ers were shown a nice regard inhonored for their war record and the kinship system.It was en=their generosity, and were also like- hanced by the spirit of generosityly to be the patrilincal heads of his which made it possible forevery- inship groups. one to find comradeship and suste- The band was also the typical nance from birth to death withoutFghting unit among the Dakota In- depending on false chnrity. The( ians, unless the prestige of a war feeling of security and attachmentleader made it possible for twoor engendered in the kinship group twee bands to unite in a grand war was well expressed in the Dakotaparty, Each leader acted independ- proverb, "A man with many chil-ently and in the manner ofan au- dren has many homes!"2' tonomousruler. Only onrare Larger Units of Social Organiza-occasions was it possible for a whole tionThe kinship group was unitedtribe to be engaged in warfare at by the ties of , affection,the same time and place. respect, and loyalty previously de- Several tribes were likely to feel scribed and was the basic unit ofa bond of friendship bared on the social organization among the Da-same language, usages, and super- kota Indians. Members of a kinship"Einhree, op. cit., pages 136-140. group camped, lived, and worked 'Luther Standing Bear, Lund ofthe together throughout the year, and Spotted Engle, page 163.

2 9 The Dakota Family stitions. They had no central gov-the Mississippi River to the Reeky ernment and were never reallyMountains. The Dakota nation was united even in wars. These were thea vague designation for many dif- major divisions of the great Dakota nation which ranged overa vast ter-ferent people with a language and ritory on the northern plains from culture which had some similarities.

IV. Contemporary Farnily Organization There have been great changesrelatives, particularly grandparents, in the family of the Dakota Indiansare delighted by his visits, and that since the days when they movedthey willingly and indulgently care freely on the plains in their searchfor him when his parents are avvay for the buffalo herds. Some of theseworking or visiting. changes _can be revealed by com- The pre-school child is regarded paring the traditional kinship or-as an inuiyidual whose dignity must ganization described in the previousnot be suppressed by physical pun- section with the contemporary Pineishment. T h e re f o r e,violations Ridge family which will be de-which merit attention are subject to scribed here. This description willreprimands, and if coaxing is inef- follow the same pattern outlined atfective, ridicule and shaming will the beginning of Part ILL First, theusually discourage unappreciated development of the individual frombehavior. Punishments are usually dependent inf ant to socializedmoderated by praise for proper be- adult roles will be presented. Thenhavior, thus providing the child the small family group, or nuclearwith pride in his efforts to please family, will be analyzed. The thirdothers. section will be devoted to discus- If there is any great difference in sion of the _remnants of kinshipthe childhood training of boys and which are observable in moderngirls, it is apparent in the tendency Pine Ridge communities. of boys to learn more aggressive The IndividualThe new bornways than girls. Male aggressive- child in the Pine Ridge family hasness must not, however, be based continued to receive attention andon hositility which might cause security from his parents. Familyembarrassment ordiscomfort to members and relatives are happy toothers. Instead, the young boy must provide for the infant's basic needs,learn socialized patterns of assert- and the little one is soon comfort-ing his own ideas in thinking and able in the close-knit family circle.acting. This character trait has a As the youngster grows he learnsmuch weaker development in the that those people around him willfemale child, and hostile aggression not reject him or deny his reason-expressed by the girl causes her able demands. He discovers thatgreat shame in the eyes of her social

30 .30 South Dakota Everiment Station Bulletin 470 group. Iler stronger attachment todren by unconseieus acts on the home and family offers her protec-part of their parents, as, for exam- tion from the hostility of others andple, when a mother hides her child encourages her to learn domesticbehind her skirts when in the pres- skills at an early age. ence of non:Indians. In early childhood, socialization There is likewise much evidence results from association and train-that in school the children appear ing provided by older generationsto be model pupils, and yet have not of family and relatives who tend toaccepted the superyislonofthe eitber look hack to the past gloryteacher. The basic insecurity of Pine of the ')akota nation or passivelyRidge children makes it possible for accept their reservation conditionsthem to passively submit to or defy with more or less apathy. In keep:authority in the classroom without ing with this socialization the childcreating any problem with a "bad discovers that the educational sys-conscience.- Bather than causing tern on the reservation, dominatedself-blame, the problem is solved by retreating into themselves. If they by non-Indian values of change andshould decide to escape from the progress, offers little more than su-situation by running away, they perficial pride in temporary ac-are likely to be received by sympa- complishments.Itlacks meaning because it has no place in the chil-thetic relatives. Parents react indif- dren's early impressions or in theirferently and unemotionally to any play activities. The opportunity forinquiry in regard to the truant. vocational training has litttle appealThey ha,,e been known to answer, tochildren who have probablywhen asked why their child left never heard it extolled as a virtueschool, "We didn't ask in their home. The mostseriousbarriersto school adjustment among the chil- The increased knowledge anddren are the "exclusive use of the contacts that the children have fromEnglish language, rigid time sched- attending school make them moreule, limitations on freedorri to ex- aware of differences between reser-press feelings as they do at home, vation and non-reservationresi-keen interpersonal competition in dents. They are likely to hear theirtheir school work, and a non-Indian parents comment on these differ-or highly acculturated Indian school ences, and they may he vaguelyteacher with 'white' ideasall of aware of the fact that discrimina-these are foreign to their extremely tionispracticed in some placespermissive end cooperative family against them. The security of fam-way of life."2" Commonly, their re- ily and community is even moresponse to these frustrations is with- essential to the Pine Ridge childrendrawal or escape, and they refuse to when the world beyond the reserva- don seems hostile toward them.'Erik It. Erikson, "Observations on Sioux Education," The Journal of P nichology, Insecurity in an unknown environ- VII (January, 1939), page ment may be transmitted to chil- 2Tardwell, op. cit.. pages 50-51.

31 fle Dakota Indian Family .31 recite if there is any chance thattahlished role of the family in the they might be shamed for their ef-development of personality, add ig- forts. nored the r.2cessity on the part Policies regarding Indian educa-of thechildforparental guid- tion contribute to the lack of securi-ance and affection. They found the ty felt by the children. In the past teral policy and objectives of I ndian education t ) Ins those of at- theducational system was rated on the belief that the besttempted 'de-indianization' through results could be achieved by remov-severance from family and reserva- ing the child from his home andtionenvironment." They recom- weakcniqg he_, family ties. The fol-mended "that children be educated lowing analysis of a survey by thein day schools located within the Merriam Committee describes thecommunities in which they lived in situation in boarding schools whereorder that they might benefit from children were separated for consid-a more normal home life, and in erable periods from their parents:order that the schools could thus reach beyond the child toinflu-

...the school day io most such ence the life and thinking of the boarding schools was theoretically total community."27 devoted half to academic studies Conditions in thehoarding and half to manual training. How- schools have changed considerably, ever, in many instances, the "man- and in recent years government and ual training- was found to be actu- ally composed of institutional labor. parochial high schools have made By utilizing small children to do ie possible for ye trig people to ad7 the more or less heavy work of gar- vance their education. Additional dening,kitchenwork,janitorial education does not, however, make labor, etc., and by paying extremely students completelyindependent low salaries to theschool staff,it of thca- families and relatives. In was possible to operate such institu- their own neighborhood their rights tions on a very low budget. They arc better protected and their re described teaching methods as anti- sponsibilities better defined, so that quated, mechanistic and of a type the high school may still be consid- which had been ';cfnerally discarded ered a hostile and unfriendly en- years before in public school sys- tems. k n as men contention that. vironment. PerhapF the roost no- although the boarding schools table change has been the decline in mightimpartsome modicum of restrictions imposed on sociabilitv knowledge in terms of the three R's, between teenage girls and boys. The they failed to educateinthe broader old customs no longer restrict asso- sense of preparing the Indian child ciation, and the young people tend for his place in the society in which to model their social activities after he would be expected to live. the easy informality of western so- ciety. The Merriam Committeeconclud- ed:"... that the boarding schools uFelix S.Cohen, Handbook of Federal as they, found them denied the es-Indian Law, pages 10 and 11. SwabDakar,- Evperimem StationBulletin 470 The high value placed on eduea-level. If he wants to raise his stand- n by non-Indians and their wiI-ard of living, be is discouraged by hngness to make sacrifices to obtai,-. the eltical gossiping of the eom- it often appear confusing to yeoarmui ay. people on the Pine Ridge Reserva- The role of the adult female in tion. The,: are aware that the odu- th,iPin,'Ridge coininnaityhas rated inan is supposed to prosper(hanged since the day.; when she and enjoy life more fully, but whendevoted het best efforts to support- they successfully completetheiring and aiding her husband. The re- education few opportunitiesaretentionof kinship elements has ailable on the reservation, andmaintained an important role for the educated person does not enjoythe mother in the functioning of the any more luxury than the unedu-household. She has retained a num- cated under rhese circumstances. Ifber of essential jobs such as child mng man returns to the reserva-rearing,householdmanagement, tion after completing bigh school orand food preparation and preserva- even college, he might hope to hetion. Much of the work involved in 01 some service to his people, and,caring for the garden or farm, tak- incidentally, hope to improve hising care of poultry or small live- own economic position. The pover-stock, and maintaining the home- ty of his relatives and friends oftenstead has been added to her as- becomes a burden that despite his signed chores. Even more important best efforts he is unable to carry.in supplementing the female role Soon he is forced to give up hisin recent years has been the wife's efforts, accept his fate, and live incontributiontofamilyunity.In the same hand-to-mouth pattern ofmany eases her husband has to de- property sharing and cooperativependh upon seasonal work away living which he hoped to change. from home and is unable to provide In the reservation community theadequate economic support. The educated youth encounters the cus-wife then becomes the family cen- tomary adult attitudes of apathyter during his absences. has to and bitterness about wrongs suf-devote her efforts to providing food fered in the past. He finds that hefor the children and wisely ufflizing [mist share with family and friendsthe meager resources at her dispos- in order to gain acceptance in theal, In case of a family crises, such as groups from which he can hope toillness, she has to be a stabilizing derive any feeling of security. Heinfluence and reach vital decisions. discovers the high degree of respectIf she fulfills the roles of loving ad- for the dignity of individuals hasvisor and generous provider, in the been maintained, but that it is mod-eyes of her children, the whole erated by aggressive tendencies to-world revolves about her. ward those, who for purposes of The traditional roles of the adult political or economic advancement,male in Dakota society disappeared attempt to push above the groupwith the. demise of the buffalo herds The Dakota Ind Fan 33 and the end of the Indian wars. The radition, and thus occupy a position of the husband has contin-unique relationship with other fam- ued to deteriorate on the reserva-ily members. They encourage con- tion, gradually being worn away bytinuation of their traditional roles attrition. He is still recognized asas advisors to the younger people, head of the family and their primaryas encouragers of the kinship regu- sources of financial support. Be-lations, as second parents to their cause of sporadic employment thcgrandchildren, and as contributors faniily must often resort to surplusto the financial support of relatives. commodities and welfare paymentsThey are likely to make great sacri- totide them over during timesfices in order to help young adults when work is not available. Thewho turn to them in time of need. efforts of the government to makeThey usually insist npon acting in the men over into farrni2rs have notstrict accordance with traditionally been successful. While the cattleaccepted kinship relationships. industry has an attraction to manyGrandmothers often assume care of Indian males,_ because it involvestheir grandchildren and accede to working with hot ses, inadequate re-their every dernand. Grandfathers sources restrict effort_ and achieve-feel that they should offer counsel ment in the ranching business. and support to relatives who come The Pine Ridge men accept theirto them and ask for help. Failure to declining role as fui ther evidencefulfill these obligations will cause of governmental mistreatment andthem to lose status in the com- believe that the government shouldmunity. therefore support them, or they may The degree of acceptance of and look at their economic situation asparticipation in the culture of the bottomless pit and dispare ofreservation community exerts an their own efforts _to change it. Theimportant influence on the role of skills which might have providedthe individual. In some cases a man them with steady employment aremay live in the community and pos- lacking, and this has contributed tosess little knowledge of the tradi- their apathetic adjustment, Further-tional Dakota culture. In a cultural more, they have no meaningfullsense he may hardly be reckoned skills to teach their sons, and aan Indian at all, and his behavior youth is likely to lose respect for hismuch more nearly resembles that of father who is haunted by a feelingnon-Indians living on or near the of economic inadequacy. In anyreservation. He is likely to be iso- case the father is usually resignedlated from the majority of com- to his lot and the future does notmunity activities, and he may have seem bright. associations outside the community Special mention should also bewhich encouraged this non-partici- given to the roles of grandparentspation, These individuals can best inthe Pine Ridge communities,be classified as acculturated, be- since they are the repositories ofcause of their high degree of accept-

34 ,34 So:al) DakoExperteat Station Bulletin 470 :ince of the cultural values of theforces which are at work to destroy dominant non-Indian society. them. The acculturated reservation res- The Nuclear FamilyThe im- idents accept the changes takingportance of the band or extended place in the Indian culture as inevi-family in times past was based on table,but deplore the resultingestablished patterns of cooperative personal disorganization. They areliving. Thetiyaspayewas designed anxious to attain the level ot ma-to set standards, provide for daily terial wealth enjoyed by the suc-needs, cope with the problems of cessful farmer or rancher, and are willing to use disreputable meansliving, and stimulate cooperation. of satisfying their economic desires.It was more difficult for the band to The aceulttmtted individuals tendserve these essential functions when to disclaim knowledge of their peo-the allotment system placed indivi- ple's ancient customs and may evendual families on their own piece of develop n self-conscious dislike forland. The task was made doubly anything that identifies them withdifficult by the government's in- Indian ways, However, irregardlesssistence upon dealing with nuclear of their rejection of Indian heritage,family heads. There was little op- they are influenced to some extentr 3, ionity for successful cooperative by the ideals of the community. economic enterprises_ in the system The unacculturated people haveof competitive capitalism that dom- a different set of attitudes whichinated the thinking of the western cause them to play another role inagriculturalist.Thesefactshave the Pine Ridge community. Theycaused severe damage to the con- take plide in the old customs, con-cept of cooperative band livinz. tinue to use the Siouan language, There are strong indications that and oppose _changes which_ contri-thetiyospayewill eventually disap- bute to the disappearance of Dako-pear from the Pine Ridge reserva- ta culture, The weakening of thetion. This is evident in the shift kinship patterns and the values offrom a lineal family based on an- cooperative living cause these in-cestry to a family system which em- dividuals to feel discouraged aboutphasizes the marriage bond as the the future. They look back to theessential element. It is also shown days of their people's greatness andby the fact that band remnants do military strength, and deplore thenot include some community fam- injustices, the treaty_ violations, andilies, and that bands are reduced in the destruction of the Dakota cul-number of members. There isa ture. They attribute their presentloosening of the bonds which held condition to mistreatment by thethe relatives together in the tiyo- agents of the government. They are s-paye.Some people want to discard determined toresistthe Whitekinship terminology or never knew man's ways, while sublimating theit. Finally, the influence of the non- desire to eliminate those unknownIndian family pattern is coercive Tbe Dakota di4Family 3S and_ destructive of thetraditionalgovernment could deal directly with kinship system. heads of farAilies. Thiswas not an The greatest changes haveoc-easy task when ancestrywas con- curred in the customs whichwerefused by a special kinshipterminol- completely out of harmonywithogy and by questionablemarriages the family system of thefrontiers-and orphaned children.The two n. A plurality of wives, forex-ideas, the nuclear familyand the m p 1 e,was repugnant tothekinship group, were inconflict on missionaries and representatives ofpoints of how relationshipwas de- the government who firstcame intermined. The main pointof con- contact with the Dakota Indians.tention, of course,was the extend- Persuasion and forcewere used to ginrgoupof. relationships inthe kinship wipe out the practice ofmarrying more than one woman. Theresponse As the transition fromkinship of one of the older patriarchs,whensystem to nuclear family takesplace told by an agent that hemust choosethe reduction of controlby tradi- one wife, was revealing: tional kinshipmeans provides suffi- dent opportunity for deviations "What!" he exclaimed, to "these occur from both ideals. Thisis ovi- two women are sisters, both of denced in the fact that whom have beenmy wives for over families are half a centurY, I know theway of frequently broken bydivorce and the white man; he takeswomen_ un- separation. Elopements andillegiti- known to each other andto his law. macy cannot be controlled by the These two have been faithfulto me family whichcan no longer depend and I have been faithfulto them. on former sanctions. At thesame Their children are my childrenand time elements of the oldsystem are their grandchildrenare mine. We maintained bymany of the older are now living togetheras brother people. Grandparentsare custom- and sisters. Alt the peopleknow arily quite willing that we have been happy together, to take care of the illegitimate childthrough the and nothing but deathcan separa- rate us."2s adoption mechanism, forexample. Likewise this adoption rulemay be The older people eventuallydidrestored if the childrenare rejected die and the youngergeneration wasby divorced or separatedparents. preventedfromcontinuingthe The conditions of community practicesthat liv- conflictedgreatlying on the Pine RidgeReservation with the non-Indianmarriage cus.have caused the nuclear toms. In the early reservation family to periodexhibit certain distinctivecharac- the governmentagents_ establishedteristics which can bestbe de- regulations that forbade_continua-scribed by presenting datagathered tion of the customs whichtheyin the three communitiesin which could not tolerate. Theyalso in-field work was carriedout. This sisted that_ familynames be estab- lished and recorded 'Charles A. Eastman, Fromthe Deep so that the Woods to Cirilization,pages 184-185.

36 lelin 470 30 South Dakota Experiment St, ad-naturalchildreninthefamily description will also provide an children had ditional basisfor coinpaiing thegroup, two in which threebeen adopted, and onecomposed degree of acculturation in the nuclear communities. of three generations. The families are diagrammed infigure 2. Traditional Coin ill u nity Some There was some evidence that statistical measurements offamilythe traditional communityhas most characteristicsarepresentedinnearly retained elements ofthe Da- tables 4 and 5. The traditional com-kota kinship pattern. Thehuger munity had the smallest averagenumber of elderly people suggested size of family and numberof chi!:this conclusion. It was likewisein- dren per family. Theseresults ap-dicated by less family disruption pear contrary tothe anticipatedthan was typical of the transitional conditionsinatraditionalcorn.or transpesitionalcommunities. It munity. Some reasons forthis re-was apparentthat in the few cases versal of the expected pattern mayof remarriage only the younger be: ( 1 ) the ancient customsof themembers of the community were Dakota family encouraged alowinvolved. The older values ofkin- birth rate; (2 ) the limitedavaila-ship unity seemed to be continued bility of medical attention,knowl-in sufficiently vital form to prevent edge of sanitation, andnutritiona large number ofbroken homes. contributed to high infant mortal- ity; and (3) the completefamily Transitional CommunityInter- in was not measured.Since the adultsmediate family size was evident were slightly older, it maybe thatthe transitional communityand the more grownchildren had left toaverage numberof children per establish homes of their own. It was,family reflected this position as in fact, here that the greatest num-well.The adultswereslightly ber of widowed men and womenyounger than in thetraditional com- were found, and anumber of themmunity, and it seinedthat fewer bad children who had grown tochildren were on their own even adulthood, married, and were stillthough they bad reached on age living in the community. when marriage andindepeudence adults One-fourth of the families werecould be expected. Single made up about 14% of thefamilies. single males and females, andthe of a husband-iKife type wasanotherOnly two families consisted sizable group made up largelyofhusband and wife withoutchildren, hadand the percentage ofhusband-wife older couples whose children was grown up and were ontheir own.and childrencombinations About 40% of the families consistedslightly lower than for the other two of husband-wife and one or morecommunities. The outstandingdif- ference was in the number of fam- children. The irregular families in- fea- cluded two families in which_ adi-ilies demonstrating irregular andtures. Over half werebroken by vorced person had remarried death, and there were step-children aswell asdivorce, separation, or

37 The Dakota lian Family 37 another fourth were familiesin need for establishing themselves in which a divorced person had remar-an independent household. ried and children from a previous TransposItional CommunitySta- marriage were included in the fam-tistical analysis of families in the ily. In two other cases there weretranspositional community revealed illegitimate children, and in onethat the largest average family size case three generations were livingand number of children per family in a household. wa found here- Although the dif- The data presented in tables 4ferences from the transitional com- and5and figure3 suggest that tI munity were not great, the younger nuclear faihily in this communityages of adults emphasized_ them, was experiencing consider-since fewer families were likely to able breakdown as a result of thebe completed when the parents transition from former Dakota fam-were still relatively young (table ily values to the ideals found in the4). This community had few single small rural South Dakota fanningperson and husband-wife families, or ranching community. The strainbut it had the largest percentage of on family unity was most apparenthusband-wife and children fami- among the younger people, andlies.Irregular families were ob- there were strong indications thatserved in six cascs, and included they were apathetic concerning theone broken home, two families in

FIG. NUCLEAR FAMILIES TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY 0 6t= 0 22. =

27 3S South Dakota Experiment Station Bulletin 470 which there had been a remarriage,ily ideas of the western rural ireas two three generation households,appeared to be accompanied by less and one case of adoption ( table 5family disruption than in the transi- an(l figure 4). tional community, but more than in In the acculturation process thethe traditional community. transpositional c 0 in m unit yap- Kinship RemnantsThe crises of peared to have most fully accepted'culture change have caused many a non-Indian family system resem-of the Pine Ridge Indians to at bling that in non-reservationareastimes fall back on tested ways of of South Dakota. While there wereliving. The older generation has still sonic remnants of the tracli-taken the responsibility of pointing tioril kinship system theywereout that maintaining the old pat- largely confined to the older people,terns will avoid the chaos which as in the case of a grandmother rear-may arise in cultural change. This inghergranddiildren. The in-attitude promoted conservatism In crea .cd acceptance of modcrn fam-sonic areas which caused educators FIG. 3 NUCLEAR FAMILIES TRANSITIONAL COMMUNITY io 19. =O 28.8= 0

2. ii 2

12, 6 2 1.

13. 22.

6 =IG 4 NUCLEAR FAMILIES TRANSPOSITIONAL COM.

I 7

andofficialsconsternation when The most important practice that they fail to appreciate its hold. Ithas continued down to the present likewise has been responsible forday is mutual helpfulness. It was the retention of older culture pat-more than just being willing to terns and v -hies in the area of fam-share material possessions. There ily living. was a pride of heritage that caused

Table 4. Nuclear Family Characteristics TraditionalTransitional Transpositional1950 Area Characteristics CommunityCommunity Community Census Average Family Size _ 3.71 4.38 4.50 3.47 Average No. of Children in Family 1.96 2.67 2.77 1.72 Average Ages Husband 56.9 99.6 54.2

Wi fe = _ 51.0 50.5 44.9

Table 5. Nuclear Family Composition Traditional Transitional Transpositional 1950 Area Community Community_ _ Community Census Family Types No. % Na. % No. /a Single Individual_ 7 25.0 5 13.9 3 13.6 59 15.0 Husband-Wife 5 17.8 2 5.6 3 13.6 50 12.7 Husband-Wife- Children_ 11 39.4 13 36.1 10 45.5 172 43.8 Irregular Families 5 17.8 16 44.4 6 273 112 28.5 Totals 28 100.0 36 100.0 22 100.0 393 100.0 40 South Dakota Exper t Shawn Bulletin 470

A number of the families consist of only husband and wife with no children or grown children. a man to say to his relative whoalso related to people in the other needed help and reassurance, "Soneighborhoods or communities, al- conic and eat; come and stay here ifthough in most cases their primary vou have no other place. You canattachment was to their near neigh- count on us; we are not aliens,"2°bors. Diagrams of the relationships These ideas were implicit in the re-in each community are presented in quest for help, and no one of rea-figures 5, 6, and 7, and patterns of sonablestanding_inaDakotarelationship should be described community_ would dare refuseit for each community. even though he knew he could not Traditional CommunityThere afford it. were three primary group neigh- The practices which have beenborhoods apparent inthis _com- retained and the degree of par-munity. The first of these neighbor- ticipation vary accordingtothehoods wasthe most isolated, individuala n d the community.retainingadefiniteoldculture Remnants of the tiyospaye were ap-atmosphere, which was observed parent in the three communitiesespecially in their pattern of group investigated in this study. Relatedliving, There were 11 families in the families were _clustered in groups 'South Dakota Department of Public In- forming extended _family neighbor- struction, Indians of South Dakota, page hoods. Some of the families were 46,

4 1 FIG. 5 KINSH I P PATTERNS TRADITIONAL COM MU N ITY

U PATH E A = 15 PATHE A = 0 1.4

22=

iQ/MOTHER- - DISTANT RELATIONSHIP: MOT HE R ---CLOSE RELATIONSHIP..

FATHER TA .U2 4 42 South Dakota Experiment Station Bulletin 470 neighborhood centering around anthe 28 families, each would average elderly who was attached to.75 close and 1.36 distant relation- other families by four close and sixships and a total of 2.11 relation- distant relationships:" Her influ-ships per family. ence was not obvious, but a recog- Transitionat Community Four nized kind of permissive leadership,primary neighborhoods and a few emphasizing unity and coopera-scattered relatimships comptised tion.The secondneighborhoodthe transitional community. The consisted of seven families center-apparent leader of the first neigh- ing around an elderly couple withborhood was the husband in an old three close and two distant relation-family. He was closely related to the ships. Its unity was reduced by theother five families in the neighbor- comparatively slight relationship ofhood, and was recognized on the two families to others in the groupbasis of tradition since his father and nearly equal relationship towas an important leader of the kin- ship group for which the communi- families in the first and third neigh-ty was named. In addition he borhoods. The third neighborhoodrepresented had one focus on a widowed mother thepreservationof and her two married daughters, andtraditional culture and the epitomy the other on an older man, hisof fine Dakota character. married son and nephew. This The second group lacked unifica- division was heightened by a num-tion but included a widowed male, ber of close relationships outside ofthe families of his married daughter and son, the family of a brother and this neighborhood and the com-his son-in-law, and two brothers munity. One of the ten families inwho are only slightly attached to the neighborhood was a definitethe neighborhood by relationship. isolate, with no relationships, closeOne of these brothers exhibited or distant, to any other family in theconsiderable independence of the community. local group, and was an elected The extensive kinship ties amongleader for the whole area. He was all 28 families can be measured inconsidered to have the respect of terms of the number of close andthe community accompanied by distant relationships which can beenvy of his position. identified in the three neighbor- The next neighborhood was held hoods. In the first there were 8 closetogether by a widowed male ad- and 17 distant relationships; in thevanced in years, his three sons and second 4 close and 8 distant rela-one grandson. One of the Sons had tionships; and in the third 7 closebecome a minister and lived at and 10 distant. Between neighbor-some distance from the primary hoods there were 2 close and 3area, and was not as closely at- distant relationships. In the whole community then there were 21 close Any relative nearer than is de- fined as close; all others recognized, no and 38 distant relationships. If these matter how far removed, are defined as were equallydistributed among distant.

4 3 a FATHER UNCL I

PATH E R ATH E R EISTE pcT 1-4e THEP? fi Le

FATHERUNCLE la

6 EiE ER- I LAW ss FATHER STEP-SISTER -1=1 ISTE R TER 24 LAW BROTHE BEYER N L AVV

BRO- THER

SISTER.

NSH I P PATTER NS TRANSITIONAL COM M UN ITY DISTANT RELATIONSHIP CLOSE RELATIONSHIP

44 44 South Dakota Experiment Station Bulletin 470 tached to the group as the others.because close relatives were more This was likewise the case with thewilling to share and take care of the parents-in-law of one of the sons. broken family which appeared most The fourth grouping was charac-frequently in the transitional com- terized by a large number of dis-munity. The extended relationships rupted families. The leader ap-of the traditional community were peared to be a widow with tworeally closer than they appeared grown sons who were unmarried.when classified by the system usu- She had three sisters, a brother, aally employed in American socie sister-in-law, and two more distantIn other words, some relationships relatives in the nine families com-classified as distant in the tradi- prisingthisneighborhood. Only one of the families was complete:tional community were really near- seven consisted of a mother ander than some of those classified as children, and one of a father andclose in the transitional community. children. Transpositionol C o in in 'knit y The other nine families had noThere were two loosely related definite pattern. There was one defi-neighborhoods in this community' nite isolate, and two having one dis-that appeared to have only a limited tant community relationship. Thedegree ofidentification.It was distribution of relationships in thedifficult to discern any leadership in order of the four neighborhods dis-either group, since the relationships cussed above was as follows: ( 1 ) 7were more or less random. Three close and 7 distant; ( 2) 5 close andfamilies were isolated with no rela- 4 distant; ( 3 ) H close and no dis-tionships in the community, and tant;( 4 )1:3 close and 3 distant.one family could not be definitely Among the rest of the familiesattached to either neighborhood. which could not be definitely tiedThere were eight families which ap- to a neighborhood there were 2peared to belong to the first group, close and 7 distant relationships.and ten in the second. Close rela- Between the four neighborhods thetionships were found 7 times in results were 3 close and 2 distantgroup one and 12 times in group relationships. The totalsfor thetwo. Distant relations were men- community of 41 close and 23 dis-tioned 5 times in group one and 2 tant, resulted in an average of 1.14times in group two. There were 2 dis- close and .64 distant or 1.78 rela-tant relationships between groups tionships per family. one and two. The totals were 19 The average number of relation-close, 9 distant, and 28 total relation- ships was lower than in the tradi-ships, yielding averages of .86 close, tional community when both close.41 distant, and 1.27 total relation- and distant relationships were com-ships per family. The explanation bined. However, the averages werefor the differential between tradi- reversed on the close and distanttional and transitional communities distinction. This may be significantin close and distant relationships ap- A=0 FIG. 7KINSHIP PATTERNS TRANSPOSITIONAL COMMUNITY - - DISTANT RELATIONSHIP ---CLOSE RELATIONSHIP

A= 10 BROTHER IN- LAW 46 South Dakota Everiment Station Bulletin 470 peared to be supported by theseaccumulated goods or wealth, shar- results. ing may be usually regarded abu- Each cluster of families distin-sive of their ambition to succeed in guished on the basis of their rela-the material values of non-Indian tionshipsmay havehad somesociety. Conversely, to the reserva- additional relatives in other neigh-tion Indian sharing may mean that borhomis or communities. It was,everyone should contribute to the however, in the remnant of the tiyo-group subsistence because of their spaye that essential primaiy groupgenerosity to their kinsmen. When functions, such as sharing, visiting,starvation was eminent, an appeal and neighboring were continuing into relatives for food was unneces- modified form. The vitality of pri-sary, because there was the realiza- mary group functions indicated thetion that sharing meager supplies degree to which the tiyospaye satis-was a more acceptable alternative fied important social needs. An at-than starvation. tempt has been made to measure Sharing of homes for a period their continued effectiveness in eachlonger than a short visit was rela- of the communities on the basis oftively common in the three corn- participation in a variety of groupmunties studied. The traditional activities. The indices of communitycommunity had half of the families participation used were: (1) shar-living in a home occupied by more ing use of home; ( 2) sharing use ofthan one family. In addition some land; (3 ) visiting; () social activi-of the others had individuals or ties; and (5) neighborhood activi-families living with them for a con- ties. Table 6 reports the results ofsiderable period during the year. this investigation. The three cases most commonly en- I. Sharing HomesThe custom-countered were: (1) older relatives ary practices of hospitality in Da-taking in a divorced or separated kota culture were based on theyounger spouse and children; (2) belief in kinship loyalty and inter-grandchildren being cared for by dependence which held the groupgrandparents while the children s structure intact. Offenng food andparents were absent, perhaps work- shelter to a relative was an obliga-ing in seasonal work off the reserva- tory responsibility that no conscien-tion;and(3)young marned tious person would dare shirk, if hecouples living temporarily with par- desired to maintain his status in theents or relatives during the winter group.Hospitality worked wellmonths when they were not able to when everyone had enough to share,obtain agricultural or constrneUon and for some families was a neces-work off the reservation. This last sity ff they were to survive on evengroup was most clifficult to categor- a meager subsistence. Mutual help=ize as members of the community fulness may be even more essentialThey were arbitrarilyincluded, to survival in some reservation com-since they usually resided in the munities today. To those who havecommunity for about six months

4 7 The Dakota Indian Fatnily 47 each year. The transitional andinunity the results on this question transpositional communities weredid not follow the expected pattern. consistent with the theory that shar-Instead of greater sharing of land, ing was a value of Dakota culturethe proportion was only a little which declined as the family moremore than a fourth The explanation nearly emulated theallies of non-appeared in the low rate of land Indian society. There were aboututilization and the small size of 10% fewer families sharing homeshomesteads (see table 3 ). Sharing in the transpositional than in theof land was greatly limited by the transitional, and the same propor- fact that most families using land tion fewer in the transitional t anhad only a small acreage for a in the traditional. homestead and garden and very 2 Share Use of LandCoopera-little land in agricultural produc- tive use of land appeared to havetion. considerable appeal to those fami- The patterns of sharing for the lies which were utilizing at least athree communities has been dia- portion of the land that they owned.grammed in Figures S, 9, and 10. A little less than one-fourth of theThese figuressuggest additional families in the transpositional com-conclusions: ( 1 ) sharing within the munity reported that they werecommunity decreased moving from sharing their land with relatives,the traditional to the transpositional and at the opposite extreme, nearlycommunity; ( 2 ) sharing outside the half of the transitional communitycommunity increased moving in the respondents reported land sharing.opposite direction; and ( 3 ) the pat- However, in the traditional corn-tern of sharing was closely associ-

Three gendons in a single home is not unusual. 4 South Dakota ExFen'me1t Station Bu11ff tin 470

RESIDENT

N-RESIDENT

FIG. 8 SHARING PATTER N TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY

49 The Dakota Indian Family

FIG. 9

SHARI NG PATTE R N TRANSITIONAL COM M UN ITY RES! DE NT NON- RESIDE NT- ---+

5 0 SO Sou* Dakota Er Swim, Bull iin 4

RESI DN .NON- RESIDENT

FIG.10 SHARING PATTERN TRANSPOSITIONAL COMMYNITY The Dakota Indian Family 51 ated with the related or kinshipmore evident when visiting choices neighborhood previously described.outside the community were ob- 3. Visiting Choices-In the oldserved in 11.7% of the cases in the Dakota culture visiting as well astraditional community, 14.4% in the sharing was an essential part of thetransitional community, and 332% hospitality practice among ldns-in the transpositional community. men. Any time a family was travel-If these choices were eliminated, ing some distance from their ownthe averages for visiting choices per people, they could request food andfamily were 3.21, 2.94, and 1.64 re- shelter from anyone, and the man-spectively for the three communi- ners of kinship required the mostties. This modification suggested remote relative to open his home tothat the transpositional community the visitor. It was also customaryhas virtually adopted a new pattern for individuals and families to visitof inter-community visiting. extensively within their own kinship The visiting patterns in the three group, and when the annual cele-communities diagrammed in figures brations were held, a major activity11, 12, and 13 indicated the follow- was the inter-group visiting. ing generalizations: (1) neighbor- It seemed likely that the com-hood- visiting predominated in the munity holding most strongly to thetraditional community; both neigh- old customs would tend to exhibitborhood and inter-group visiting the greatest amount of visiting.were common in the transitional Based on the visiting choices percommunity;andinter-neighbor- family this tendency was verifiedhood and community visiting were ( see table 6). The trend was eventypical of the transpositional coin-

Table 6. Indices of Community Participation

Traditional TransitionalTranspositional Indices Community Community Community 1. Share Use of Home ( .0) 60.7 50.0 40.9 2. Share Use of Land (%) 28.6 47.2 22.7 3. Average Number of Visiting Choices per Family 3.68 3.47 2.45 4. Participation in Social Activities (,/c, )82.1 66.7 51.5 a. Joking 96.4 72.2 54.5 b. Gossiping _ 67.9 61.1 50.0 Discusing old times 82.1 66.7 50.0 5. Participation in Neighborhood Activities (Average number of times a month)-- . 21.05 17.51 12.50 a. Exchanging Work 4.36 4.39 2.95 b. Exchanging Equipment 2.58 3.70 2.41 c. Lending Food_ . 8.89 5.31 4.68 d. Lending Money_ 2.08 1.83 1.14 c. Attending Feast and Celebrations3.14 2.28 1.32

52 FIG.11 VISITING PA±TE R N TRADITIONAL C U N IT

::--FIRST CHOICE

SECOND CH I E

-.THIRD CH I E - 'PAG. 12 V I SITI NGPATTER N , TRANSITIONAL CommuNrn

0;1

:-IRST CHOICE

,ctpND CHOICE k-, 7HIRD CH E

_ VISIT! PATTER N 7-"RANSPSITIONAL_ CO UNITN

PIRST CHOICE Ckikora Familv if munity;(..)isolates,having no SociI adctivities such as joking, choices by other members of thegossiping,and discussing the past community, appeared in increasingfuncuoned in these communities as numbers from the traditional to thean additiorial reason for visiting and transitional to the transpesitioall as-a II-leans of reducing the effects community ( one, two, and four) of Teservation isolation. For exam- but their infrequency make it im-ple, local rlews spread rapidly and poss!ble to reach definW cot-0u- ion tstu-ally ecurately on the reserva- ions; and (3 ) mutual choices oc-tien io spite of the lackof tele- curred 31 times in the traditional-phones, a ewspapers,and other community; 58 times in the transi-nleans of communication. Any small tional community, and only 10 timesitem of new, information was excuse in the rranspositional coirimunit enatigh fora visit to relay by word The averages per faruily were ill, inouth-the latest gossip. Since 1.05, and .45 respectively, This evi--news was Fimited, the other social dence offered additional support toforials of communication,joking the hypothesis that the family in theand_ disenssing old times, supple- traditional community retained themented the primary justification for most remnants of Thikota customs.visiting. 4.Participation in SocialActiyities 5- Pa_rtieiTation -in Neighborhood The indices selected to measureActivitiesIle final indices of par- participationinsocialactivitiesticipation im community activities were joking, gossiping, anddis-vere classifed as forms of neigh- cussing old times. Each person Nvhoborhood sodalization and included was questioned was asked if he par-exchanging work and equipment, deipated with neighbors in tteselending f67d and money, and at- thee activities, The percentage oftending feasts and celebrations. The "yes" answers for each activity vasf reveocy of each of these activities compared f o rtheconnnunitieswas ascertained by asking the num- studied in table 6. The averages forber of times during the last month all three indicated that these activi-the respondent had participated in ties, which were assunied to be in-a spcci6c activity. dicative of emphasis on Dakota The results presented in table 6 cultural values, have beer' retainedsuggest : (1 ) exchanging work and to the greatest extent in the tradi-equipmentwas most frequently tional community. They were as-practiccdithe transitional cern- sumed to function as a means ofrnuraity which had more reason for preserving the values of kinsidp,thesic activities since there was more since they could frequently be ob-agrioulritral activity than in the tra- served to sanction proper gra?ditional Coalmunity, and a greater behavior. Cossip, particularly, -vastendency farmyardsharingth an used as a means of censuring orthe transpos itional community; (2) praising the behavior of into hers oflending food and money, remnants the local community, of the traditional sharing patterns,

5 6 zIiI IiIr,ortIt1t sticial iiiiilIiiiIityi4 traditional Indian dal

11)110\11'd pia 111tit 111:11)^,r 111 111t iii (11111'0 I hint =

IHVIclitA; 'itit'llt)PH, 'Hid lk ItIC lft ;It' drilfIN ;t. 1.,.1Vct,11 (i ilt pric- tr,tditnIn,i1 jntiiit1cituniItul fulk calcd itl Itdlioo.t.d th -,pcytt.(1 ltn'toldlon tdruold, il I ftc-(111ti. 11-v111(11(A ill Ow1,111,1111) riilI1i ill hrm,iumf lit, iii(hvatc(i hitt ,)1 tIi xdin.11hit),wit thiiIIHt II Ow him]] Hit IIIt)\'i 1 01 I'Lt,101()), 1,11 .,111,., c.tr11.1DA,)1;1 iituiiitiiithy I);ikiCt 1,1(1t11,1( c11.11],.=4,-,11.1),. Hot 1111.11;1NY hr liulillllltt h' hcyl,IrcHwild(111,,,1)10. thr IHtill cl(ark 1)()1111% tkit II= lir\ I NV( 111111 WC rcmiti.1111, 111 1/N1)11(.011ln', III till(1)Ill- ki(1,4{. IIlJIIIIiiItll p,t11,M1 tniditkiiiiti;Hid (,1,!1(1.1.,:ffill(2, ( IllI". n't.111WdIlititill' Hill V. Evaluation and Implications of Cultural Change The history of the Great Plainskotas appeared tractable, but they reveals of series of events which arechanged very little. They became marked by a serious lack of under-accustomed to many strange shifts standing of the cultural values,in government policy, much official social organization, and patterns offoolishness, "a good sprinkling of living of the Western Dakota In-downright wickedness, some noble dians. The result was a gradualactions, and a goodly count of les- straining of relations between thesons hardly learned and, too often, IndiansandtheUnitedStatesquickly forgotten."" government, precipitating eventual The results oculture change warfare and suppression ofthehave been vitally effective in the his- Teton Dakota on reservutions. Thetory of tbe Dakota family. Some of army took the position that the Da-the areas in which these results have koM people must be forced by mili-been most noticeable should be tary might into submission. 'Thegiven additional evaluation, and im- attitudes of the frontiersmen towardplications for the future should be the Indians were dominated by thesuggested. The suggestionsindi- desire for land.3' cated will be based on the assump- The Indian policy of the Unitedtion that if changes appear desir- States government during the earlyable, they should not contrifeqe to reservation period was based ongreater disruption, but rather add their own dogmatic concepts ofto the unity of the Pine Ridge fam- what was best for the Indians. Theily. governmentagents "nevercon- EconomicConditionsofthe tacted a Dakota chief without atFamilyThe major factors in the once trying to persuade him to donsubsistence of the Plains Indians a stiff-bosomed white shirt, a blackwere the large herds of buffalo and suit, and a shiny silk hat. At the rootthe posession of horses required of alltheir high-sounding policyfor hunting the bison. In addition talk lay this earnest desire, to maketo food, the Dakotas depended upon the Indians over into as perfect imi-the buffalo for clothing and shelter. tations as possible of their own per-To protect the herds against the en- feet selves, croachments of neighboring tribes, The attempts of the governmenthorses were necessary for Eghting to make the Dakotas over into imi-as well as hunting, and this animal tation white people met great resist- ance at first. Then as the ofEcials G.Athearne,William Tecumseh Sherman and the Settlement of the West, learned more about the Indians, page 100. mostly the bard way, they began to"Ceorge F. Hyde, A Sioux Chronicle, force them in the direction they page 150. termed progress. The defeated Da-'Ibid. pages 310-320. 57

58 58 So its Dakota Everina Ration 470 came to symbolize wealth and pres-part of the reservation. Later, im- tige in the tribal group. The demiseprovements on the homestead were of the bison hercts, then, completelyaccepted as creditable work for the destroyed their economic base. receipt of rations, and agency farm- The Dakotas were unable to finders_ were employed to assist the a satisfactory substitute basis forIndians in gaining some self-suffi- their economy when the buffalo dis-ciency through agriculture. appeared. The drudgery of working Tlic major reservation problem in the soil was completely alien toalways has been and will continue the Dakota outlook on life, andto be that of providing a subsistence steadytoil was not an activitylevel_ of living. It is questionable which appealed to them. They werewhether even 5(0 of the Pine Ilidge also aware that land of great valuefamilies can be self-supporting on to the whites had heen taken fromthe income from land leases, _stock them, and their belief that govern-raising, wage labor, and salaried ment owed thenl a free living wasemployment_ which arc currently verified by the tr eat yagree-available. The relief load isex- ments promising them rations in re-tremely heavy, particularly during turn for giving up their huntingthe winter montlu; when the de- grounds. Since their habits weremands for seasonal labor are mini- still those of the hunter they con-mal. Government and other welfare stautly complained because the ra-agencies contribute to the economic tions were quickly dissipatedinsupport of nearly half of the Pine feasts and sharing. just as in the oldRidge families. The government hunting days when they feastedalso distributes surplus food com- after a big kill, the rations weremodities to those families who are eaten in a few clays, and then theyin dire need. squeezed through on any foods Undoubtedly some of the fami- cwailable until the next ration day.lies which are proportedly sasuf- As the Pine Ridge families beganfietent are living on woefully inade- to settle on the land and make anquateincomes.Observerswell effort to support themselves, rationsacquainted with these families are were gradually withdrawn. Theunable to fully explain how these method of rechicing rations tendedpeople are able to survive on the to penalize the man who was self-quantity of food they purchase. In sufficient. At one time a system oftwo of the communities, which reservation work projects was start-served as the basis for this study, ed, and all able-bodied men wereit appeared that only about a third requiredtoperformacertainof the families had adequate finan- amount of labor in return for moneycial resources to meet their obliga- or rations. There was, however, notions for food and other necessities encouragement for them to developat the general store located in the their allotted land while workingarea. in a laboring gang on some other The statistical analysis of buying Tbe Dakota ladiaa Fatuity 39 practices and sources of income in table 7 revealed that credit buying and dependence on government aid as the main source of income were common practices. In many cases families receiving government aid cheeks were making all purchases during the month on credit. When the government check arrived,it was applied against the accumu- lated account which was frequently larger than the amount received. The high cost of transportation and the extensive credit risk caused the prices in the general store to aver-Retail goods must usually be purchased age 10 to 507 above prices in theat the only general store in the area. towns near the reservation. These towns were likely to be locatedter months, but failing in their ef- many miles from the Indian familyforts, have been forced to depend homestead ( see table 8). upon some sort of government aid. Many of the younger people haveThe problems'inoff-reservation been leavina the reservation eitheremployment were many: ( 1) luck to find seasonal work or with theof knowledge of competitive eco- intention of gaining permanent em-nomic practices;(2)reservation ployment. The seasonal workersway of life did not prepare people baye been striving to aceumula hir steady employment; (3 )work I unds to tide them through the win-was valued only for the satisfaction

Table 7. Purchasing Practices Traditional Transpositional Corm-nullity Community Practice No.

1. Pay Cash 8 2S.6 9 40.9 1. Buy on Credit 20 71.4 13 59.1 i. Lack of Ability to Pay, 19 67.9 12 54.5 4. Buyer a. Mother 18 64.2 1.3 59.1 b. Father 5 17.9 3 13.6 c. Both 5 17_9 6 17.3 5, Main Source of Income a. Government Aid .,.. 11 39.3 6 27.3 b. Lease of Land Sale 6 21.4 5 22.7 c. Odd lobs 4 14.3 5 22.7 d. Cattle 3 10.7 5 73.7 e. None 4 14.3 1 4.6 r ..._ r:

6 0 60 South Dakota Everine Station Bulletin 470 of immediate needs; ( 4) needy rehhe aimed at improving the eco- atiyes may expectthe workingnomic welfare of these people. The person to stare his income;( 5) following general recommendations disedmination was practicedintoward this end appear warranted employment in many of the off-res-from this study: ervationcommunities;and( 6) I.Increased effort devoted to- Indians were regarded as potentialward full utilization of land and relief or police problems by officialsother economic resources still con- in these communities. trolled by the Indians could im- These circumstances may be suf-prove the level of living, ficient to cause the young Indian to 2. Part-time fanning and salaried feel that he la cks the employmentemployment maybeeffectively skills, the social graces, and helpingcombinedforsomeagricultural friendswhich arerequiredforoperators who have only a limited urban employment. The reservationamount of land available and are serves as a sanctuary where peopleundergoing _a transitional phase of will understand his inability to copecommunity living. with these problems and help him :3. Direct government aid Lo some achieve a degree of comfort andgroups, such as the aged, dependent security. Thus. sane of the youngchildren, and the physically handi- people trained for outside employ-capped, might be supplemented by ment are staying at home and ac-social services designed to improve cepting government employment orthe usefulness of the grants to the remaining idle. Conversely, tbe col-welfare recipients, lege trained youth may be unable 4. A system of providing food and to find accepta ble opportunities Onothernecessitiesonreasonable the reservation, and may practicecredit terms and at _competitive his profession elsewbere. prices appears to be desirable for Conclusions regarding economicthe welfare of the reservation con- conditions of the line Ridge familysumer, are discouraging. Thisisparticu- 5. An educational program stress- larly true, for in spite of all theing good nutrition, utilization of in- efforts of the federal government forexpensivefoods,andimproved the economic ahd social well-beingpurchasing practices would be of the Indian people, they have nothelpful to the women who do most been able to achieve a reasonableof the buying and preparation of level of living though the com-food for the family. bined farming-wage work type of The following recommendations economic adjustment required onare suggested, but may require ad- the reservation. They remain -theditional study: worst fed, the worst clad, and worst 1. Job training and preparation housed" of any minority group infor non-reservation living might be our country. Itis obvious above allencouraged for those desiring to that any recommendations need tofind employment opportunities in

61 The Dakota Italian Family 61 towns and cities in South Dakotahave been limited. Secondary buy- and other states. ing and selling relationships have 2. Cooperative cattle enterprisespredominated, but they have lacked appear to have great possibilitiesthe intimacy and frequency neces- for saccess in some of the more tra-sary to rapid cultural change. The ditional communities, if good man-Indian family has become more mi- agement practices are utilized andgratory in recent years, but they alienation of Indian lands can behave not had the experience of re- curtailed. peated changes of residence and ;3. Work programsprovidingcultural contacts necessary to ac- steady employment and incomeceptance of the way of life ofon- might be provided by the govern-resident populations. ment to all nnemployed males who In the endeavor to measure the wish to remain on the reservation. isolation of the three communities Isolation of the Family Theinvolved inthisstudy, each re- formation of kinship neighborhoodsspondent -o,as asked the distance usually took place in areas origi-from his ionoe to a variety of serv- nally selected for reasons of senti-ices. The o-so as reported in table 8 ment or cultural tradition. In rnanydid not provide a consistent trend cases the site chosen was in anfor the three communities. The ran- extremely distant part of the reser-dom location of the neighborhoods vation far removed from the agencyin relation to these services ap- or any town or village. New com-peared to be a result of fortuitous munities sometimes developed inconditions. For example, there were these areas as the population in-chnrches but no schoolsin the creased and a few of the familiescommunities. The location of the moved down the stream or to anearest school and trading store nearby stream to form the nucleusin a local rural village, the agency of a related neighborhood. There officesat Pine Ridge, and other were some families,ofcourse,servicesintheirspecialplaces which sold or leased their lands andresulted from circumstances which moved to a reservation village, butwere partly dictated hy chance, for the most part the families werepartly hy government planning, and widely scattered over the more re-partly hy the distribution of reser- mote parts of the reservation farvation population. There was over- from many of the necessary services.whelming evidence, however, that The isolation of Pine Ridge fami-the distances did promote isolation lies was increased by the fact thatfor all of the communities since the reservation was located in atransportation was very inadequate sparsely populated area of Southby the standards of most other rural Dakota, at a considerable distanceareas of South Dakota. from any major population center. The availability of various means Thus the possibilities of contacts be-of communication was used as an- tweenIndiansandnon-Indiansother measure of isolation. The re-

62 62 Sou IP kota Experiment lion Bulletin 470 sults are presented in table 9. Tele-cars wits not great, the tendency to phones were non-existent intheshare rides and_ to hire transporta- homes in these three communities,tion resulted in full utilization of the although there was undependablemotor vehicles available to the com- telephone service to the local vil-munity. Most of the cars were more lage which could be used in anthan 5 years old and in poor con- emergency. Radios followedthedition, and frequent breakdowns expected pattern, increasing per-were expected. If expensive repairs centage-wise from the traditional towere necessary, the old car was usu- the transpositional community. Tel-ally abandoned in the yard,_ and an- evision was just coming into theother second-hand automobile was area, and the number of sets dis-purchased. covered was so small that no trend Li m it ed comtmmication and wasapparent.Newspapers andtransportationfacilitiesdidnot, magazines followed the uniformhowever, greatly impede the spread trend, and mail order catalogs wereof gossip, rumors, and other unoffi- available and widely used by prac-cial information. The frequent fam- tically every family. Mail had to be ilyvisits and trips to the village called for at the post office in thewere acceptable substitutes for fa- trading store, as there was no ruralcilities, and direct contact provided delivery. Going to pick up the mailbetter opportunity for observing the provided opportunities for visitingspeaker and getting the message and gossiping in or near the store,more accurately. In addition, news but in severe weather the oppor-could be _read and interpreted for tnnities to receive mail were severe-those with a language barrier. In- ly restricted. formation released from the ngeney The use ot automobiles for trans-offices, official notices, and other portation to the local village ornews was most effectively spread by neighboring towns was becomingword of mouth among many of the more and more essential. Althoughcommunity residents. the percentage of families owning Some recommendations designed

Table 8. Average Distance in Miles of Families from Services

Traditional TransitionalTranspositional scrvices Community Community Community 1. School 4 0 8.2 5.3 2. Trading Store 4.0 8.2 5.3 3. Church 7.5 4.4 5.3 4. Hospital 55.0 473 54.3 5. Movie 41.0 39.6 42.9 6. Agency Offices 54.0 46.3 53.3 7. Water .6 .6 .51 S. Wood 3.7 2.6 2.0 Tota Is 164.8 I 52,2 168.9 The Dakota Indian Family Table 9- Percent of Families with Communications Available Traditional TransitionalTranspositional Communications Community Community Community

1. Telephone = 0.0 0.0 0.0

2. Radio______32.1 41.7 59.1

3. Television _ - 0.0 0.0 4,5

4. Newspaper _ 14.3 55.6 59.1 5. Magazines 21.3 50.0 68.2 6. Catalog 100.0 94.4 100.0

7. Mail _ 100.0 100.0 100,0

8. Automobile . . _ __ _ _ 25.0 33.3 50.0 to reduce the isolation of the reser- 5. Educationalprogramsde- vation family and community aresigned to train the Indian people in suggested in the following para-the proper use and maintenance of 0frhs:rao r new equipment and services could I. Essential services provided byaccompany their introduction. the government and private agen- 6. Distinctions based on Indian cies might be introduced more di-and non-Indian achievements and rectly into activities of the reserva-conditions should be avoided, be- tioncommunitiesthroughsuchcause dividing a group on the basis techniquesastravelingmedicalof cultural heritage may be regard- clinics, visiting social workers, anded as subtle discriminatory be- direct contact by agency personnel.havior. 2. Community organization activ- Acculturation of the Family- ities might be developed and en-The sensitive observer of traditional couraged inorder to getlocalDakota culture could not help but groups to work on their social andbe impressed by the creative vital- economic problems and to provideity of these people. Re usually came an increased interest in communityto admire the unity and smoothness mprovement. in every part of the culture, and to 3. Opportunities for reservationrealize that every man was a mold- residents to travel and visit in non-ing force in producing a way of life reservation areas, to exchange ideasin which economic, social, rebgious, on a basis of equality, and to pro-and aesthetic values were bound mote understanding of the reserva-together Mto a significant whole. tion conditions among non-IndiansThese older cultural values have could be increased. been losing their validity as a re- 4. New services, such as ruralsult of the destructive influence of electrification, telephones, commu-contact with Western Civilization. nity centers for recreation and edu-The Pine Ridge families have at- cation, water works, movie theatres,tempted to compromise with the and many others, might be madenew environment, but their willing- more accessible to the communities.nessto change bas been made

6 4 64 South Dakota Experiitent Station /Mikan 170 doubly difficult by the fact that theynate to odier members of the com- have been unable to participatemunity; and (3) what modifications fully in the new way of life. Thusresult when the new idea is adjusted they have felt a great cultural lossto the pre-existing culture matnx. which could not be compensated byThese three questions will be con- vague promises of a better futuresidered separately in the following life. The regrettable thing about thesections. fading away of old Dakota values hit/ovationCulture change rests was that they left apathy and diti-fundamentally upon individual couragvinent in their place. Thekarning of tww behavior patterns. Pine Ridge Indian hos, as SapirThe stimulus to learn may come stated it, -slipped out of the warmfrom the discomfort or discontent embrace of a culture into the coldof the individual with his present air of fragmentary existenee. circnmstances. As long as members The social organiziition in DakoLiof the Pine Ridge communities are culture was bused on a rather rigidsatisfied with the strong sense of preseriptitm of statuses and rolessolidarityinthefamilygroup, that resulted from the system of kin-changes will conic about slowly. It ship which demanded unusually is probably the marginal individual, close and elaborate personal rela-who does not share this seenn tionships. Other socill institutions,who will attempt to serve as an n- resulting from the free associationnovator. He will also be the least of individuals in brotherhoods, in-effective in influencing those mem- stitutionalized , and se-bers of the group who are secure cret "societies," were less importantand satisfied. The obvious reason is to the continuity of Dakota culturethat he is likely to be consklered an and have largely disappeared, whileoutsider, who is not interested in tbe kinship system. which is the realthe welfare of the kinship neighbor- basis of social organization, has re-hoods, but only his own personal tained a tenuous, but vital integrity- success. The important contentionisthat Within the family groups intim social change ameng the Pine Ridgebons are most likely to appeal to Indians has been most swift andthe younger generation, but lacking effective in areas uncontrolled byleadership qualities and experience, kinship. they can hope to have only slight The application of the process ofinfluence in changing previous gen- social change to the Dakota familyerations. As the older generations pattern should be more fully ana-fade away, and the younger people lyzed if greater perfection in futureassume their place, gradual change changes is to become a reality. An-is effected. As a general rule the swers to these important questionsgrandparent generation is less ac- may be revealing: () why are newculturated than the parent genera- ideas accepted by a few innovators;"Edward Sapir, Culture, Language and (2) how does the new idea dissemi- Personality, pages 96-97.

6 5 The Dakota India I Fah 65 don, but there are many exceptions.workable and in the group interest, Some of the grandparents speakbecause he has the personal quali- better English and are more widelyties which inspire their confidence. traveled and educated than some The leadership pattern described members of the younger generation.in the previous paragraph is an ideal Within each group the innovatorswhich can no longerbefully are likely to appear as those whoachieved. There is,for example, are most dissatisfied. It is possibleconsiderable evidence that many, that in some of the Pine Ridge coin-members of the younger generation numities, a member of the grand-are in:impressed by traditional leadT parent generation who is unhappy,ers. The differences in the older and complaining, and considered a tron-newer standards causes a conflict bleniakeristhebest persontobetw,en generations which can not introduce new ideas into the family berecumiled.Thisconflictin group. allies may he ,eggrayated by a fain- ily crisis. If a child, coining from a The leadership pattern in the res-br ikir home, 1:115 no relatives who ervation community may be de-will take him in, he is faced with seribed as permissive inid, there-the problem of suryi-ing without fore, the leader does not attempt tothe usual family secu,. ,v_ Forced to coerce others into adopting a newcare tor himself, he may become an idea. The permissive leader doesaggressivenon-conformist, w h o not occupy any office positionwill strive to discredit and challenge and does not make any consciousthe older leadership. effort to influence others. He is more a leader by virtue of the influence wsseminationThe fact that a he exerts unintentionally on thosefew innovators accept a new idea who respect him and f Amy his ex-may have little influence on the ample. To gain this role, he imistgroup as a whole. The individual serve the other members of the kin-who acceptsnon-Indianculture ship group, helping ont in times ofvalues, leaves the re;eryation, and illuess or ailversity, providing flimnrtakes up residenr :in the outside cial assistance to those in need, aodworld may adjust co the American dcmoustrating generosity throughculture, but his behavior has very hospitality, sharing, and gift-giving.minor effect upon the reservation He must also be regarded as honestcommunity. Likewise, some mem- in dealing with other group mem-bers of the reservation modify their bers, and his actions must be con-influence by assuming a dual role. sistent with his verbal promises. HeIn their contacts off the reservation must strictly abide by the rules ofthey present the superficial appear- the group, never offend the dignityance of adjustment to non-Indian of individuals, and hrinor others byways, but in their own groups are praising them. Then group mem-still closely bound to the culture of bers will seek him out for advicethe kinship group. andassistance,which must he The most deceiving ckinge in the

66 66 South Dakota Expert mut Station Boileau 470 Pine Ridge community has beenin the introduction of new traits their ready acceptance of AmericanRestrictions on certaintypesof material goods. The Dakotas couldbehavior did tend to block the see the immediate usefulness continuation of these practices, hut autoi [Ades, radios, and many otherit didn't cause the Dakota to change items of household equipment, Inatheir attitudes and values. As new theycouldacceptthesethingspracticeswereintroducedthey wit-hoot greatly changing their would simply modify and reinter- values or Organization. Theypret them in terms of their own wcrt least likely to change, die no-video system even ifthe new cle- values of their cultural orien-ment were a duplication of already tationembodiedinfamily andexisting practices. They were highly kinshipinstitutions. The useoftolentnt, for example, of the Chris- material items spread rapidly to alltian marriage ceremony, but con- comumnities on the reservation, buthill ledtoproetieetheirnative they were used in a fashion that didmarriage ritual at the sante time. it interfere with the continuationDifficulties were most likely to arise pre-existing family values. in a situation in whieli the custom- In sonie areas the attempts of theary marriage ceremony was forbid- government and other outsideden, bat the Christian practices did agencies to forcibly suppress Cer-not spread rapidly as a substitute. tain cultural iwactices have beenThis created a vacuum in which countered by persistent resistancebasic needs could not be satisfied in among the Pine Ridge people. Thea fashion acceptable to either group. efforts to force change on them has The spread of new ideas among been much less effective than thethe Dakotas depended in some de- relatively permissive process whichgree upon the nature of the two allowed them io select and copycultures. In American society the those elements of Western Civiliza-diversity and fragmentation of ele- tion which could easily be adoptedments limited cultural integration, into their culture without any majorwhile the Dakota culture stressed disniption of the customary prac-the incorporation of all elements tices. The high level of socioculturalinto an integrated communal organ- integration that existed in the pat-ization. The latter type of culture tern of kinship behavior made re-sets ip clear-cut limits on the social sistancetoforcedacculturationsystem, and the threat of outside much stronger than would haveideas are viewed with some fear that been the case in a culture whichtheir ieceptance may destroy the was not so tightly organized andhighly valued social structure. Thus permitted more individualisrn. some tribal groups resisted any Enforcedculture change basic change in the structure of their more apparent in the inhibition ofkinship pattern fearing the destruc- customary practices such as pluraltion of their whole way of life. and the Sun Dance than The conditions of cultural contact

67 TN Da_ ota Indini Family 67 which typified Indian-White rela,by people whose attitudes would tions were also important to thisdeny them any position of social complicated process of dissemina-equali tion of new ideas. The persistent Modi eatienCulture change in Anglo-American attitude of superi-the Pine Ridge community has ority and dominance over the Indi-gradually brought the reservation ans was historically derived frompopulation increasing involvement Puritan Colonialism and was strongwith the American sociocultural enough to cause the frontiersmansystem. In such important areas as to discredit any other cultural heri.education, government, economics, tage,Theseinflexibleattitudesand religion they have adopted a caused a definite feeling of un-large number of non-Indian cul- friendlinessand antagonismbe-tural elements. In many cases they tween the two groups, and pre-have modified the form and mean- vented the formation of a 7largeing t:f new traits in order to make mixed Indian - White populationthem more acceptable, and in fimes which would provide culniral mod-of crisis are likely to abandon them els and reference groups along thein favor of the time proven prac- continuum of acculturafion for thetices. conservative nuclei still living in the Attitudes toward acceptance of iative-orientedIndiancorn muni-new ideas were illustrated in the s- early educational efforts on the res- The utility and compatibility ofervation. The Pine Ridge children new culture traits ill the Dakota cul-attending government schools were ture and the desire of members forlikely to be either resentful and in- prestige and new experience werecorrigible or compliant and ingra- other factors influencing the dis-tiating. In both cases the children seminationofcultureelements.preserved something of their for- Prestige and novelty were extreme-mer character and tradition. They ly important during the eait stages,had the tacit approval of their par- but as time passed and the new be:ents to avoid the educational proc- came commonplace, the borrowedess, or to modify what they learned trait had to increoingly stand orto the extent that it'.)uld be readily fall on its own merits, In any case,accepted in their extended family the Dakota Indians have found thegroup. In Dakota society the chil- path to full acculturation confusingdren had a generalized model in the and fnistrating because they werewhole group of passively resisting faced with changes _that the sameadults to imitate. The young people time were novel, useful, and yet de-did not have to be reprimanded or structive of older values. They wereinstructed, they were ven observ- expected to make a sudden leap in-ers of their parents. They soon per- to the unknown. They were ex- van J.Vogt, "The Acculturation of pected to earn a position of full American Indians,- The Annals, 311 integration into American society (May 1957), page 144.

68 drew Everimit Slatior RnlIsiin 4 0 ceived that the expected ottitudessuggested in the following quota- were an overt appearance of con-troll: formity and a covert retention of Since the people were happy ana familiar patterns and lifevalues contented in the old days when they dehnitely opposing complete as- had a particular culture in a particu- sumption of cer fain American lar environment,itisfelt that a values. return to the culture will, in some way, re-establish the total original To the individual coining from configurarion. At the same thrie, it Dakota culture, the traits of a sod- is significant that such movements ety, which appeared to possess a always retain enough touch with welterof meaningless uncoordi- eality not to imply a complete re- nated practices and beliefs, were turn to the earlier conditions. Those appealing only elementsofthecurrent culture if they could be which are obviously superior to found to have some meaning and theirearlier equivalentswill be usefulness to the individual in ternis miraculously preserved. Thus in the of his established way of life. Thus Ghost Dance the millennium was education could only be a success- to leave the Indians still in posses- ful agent of social change if consid- sion of r ifles and metal cooking pots eration were given to the degree and, in some versions, of the White and kind of modiication undergone men's houses and stock.2° by any new culture trait introduced The main problem of the Dakota through the edmrational process.people in making the necessary The use of the English language inadaptations and modfflcations was the Pine Ridge communities illus-the constantly shilling policies of trates the change in form and mean-the federal government. In any gen- ing of culture traits. There are, foreration a man might be expecterl to example, communication difficultieschange his major interest, occupa- in the English language based ontion, and place of residence a num- the different meanings of words tober of times, Just as soon as he was 'Indians and non-Indians. In someabout to achieve a degree of suc- cases the English forms have actu-cessful adjustInent to one govern- ally been changed to satisfy thement policy, a rim one was sug- need for expressing an idea that isgested, and the whole effort was unique in the culture of the con-wasted.kfter a few disappoint- temporary Pine Ridge community.ments he simply gave up the effort In other areas additional evi-and lapsed into apathy toward any dence of modification can be found.new suggestion. The Ghost Dance contained a num- The general goal of the accultura- ber of the elements of Christian re-tion process would seem to be to ligion charged slightly to fit intochange the standards of family in- the current traditions. The ration-stitutions in order to increase the alization for this apparently contra- Ralph Linton, Acculiuratka in Seven dictory religious system has been American Indian Tribes, pages 518-519. The Pakaa Parroily 69

opportunitiesforindividuals to aro desirable for the welfare of the more easily and fully assimilate family grouv. American ideas. However, this goal 4, loconiorrnity in some indi- should be tempered by two major viduals appears to be a neeessaly considerations,Firs t,practices noncomitant of innovation, and if it should not be stamped out. Fordoes not seriouslyinterfere with many they are the only possibleother essentiad values, may be en- way, and without them Life becomes caliragedl and protected in accord- meaningless and tragic. Secoud, ac- ance witli a reasonable degree of culturation should be a two-way individual freedom. process. The best of Dakota culture 5.Childhcood education is un- could raise the level of American questionablythe most powerful institutions and the virtnes of indi- force for change, if it is used to viduals.T h erecommendatio.lis reconcile and facilitate the ex- which are presented here are sug-change al trits between the two gested on the basis of this quailed culture systems. To accomplish this goal. puipme the curriculum of non-In- 1. The unity of the kiuship ueigli- dian schoolsmight include an ex- borhood should not be destroyed,tensive program for teaching die since it is the most vital force on the children to uriderstand and appre. reservation in keeping conflict at a date de colhire values of the Amer- minimum, preserving a value sy s. ican Judie% ten-i that gives meaning to life, and 6. Adult eateation programs are preventing increased individual dis-only 2 littleless important than organization. public scliools in providing oppor- 2. Permissive changes increase astunities te the Pine Ridge people opportunities are greater, and are and their children. Changes are dif- more humane and reasonable than ficult enough to keep up with when enforced changes which lead to re. individuals am fullmembers of sistance and apathy. The latter modern A.rneriican society, but when tends to destroy old values and is they have thadditional handicap the negative process,while theof starting from a different cultural former is the positive process of in- level, the education must be extend- troducing new ideas which endeli ed beyond the- minimum in order to the culture. make it possitle for others than a 3. Effective informal leadershipfew eAcevtiorsal people to accept in the Pine Ridge community ap- gracefully ft Iv AI culture pattern. pears to be available for the intro. Additional study of the following duetion of new ideas, but the lead.secornrnendaticns would appear de- ers cannot be coerced and they can-sirable : not coerce their people. 'They must 1. Socia..1 ecpulity might he pro- be sought out and convinced that-vided to the Pixie Ridge people in all efforts directed toward such goalsoftheirnon -reservation experi- as improvements in levels of livingences. 1Thjle ppeople's attitudes cap-

70 70 &tab Dakota ExpermI Station Balkan 7O not be easily changed, equal ein-be followed inthe provision of ployinent and legal rights can beservices. provided, and association and un- 3. Preservation of the reservation derstanding may reduce attitudesway of life will continue and assim- of hostility. ilation will be resisted, but con- 2. Policies of the federal govern-versely the Dakota culture will be meat might be more consistent andmodi6ed by adjustment to change. permissive. Over adraintrationft should be a major purpose of all and control of Indian affairs are asprograms and services to permit the detrimental as complete neglect,Pine Ridge people tn offer their dis- Continuation and improvement oftinctive contributionto America community services are essential,while integrating their social pat- but the guiding principles of free-terns into the life of the larger dom and self-determination shouldsocie

71 Suggested Reading List BROWN, josem, The Sacred Pipe.HYDE, GEoncE E. ASioux Chronicle. Norman: University of Oklaho- Norman: University of Oklahoma ma Press. 1953. Press. 1942. DELoaTA., ELLA. Speaking of In-LAFARGE, Ouv ER. The Changing dians. New York:Friendship Indian, Norman: University of Press. 1944. Oklahoma Press. 1942. LYND, J. W. "History of the Dako- DENSMORE, FRANCES. Teton Sioux tas." Minnesota Historical Co Ilec- Alugic. Bureau of American Eth- 'ans. 143474. nology Bulletin 61. Washington. CGREGOR, GORDON. IV arriors 1918. Without Weapons. Chicago: Uni- EASTKAN, GRARLES A. From the versity Press, 1946- Deep Woods to Civilization. Bos-NELHARDT, JOHN G.slack Elk ton: Little Brown, and Company. Speaks. New York: W. Morrow 1916. Company. 1932. EmnrtE.E, ERWIN R. Indians of thePAM...IAN, FRANCIS, Jn. The Oregonl Americas:HistoricalPageant. Trail. New York: A. L. Burt Com- Boston: Houghton Mifflin Com- pany. pany. 1939. STEPREN R. Mall and I. Forty Years With the Sioux. Bos- ERIKSON. ERIN HOMBURCER. "01, - vations on Sioux Education." The ton: Congregational House, 1880. STANDING BEAR, Lurr-mn. lay Peo- Journal of Psychology.VII( 1939 ) 101.156. ple, the Sioux. Cambridge: The River Side Press. 1928, GILMORE, MELVIN B. Prairie Smoke. VESTAL, STANLEY. blew Sources of New York: Columbia University Indian History, 1850-1891. Nor- Press. 1929. man:University of Oklahoma HASSRICK, ROYAL B. "Teton Dakota Press. 1934. Kinship System." American An-WISSLER, CLARK. The American In- thropologist. XLVI (1944) 338- dian. New York: Peter Smith. 347. 1938.

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