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Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article maybe used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. © Taylor and Francis 2007 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 DOI: 10.1080/14690760701321320 ISSN 1469-0764 Print/ISSN 1743-9647Online/07/020353-16 © 2007Taylor&Francis of of populistelectoral andsocialmobilisation thatsuccessfullyeroded thesystem absent. cultural variablesthatwere soapparentelsewherewereeithernegligible or rare, foundonlyinsome areasneartheSpanishborder.Thus,historicaland ing countries;therewereno religiousorethno-linguisticminorities;dialectswere ethno-cultural minorities,norweretherePortuguese populationsinneighbour- nation coincidedinconditionsofculturalhomogeneity: therewerenonationalor war Europe.Ontheeveoftwentiethcentury, bothPortuguesestateand democratic regimes–eitherintermsofcrisesoroverthrow –elsewhereininter- masses’ wasinauguratedinPortugalwithoutmanyof theupheavalsthataffected country governedbyastable‘oligarchicparliamentary’ system:the‘ageof At thebeginningoftwentiethcentury,Portugal wasanon-industrialised The SecularisationCleavageandtheBreakdownof PortugueseDemocracy neously maintainingitsstrongandindependentCatholicActionmovement. (particularly thecorporatistapparatusandyouthmovement),whilstsimulta- the ‘fascistisation’ofsomeregime’sinstitutions,‘Catholicising’them framework ofSalazar’sNewState.Thechurchwasalsoapowerfulagentagainst ChurchandthePortuguesestateformedbasisforinstitutional oligarchic todemocraticliberalism. engine thatdrovetheideologicalandpoliticalconflictduringtransitionsfrom to thedifficultconsolidationofdemocratisingrepublicanism,becameapowerful Southern Europeansocieties,thissecularisingmovement,whichwasoftenlinked increasingly radicalisethem.Co-existingwithandpermeatingotherCatholic years thatfollowed,thecleavagebetweenchurchandtheirregimewasto revolution believedthatCatholicismwasholdingPortuguesesocietyback;inthe that followedthecountry’srepublicanrevolutionin1910.Theleadersof1910 Portugal’s ‘Catholicdictator’,wasapoliticalproductofthewarsecularisation the ‘totalitarian’and‘pagan’elementsofbothMussoliniHitler.Salazar, State waspraisedforbeinganexampleofa‘good’dictatorship:onethatavoided In interwarEuropeanconservativecircles,AntóniodeOliveiraSalazar’sNew Taylor andFrancisLtdFTMP_A_232028.sgm10.1080/14690760701321320 Totalitarian MovementsandPoliticalReligions1469-0764(print)/1743-9647(online)OriginalArticle2007Taylor820000002007AntonioPintoacpinto@ics.ul.pt &Francis University ofLisbon*NewLisbon** ANTÓNIO COSTAPINTO*andMARIAINÁCIAREZOLA** New StateinPortugal Political Catholicism,CrisisofDemocracyandSalazar’s Vol. 8,No.2,353–368,June2007 Totalitarian MovementsandPoliticalReligions, From thebeginningof twentieth century,therepublicansappliedstrategies The mainhypothesisofthispaperisthatthecompromisebetweenRoman caciquismo 2

[clientelism], upon whichthemonarchist 1 rotativismo [rotation] Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 displayed some authoritariantendencies. The [Catholic Centre], whichhadcloselinks tothechurchhierarchy and whichalso cleavage resultedinthecreation ofanewCatholicmovement,the political lifewhichendured, despitelaterattemptsatreconciliation,until1926.This Portuguese bishophadbeen dismissedfromtheirdiocese. the Vatican toseverallrelationswiththePortuguese state:by1912,allbutone reaction wastoforbidthereadingoflatter’spastoral letter.Thisactionled called –inreferencetoRomaniaa‘mimicdemocracy’. consequently, therepublicanpoliticalsystembecamewhatMatteiDoganhas overthrew themonarchyandbeganimplementingtheirpoliticalprogramme; requirements fortheformationofacivicpoliticalculturewhenrepublicans demands. Portuguesesocietydidnotfullymeettheeconomic,socialandcultural participation aswelltherighttostrike–oneofweaklabourmovement’s successful useofnationalistandanti-clericalthemes,advocatedpolitical system wasbased.TheRepublicanParty’sprogrammeflexible:itmade 354 archy. earlier bytheFrenchThirdRepublic,hadaprofoundimpactonCatholichier- movement emerged.Thesemeasures,mostlyinspiredbythosetakenfiveyears legislation forswiftsecularisationwaspassedandastrong,urban,anti-clerical United KingdomandthedefenceofPortugal’scolonialheritage.Asearlyas1910, clericalism andnationalismbaseduponthefightagainstdependenceon forces, wereabolished. rites withinstateinstitutions,suchasthecourts, universitiesandthearmed were imposeduponreligiousceremoniesheldwithout churches,andallreligious later anewlawattributedmarriagean‘exclusivelycivil status’.Strictregulations was passed:on3November,alawlegalisingdivorce wasintroduced;amonth orders, suchastheJesuits,wereexpelledfromcountry. Supportinglegislation clerical movementsweptthroughLisbon.Severalconvents wereclosed.Religious fought overreligion.Duringthefirstdaysfollowing therevolution,alargeanti- is thereforeunsurprisingthatthefirstpoliticalbattle ofthe1910revolutionwas than groupsofnotables. create theUnionistandEvolutionistparties.However,thesewerenevermore the 1910revolution,however,dissidentconservativemembersofpartyleftto had beenthefirstquasi-masspartyduringfinalyearsofmonarchy:with and replaceditwithadominant-party,multi-partysystem.TheRepublicanParty The republicalsoputanendtotheconstitutionalmonarchy’stwo-partysystem, the anti-participatorytendenciesofurbanworkingclass’s‘activeminorities’. very weak,bothbecauseoftheruralworld’sabsencefrompoliticalarena,and existent) atthe1911constitutionalassembly.Demands‘frombelow’werealso pressure fortheimplementationofuniversalsuffragewasverylimited(ifnotnon- suffrage, arguingthatrural almost entirelybytheRepublicanParty.Yettheystilldidnotimplementuniversal republican constitutionin1911,wasundertakenbyaparliamentdominated lution, becametherulingparty. to theRepublicanPartyafterdefectionofkeyleadersinwakerevo- revolts thathadbrokenoutfrombasesinSpain.TheDemocraticParty,successor The religious/secularisation cleavagesoonbecameafocalpointforPortuguese The republicanelitesadoptedaprogrammeofuniversalsuffrage,anti- One ofrepublicanpropaganda’smainthemeswasthe callforsecularisation;it The establishmentofaparliamentaryregime,withtheapprovalnew .CsaPnoadM nciaRezola A. CostaPintoandM.In 4

Suffrage wasnotextended,however,thepretextbeingpro-monarchist 5

The government’sresponsetothechurchhierarchy’s a ´ caciquismo

made suchamoveimpossible.Indeed, Centro Católico 3 ’s social-Catholicism Centro Católico Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 teachings andintellectualstyleofIntegralism’. those mostpredisposedtolearnfromandemulatethemwereallgroundedinthe when ItalianFascistandNazimodelsassumed‘world-historical’importance, penetration inPortugal.AsaPortuguesesociologisthascommented:‘Attime and itscapacitytopermeatetheelitesthusconditionedfascistdevelopment legitimate inthePortugueseculturalcontext.Integralismo’sideologicalvigour logical packagewasdecisive.Despitetheobviousforeigninfluences,this enced byIntegralismo,themovement’sabilitytopresentanew,reactionaryideo- modelanditsweakfragmentedpoliticalexpression. in interwarPortugalwascharacterisedbothbyitsearlyadoptionoftheItalian the newspaper Integralismo’s ‘social’sectionheformedasyndicalistpartyandfounded royalism. RolãoPretowasthepioneerofPortuguesefascism:asleader with thispartoftheradicalrightduring1920s,afactionclosertoreactionary guided ], amovementbasedonthesameMaurrasianideologyasthatwhich to aliberaleconomyandthe ‘disastrousagitationofclassstruggle’. to fulfilitshistoricalmission’. Corporatistrepresentationthusbecametheantidote and bucolic decentralisationthatwouldallowan‘eminentlyagricultural country and uncontrolled urbanisation,Integralismoadvocatedananti-cosmopolitan response totheliberalstate’scentralisation,destruction oflocalcommunitylife undeserving of greatattention.Masonry andanti-clerical(orJacobin) republican- ism andcommunism wereseenas variants ofliberalismand democracy, ical’ nationalismwastheexpression ofaruralreactiontoindustrialisation.Social- ideology ofIntegralismo’s founders remainedtraditionallyanti-liberal.Its‘histor- demonstrated byitssupportforSidónioPais’dictatorshipin1917. was soontobecomeacorporatist,authoritarianalternativeliberalrepublicanism, absence ofuniversalsuffrage. space asaconsequenceofthenaturerepublicanpoliticalsystemand rights aspartofitspoliticalprogramme,Catholicismoccupiedanelitist dent uponthechurchhierarchy,andhavingrecuperationofchurch’slost their returnfromexilein1914,weretoform Galicia inSpain.Couceiro’sfollowersincludedanumberofyoungmenwho,upon to occupyitsAfricancoloniesattheturnofcentury–werelaunchedfrom former cavalryofficerwithceasaristleaningswhohadledPortugal’scampaigns 1910. In1911and1912,twopro-monarchistincursions,ledbyPaivaCouceiro–a chists whowereunconnectedwiththeliberalpartiesthathadbeendissolvedin in theresistancetoregimeofasmall,butrelativelystrong,nucleusmonar- assembly representingthenation’s well astheprofessions.Parliamentwasrejectedinfavour ofanadvisorynational vision ofthecorporatistrepresentationfamily, cityandtowncouncils,as nineteenth-century .Theideaofuniversal suffragewasreplacedbya upon theconceptionofamedievalPortugalthathadbeen destroyedby‘imported’ in Portugal:itreinventedthe‘tradition’ofan‘organic’ andcorporatistsocietybased –wereshapedbyIntegralismo. establish fascistparties–thelastandmostsuccessfulofwhichwasNational Although theinterwarcrisisproducedothermovementsthatwerenotinflu- The firstpoliticalmanifestationoffascismtoemergeinPortugalwasassociated Although itunderwentfascist-leaning changesintheinterwarperiod, Integralism establisheddurablefoundationsforanew, reactionarynationalism Action Française Political Catholicism,CrisisofDemocracyandSalazar’sNewState Revolução (AF). [ Revolution 7

The secondcleavageofthisperiodwasexpressed ] (1922–23).Nevertheless,theriseoffascism forças vivas

Integralismo Lusitano 8 [economic andsocialforces].In

Indeed, almostallattemptsto 6

Largely depen- 9 [Lusitanian 355 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 by theFirstRepublic. Eveninculturalterms, Portugalwasagoodexample ofhow 1960s), supportedSalazar. generation’, includingMarcello Caetano(Salazar’seventualsuccessorinthelate 1932; however,manyof those belongingtoIntegralismo’sso-called‘second core of part withdrewintothevarious fascistorientedorganisations,laterformingthe to powerandthehybridpoliticalinstitutionshecreated withsuspicion.Agood liberal corporatistorder.Thislattergroupviewedboth Salazar’ssubsequentrise the ,andsupportedprojectsseekingtoinstall anewandradicallyanti- other hand,thehardlinerswithinIntegralismo’scentral juntaremainedfaithfulto proportion oftheyouthsectorandsomemilitarymen supportedfascism;onthe dictatorship, thenewpoliticalsituationdividedthem. Ononehand,alarge establishment ofanunstablemilitarydictatorship. the parliamentaryrepublic,andoutcomeofits legitimacycrisis,ledtothe resistance tothecoup;civilianmobilisationwassimilarly absent.Thelegacyof tive republicansheadedbyAdmiralMendesCabeçadas. Therewaslittlemilitary north ofthecountry,GomesdaCostanegotiatedhisnewpowerswithconserva- 1926 uprising–tobeconsolidated.AshemarchedLisbonfromBraga,inthe tenants andwithManuelGomesdaCosta–themaverickgeneralwholed participation inthatattemptedcoupenabledcontactswiththemoreradicallieu- number ofcoupattempts,includingthat18April1925.Widespreadcivilian for theoverthrowofrepublic.Integralistsactedas‘civilianlink’ina and theIntegralistsbegantobackallright-wingmilitarycandidatescampaigning monarchist uprisingsoundedthedeath-knellforfurtherrestorationistrevolts, number oftheseofficersintotheorbitradicalright.Thefailure1919 unity ofthemilitaryinitspoliticalinterventions. increasing tensionsofthesamekindwithingovernment;andgrowing factors: theproliferationofcorporatetensionswithinarmyasaninstitution; main differencebetweenthepre-warinterventionsand1926coupliesinthree interwar period,asdidpersistentfactionalismintheranksofmilitary.The the government’.Yetmilitaryinterventioninrepublicanpoliticspredated political programmethattranscendedthemerecallfor‘orderinstreetsand parts ofthemilitary.Thesegroupswereinstrumentalingivingmilitarya intervention since1923,andnegotiateda the NationalistParty,wasonesuchleader.Lealhadbeencallingformilitary and formedfactionswithinthearmedforces.FranciscoCunhaLeal,aleaderof small andelitistextremeright-winggroupsthatsupportedmilitaryintervention to the1926coup,whileconservativerepublicanleadersalsoemergedjoin ganda activities.Animportantsectorofthecivilianradicalrighthadlentsupport fore morecautious,theIntegralistsplayedakeyroleinconspiratorialandpropa- cratic roleinsomeconspiratorialgroups. support frommembersofthearmedforces,whoplayedanimportantanti-demo- tas, Catholics,Integralistsandfascists.Thealsoreceivedsignificant Organisations suchastheNunoÁlvaresCrusadetestifytothis:itunitedSidonis- Integralists emergedwhichwasto‘postpone’therepublic–monarchycleavage. ism remaineditsgreatenemies,althoughanewgenerationofyoung,Sorelian 356 Yet thesecularisation cleavagewasperhaps themostimportantof those created Although theIntegralistsplayedanimportantrole inthefirstphaseofthis Sidónio’s assassinationandthereturnofliberalregimethrewagood Unlike the .CsaPnoadM nciaRezola A. CostaPintoandM.In Movimento Nacional-Sindicalista Centro Católico , whichwaslinkedtothechurchhierarchyandthere- a ´

[National SyndicalistMovement, MNS]in post facto

political arrangementwith Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 He wasoneoftheleaders lic (1910–26)tookplacewithin thestrictlimitsofsocial-Catholicmovement. professor ofeconomiclaw, andhisonlypoliticalactivityduringtheliberalrepub- Manuel Cerejeira,alsodates fromthisperiod.Hepursuedauniversitycareeras a CADC]. Hisimportantfriendship withthefutureCardinal-PatriarchofLisbon, Centro AcadémicodeDemocraciaCristã student, heledthebest-knownCatholicstudentorganisation inCoimbra,the instead studiedlawattheUniversityofCoimbra. Areservedandbrilliant but abandonedtheecclesiasticalpathoneveof fallofthemonarchyand tual andpoliticaleducationbeforetheFirstWorldWar. Heattendedaseminary, Salazar hadatraditionalCatholicupbringingandcompleted mostofhisintellec- restoration ofthechurch’sformerprestigeandinfluence. fied theendofpersecutionsandspoliations,offered thepossibilityfor cient guaranteesofrespect,protectionandfreedom of action:hispresencesigni- many, Salazar’srisewasprovidentialandofferedCatholics andtheChurchsuffi- and wasanotedCatholicpersonalfriendoftheCardinal-.For leader ofthegovernment,hadbegunhiscareerinchurch’spoliticisedparty amplified inthemostdiversedemonstrationsfollowingdecades. conception, onethatwastranslatedintothespiritofcrusadedevelopedand also callingforthechurchtobeunitedanddisciplined.Thiswasanewstrategic plined andstrongarmy’thatwasreadytoengagein‘theLord’sbattles’,whilst Portuguese bishopsin1930. unity andobediencewasthedominantmessageinpastoralletterissuedby unity: thedictatorshipofferedconditionsforthistobecomeareality.Catholic to becomethefirstandmostvisibleofmilitarydictatorship’ssupporters. Heart ofOurLadywasrededicated.BoththechurchandordinaryCatholicswere allowed toreturn;thestatesigned1928MissionaryAgreement;andSacred religious educationwasreintroduced;previouslyexpelledorderswere goodwill signswereapparent:confiscatedpropertywasrestoredtothechurch; not simplyrestorethesituationthatexistedpriorto5October1910.Nevertheless, chy andthePortugueseCatholicChurch.However,militarydictatorshipdid The coupof28May1926was,asexpected,welcomedbyboththechurchhierar- Salazar, FascismandtheCentroCatólico authoritarian corporatismasanalternativetoliberalism. between Integralistsandsocial-Catholics,bothofwhomweredefenders regime. Indeed,itwasthe‘regimequestion’thatbrokeunderstanding in theanti-democraticreaction.Anotherimportantcleavagewasthatof ‘fascistisation’ ofacademicandintellectualelites,occupyingakeypoliticalspace The Church andthe or conservativepoliticsislinkedtothedefenceofpositionchurch’. democratisation remainembeddedintraditionalreligiousforms,andreactionary response tomodernsocietyandtheconcomitantrejectionofliberalism there islittlespacefortheemergenceofa‘fascistintelligentsia’when‘thehostile July 1921,Salazar leftLisbonandreturned toacademiclifeand a morediscrete tary deputyin the1921elections.With the earlydissolutionofthis parliamentin The sonofamodest,ruralfamilyfromVimieiro,village incentralPortugal, The Catholicsinvestedenormoushopeintheneworder.AntónioSalazar, Confrontation withrepublicanradicalismwasproofoftheneedforCatholic Political Catholicism,CrisisofDemocracyandSalazar’sNewState Centro Católico Centro Católico 11

This missiveadvocatedthecreationofa‘disci-

thus constitutedapowerfulobstacletothe

[Christian DemocraticAcademicCentre, , andassuch,waselecteda parliamen- 357 10 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 beginning ofthe1930s. matic leaderoftheMNSand,consequently,one Salazar’smainrivalsatthe peers withinaclearlyfascistorganisation.RolãoPreto wastobecomethecharis- known memberofPortugal’sradicalrightsucceeded inunifyingmanyofhis of theNewStatefromabovecamebelowand theright.In1932,awell- place duringthe1930s,oneofmainchallengesfacing theinstitutionalisation ing power.Asintheotherprocessesoftransitionto authoritarianismthattook of afascistmovementinPortugal,andwhichenabled ittocomecloseachiev- docile administration. lism. Asa‘strong’dictator,herarelydecentraliseddecisions,andreliedon which wasnotunlikethatofsocietiessubjectedtoamorefascisttypepopu- rejected itevenmorebecauseofthenaturePortuguesesociety,structure matic leadershipforideologicalandpoliticalreasons,notoutofpragmatism;he of astate’sbalancesheet.Portugal’sdictatorrejectedthefascistmodelcharis- list massappeals,andasaneconomisthehadclearideasaboutthemanagement his politicalthought.Healwaysaddressedtheelite,neversuccumbingtopopu- acutely awareofthethreatitrepresented. as thenation’sleader,hewasawareofinevitabilitymodernisation,butalso an ‘organic’visionofsocietybasedontraditional,Catholicfoundations.Inshort, sense oftheterm;hesteadfastlydefendedhisrejectiondemocracy,favouring accelerated modernisation.Hewasalsoultra-conservative,inthemostliteral tional, anti-liberal,Catholicandintegralistinthecontextofsecularisation and ideasofthetimesveryclosely.Hewasideologicallyculturallytradi- culture. Salazarwasan‘academic’dictatorwhofollowedinternationalpolitics would beamistaketoassumethathisprovincialismreflectedlackofpolitical empire butnevervisitedasinglecolonyduringthe36yearsofhisrule;yetit made asingletriptoSpaininordermeetwithFranco.Heruledovercolonial take partinaCatholiccongressBelgium.Similarly,aftertakingpower,he attempted tochange.AsayoungCatholicmilitantheleftPortugalonlyonce, dictator; itwasanimagethatheldswayuntilhisdeath,andonehenever over theotherministriesinordertoresolvedictatorship’sbudgetarycrisis. this timeheaccepted,butonlyonconditionthatreceivedsubstantialpowers unstable, Salazardeclinedtheinvitation.Twoyearslaterhewasaskedagainand 1926 militarycoup;however,notingthatthepoliticalsituationremainedhighly which eventuallyresultedinaninvitationtojointhefirstcabinetfollowing tunity toreaffirmhispositionasthecountry’sleadingspecialistinfinances, involvement inCatholicpoliticalcircles.Nevertheless,heacceptedeveryoppor- 358 ity, butalsoin termsofsocialoriginsand politicalcareer.Pretowas theyoungest authoritarian order. movement, MNSwasalatecomer attemptingtoposeasanalternativeSalazar’s dictatorship alreadydominated byaCatholic‘financialdictator’.Asanorganised and begantomobilisesections oftheworkingclassincontextanunstable ited thesmallmilitiasthat had beenhurriedlyestablishedbythemilitary‘barons’, influence inthebarracksgavePretotheirsupport.Portuguese fascismalsoinher- across theright-wingpoliticalspectrum:numerous young militaryofficerswith Paradoxically, itwasthemilitarydictatorshipthatfacilitatedorganisation The systematic,cartesiannatureofhisspeechesprovidesagoodindication The imageSalazarcultivatedwasthatofareserved,puritanicalandprovincial To besure,Preto wasverydifferentfrom Salazar:notonlyinterms ofpersonal- aroseinPortugaltowardstheendof1920s, andattemptedtocut .CsaPnoadM nciaRezola A. CostaPintoandM.In 12 a ´ Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 Catholic can accept this’. before anew god:thedivinestate’.Tellingly, thearticleconcluded that‘notrue a socio-politicalmysticism, canincludeCatholicsandatheists–bothbowing nationalism thatprofesses statism, andwhichseekstoreplacereligiousfaithwith against militia-stylepartiesthatpromotedan‘exaggerated nationalism’. 1920s, andafterthe1926coup,PortugueseCatholicism increasedpressures church begantocriticisethefascistandIntegralistdoctrines developedduringthe the interwarperioddevelopedintoopenanimositybetween thetwogroups.The the Integralistprogramme,differencesbetweenCatholics andIntegralistsduring – wasanimportantobstacletofascistdevelopment.Although theysharedpartof elements withinthedictatorshipfromoverthrow ofGomesdaCostaonwards fascist movementinItaly,Valois’sFaisceauFrance andtheSpanishJONS. had closelystudiedthestructureofseveralthese parties,includingtheearly ment wassimilartothatadoptedbymanyotherEuropeanfascistparties;Preto reasons, itsleadersdeniedthis.Theorganisationalmodeladoptedbythemove- of 1932.Bytheendthatyearithadbeenfullyestablished,although,fortactical party throughwhichthemilitarydictatorshipwouldbecontrolled. radical wingoftheIntegralistfamilygambleduponestablishmentafascist Gomes daCosta’soverthrowinapalacecoupJulyofthatsameyear,themost political power,standing,ashedid,intheshadowofoldgeneral.Following new regime.ItwasduringthistimethatPretocameclosesttoexercisingreal organisation that,inassociationwithjuniormilitaryofficers,wouldsupportthe ship ofGeneralGomesdaCostainJune1926,Pretoattemptedtocreateamilitia coup of1926,Pretowasraisedtonewpoliticalheights;duringthebriefleader- the restorationofmonarchyasitsprincipalgoal.Withvictoriousmilitary ment’s youngleaderandchiefideologue,AntónioSardinhain1925,ofitsbelief political organisationanditsabandonment,followingthedeathofmove- the Integralistfamily.ThiswaslargelyduetoweaknessofIntegralismoasa Nazionale Integralismo’s founders,withtheItalianpre-fascismofCorradiniand intellectual pro-fascismand,inarare—perhapsevenunique—caseforanyof of warenabledIntegralismo’syoungestleadertoforgecloselinkswithFrench his responsibility forIntegralism’s‘social’areas.Longerexileandtheadventure to PortugalontheeveofSidóniocoup,Pretolostnotimeinconsolidating Française dissident–whowastobecomePreto’smainreference.Havingreturned thing’. years, theformerwashisgreatmaster:‘heonewhodidperhapsevery- inspired him:GeorgesSorelandValois.Ashewastoconfirminlater generations, Pretoalwaysacknowledgedhisdebttothetwowriterswhomost Belgium influencedbyActionFrançaise.Althoughtheywerefromdifferent one ofmanytobeestablishedbythePortugueseemigrantstudentsinFranceand years oldwhenhebecamemanagingeditorofIntegralismo’sfirstpublication– of Integralism’sfounders;bornincentralPortugal1896,hewasonlyseventeen ists’, theofficialchurchpaper, student organisationthatincluded ‘monarchists,republicans,Catholicsandathe- support thefascists.When theMNSannouncedcreationofanationalist church ultimatelyfearedthatpowerholders,andthe militaryinparticular,might The hierarchyoftheCatholicChurchand Centre–keypolitical The firststepstowardstheorganisationofMNStookplaceduringsummer Unusually, Pretoandtheotherfascistswereabletopeacefullyco-existwithin 13

[NationalIdea]. During the1920s,however,itwasValois–pro-fascistAction Political Catholicism,CrisisofDemocracyandSalazar’sNewState 16

From theautumn of1932onwards,these attacks Novidades [ New], respondedbystatingthat ‘onlya 15

For the 14 Idea 359 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 slighted ‘eternaltruthsinordertorevereadeifiedstate’. these movementsforpromotinga‘paganandagnosticnationalism’,heresythat ten intothe constitution andgivena central roleindetermining institutional was oneofthefundamentals oftheSalazaristneworder: itwaswrit- ’Catholicising Institutions’ cratic caution. was deliberatelyweak,and boreallthehallmarksofregimeelite’sbureau- Nevertheless, thisprocessofintegratingformerfascists intoSalazar’sNewState Civil Warin1936,whenSalazarismadoptedacertain fascistchoreography. Syndicalists joiningtheregime,especiallyfollowing theoutbreakofSpanish ure markedtheendoforganisedfascisminPortugal, withmanyformerNational Salazar, roseupinanultimatelyunsuccessfulcoup against theregime.Thisfail- force itsleaders–PretoandAlbertoMonsarazinto exileinSpain. was notuntilthefollowingyearthathefeltconfident enoughtobanMNSand dent uponthepresident’ssupport–Salazaravoided anydirectconfrontation.It important militaryleadersremainedtense–andgiven thatheremaineddepen- offer failedintheirattempttoremovePreto.Since his relationshipwithseveral backed schismultimatelyfailed,asthosewhohadbeentemptedbySalazar’s lieutenants wereremovedfromtheirpositionsofleadership.Thisofficially regime offeredtoofficiallyrecogniseMNS,butonconditionthatPretoandhis capable ofdefendingsocietiesthreatenedbyrevolutionaryviolence’. confirmed andpractisedforcesoftruthjusticeconstitutetheonlyinstruments itself andbecomepartofthesocial-Catholicmovementforwhichknown, condemnation ofthechurch’.Theonlysolutionwasforfascismto‘Christianise the practical secularism,afactthathasearnedsimilarmovementsinothercountries Christian traits:onthecontrary,itwas‘influencedbyanexcessofnationalismand on reassertingitscriticismof‘politicalsyndicalism’,denyingthatMNShadany Action FrançaiseandItalianFascism. denounced asanti-Catholicforexacerbatingoldquarrelsbetweenthechurch, increased innumberandintensity;NationalSyndicalistpositionswere 360 does notknowthelimitsofmoralorjudicialorder’. ‘tends towardsapaganCaesarism,andwhichwillleadto“NewState”that and hisfollowers.Hecondemnedtheappealoftotalitarianism,adoctrinethat opportunity toemphasisethedifferencesbetweenhisviewsandthoseofPreto principles initsactivities,ideologyandsymbolism. tion ofauthoritarianrule,andwascontenttoseetheregimeadoptCatholic ful withinmunicipalcouncils.Meanwhile,thechurchsupportedconsolida- particularly inattemptingtoisolateareaswherethepartywaspoliticallypower- priests werealsoactiveaslocalMNSleaders,reactedstrongly.Yet loyalty toCatholicism.Somebranchesinthenorth,wheremanyIntegralistparish shout: more!,more!‘ ‘feverish, exciteddiscontent…[aswhen]facedwiththeimpossible,continueto of the1926coupbyholdingmilitary-styleparades,Salazarwasdenouncingtheir were inBragaon26May1933,wheretheycommemoratingtheanniversary In September1935,MNS,inalliancewithseveral other groupsopposedto Salazar maintainedaprudentdistancebetweenhimselfandMNS,lostno The churchhierarchyalsocooperatedwithlocalauthoritiesagainstMNS, Fascist leadersdeliberatelyignoredtheircriticsandcontinuedtoproclaim .CsaPnoadM nciaRezola A. CostaPintoandM.In 21

The followingSeptember,Salazardecidedtoact:the a ´ 17

The officialChurchpresscondemned 20

While Preto’ssupporters 18 Novidades 19 insisted Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 law. TheETNwaslargelybasedontheItalianFascist authoritarian regimesandthechurches. school textbooksto rituals. cial projectthataffectedeverything fromclassroomdecorationstomandatory politics, dominatedprimary-school teaching.Indeed,Catholicisationwasanoffi- of acceptanceandobedience, aswelltheconceptofasocietyfreefromfactional ‘God, nation,family,work’, shapedteachers’livestonosmalldegree.Thevalues particularly theprimaryschool.TheSalazaristideology containedinthephrase, had beentheprideofliberalrepublicanelites: secular,state-runschool– about education.Atissuewastheprimarilyideological reorganisationofwhat Church. Tensions,consequently,wereveryweak.The NewStatewasobsessive leaving thedevelopmentoftheirautonomousorganisations totheCatholic tor optedforthesystematicCatholicisationofschool andstateorganisations, between theChristianchurchesandfascism.Yet,in Portuguesecase,thedicta- school systemandtheyouthorganisationshadbeen aclassicthemeoftension Salazarist reformoftheschoolsystemwasanexample ofthechurch’svictory.The ‘authority’ and‘respectforthehierarchy’as‘principles ofthesociallife’.The family asasocialcell’,‘faith,anelementofnational unityandsolidarity’ the MinisterofEducationdrewupanewpolicythatgreatlystrengthened‘the slogan: ‘Everythingforthenation;nothingagainstnation’.Asearlyas1932, fied. Historywasrevisedandrelativepluralismeliminated,pursuanttothe from theenterprise. for Corporations).Unsurprisingly,RolãoPreto’sfascistswereexplicitlyexcluded as social-Catholiccivilservantswithinhisdepartment(hewasSecretaryofState He wasalsoaformerIntegralistwhounitedyoungradicalright-wingersaswell Portuguese corporatistsystem,PedroTeotónioPereira,wasafriendofSalazar’s. between theItalianmodelandidealsofsocial-Catholicism.Thefounder ings. Thestatute,approvedinSeptember1933,soughttoestablishasynthesis Charter], althoughnaturallytemperedbytheNewState’sstrongCatholiclean- Nacional and secretariesofstateforthesectorsinvolved(suchasMinistryEconomy). chosen bytheCorporatistCouncil,whichconsistedofSalazarandministers and membersofthechamberwasmaintained.Consequently,procuratorswere intermediate organisationsemergedeither.Thedistancebetweenconstituencies represent the‘organicelementsofnation’inCorporatistChamber,no however, areworthyofdetailedstudy.Althoughnocorporationswerecreatedto ence oneconomicpolicyoritscapacitytoactasabufferagainstsocialconflict, Assembly. ThePortuguesecorporatistedificewasthusnevercompleted:itsinflu- Corporatist ChamberretainedmerelyconsultativestatusinapowerlessNational despite pressuresfromtheradicalrighttodoso.Electionswereheld,but order, Salazardidnotgivethecorporatistsectoramonopolyonrepresentation, element forauthoritarianregimesinAustria,Spain,VichyFranceandPortugal. the beginningoftwentiethcentury.Corporatismwasalsoakeylegitimating term hascoveredawideideologicalspectrumwithintheauthoritarianrightsince policy. Corporatism,however,isnotspecifictofascism;generallyspeaking,the structures, ideology,relationswith‘organisedinterests’andthestate’seconomic The officialyouth organisationswereanother areaofdisputebetween nascent From the1930son,officialversionofPortuguesehistorywasrigidlycodi- The lynchpinofthecorporatiststructurewas1933 However, ifcorporatismwasoneofthefundamentalsSalazaristnew

[National LabourStatute,ETN],alongwiththe‘industrialconditioning’ Political Catholicism,CrisisofDemocracyandSalazar’sNewState 22

Mocidade Portuguesa Carta delLavoro Estatuto doTrabalho

[Portuguese Youth, [Labour 361 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 Scouts’ missionseemedtocoincidewiththatof they mustnotdisappear’. the sacrifice.Iamnotsayingthatafterthistheymustdisappear; to saytheirCatholicaffiliatesthat‘itisnotyetenoughinanymeasurejustify Scouts spontaneouslydissolve’,itwouldbenecessaryforMocidadePortuguesa tory? Moreover,Cerejeirawrote,itsfunctionsarenotcoincidentand‘tohavethe Mocidade Portuguesa’whilemembershipofthestateorganisationwasobliga- consider theScoutstobearivalor‘obstacle’‘developmentandefficiencyof his disagreementandincomprehensionpatentlyclear:howcoulditbepossibleto autonomy. InastronglywordedlettertoPacheco,CardinalCerejeiramadeboth respects. TheCardinal-PatriarchhimselfarguedfortheScouts’independenceand the then MinisterofEducation,CarneiroPacheco,revealedhisintentiontodissolve were apparentlypeaceful.Nevertheless,theChurchreactedin1938,when able toefficaciouslyprovideforitsdefence’. formation’ and‘devotiontothemotherland’,placingthem‘inconditionsbe gral development’oftheyoung,interms‘physicalcapability’,‘character presented asa‘nationalandpre-military’organisationdestinedtostimulate‘inte- MP] wascreatedinthemiddleof1936.Membershipobligatory:it 362 with theNaziandFascistyouthorganisations. 5 March 1938,CarneiroPachecodidnothesitatetocompare Commissioner, werewellknown.InaspeechtoHitlerYouthdelegationon and FranciscoJoséNobreGuedes, were notwhollywithoutfoundation:thefascisttendenciesofCarneiroPacheco tions heldcertainfearsabouttheregime’stotalitarianinclinations.These the director for the director gious instructionwasmetin1939.InSeptemberof thatyear,thepositionof the church’sdemandthat active despiteboththeexistenceandrivalryof for thechurch.NotonlydidScoutsnotdissolve,theymanagedtoremain tion tobeintegrallycontrolledbythestate.Still,thisepisoderesultedinavictory only youthorganisation,aconsiderationthatmadeclearhisintentionforeduca- display acrucifix,heneverthelesshopedthat Education, CarneiroPachecowishedtoimposetherequirementforeachschool effect, thisguaranteed thatthesituation offeredtotheCatholicworld resultedin structures and organisationsthatwould confirmandindoctrinate thefaithful;in the newpoliticalsituation. Theprocessofreorganisationsawthecreationnew abolish the regime anditsproposals.Additionally, thisanticipationofgovernmentmoves to and theconfidencewithwhich theformerconsideredemergenceofnew reflected therealityof newrelationshipexistingbetweenchurchandstate, dissolve itselfemerged–atleastinitiallyfromtheheart ofthechurchitself.This Curiously, thepressuresthatled The CatholicChurchandSalazarism promoter ofCatholicAction’sworkers’organisations. Catholic syndicalismandofthechurch’ssocialdoctrine, andanimportant filled byFatherManuelRocha,aformerLouvainyouth, astubborndefenderof The Cardinaldidnotdisguisethefactthatchurchanditsancillaryorganisa- Corpo NacionaldeEscuteiros .CsaPnoadM nciaRezola A. CostaPintoandM.In Centro Católico Mocidade Portuguesa 24

Mocidade Portuguesa also reflectedthechurch’s ownviewofitsmissionin a ´

[National CorpsofScouts].Inhisopinion,the ’s moraleducationserviceswascreatedand Mocidade Portuguesa Centro Católico 23 25

’s membersreceivemoralandreli- The firsttwoyearsofitsexistence Mocidade Portuguesa

If, onremodellingtheMinistryof Mocidade Portuguesa Mocidade Portuguesa

to ceaseitsactivitiesand ’s pro-GermanNational Mocidade Portuguesa

would bethe . Moreover,

in many Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 the CentroCatólicowouldonlybringadvantagestocountry’. although bytransformingitselfintoanorganisationdedicatedtosocialactivities, to theadvanceofDictatorship’;meaningthatiswas‘unnecessaryforpolitics, independent organisationofCatholics…inthepoliticalfield’was‘inconvenient order. life ofthenation’shouldjoinneworganisationandparticipatein that allCatholics‘whowishedtocollaboratewithhispatriotisminthepolitical into anorganisationthathad‘purelysocialaction’atitsheart.Hisappealwas or offaction’.Thus,inordertofitin,the that the restated thisviewinhisDecember1932interviewwithAntónioFerro,arguing independent andsovereign’. insofar astheycoincidewiththem,andonlytothat extent:itisthestatethat Portugal andofthestate;interestschurch areonlyimportanttome that theirdestinieshad,frommoment,diverged: ‘Idefendtheinterestsof ‘maintain goodcollaborativerelations’,Salazarwent ontoinformhisoldfriend Cerejeira attheBishop’sPalace.Announcinghisdesire thatchurchandstate tain when,afterSalazarhadbeenappointedhead ofgovernment,hevisited confer uponhim.Thiscanclearlybeseeninthedialogue thatbothweretomain- and openlyassumethemissionthathisolduniversitycompanionwishedto that hewasan‘emissaryofGod’;however,Salazarcouldnotalwayspeacefully however, wasnotwhollyequal.Cerejeira,throughtheyears,remindedSalazar with generousrewardsforbothinstitutions.Thetwomen’srelationship, the regime’sslogan(‘God,nation,authority,family’)andwassoontobearfruit interests, ideasandbeliefs.Thisconvergenceofpositionswaswellexpressedin organisation, Salazar’s‘invitation’tothe sizeable sectorsofthechurchbelievingthat frictions betweenhimandtheCardinal. wanted tomaintainbetweenhisstateandthechurch, therewereneveranyreal for therewassomeresistancetoSalazar’sviewthat‘the necessary. Clearly,theabolitionof – theconditionings imposedbytheregime weighedheavily.Despite recognising Church’s hierarchy, atACP’sroots–and intheorganisationalmodel chosenforit at thebeginningof1930s. Ahighlycentralisedmovementdominatedbythe need forCatholicunityand theautonomyofChurchactivity,ACPwasfounded lead tothechurchregaining itsinfluenceandprestigewithoutlosingsightofthe or itsleader:hedefendedboth tenaciously. ‘church’s cause’toSalazar;heneverrenouncedhisproximity eithertotheregime terms inwhichthepartyhadoriginallybeenestablished. Centro Católico ,ACP]attheendof1933ultimatelysignalledfor Church–state relationsandthecreationof approached foravoteofconfidenceintheregime.Thenewframework Catholics torenouncetheirdefensiveactivities. sion inthedomainofreligion’,itseemedthathourhadfinallyarrivedfor Católico within Catholiccircles.Breakingfromtheprinciplethat,atitscore, United byastrongpersonalfriendship,SalazarandCardinalCerejeirashared In askingittodemobiliseasapoliticalpartyandtransformitselfintosocial After almostadecadespent discussingnewmeansofinterventionthatcould 27

União Nacional was the‘indispensablereaction’againstattacksand‘politicalintru- Political Catholicism,CrisisofDemocracyandSalazar’sNewState , despitetheBishopspronouncingthemselvesinfavourof

[National Union]wascreated‘todestroythespiritofparty 30

However, despitetheseparationthatSalazar Centro Católico Centro Católico 31 Acção CatólicaPortuguesa Centro Católico

Cerejeira apparentlyentrustedthe 28

Following thisdebate,thepoint Centro Católico

was notentirelyunopposed, neededtotransformitself 29

Centro Católico caused someunease

was nolonger [Portuguese 26 Salazar

… the Centro 363 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 and initiallyresisted Rome’sdemands. In theend,however,heconsented tothe Salazar wasprudent: hefearedthereaction bytheregime’srepublican supporters and theconsecrationofreligious educationinpublicschools.Onthesematters, also generatedpolemicson matterssuchastheprohibitionofdivorcetoCatholics acting independentlywithin thepoliticalarea.ThenegotiationsonConcordat during the1930s,former hadconsistentlydeniedthelatteranypossibility of Indeed, ineveryagreement reachedbetweenSalazar’sstateandthechurch legal recognitionorensureconditionsthatwouldbe favourabletoitsactivities. political activityifthechurchweretoinsistonitsinclusion, seektoguaranteeits Salazar fearedthatACPwouldbetransformedinto aninstrumentofCatholic which Salazarwasadamantshouldbeexcludedfrom thenegotiationprocess. Concordat werelongandcomplex. close relationsthatexistedbetweenthetwoinstitutions, negotiationsonthe gistic process,andoneofwhichSalazarwastotakefull advantage. as protectoroftheCatholicChurch,aviewreinforced bytheendofthissyner- Catholic principlesinindividual,familyandsociallife’. apostolic hierarchy,proposethediffusion,actuationanddefenceof Portugal’s layCatholicorganisationsthatwould,‘incollaborationwiththe pation oflayCatholicsintheapostolichierarchy’.Thiswastobeunion its charterandtheteachingsofPopePiusXI,ACPproposedtosecure‘thepartici- attempted tosecureitsautonomyandwinnewspacesofinfluence.According restricted toreligiousandsocialspheres.Itwaswithintheselimitsthatthechurch the church’sjuridicalpersonality,stateconstantlyinsistedthatitsactivitiesbe 364 Portugal asHegivestoPortugal’. church thatalsoexpectsjustice.Godhimselfchose you:foryoutogive others, onlyforthepresentmoment:itisaworkmadeGod,andhis mission withwhichitwascharged:‘Youaremakingaworkthatisnot,as companion oftheimportancetextunderdiscussion,aswellhigh serious negotiationsbeganin1937.Cerejeiraremindedhisolduniversity tional Catholiccircles.Aftersometimidandinconsequentialearlyinitiatives, two institutions,hadbeendiscussedforsometimewithinnationalandinterna- accord, whichconsecratedandconsolidatedtheexisting‘alliance’between approximation betweenthechurchandstate.Theideaofcelebratingthis nial commemorationsduringthesummerof1940washigh-pointthis it pointsinone,cleardirection:thesigningofofficialopeningcenten- gives effectiveaccountoftheCatholicChurch’senormoussocialprojection,and of pilgrimsannually.Analysisthisinformationenrichesthestatisticsand in numberofmajorcentresdevotiontoOurLadythatmobilisedthousands priests, seminarians,layreligiousmovementsandChurchschools,therise sion anditsimportance,throughdatarelatingtotheincreaseinnumberof area, bothquantitativelyandqualitatively.Itiseasytorecogniseitsexpan- tution andasasocialforceundergoingrapidsignificantexpansioninevery society, by1945theACPhadbecomeapowerfulsocialnetwork. Conceived asamovementdedicatedtotheChristianre-conquestofPortuguese world hastobere-conqueredforChrist.ItistheACP’smissiondothis’. in theirgreatmajority,beenlimitedtobeingonthedefensive…Themodern of thischarter,CardinalCerejeirastatedthat:‘FormanycenturiesCatholicshave, 16 November1933,markedthemovement’sofficialbirth.Soonafterapproval Contrary towhatmayhavebeenexpected,giventhe goodunderstandingand By thebeginningof1940s,churchhadaffirmeditselfasbothaninsti- .CsaPnoadM nciaRezola A. CostaPintoandM.In a ´ 34

35 Cerejeira thusconjuredanimageofSalazar

One ofthestickingpointswasACP, 32

This document,dated 33 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 institutions and theeducationsystem.The closeassociationbetween churchand use Catholic symbolism, butitalsoactively pursuedapolicyof ‘Catholicising’ regime. Notonlydidtheregime havethechurchhierarchy’sexplicitapproval to tary organisations. also explainstheweakness ofboththe as illuminatingthenature oftheregime’spropaganda,Catholicism’sinfluence tions, includingtheconstitutionanddeclarationofcorporatist principles.Aswell ence oftraditionalCatholicism,forthechurchaffected allmajortextsandinstitu- of thePortugueseNewStatewithouttakingintoaccount thedetermininginflu- It isdifficulttofullycomprehendthepoliticalsystem andideologicalfoundations Concluding Remarks of thehistoricallifenation–renderingitwithlegal personality’. encounters theCatholicfact,notonlyasanational butasafundamentalfact stated that,throughtheConcordat,‘thestateaccepts theChurchasitis.It public service.Summarisingthespiritinforming final text,CardinalCerejeira excluded propertywasclassifiedasnationalmonumentsandthoseusedinthe tution ofmostchurchpropertythatremainedinthestate’spossession:only – worshipremainedunsubsidised.However,theConcordatanticipatedresti- the lossesitsufferedduringFirstRepublicand–exceptincaseofmissions ing ofclerics. exemption fromtaxesonplacesofworshipandestablishmentsusedinthetrain- including thearmedforces.Moreover,ConcordatgrantedChurchan and guaranteedreligiousassistancetothosewithinallstateestablishments, state schoolsandeducationalestablishments.Yetthisprotectionismwentfurther, schools andprovidedfortheteachingofbothreligionCatholicmoralityin instruction, theConcordatguaranteedunrestrictedestablishmentofprivate religious marriagesandensuretheirindissolubility.Intermsofeducation its authority,organisationandworship;itwaslatertorecognisecivileffects republic recognisedthechurch’slegalpersonalityandgranteditfreeexerciseof granted thechurchanumberofprivileges.Yet,mostimportantly,Portuguese retains theregimeofseparationinrelationtoCatholicchurch’,Concordat Whilst maintainingtheconstitutionalprovisionaccordingtowhich‘thestate the Concordat’sarticlesarealready–explicitlyorimplicitlyPortugueselaw’. signed aConcordatwithoutgivinganythingaway’,giventhat‘themajorityof Cerejeira himselfwhoconfirmedthat‘thePortuguesestatecanalmostsayit fact andconferreduponitbothalegalfoundationpersonality.Itwas Portuguese stateandtheVaticanin1940sanctionedanalreadyconsummated Portugal inthetraditionaldirectionofitsdestiny’. [rather] togobeyonditandreturnthebettertraditionreintegrate… explained therewasno‘intentiontorepairthepastthirtyyears…history,but satisfied bothparties.JustifyingtheaccordtoNationalAssembly,Salazar Concordat signedon7May1940,representedacompromisethatapparently on request.Theresultofthreeyearsdifficultnegotiations,thetext schools, withparentsbeingpermittedtoexcusetheirchildrenfromtheselessons prohibition ofdivorceforCatholicsandallowedCatholicinstructioninstate The CatholicChurchwas acrucialcontributortotheideologyofSalazar’s Despite theseprivilegesandprotections,theChurchwasnotindemnifiedfor Analysing itscontents,wecanconcludethattheConcordatagreedby Political Catholicism,CrisisofDemocracyandSalazar’sNewState União Nacional 36

and theregime’sparamili- 38 365 37 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 the Portuguesenationwithanexemplaryheadofgovernment’. Consequently, PopePiusXIIheldPortugalupasamodel:‘theLordhasprovided and recover…itsleadingpositionintheformationofPortuguesesoul’. himself stated,theNewStategrantedchurch‘thepossibilitytoreconstruct… established Catholicismas‘thereligionofthePortuguesenation’.AsSalazar lished normsfor The 1940Concordatputthefinishingtouchtochurch–staterelationsandestab- Catholic Centrewasrestrictedtothesocialarenaandbarredfrompolitical. country afterdecadesofrepublicanandliberalsecularisation.Nevertheless,the disbanded, Salazargavethechurchhierarchytaskofre-Catholicising cies towardsfascismwithrelativeease. finally, thechurch‘defeated’bothconservativerepublicanresistanceandtenden- their autonomy;asignificantCatholicprivateeducationsectoremerged;and tions werelinkedtothecorporatistsystem,butalsoallowedmaintain Notes to makethatvisionareality. tional andpropagandisticcontrol–aswelltheelite, thestateandchurch– all theideologicalandsocialinstrumentsofadministrative, corporative,educa- 1945. Salazarismofficiallyinstitutedan‘organic’vision ofsociety,anddeployed Salazar’s regimewitha‘pragmatic’dictatorship,particularly between1933and abolished, andtheydevelopedalongside social spaceforthechurch’sownorganisations.Forinstance,Scoutswerenot large sectorsofsociety–particularlytraditionalruralandopenedup regime grantedthechurchcontroloversymbolicandideologicalframingof Catholicised –bodies.Intheend,church’sconcernsprovedgroundless.The eventual ‘forcedintegration’ofitsyouthorganisationsintoofficial–albeit sive ofthetotalitarianbentsomestateorganisationsafter1936,fearing one ofSalazarism’sfoundingelements,thechurch,nonetheless,wasapprehen- anti-communist. Whilethe‘Catholicisation’ofNewState’sinstitutionswas common ideologicalandpoliticalnucleusthatwascorporatist,anti-liberal state representedmorethanjustaconvergenceofinterests:itexpressed 366 traditionalism oftheNewState. [key phrase],whichsodelightedhisFrenchsupporter, perfectlysumsupthe Henry Massisthathisaimwasto‘makePortugallive byhabit’:this the drivingforcebehindNewState’s‘limitedpluralism’. Salazaroncetold most powerfulweapons;ontheother,theylimitedfascisttendencies,andbecame Traditional Catholicismandthechurchwere,ononehand,dictatorship’s mostly intheyouthorganisations;by1956,membershiphadreached100,000. increased. Intheearly1940s,ACPorganisationshadalmost70,000members, became anideologicalhaven,andthevitalityofCatholicorganisations .MatteiDogan, “Romania,1919–1938”,inMyronWeiner, ErgunOzbudun,eds, 3. .AntónioCostaPinto,“Introduction”, inAntónioCostaPinto,ContemporaryPortugal:Politics, 2. PaulC.Manuel,“ReligionandPolitics inIberia:Clericalism,AnticlericalismandDemocratisation 1. Once theNewStatehadbecomeinstitutionalisedand When theregime’svigourbegantofadeafter1945,churchgradually Elections andDeveloping Studies Society andCulture Few andtheMany in PortugalandSpain”,TedGerard Jelen,ClydeWilcox,eds,ReligionandPolitics:theOne, .CsaPnoadM nciaRezola A. CostaPintoandM.In (NewYork:CambridgeUniversity Press,2002),pp.71–96. (Boulder:SocialScienceMonographs, 2003),pp.1–46. de facto

cooperation. Asubsequentrevisionoftheconstitution (Durham:Duke University Press,1987),pp.369–89. a ´ 41

It wouldbeamistake,however,toconfuse Mocidade Portuguesa 39 ; ACP’sorganisa- Centro Católico maître-mot Competitive 40 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 5 Forachronologyofthenegotiations seeRitaCarvalho,“SalazareaConcordatacomSantaSé”, 35. FrancoNogueira,Salazar:AsGrandesCrises(1936–1945) 34. ManuelGonçalvesCerejeira, Obras Pastorais 33. 32. See,forexample,Salazar’sconcernaboutCerejeira’srequesttothe PresidentoftheRepublic, 31. 6 AntóniodeOliveiraSalazar,DiscursoseNotasPolíticas(1928–1934) 26. AntónioMariaZorro,“CarneiroPacheco:UmHomemdeFée oPensamentodaRevoluçãoNacio- 25. 0 A.Ferro,Salazar:OHomemeaObra 20. “Novosmessias”, 19. “Condenandoexcessos”, 18. 0 FrancoNogueira,Salazar:OsTemposÁureos(1928–1936) 30. 29. 28. AntónioFerro,Salazar:OHomemeaSuaObra 27. AntóniodeOliveiraSalazar,Discursos 21. 4 JoséGeraldesFreire,ResistênciaCatólicaaoSalazarismo–Marcelismo 24. BaseXIofLawnumber1941,11April1936. 23. 2 RichardJ.Woll,JörgK.Hönsch,eds, 22. 7 See,EugeneWeber,L’ActionFrançaise 17. 16. ManuelBragadaCruz,“AsElitesCatólicasnosPrimórdiosdoSalazarismo”, 15. 4 RobertSoucy,FrenchFascism:TheFirstWave 14. CitedinJoãoMedina, 13. 2 AntónioCostaPinto,TheBlueShirts:PortugueseFascisminInter-WarEurope 12. 1 ‘GodcalledtotheChurchfaithfulnotdiscussorlegislate,butobey.Thestrengthof 11. JuanJ.Linz,“PoliticalSpaceandFascismasaLate-Comer”,inSteinU.Larsen,BerntHagtvet, 10. .JoséPequitoRebelo,PeladeduçãoàMonarquia 9. HermínioMartins,“Portugal”,inStuartWoolf,ed.,EuropeanFascism 8. SeeStathisKalyvas,TheRiseofChristianDemocracyinEurope 7. ManuelBragadaCruz,AsOrigensDemocraciaCristãeoSalazarismo 6. VascoPulidoValente,“Revoluções:a‘RepúblicaVelha’(ensaiodeinterpretaçãpolítica)”, 5. TomGallacher,“Portugal”,inBuchanan,MartinConway,eds,PoliticalCatholicismEurope, 4. Martins, ed.,DiplomaciaeGuerra Concordatária de PioXIeXII:AsConcordatas Italiana,PortuguesaeEspanhola”, inFernando dat policiesinwhichthePortuguese ConcordatwasincludedseeRitaCarvalho,“APolitica História p.118. Boletim daAcçãoCatólicaPortuguesa Óscar Carmona,foranamnestytobegrantedsomeopponents, inibid.,p.99. Vol. II,pp.152–3. nal”, CadernosdoQuadragésimoAno pp.555–8. Hill: UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1985),pp.116–42. Tracy H.Koon,Believe,Obey,Fight:PoliticalSocialisationofYouthinFascistItaly,1922–1943 A União Novidades, 1961), Vol.I,p.170. e InstauraçãodeumaOrganizaçãoParamilitardaJuventude”, Concerning thissubject,seealsoSimonKuin,“AMocidadePortuguesanosAnos30:Anteprojectos Social ScienceMonographs,1987). and ItalianFascism:AStudyinConflict,1929–32 Novidades (1992), pp.547–74. Payne, AHistoryofSpanishFascism Conflicto (1932–1935) Science Monographs,2000). 1931), p.17. Church isinobedience.’ Universitetsforlaget, 1980),p.185. Jan PetterMyklebust,eds,WhoweretheFascists?SocialRootsofEuropeanFascism 1969), p.305 1996) foranexcellentstudyofthedevelopmentconfessionalpartiesduringthisperiod. Social 1918–1965 XXVII115(1992),pp.7–63. , 31(1997),pp.4–15,orNogueira (notes 30and34).ForananalysisoftheVatican’sconcor- , 269(1933),pp.177–8. , 5January1932. 24November1932. (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1996). Political Catholicism,CrisisofDemocracyandSalazar’sNewState Novidades (:Bertrand,1977),pp.185–6. Salazar eosFascistas:SalazarismoNacionalSindicalismo–AHistóriadeum Pastoral Colectiva:Decretos,Apêndice,Documentos Novidades , 31January1933.

(Lisbon: Colibri/CIDEHUS-UE, 2001).AlsoseeRita Carvalho, (Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1999). , 1(May1934),pp.12–5. , 1January1933. (Lisbon:Panorama,1966),p.12. (Lisbon:EmpresaNacionaldePublicidade,1933),p.148. Catholics: TheStateandtheRadicalRight,1919–1945

, Vol.I (Paris: Stock,1964),pp.219–55;JohnF.Pollard,TheVatican

(New Haven:YaleUniversityPress,1989);andStanley (Lisbon:UniãoGráfica,1936),Vol. I,pp.103–4. (:CoimbraEditora,1935),p.125. (Lisbon:Gama,1945),p.74. (Lisbon:FernandoPereiraEditor,1982),pp.84–5.

(Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,1985);

(Oporto: Civilização,1986),Vol. III, (Coimbra: AtlântidaEditora,1977),

(Ithaca: CornellUniversityPress, Análise Social

(Oporto: Telos,1976),p.212–3.

(Lisbon:Presença,1980). (Coimbra: CoimbraEditora, (New York:RandomHouse,

(Lisbon: UniãoGráfica,

Análise Social XXVIII/122 (1993),

(Boulder: Social (Boulder: (Bergen: (Chapell Análise XXVII 367 Downloaded By: [pinto, antonio] At: 16:57 23 May 2007 1 JoãoMedina, 41. MariaInáciaRezola,“BrevePanoramadaSituaçãoIgrejaeReligiãoCatólicaemPortugal 40. ManuelBragadaCruz,“AsRelaçõesentreoEstadoeaIgreja”,inFernandoRosas,ed., 39. “PalavrasdeSuaEminênciaoSenhorCardealPatriarca”,in 38. CitedinCarvalho,“Concordata”(note35),p.390. 37. 36. 368 (1930–1960)”, inFernandoRosas(note39),p.238. (1930–1960) Maio de1940 Diário dasSessões (Lisbon: Figueirinhas,1999),Vol.VII,pp.388–92. “Concordata”, inAntónioBarreto,MariaFilomenaMónica,eds, .CsaPnoadM nciaRezola A. CostaPintoandM.In (Lisbon:SPN,1943),pp.43–7. Salazar emFrança , 89,27May1940. (Lisbon:Presença,1992),p.211. (Lisbon:Bertrand,1977),p.50. a ´ Concordata eAcordoMissionáriode7 Dicionário deHistóriaPortugal Portugal eo