2018-2020 Intersections Group Resource Handbook

The UF Intersections program is made possible with generous funding from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Table of Contents

I. Convener Resources

1 - Map of Intersections Resources 2 - 2018-20 Intersections Consultants Meetings 3 - 2018-20 Intersections Groups 6 - Cooperation, Coordination & Collaboration (P.W. Mattessich & B.R. Monsey, 1992, Collaboration: What Makes it Work. St. Paul: Amherst H. Wilder Foundation) 7 - Intersections Groups Self-Evaluation Journal Activity 8 - Suggested Agenda Items for First Group Meeting 9 - Membership Roster Form (M. Winer & K. Ray, 1994, Collaboration Handbook. St. Paul: Amherst H. Wilder Foundation) 11 - Meeting Agenda and Summary (ibid.) 12 - Vision and Focus Statements (ibid.) 14 - Collaboration Structure (ibid.) 15 - Decision-Making Protocol (ibid.) 16 - A Guide to Systems Change(ibid.) 18 - Ending Rituals (ibid.)

II. On Developing Strong Questions

19 - Architecture of Powerful Questions (a summary) 20 - Art of Powerful Questions (E.E. Vogt, J. Brown & D. Isaacs, 2003, The Art of Powerful Questions. Waltham: Pegasus) 34 - From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems (R.F. Bendix, K. Bizer & D. Noyes, 2017, Sustaining Interdisciplinary Collaboration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 28- 45)

III. Collaboration Resources

43 - Our Compelling Interests: The Value of Diversity for Democracy and a Prosperous Society (Andrew W. Mellon Foundation) 44 – Community and Pseudocommunity (Prof. Buffy Bondy, Intersections Consultant) 45 - Transparency (a summary) 46 - 25 Simple Trust-Building Behaviors (N.S. Russell, 2015, PychologyToday.com) 47 - Listening (a summary) 48 - IAP2’s Public Participation Spectrum (International Association for Public Participation) 49 - How Systems Thinking Prepares Students for a Complex World (S. Carlson, 2017, The Chronicle of Higher Ed, Sep 24.) 56 - Talking across Disciplines (M. Strober, 2011, Interdisciplinary Conversations: Challenging Habits of Thought. Stanford: Stanford University Press: 153-166.)

IV. Further Reading

The interdisciplinary field of science and technology studies has produced some of the most useful studies of how interdisciplinary collaboration occurs. We invite you to browse some of our favorite readings on the topic:

 Haraway, Donna Haraway. “Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective.” Feminist Studies, Vol. 14, No. 3. (1988), pp. 575-599. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3178066. o Haraway explains how there is no such thing as a singular, “objective” form of knowledge, and instead emphasizes the importance of acknowledging and respecting situated knowledges (from lived contexts) to communicate our field expertise in a meaningful, equitable, and inclusive manners with others.

 Latour, Bruno. "Why Has Critique Run out of Steam? From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern." Critical Inquiry 30, no. 2 (2004). www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/421123. o Latour argues that the contemporary humanities are uniquely poised to “gather together” diverse forms of knowledge to address matters of shared concern.

 Star, Susan Leigh and James. R. Griesemer. “Institutional Ecology, ‘Translations’ and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology.” Social Studies of Science 19.3 (1989): 387- 420. http://www.jstor.org/stable/285080. o This reading examines how groups can latch on to particular “boundary objects”, such as grand-challenge questions, as ways to focus different epistemological views and recognize incommensurability without creating conflict.

Intersections: Animating Conversations with the Humanities Resource Map

Intersections Administrators: Angela Lindner (Provost-Undergraduate Affairs) Joe Spillane (CLAS Advising) Mark Law (Honors) Patrick Reakes (Smathers Libraries)

Center for the Humanities and the Public Sphere Intersections Leadership Team Barbara Mennel (CHPS Director) Sophia Acord (CHPS Assoc. Director) Bess de Farber (Libraries Grants Manager)

Intersections Staff: Ethics Danielle Barrientos (Coordinator) Lauren Cox (PR) Student Adviser TBA Technology

Global Blackness Mass Incarceration

Intersections 1 Intersections Consultants Anticipated Meeting Schedule

The Intersections program benefits greatly from the participation of a team of Intersections Consultants who have expertise in supporting collaborative and creative work. We will arrange meetings to introduce you to them. (A minimum of two members per Intersections Group must attend each meeting.) It is our hope that groups will develop relationships with particular consultants who can help them carry out their desired work, e.g., developing public-partnered programming, creating a novel class assignment, etc.

Fall 2018 UF Quest • Trysh Travis, Ph.D. (UF Center for Gender, Sexualities and Women’s Studies Research) • Andrew Wolpert, Ph.D. (UF Department of Classics)

Full Participation, Inclusion, and Diversity in Teaching – October 2018 • Buffy Bondy, Ph.D., UF School of Teaching and Learning • Lauren Pearlman, Ph.D., UF African American Studies and History

Public and Community-Partnered Programs: • Keith Simmons, Florida Humanities Council • Michael Spranger, Ph.D., UF Department of Family, Youth, and Community Sciences

Spring 2019 Exhibitions/Collections, Partner Engagement, and Public Presentations • Eric Segal, Ph.D., Harn Museum of Art • Laurie Taylor, Ph.D., UF Smathers Libraries

Creative Class Assignments • Jessica Aberle, Ph.D., UF Smathers Libraries-Architecture • Mickey Schafer, Ph.D., UF University Writing Program

Public and Scholarly Communications • Ann Christiano, UF Department of Public Relations • April Hines, UF Smathers Libraries-Journalism

Fall 2019 Collaborative Grant-Seeking with Bess de Farber

Teaching Excellence and Course Development • Jennifer Smith (UF Office of Faculty Development and Teaching Excellence) • TBD (UF Center for Instructional Technology and Training)

Intersections 2 Intersections Research-Into-Teaching Grant Competition Results May 2018

2018-2020 Mellon Intersections Groups at the University of Florida

1. Intersections on Ethics and the Public Sphere How can we think critically about the ethical dimensions of divisive public issues?

This Intersections Group will examine how to understand and address ethical issues in the public arena including contemporary moral issues such as gun control, climate change, and reproductive rights. The group emphasizes ethical thinking and action through a combination of research, teaching, and service to produce engagement with the public. In addition to developing coursework incorporating reflection, service learning, and research, the group will produce a set of resources to enable UF students to connect ethical decision- making to service in our community. This group will enable students to think critically about issues and develop skills to be effective moral agents in their professional, personal, and public lives.  Convener: Anna Peterson (Religion), [email protected]  Co-Convener: Jaime Ahlberg (Philosophy), [email protected]  Members: o Elaine Giles (Brown Center for Leadership and Service), [email protected] o April Hines (Smathers Libraries-Journalism), [email protected] o Whitney Sanford (Religion), [email protected] o Kim Walsh-Childers (Journalism), [email protected]

2. Intersections on Global Blackness and Latinidad How does blackness travel locally and across the globe?

This Intersections Group aims to further our understanding of how Blackness travels across the globe via diverse Black communities, politics, and identities. The group addresses the increasing role that globalization plays in our everyday lives, cultural consumption, and production, transnational communities, social inequalities, and how we understand difference. The group will focus on the role of popular culture, the visual arts, performance, and media as places where we examine what it means to be black. The group plans to create an interdisciplinary course, organize a speaker series featuring scholars in diverse fields, and host art events that bridge the local Black community and UF.  Convener: Tanya Saunders (Latin American Studies/Gender, Sexualities, and Women’s Studies), [email protected]  Co-Convener: Manoucheka Celeste (Gender, Sexualities, and Women’s Studies/African American Studies), [email protected]

Intersections 3  Members: o Benjamin Hebblethwaite (LLC-Haitian Creole), [email protected] o Michael Leslie (Telecommunication), [email protected] o Paul Ortiz (History/Samuel Proctor Oral History Program), [email protected] o Nick Vargas (Sociology and Criminology & Law/Latin American Studies), [email protected] o Bryce Henson (African American Studies), [email protected]  Affiliated Members: o Efraín Barradas (Romance Languages/Latin American Studies), [email protected] o Coco Fusco (Art + Art History), [email protected] o Lillian Guerra (History), [email protected] o Sharon Austin (African American Studies/Political Science), [email protected] o Christopher Busey (Teaching and Teaching Education), [email protected] o Jillian Hernandez (Gender, Sexualities, and Women’s Studies) o Agnes Leslie (African Studies), [email protected]

3. Intersections on Mass Incarceration What would a future without mass incarceration look like and how do we get there?

The United States has the world’s highest prison population and also incarcerates a higher percentage of its population than any other country, despite declining crime rates. This Intersections Group unites campus partners committed to exploring alternatives to mass incarceration in the U.S. and to enriching our understanding of the causes, consequences, histories, and lived realities of mass incarceration. Through interdisciplinary collaboration and problem solving, the group intends to chart innovative paths forward that reduce our reliance on prisons and mass incarceration. The group plans to provide robust campus programming that highlights the contributions of humanities to solving this problem, advance prison studies at UF, and engage with the local community through public events.

 Convener: Jodi Schorb (English), [email protected]  Co-Convener: Stephanie Birch (Smathers Libraries-African American Studies), [email protected]  Members o Katheryn Russell-Brown (Levin College of Law), [email protected] o Elizabeth Dale (History), [email protected] o Lauren Pearlman (History/African American Studies), [email protected] o Heather Vrana (History/Latin American Studies), [email protected]

Intersections 4 4. Intersections on Technologies of Time and Space How have technologies shaped our lives, and how can we draw on them to meet 21st century challenges on a planetary scale?

Through the investigation of time, place, space, and ourselves, this Intersections Group will explore how humans have transformed the landscape of earth. The group intends to recover the practices that led, and continue to lead, to the making of what is recognized as the “technosphere,” the landscape shaped by human hands, animals, plants, as well as their machines and inventions. By analyzing this knowledge, the group hopes to empower ourselves to fashion, design, and indeed “imagineer” our world to meet the challenges facing us in the 21st century. Developing a team-taught course on the subject and an augmented reality time travel experience in the form of an app are some of the group’s planned activities.

 Convener: Betty Smocovitis (Biology/History), [email protected]  Co-Convener: Eleni Bozia (Classics/Digital Worlds Institute), [email protected]  Members: o Angelos Barmpoutis (Digital Worlds Institute), [email protected] o Morris (Marty) Hylton III (Historic Preservation Program), [email protected] o Will Hasty (LLC-German and Medieval and Early Modern Studies), [email protected] o Ken Sassaman (Anthropology), [email protected] o Ying Xiao (Chinese and Film Media, LLC), [email protected]

Intersections 5 COLLABORATION: WHAT MAKES IT WORK

Cooperation, Coordination, & Collaboration A Table Describing the Elements of Each 2

Essential Elements Cooperation Coordination Collaboration

Vision and • basis for cooperation is • individual relationships • commitment of the usually between individu are supported by the organizations and their Relationships als but may be mandated organizations they leaders is fully behind by a third party represent their representatives • organizational missions • missions and goals of the • common, new mission and and goals are not taken individual organizations goals are created into account are reviewed for compatibility • interaction is on an as • interaction is usually • one or more projects are needed basis, may last around one specific undertaken for longer indefinitely project or task of term results definable length

Structure, • relationships are infor • organizations involved • new organizational mal; each organization take on needed roles, structure and/or clearly Responsibilities functions separately but function relatively defined and interrelated & Communication independently of each roles that constitute a other formal division of labor are created • no joint planning is • some project-specific • more comprehensive required planning is required planning is required that includes developing joint strategies and measuring success in terms of impact on the needs of those served • information is conveyed • communication roles are • beyond communication as needed established and definite roles and channels for channels are created for interaction, many 'levels' interaction of communication are created as clear informa tion is a keystone of success

Authority & • authority rests solely • authority rests with the • authority is determined by with individual organiza individual organizations the collaboration to Accountability tions but there is coordination balance ownership by the among participants individual organizations with expediency to accomplish purpose • • leadership is unilateral • some sharing of leader • leadership is dispersed, and control is central ship and control and control is shared and mutual • all authority and account • there is some shared • equal risk is shared by all ability rests with the risk, but most of the organizations in the individual organization authority and account collaboration which acts independently ability falls to the individual organizations

Resources and • resources (staff time, • resources are acknowl • resources are pooled or • » ^** v^^ ^*« • ^* ^w^ >^ff %4>i • ^m dollars and capabilities) edged and can be made jointly secured for a Rewards are separate, serving the available to others for a longer-term effort that is individual organizations' specific project managed by the collabora needs tive structure • rewards are mutually • organizations share in the acknowledged products; more is accom plished jointly than could 2 Adapted from the works of Martin Blank, Sharon Kagan, Atelia Melaville and Karen Rayhave been individually

£T\ \U Intersections 6 Intersections Groups Self-Evaluation Guide

The Intersections Group Convener and Co-Convener are invited to keep field journals (small notebooks) to record their observations about the group meetings and activities. We do not ask you to maintain formal, constant records in these journals, as doing so might impede your actual work and in-person interactions. Rather, these journals are designed to be unobtrusive, informal ways to collect valuable experiential data about the group activities when you feel they you an opportunity to note an interesting observation or comment related to your collaborative work, either in terms of the substance of your collaboration, or the logistics of how it is proceeding. The journals are also a place for you to record what did and did not work in the process of carrying out your Intersections Group activities, and your ideas for how we may improve the Intersections program. At periodic times over the award period, Humanities Center faculty will invite you to share your journal observations with us, which we will use to understand the evolving opportunities and needs of your group to adjust our support for you, as well as develop a holistic evaluation report to the Mellon Foundation.

*It is important that you note the date and context of all of your journal entries.

Some Possible Journal Prompts Although these journals are designed to be free-form, the following prompts may guide you in recording your observations:  What kinds of interactions are group members having? Do they appear involved or interested? Is anyone expressing any confusion or concern? Is anyone expressing any surprise as to their own learning? Are there many questions?  How are the graduate students interacting with the group? Have the graduate students expressed any excitements or concerns to you?  Are there any differences of gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, rank, age, or discipline that appear relevant in the way that group members are engaging with each other?  How do you feel about the group work? Are you excited? Did you learn anything, or were you surprised by anything that happened?  Is there anything that the Humanities Center should modify in how the Intersections program is administered?

Intersections 7

Intersections Groups Suggested Agenda Items for First Meeting

1. Determine who will be the note taker and rotation schedule for note taking 2. Determine if there will be a neutral facilitator for each meeting, and the rotation schedule for the facilitator a. Discuss the option of accessing professional meeting facilitation from Humanities Center 3. Make Membership Roster (Resource Handbook) a. Include discussion of group member’s goals and needs for participating in the group 4. Discuss desired collaboration structure and roles (Resource Handbook) 5. Review goals from Intersections Research-Into-Teaching Grant proposal, and articulate Vision Statements if needed (Resource Handbook) 6. Discuss Decision-Making Protocol (Resource Handbook) 7. Review Intersections Group Gantt chart and establish plan for completing it 8. Introduce Consultant list and schedule (Resource Handbook)

Intersections 8 ""VI

Membership Roster Document 1A 147

As of (date) Page. of

List the organizations involved and their representatives. Initial self-interests and possible contribu tions can be declared by individual/organization or summarized for all involved. How these factors are listed depends on the level of trust - the higher the trust, the more individuals can lay claim to their declarations. Update this roster regularly.

Organization Representative's name, phone number, organization name and address, and type Initial Self-Interests Possible Contributions of organization (i.e. nonprofit, govern Organizational and Personal Gains Powers and Commitments ment, grassroots, funder, and so forth)

Meeting Agenda and Summary Document IB 149

Calling the Next Meeting (send to participants in advance of next meeting)

Collaboration name or purpose:

Purpose of next meeting:

Meeting date: Location: Start and end times:

Convener: Phone:

Participants (see membership roster for addresses and phone numbers):

Action Agenda

Item Disposition Responsibility Time For information, discussion, or decision

'*!

Summary of Decisions Made/Actions to be Taken This summarizes the previous meeting and accompanies the agendas for the next meeting.

Decision Made/Action to be Taken- Responsibility Deadline

Summary of Achievements to Date This is a log of all achievements. It provides an excellent history and basis for evaluation. Update it regularly.

Achievements Responsibility Date

Intersections 11

This document provides an excellent record of the rationale for the vision and focus statements. It also aids in achieving support from key stakeholders.

L What is our destination—what will we achieve, for whom and where?

2. What is the scope of our effort—how big, how many, how much?

3. How is this destination unique among members of the collaboration?

4. How can we phrase the vision statement so that it is not complicated?

Our draft vision is:

5. After considering our statement, how can we rephrase it so that it is easy to understand and easy to repeat?

Our vision is:

6. Imagining that we have fifteen seconds to communicate the essence of our vision, what short phrase best captures the heart of it?

Our focus is:

Intersections 12

Before we proceed with this step, we need to make sure that we have accomplished the following:

• Declared Self-Interests Attach or note the location of Document 1A—an updated membership roster including member's personal and organizational self-interests.

• Recorded Achievements to Date Attach or note the location of Document IB—meeting summaries and record of achievements. Continually accumulate records of achievements.

• Identified Our Vision and Focus Statements Attach or note the location of Document 1C.

We're now ready to develop statements of our desired results and strategies.

Communal Benefits Outline what we are trying to achieve.

What are our long-term desired results?

What are our short-term desired results?

Are the results we've identified tangible? Can we measure them? Can others recognize them?

Determine how to organize to get work done efficiently. Ask: "What kinds of groups do we need to form in order to do our work? Is it critical for all of us to make all decisions, or can some decisions be made by subgroups? How much must we communicate with one another?"

L Structure. Sketch the collaboration's structure—table, wheel, or other (see page 82 for more information): I

Other

2. Level of Authority. Decide if authority is hierarchical, individual-based, group centered, or other. Sketch how members relate to each other (see page 83 for more information):

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3. Roles. Assign specific responsibilities to individuals, small groups, the whole group, and/or staff. Add those responsibilities to the sketch of levels of authority above. Intersections 14 Continued Copyright 1994 Amherst H. Wilder Foundation -^

Decision-Making Protocol Document 2D 159

Update this form regularly for all" decisions made by the collaboration.

Decisions to With What Level of Authority Where that be Made Who Makes Them Person Fits in the About collaboration Unilateral, consultative, process and results consensual, democratic, Structure or delegated

To begin to change systems, we need to answer the following questions:

1. What are present conditions? Because extensive data exists in most communities, you may have little need to gather more information.

How do people address those conditions? Bring in the perspectives of all fields: arts, human services, environment, health care, education, media, and business; and of all sectors: public, private, and nonprofit.

What is our picture of desired results? Remember the desired picture is one of structural change, not of providing more programs to alleviate problems.

4. How do we map out all the interrelated parts of the system and how they are linked? In relation to the desired results, describe the impetus for and the blocks to change in each part of the system.

What are the leverage points in the system? Leverage points are those places to which you can apply pressure that will move the impetus for change forward and/or reduce the blocks to change. The exertion of leverage needs to have the greatest return for energy expended, so focus on those most likely to move. Often the leverage points are key individuals and organizations, but sometimes there is a community-wide perspective that must be addressed.

6. How do we redefine the desired results from the viewpoints of the various leverage points? Language is crucial for increasing the impetus for change or reducing the blocks to change.

7. What action can we take, at the smallest level, to begin change? Individuals and small groups are easier to influence than government or multinational corporations. Use the aggregated achievements in smaller arenas to influence larger parts of the system.

What multi-faceted approaches can we use in all fields and sectors? Although many approaches must be done in concert with each other, some can be implemented sequentially.

How do we help parts of the system form new relationships? These relationships are to be with other parts of the system and with other systems which had no earlier relationships.

10. When will we stop and learn? Extract and apply the learnings to other similar situations which in turn produce new learnings.

In planning ending rituals, fill in the circles and build each element into the celebration:

Intersections 18

• Generates curiosity in the listener • Stimulates reflective conversation Scope Construction • Is thought-provoking • Surfaces underlying assumptions • Invites creativity and new possibilities • Generates energy and forward Assumptions movement • Channels attention and focuses inquiry • Stays with participants

Intersections • Touches a deep meaning • Evokes more questions 19 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS Catalyzing Insight, Innovation, and Action by Eric E. Vogt, Juanita Brown, and David Isaacs

“If I had an hour to solve a problem and my life depended on over time, led to significant advances in the field of the solution, I would spend the first 55 minutes determining physics. Many years later, an empirical demonstration the proper question to ask, for once I know the proper ques- showed that light from distant stars actually curved as tion, I could solve the problem in less than five minutes.” it passed through the gravitational force of our sun. —ALBERT EINSTEIN Einstein’s graduate students rushed to him as he was walking through the Princeton campus and hen was the last time you sat through a meeting exclaimed, “Dr. Einstein, light really does bend!” W and said to yourself,“This is a complete waste of Einstein looked at them quizzically and said, “Of time!”? Was it yesterday, or even just a few hours ago? course!” He had come to this conclusion through Why did that gathering feel so tedious? Perhaps it’s exploring the question in his own thought experi- because the leaders posed the wrong questions at the ment years before. start of the session.Or,worse yet,maybe they didn’t ask Another Nobel-prize winner, physicist Arno any engaging questions, and as a result, the meeting Penzias, when asked what accounted for his success, consisted of boring reports-outs or other forms of one- replied,“I went for the jugular question.”Still practic- way communication that failed to ing his questioning discipline today, engage people’s interest or curiosity. Penzias recently commented at a Fast The usefulness of the knowledge Company Conference, “Change starts we acquire and the effectiveness of the with the individual.So the first thing I do actions we take depend on the quality “I WENT FOR each morning is ask myself, ‘Why do I of the questions we ask. Questions THE JUGULAR strongly believe what I believe?’ open the door to dialogue and discov- QUESTION.” Constantly examine your own assump- ery.They are an invitation to creativity tions.” It’s this type of self-questioning and breakthrough thinking. Questions ARNO PENZIAS, that keeps creativity alive. can lead to movement and action on NOBEL LAUREATE In other key examples of the impor- key issues; by generating creative tance of powerful questions, a query by insights, they can ignite change. James Watson and Francis Crick, “What Consider the possibility that every- might DNA look like in a 3D form?”led to thing we know today about our world the discovery of the double helix and for- emerged because people were curious.They formulat- ever altered the scientific landscape.During the Tylenol ed a question or series of questions about something crisis in the early 1980s, considering the question, that sparked their interest or deeply concerned them, “What is the most ethical action we might take?” which lead them to learn something new.Many Nobel enabled Johnson & Johnson to restore consumer trust laureates describe the “Eureka!” moment of their dis- and become a leader in corporate responsibility. And covery as when the “right” question finally revealed asking, “Where can I get a good hamburger on the itself—even if it took them considerable time to come road?” motivated Ray Kroc to create McDonald’s, the up with the final answers. For example, Einstein’s the- fast-food chain that became an international icon. Even ory of relativity resulted from a question that he had for ordinary folks, asking a question as simple as,“What wondered about when still a teenager:“What would does all this mean?”or “What can we do that could help the universe look like if I were riding on the end of a shift this situation?” or “What haven’t we thought of light beam at the speed of light?” Einstein regularly that could make a difference?” can have a startling practiced this kind of “thought experiment,” which, impact on creating new knowledge and insight. Intersections 20 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS 1 Why Don’t We Ask Better Questions? as a global community,we need these skills now more If asking good questions is so critical, why don’t most than ever. of us spend more of our time and energy on discover- Are there organizations that do place a high value ing and framing them? One reason may be that much on questions? Consider this: In Germany, the job title of Western culture,and North American society in par- Direktor Grundsatzfragen translates as “Director of ticular, focuses on having the “right answer” rather Fundamental Questions.”As a German colleague said: than discovering the “right question.”Our educational “Yes,there’s a job title of Direktor Grundsatz- system focuses more on memorization and rote fragen. Some of the larger German companies answers than on the art of seeking new possibilities. have an entire department of Grundsatz- We are rarely asked to discover compelling questions, fragen. These are the people who are always nor are we taught why we should ask such questions thinking about what the next questions will in the first place. Quizzes, examinations, and aptitude be. Of course, these people are only in the tests all reinforce the value of correct answers. Is it German companies headquartered in Germany, any wonder that most of us are uncomfortable with such as Daimler, Bayer, Siemens, or SAP. If the not knowing? German company is acquired by a U.S. compa- The aversion in our culture to asking creative ny,they usually eliminate the Grundsatzfragen questions is linked to an emphasis on finding quick positions.” fixes and an attachment to black/white, either/or thinking. In addition, the rapid pace of our lives and The German understanding and appreciation of work doesn’t often provide us with opportunities to Grundsatzfragen may stem from a culture that high- participate in reflective conversations in which we ly values philosophy and the ongoing questioning of can explore catalytic questions and innovative possi- priorities and the meaning of life. Even today, this bilities before reaching key decisions. These factors, focus is reflected in some unique aspects of high- coupled with a prevailing belief that “real work” con- school education. In the German Gymnasium,from sists primarily of detailed analysis, immediate deci- the ages of 14 to 17, students are typically assigned to sions, and decisive action, contradict the perspective study groups with 30 of their peers. In the words of that effective “knowledge work” consists of asking one graduate, “We work intensely together in every profound questions and hosting wide-ranging strate- subject, and then in the second year, we meet Goethe gic conversations on issues of substance. (the famous 19th-century German philosopher), and The reward systems in our organizations further we question our entire world for two years. We reinforce this dilemma. Leaders believe that they are emerge with a greater appreciation for the power of being paid for fixing problems rather than for foster- questions and the power of conversation.” ing breakthrough thinking. Between our deep attach- As we enter an era in which systemic issues often ment to the answer—any answer—and our anxiety lie at the root of critical challenges, in which diverse about not knowing, we have inadvertently thwarted perspectives are required for sustainable solutions, our collective capacity for deep creativity and fresh and in which cause-and-effect relationships are not perspectives. Unfortunately, given the unprecedented immediately apparent, the capacity to raise penetrat- challenges we face both in our own organizations and ing questions that challenge current operating

POWERFUL QUESTIONS AND KEY OUTCOMES

Who Question Outcome Watson and Crick “What might DNA look like in 3D form?” Discovery of the double helix

James Burke, CEO, “What is the most ethical action we might take?” Restoration of consumer Johnson & Johnson confidence

Ray Kroc “Where can I get a good hamburger on the road?” Creation of McDonald’s

Intersections 21 2 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS assumptions will be key to creating positive futures. a compelling question. Here are some of their As Einstein said, “The problems we have cannot be reflections: solved at the same level of thinking that created Finn Voldtofte (Denmark):The question has to catch them.” And in her book The Art of the Question, people where they are,to meet them where there Marilee Goldberg adds,“A paradigm shift occurs when is the most energy and relevance for them, and a question is asked inside the current paradigm that then use that energy to go deeper. Action will can only be answered from outside it.”It’s this kind of flow naturally from that energy. paradigm shift, based on powerful questions, that may Felipe Herzenborn (Mexico):The question also needs be necessary to create truly innovative solutions to to be simple and clear and penetrating. It’s like a our most pressing concerns. laser beam. A good question invites and challenges you to reflect at a deeper level—to find the What Makes a Question Powerful? knowledge or wisdom that’s already there In a wonderfully evocative description, Fran Peavey, a beneath the surface. pioneer in the use of strategic ques- Verna Allee (U.S.): To me, the most tions, observes: energizing questions are those that “Questions can be like a lever you “A PARADIGM SHIFT involve people’s values, hopes, and use to pry open the stuck lid on a ideals—questions that relate to OCCURS WHEN A paint can. . . . If we have a short something that’s larger than them, QUESTION IS ASKED lever, we can only just crack open where they can connect and con- the lid on the can. But if we have a INSIDE THE CURRENT tribute. People don’t have a lot of longer lever, or a more dynamic PARADIGM THAT CAN energy around questions that are question, we can open that can up ONLY BE ANSWERED only about removing pain. much wider and really stir things FROM OUTSIDE IT.” David Isaacs (U.S.): Even though it’s up....If the right question is useful to acknowledge pain, I think applied, and it digs deep enough, MARILEE GOLDBERG, it’s also important to shift the ques- then we can stir up all the THE ART OF THE QUESTION tion away from a problem focus or creative solutions.” fix-it focus to a possibility focus. There’s always a subtle feeling of dis- While you may not immediately empowerment in a problem,a feeling know the characteristics of a powerful question, it’s that all the doors are shut.“We’ve got actually quite easy to recognize one. For instance, if you a problem . . . oh no! Not another problem!”There’s were an Olympic judge scoring the power of questions a weariness and stuckness about it. Simply asking, on a scale from one to ten (with ten being the highest), “What’s the possibility we see in this situation?”can how would you rate the following queries? make a big difference. 1. What time is it? Toke Moller (Denmark): Here’s an example of that 2. Did you take a shower? approach. I was working with a local school to 3. What possibilities exist that we haven’t frame a possibility-oriented question. We asked thought of yet? teachers, students, parents, and administrators, 4. What does it mean to be ethical? “What could a good school also be?”This way of posing the question helped people to see their We have tested questions such as these in several school in a different light. It resulted in some amaz- different cultures. In the process, we’ve discovered ing new ideas. I’m quite sure they would not have that, despite cultural differences, people quite consis- been as innovative if the question had focused only tently rate questions one and two as being less power- on fixing problems. ful, and questions three and four as being more power- Carlos Mota (Mexico):It’s a real art to find as well as to ful. Clearly,powerful questions are ones that transcend shape the right question for your situation. Once a many boundaries. friend told me about a time she was being inter- Not long ago, we hosted a conversation with a viewed. The interviewer said,“We’re just going to group of international colleagues about what makes ask you one question: What’s the question we Intersections 22 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS 3 should be asking?” Sometimes the most important rowing the possibilities we can consider.Is it a yes/no thing to do is to help the people themselves shape question? Is it an either/or question? Does it begin the questions in the most powerful way,since they with an interrogative, such as Who,What, or How? know their own situation the best of anyone. WHO WHAT Thus, a powerful question: WHEN WHERE WHICH • generates curiosity in the listener WHY HOW? • stimulates reflective conversation • is thought-provoking Just for fun, try placing these words in a pyramid • surfaces underlying assumptions of lower to higher power. Don’t think too much; use • invites creativity and new possibilities your intuition. • generates energy and forward movement More Powerful • channels attention and focuses inquiry • stays with participants • touches a deep meaning • evokes more questions Less Powerful A powerful question also has the capacity to “travel well”—to spread beyond the place where it began When asked, most people rank these words from into larger networks of conversation throughout an more powerful to less powerful as follows: organization or a community.Questions that travel well are often the key to large-scale change. As we’ll explore More Powerful below,how such queries are crafted can make a difference in their capacity to move a system toward innovative futures. WHY, HOW, The Architecture of Powerful Questions WHAT As shown at the start of this volume, powerful ques- WHO, WHEN, WHERE tions can dramatically improve the quality of insight, WHICH, YES/NO QUESTIONS innovation, and action in our organizations, in our communities, and in our lives.Therefore, understanding the basic architecture of formulating powerful Less Powerful questions is a key skill in today’s knowledge economy. There are three dimensions to powerful questions: By using the words toward the top of the pyra- construction, scope, and assumptions. Each con- mid,we can make many of our questions more robust. tributes to the quality of learning and knowledge cre- For example, consider the following sequence: ation that emerges as we engage with others in a gen- • Are you satisfied with our working erative inquiry. relationship? • When have you been most satisfied with our Construction working relationship? • What is it about our working relationship that Assumptions you find most satisfying? Scope • Why might it be that that our working relationship has had its ups and downs?

THE FIRST DIMENSION: As you move from the simple “yes/no” question at The Construction of a Question the beginning toward the “why” question at the end, The linguistic construction of a question can make a you’ll notice that the queries tend to stimulate more critical difference in either opening our minds or nar- reflective thinking and a deeper level of conversation.

Intersections 23 4 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS That’s what we mean by a powerful question—one expand in scope.As you work to make your questions that provokes thoughtful exploration and evokes cre- powerful, tailor and clarify the scope as precisely as ative thinking. possible to keep them within the realistic boundaries However, a note of caution: Unless a “why” ques- and needs of the situation you are working with.Avoid tion is carefully crafted, it can easily evoke a defensive stretching the scope of your question too far. For response, as people try to justify their answer rather example, compare the following question to the ones than proceed in a spirit of inquiry. For instance, the above: questions,“Why can’t you ever tell me exactly what • How can we best manage the economy? you are thinking?” or “Why did you do it that way?” can cause someone to defend a given position or While extremely interesting, this query is clearly rationalize some past decision, rather than open new outside the scope of most people’s capacity to take possibilities. In contrast, when a “why”question stems effective action, at least in the short term. In many sit- from genuine curiosity, such as “I wonder why that uations, this would be a less strategic question than happened?” then the inquiry has the potential to cre- one for which those involved had the capacity to ate useful insights. make a more immediate difference. Just because a question is situated near the top of the pyramid does not necessarily mean that it is more THE THIRD DIMENSION: important or more relevant than its counterparts at the The Assumptions Within Questions bottom. Depending on your goals, a “yes/no” question Because of the nature of language, almost all of the can be extremely important (particularly if you are clos- questions we pose have assumptions built into them, ing a large sale!). either explicit or implicit. Likewise, a question These assumptions may that gets at the facts “A VITAL QUESTION, A CREATIVE QUESTION, or may not be shared by of who, when, and RIVETS OUR ATTENTION. ALL THE CREATIVE the group involved in the where can often be exploration; for instance POWER OF OUR MINDS IS FOCUSED ON THE crucial, such as in a the question, “How QUESTION. KNOWLEDGE EMERGES IN RESPONSE legal case. However, should we create a bilin- when you want to TO THESE COMPELLING QUESTIONS. THEY OPEN gual educational system open the space for US TO NEW WORLDS.” in California?” assumes creativity and break- that those involved in the VERNA ALLEE, THE KNOWLEDGE EVOLUTION through thinking, exploration have agreed questions construct- that being bilingual is an ed around the words important capacity for at the top of the pyramid will have more strategic lever- the state’s students. However, some powerful ques- age than those that use the words at the bottom. tions challenge everyone’s existing assumptions. For example,ask yourself what assumptions the following THE SECOND DIMENSION: question might challenge: “How might we eliminate The Scope of a Question the border between the U.S. and Mexico?” It’s important not only to be aware of how the words To formulate powerful questions,it’s important to we choose influence the effectiveness of our query, become aware of assumptions and use them appro- but also to match the scope of a question to our priately. So, contrast the question, “What did we do needs.Take a look at the following three questions: wrong and who is responsible?” with “What can we • How can we best manage our work group? learn from what’s happened and what possibilities do • How can we best manage our company? we now see?” The first question assumes error and • How can we best manage our supply chain? blame; it is a safe bet that whoever is responding will feel defensive.The second question encourages reflec- In this example, the questions progressively tion and is much more likely than the first query to broaden the domain of inquiry as they consider larg- stimulate learning and collaboration among those er and larger aspects of the system; that is, they involved. Intersections 24 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS 5 It’s often helpful to examine a question for any exploration. Just a few practice sessions will greatly unconscious beliefs it may introduce to the situation. enhance your ability to engage in productive conver- You can do so by simply asking your team, “What sations stimulated by dynamic questions. assumptions or beliefs are we holding that are key to the conversation we are having here?” and “How Using Powerful Questions in Organizations would we come at this if we held an entirely different There are more and more examples of how the disci- belief system than the one we have?” Each of these plined use of compelling questions is making a differ- questions invites an exploration into both conscious ence in organizational life. These changes often hap- and unconscious assumptions and opens up the pen in surprising ways, opening new avenues that space for new possibilities to reveal themselves. people never considered before. By surfacing or altering assumptions, we can shift HP “for the World.” Sometimes something as the context of a strategic inquiry and create new simple as changing a preposition in a sentence can opportunities for innovation. Compare the have a dramatic impact on how an organiza- following two questions: tion conceives of its mission and role. • How can we compete with the Consider how a small shift in the con- Chinese? struction of a question led to major • How can we collaborate with changes in the scope and context the Chinese? of strategic inquiry at Hewlett- Packard, resulting in effective The second question changes the innovation and targeted action. context by challenging our traditional busi- The director of HP Labs wondered ness paradigm and the assumptions that why the organization was not con- underlie it.As a result, it opens up a new line sidered the best industrial research of exploration and set of subsequent questions. laboratory in the world.As he thought The art of reframing questions in this way has about it, he realized that he did not know important implications for not only shifting our what that designation really meant. He charged assumptions,but also creating new possibilities for Barbara Waugh, a key staff member, with coor- constructive action. dinating the effort to respond to the question, By understanding and consciously considering “What does being the best industrial research the three dimensions of powerful questions, we lab in the world mean?” Instead of looking for can increase the power of the questions we ask answers outside the company, Barbara and, as a result, increase our ability to generate encouraged the director to share his core insights that help shape the future.As with any question with all HP Lab employees new skill, the best teacher is experience, and around the world. the best coach is a thoughtful listener.We To that end, Waugh initiated a encourage you to experiment with global network of conversations increasing the power of your questions around that question, using the and see what impact you have. company’s technology infrastructure along with face- For example, in advance of an important meeting to-face gatherings to support the dialogues. Just by or conversation, spend a few minutes with a col- exploring the practical implications of the question in league and write down several questions that are rel- a disciplined way, the Lab began to see productivity evant to the topic. Rate them in terms of their power. gains. But one day, an HP Lab engineer came into Referring to the three dimensions outlined above, see Barbara’s office and said, “That question is okay, but if you can spot why certain questions are more com- what would really energize me and get me up in the pelling than others. Experiment with changing the morning would be asking, ‘How can we be the best construction and scope, to get a feel for how doing so industrial research lab for the world?’” changes the direction of the inquiry.Be sure to exam- That one small shift changed the entire game by ine the assumptions that are embedded in your ques- scaling up the meaning of and shifting the assumptions and check to see if they will help or hinder your tions embedded in the original question. It profound- Intersections 25 6 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS ly altered the context of the inquiry—to become the times they had participated in a community experi- best for the world as the larger context for becoming ence that really worked, using queries such as,“What the best in the world. This question allowed that positive experience to hap- obviously “traveled well”—it was no pen? What kinds of activities were tak- longer just the Lab’s question, but ing place? How did you fit into that?”As something that many others at HP members shared what they knew from began to ask themselves as well. their own best community experiences, Employees at HP Labs and through- “THE QUESTION they began to see the analogies to busi- out the whole company responded NEVER FAILED US.” ness life. They posed follow-up ques- to this new focus with a tremendous tions, such as,“How does a community MIKE PFEIL, CORPORATE surge of collective energy. deal with adversity and adapting to EXECUTIVE Once they reworded the original change? What happens with members question, Barbara and her colleagues who don’t uphold the community’s could change the scope of related standards?” questions depending on the situa- As the conversations evolved, tion. For example, shifting the scope important values that people really downward meant focusing on “What does HP for the World mean for me? What does it mean in my life, in HOW CAN I FRAME BETTER my own work?”HP employees could also scale up the QUESTIONS? scope by asking,“What does HP for the World mean for my work group? For my department? For HP as a Here are some questions you might ask yourself as company? And what might it mean for the world you begin to explore the art and architecture of itself?” powerful questions. They are based on pioneering HP’s E-Inclusion effort, a major project to enable work with questions being done by the Public Conversations Project, a group that helps create the world’s poor to enter the new economy while constructive dialogue on divisive public issues. providing critical medical and other information to ■ communities in the third world, stemmed in large Is this question relevant to the real life and real measure from the HP for the World exploration.The work of the people who will be exploring it? ■ question has now traveled far beyond the company: Is this a genuine question—a question to which “What does it mean for us to be ‘for the world’?” was I/we really don’t know the answer? ■ a key question explored at a State of the World Forum What “work” do I want this question to do? That with a group of more than 1,000 global leaders from is, what kind of conversation, meanings, and feel- every continent. ings do I imagine this question will evoke in those Creating a Sales “Community.” Another case who will be exploring it? ■ in which a catalytic question empowered leaders in Is this question likely to invite fresh thinking/ new ways occurred in the sales organization of a feeling? Is it familiar enough to be recognizable major U.S. corporation. Mike Pfeil, the area director of and relevant—and different enough to call for- sales, wondered how a community, rather than a tra- ward a new response? ■ ditional company, might deal with the challenges it What assumptions or beliefs are embedded in the confronted. As a learning experiment, he began to way this question is constructed? ■ host conversations with employees from all levels in Is this question likely to generate hope, his organization to explore the meaning of communi- imagination, engagement, creative action, and ty at work and how they might apply community new possibilities or is it likely to increase a focus principles to enhance performance. on past problems and obstacles? ■ To depart from the group’s traditional focus on Does this question leave room for new and problems, the sales director framed questions that different questions to be raised as the initial shifted the context within which workers normally question is explored? look at their organization.He asked people to examine Adapted from Sally Ann Roth their best experiences of community and to reflect on Public Conversations Project c. 1998 Intersections 26 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS 7 cared about started to come forward—values like From these examples,it’s clear that improving the learning, mutual respect, contribution, and sharing quality of the questions you ask and creating a frame- with others. Another simple but powerful question work of engagement that encourages their explo- emerged from those early dialogues:“How can we cre- ration can create business value. Because learning to ate a community at work that enables each person to engage thoughtful questions can lead to insight, inno- contribute our best, inspires us to keep learning, and vation, and action, doing so will become an essential produces valued results?”This simple strategic capability for leaders of shift of lens led other leaders in the organizations who want to create sus- company to look how it functioned tainable results in the face of both within the larger communities in “QUESTIONING short- and longer-term challenges and which it operates.The learnings from BREAKS OPEN THE opportunities. this project informed subsequent STAGNANT, HARDENED work in the area of corporate respon- SHELLS OF THE Fostering Strategic Inquiry sibility and in the creation of mission PRESENT, OPENING Beyond building the capacity of individ- goals that include the perspectives of ual employees to ask powerful ques- UP OPTIONS TO BE both internal and external stake- tions, an organization can design holders in creating the company’s EXPLORED.” processes that use such queries to future. FRAN PEAVEY enhance the emergence of knowledge The local leader who launched creation and strategic thinking. As the this effort is now a corporate vice chairman and CEO of a major multina- president.In looking back on his expe- tional corporation says, “Discovering rience with engaging powerful questions to shift the strategic questions is like panning for gold.You have to context for exploring business realities, he shared the care about finding it, you have to be curious, and you following: have to create an anticipation of discovering gold,even “As we learned more, the meaning of the though none of us may know ahead of time where question continued to evolve. We asked our- we’ll find it. You head toward the general territory selves, “How can we go out and plant this where you think the gold may be located, with your seed? How do we frame it as we bring other best tools, your experience, and your instincts. And people into the conversation?” The question then you begin a disciplined search for the gold.”We’ve always worked in stimulating the dialogue. partnered with this leader to create a set of tools for Sometimes as leaders it’s important not to col- fostering strategic inquiry and working with powerful lectively work on what the answer is but to questions in the service of positive futures called the work on what the question is.That was a big “Game Plan” process. The following steps may not insight for me as we did this work. The ques- apply to all situations and they may not always play out tion never failed us.” in the same sequence. However, the Game Plan suggests ways that organizations can create both formal Improving Questions at Pfizer. In another and informal processes to support individuals as well as recent case, professionals at Pfizer, the world- teams in discovering the “gold” for themselves. renowned pharmaceutical firm, are experimenting with a systematic method of improving the quality of The Game Plan Process their questions.Through a custom-designed workshop, The steps in the Game Plan can be used both as a marketing and finance professionals in Pfizer’s process discipline by individuals looking at a particular European business unit have been learning to articulate situation, as well as by functional and cross-functional powerful questions.These executives have discovered groups and leadership teams charged with the that meetings have more energy and creative ideas responsibility for key decisions regarding future flow more quickly when they place attention on for- courses of action. The Game Plan can also involve mulating catalytic questions. With this discipline in diverse stakeholders to provide important perspec- place,new ideas are more easily finding their way into tives both on the current situation and on possible key products and services. future actions. Intersections 27 8 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS THE GAME PLAN PROCESS the relationships among them.Begin to clarify the “big questions” that the initial clusters reveal. Frame these as clear and concise queries, not as problems. ■ Assess Your Current Situation Something fundamental changes when people begin ■ Discover the “Big Questions” to ask questions together—they go beyond the nor- ■ Create Images of Possibility mal stale debate about problems that passes for strat- ■ Evolve Workable Strategies egy in many organizations. Create Images of Possibility. Ask yourself, “What would our situation look like or be like if the Assess Your Current Situation. Get a feel for ‘big questions’ were answered?”Creating vivid images the larger context in which you are operating. Scan the of possibility differs from pie-in-the-sky visioning, internal and external business and organizational envi- especially if people with a variety of perspectives ronments that may affect the future of the system or have participated in the earlier stages of your analysis. project you are working with. This situation analysis This part of the conversation can also provide clues might include the assessment of critical results data, for refining or reframing your big questions as well as meetings with key stakeholders, and the mapping of inventing creative strategies. Developing scenarios— your strengths, opportunities, and threats. It might also stories of the future based on different ways your big involve looking for “signals”—inter- questions might be answered—can nal and external events, develop- also be useful. These often reveal ments, and trends that can affect the new territory and opportunities for future of your situation. Like trackers “STRATEGIC action that are grounded in real life. in the mountains, look for both obvi- QUESTIONS CREATE Evolve Workable Strategies. ous and subtle indicators that point A RESONANT FIELD Workable strategies begin to emerge to storms as well as sunny skies. in response to compelling questions INTO WHICH YOUR Allow your curiosity and imagination and to the images of possibility that OWN THINKING IS to take the lead as you begin to iden- these questions evoke. In a sense, tify the many questions that the MAGNIFIED, such strategies are the “big broader landscape within which CLARIFIED, AND NEW answers”—the key initiatives you you’re operating reveals. MOTION CAN BE invent to address your “big ques- It will be challenging, but CREATED.” tions.” Once you clarify key initia- important, to frame your findings as tives, you can formulate and imple- questions rather than as problems FRAN PEAVEY, STRATEGIC ment specific action plans. or concerns—questions that end QUESTIONING Of course, the cycle is never with a question mark, not with a complete. You need continuous period or an exclamation point. To “sensing”based on relevant business help in designing these queries, ask and organizational data, ongoing yourself, “How does A affect C and conversations with internal and what questions does that suggest? If X were at play external stakeholders, informal conversations among here, what question would we be asking? What’s the employees, and feedback from the organizational real question underneath all this data?” environment. This input enables you to continually Discover the “Big Questions.” Once you think reassess the landscape you’re operating in—revealing you’ve posed most of the relevant questions (and new questions for exploration. there may be many of them), look for patterns and The innovative leader with whom we developed themes.This is not a mechanical process, even though the Game Plan process has shared this tool with the it should be disciplined and systematic.You are on a entire organization. People from throughout the com- treasure hunt, seeking the core questions—usually pany have found that it provides a way to discover three to five—that, if answered, would make the most questions that matter to the future of individual units difference to the future of the project or situation you and to the firm as a whole.The company has also used are exploring. Cluster related questions, and consider the Game Plan as part of refining the corporation’s Intersections 28 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS 9 IS YOUR ORGANIZATION AN INQUIRING How Can Leaders Engage Powerful Questions? SYSTEM? ASSESSING YOUR For all organizations, in today’s turbulent times, engag- ORGANIZATION’S CAPABILITIES ing people’s best thinking about complex issues without easy answers will be the key to creating the futures ■ To what degree do leaders in your organization we want rather than being forced to live with the foster an environment in which discovering the “big futures we get.Leaders will need to develop capacity in questions” is encouraged as much as coming up the design of “inquiring systems” in order to learn, with workable solutions? adapt, and create new knowledge to meet emerging ■ Does your organization have rewards or incentives opportunities and challenges in the more fluid organi- for members to work across functional boundaries zational structures of the future. For example, the lead- to find challenging questions that create common ership challenges of the next 20 years are likely to focus and forward movement for knowledge revolve around the art of engaging and energizing net- creation? works rather than solely managing hierarchies as in the ■ Do your leadership development programs contain past. Successful leaders will be those who see organiza- as much of a focus on the art and architecture of tions as living networks of conversation and collective framing powerful questions as they do on tech- meaning-making through which members create new niques for solving problems? knowledge and bring forth the future.They will understand how to operate in networks that are both internal ■ Do your organization’s strategic planning and external to their organization. processes include structured ways to discover In particular, we believe the following core capa- the “big questions” that, if answered, would have bilities, rarely taught in today’s MBA or corporate lead- real strategic leverage? ership programs, will help define leadership excel- ■ What enabling tools or technologies does your lence in a networked world where knowledge and organization employ to “seed” itself with strategic learning are keys to success: questions that “travel well” and catalyze learning Engaging Strategic Questions. How many lead- conversations both within and across functions? ers today know how to frame strategic questions that ■ Does your organization use collaborative tech- open the space for thinking about possibilities rather nology tools to enable people on the frontlines to than solving problems? How many leaders are com- ask each other questions related to their daily fortable with not knowing and can constructively work (i.e. customer service, equipment mainte- help others bring forth their collective knowledge? nance) and receive help with these questions from How many leaders can engage their workers in dis- colleagues in other locations? covering the “big questions” that lie at the heart of ■ Do senior leaders in your organization see the their organization’s future? process of strategy evolution as one that engages In a volatile and uncertain environment, one of the multiple voices and perspectives in networks of strongest steps leaders can take is to assist their organ- conversation? izations in discovering the right questions at the right time. One of their key responsibilities is creating infrastructures for dialogue and engagement that encourage mission and values in the midst of a volatile and chang- others at all levels to develop insightful questions and ing external climate. By moving from a problem orien- to search for innovative paths forward. Leaders also tation toward a more rigorous and disciplined focus on need to consider reward systems that provide incen- essential questions, the organization is slowly shifting tives for members to work across organizational bound- from a “fix-it” mode to an inquiry model for business aries to discover those challenging lines of inquiry that and organizational strategy evolution.This company has create common focus and new knowledge. found that maintaining a rigorous focus on “questions Convening and Hosting Learning Conver- that matter” and hosting strategic conversations on the sations. A core aspect of the leader’s new work organization’s “big questions”is a core competence for involves creating multiple opportunities for learning leaders at all levels. conversations around challenging questions. Intersections 29 10 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS However,authentic conversation is less likely to occur QUESTIONING in a climate of fear, mistrust, and hierarchical control. When the human mind and heart are fully engaged in ■ Stimulates creativity authentic conversation and listening for core ques- ■ Motivates fresh thinking tions, new knowledge often begins to surface. Thus, ■ Surfaces underlying assumptions the ability to facilitate working conversations that ■ Focuses intention, attention, and energy enhance trust and reduce fear is an important leader- ■ Opens the door to change ship capability. ■ Leads us into the future To succeed in this pursuit,it’s essential for leaders to strengthen their skills in the use of dialogue and other engagement approaches that deepen mutual Supporting Appreciative Inquiry. Opening inquiry and foster collective intelligence.These capa- spaces of possibility in our organizations requires a bilities include: shift in leadership orientation from focusing primari- • Creating a climate of discovery ly on what is not working and how to fix it,to also dis- • Suspending premature judgment covering and appreciating what is working and how • Exploring underlying assumptions and beliefs to leverage it.Appreciative Inquiry (AI), developed by • Listening for connections between ideas David Cooperrider and his colleagues at Case Western • Encouraging diverse perspectives University, is a process for leveraging emerging possi- • Honoring everyone’s contributions bilities rather than just fixing past mistakes. When • Articulating shared understanding used in a disciplined way, this kind of inquiry stimu- • Harvesting and sharing collective discoveries lates lively conversations that use the best of what is as the foundation for what might be. These skills are especially important in situations Leaders who ask,“What’s possible here and who in which there are no simple answers and finding cre- cares?” have a much easier time gaining the coopera- ative paths forward can make a positive difference. tion and best thinking of their constituents than those Including Diverse Perspectives. Leaders must who ask,“What’s wrong here and who is to blame?”In become connectors—of both assessing the results of more than a people and ideas. Diverse voices decade of research and practice in and new perspectives that aren’t the area of Appreciative Inquiry, limited by traditional boundaries “A QUESTION NOT ASKED Cooperrider has stated unequivocal- of function, hierarchy, discipline, IS A DOOR NOT OPENED.” ly that “the most important insight technology, tenure, and geograph- we have learned with AI to date is ic region play an increasingly MARILEE GOLDBERG, that human systems grow toward important role in a company’s THE ART OF THE QUESTION what they persistently ask questions strategizing.As Gary Hamel of the about.”By asking positive questions, London School of Economics organizations have the opportunity points out, “Strategizing depends to grow in new directions and tap on creating a rich and complex web of conversations innovative sources of knowledge, vitality, and energy. that cuts across previously isolated pockets of knowl- Fostering Shared Meaning. We make meaning edge and creates new and unexpected combinations of our experiences through stories, images, and of insight.” metaphors. To tap into this pool of shared meaning, The connections among these diverse voices and which is the ground from which both powerful ques- perspectives allow employees to fruitfully explore tions and innovative solutions emerge, network leaders critical strategic questions. Building and encouraging need to put time and attention into framing common personal relationships through networks of collabora- language and developing shared images and metaphors. tive conversations across traditional boundaries helps They can do so by constructing compelling scenarios— critical strategic questions travel well. In this way, stories of the future—that provide a context for work- workers enhance their collective intelligence and ing on today’s “big questions,”as in the case of the Game their capacity to nurture creative futures together. Plan process described earlier. In addition, leaders must Intersections 30 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS 11 QUESTIONS FOR ALL SEASONS

Here is a series of generative questions that we and other colleagues have found useful to stimulate new knowledge and creative thinking in a wide variety of situations around the world. Look at these questions to stimulate your own thinking about questions related to your own specific situation. Play. Use your imagination. Questions for Focusing Collective Attention ■ What’s missing from this picture so far? What is it on Your Situation we’re not seeing? What do we need more clarity ■ What question, if answered, could make the about? most difference to the future of (your specific ■ What’s been your/our major learning, insight, or situation)? discover so far? ■ What’s important to you about (your specific ■ What’s the next level of thinking we need to do? situation) and why do you care? ■ If there was one thing that hasn’t yet been said in ■ What draws you/us to this inquiry? order to reach a deeper level of understanding/ ■ What’s our intention here? What’s the deeper pur- clarity, what would that be? pose (the big “why”) that is really worthy of our best effort? Questions That Create Forward Movement ■ What opportunities can you see in (your specific ■ What would it take to create change on this situation)? issue? ■ What do we know so far/still need to learn about ■ What could happen that would enable you/us to (your specific situation)? feel fully engaged and energized about (your ■ What are the dilemmas/opportunities in (your specific situation)? specific situation)? ■ What’s possible here and who cares? (rather than ■ What assumptions do we need to test or “What’s wrong here and who’s responsible?”) challenge here in thinking about (your specific ■ What needs our immediate attention going situation)? forward? ■ What would someone who had a very different ■ If our success was completely guaranteed, what set of beliefs than we do say about (your specific bold steps might we choose? situation)? ■ How can we support each other in taking the next steps? What unique contribution can we each Questions for Connecting Ideas and make? Finding Deeper Insight ■ What challenges might come our way and how ■ What’s taking shape? What are you hearing under- might we meet them? neath the variety of opinions being expressed? ■ What conversation, if begun today, could ripple out What’s in the center of the table? in a way that created new possibilities for the ■ What’s emerging here for you? What new future of (your situation)? connections are you making? ■ What seed might we plant together today that ■ What had real meaning for you from what you’ve could make the most difference to the future of heard? What surprised you? What challenged you? (your situation)? incorporate time for systemwide reflection in order to these key strategic questions are often lost because enable members to share insights and emerging ques- few of today’s leaders have been trained to notice, tions. Collective reflection provides opportunities for honor, and utilize the social fabric of learning that the shared meaning-making that is essential in times of occurs through informal “communities of practice” turbulence and change. that exist throughout the organization.A community of Nurturing Communities of Practice. Many of practice is made of up people who share a common the most provocative questions that are vital to an interest and who work together to expand their indi- organization’s future are first discovered on the front vidual and collective capacity to solve problems over lines, in the middle of the action of everyday life. But time. Intersections 31 12 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS Nurturing these learning networks and honoring Co-Evolving the Future the questions they care about is another core aspect It is quite easy to learn the basics of crafting power- of the leader’s new work. It is important to under- ful questions. However, once you understand the stand how these communities deal with the ques- importance of inquiry, it’s hard to turn back.As your tions and learning needs that arise in the course of questions become broader and deeper than before,so the daily life of the organization. These understand- does your experience of life.There is no telling where ings can provide clues about how the knowledge that a powerful question might lead you. Transformative resides in such communities might be engaged in the conversations can result from posing a simple ques- service of critical strategic questions. Leaders who tion such as,“What questions are we not asking our- take communities of practice into account as impor- selves about the situation in the Middle East?” tant strategic assets help assure that new work Tantalizing possibilities emerge from the simple act processes or organizational structures do not destroy of changing an article from “in” to “for,”as in the HP the fabric of collective knowledge that is woven into example. Profound systemic change can emerge from these informal groups. creating a process discipline such as the Game Plan Using Collaborative Technologies. Intranet for discovering and acting on the “big questions” and groupware technologies are now making it possi- within a business setting. ble for widely dispersed work groups to participate in For organizations that need collaborative learning learning conversations and team projects across time and breakthrough thinking in order to create a sustain- and space. As these tools become even more widely able future,asking “questions that matter”and engaging available, the notion of “network leadership” will diverse constituencies in learning conversations are a expand to include supporting widespread online con- core process for value creation. Because questions are versations where members throughout the organiza- inherently related to action, they are at the heart of an tion can contribute their own questions and best organization’s capacity to mobilize the resources thinking to critical strategic issues.The HP case shows required to create a positive future. Seeing the organi- how important enabling technology infrastructures are zation as a dynamic network of conversations through for strategic innovation. Several forward-looking which the enterprise develops encourages members at companies, including Hallmark, Kodak, Discover every level to search for questions related to real work Card, and General Motors, are now using an innova- that can catalyze collective energy and momentum.For tive online conversational technology, Communispace all of us, thoughtful participation in discovering and (www.communispace.com), to listen to their cus- exploring powerful questions can make a difference— tomers’ concerns and questions at a deep level and to our team, to our organization, and to the larger com- generate insights about new products at a faster rate munities of which we are a part. than was previously possible. Living systems evolve by developing a coherent Such collaborative tools will be a critical factor in identity,creating connections in complex webs of rela- how well strategic questions can travel both within tionships,and distributing information widely through- the organization and among customers and other out the organization.At the same time, human systems stakeholders who are key to success.These technolo- naturally evolve toward the questions that they ask. gies of engagement create possibilities for individuals Seeing the ways in which the art and architecture of and groups to connect with each other and to the powerful questions can help an organization create its larger whole in ways that were previously unimagin- path into the future, and utilizing process principles, able. Leaders who are not skilled in their use or who tools, and technologies that support this evolution, is do not recognize their strategic importance and sup- everyone’s job. For it is only in this way that organiza- port their use throughout their organizations will be tions are able to cultivate both the knowledge required at a significant disadvantage. to thrive economically today as well as the wisdom needed to ensure a sustainable future.

Intersections 32 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS 13 For Further Exploration www.communispace.com provides software and Brown, Juanita. The World Café: Living Knowledge services to support creative work conversations and Through Conversations That Matter (Ph.D. disserta- large-scale corporate communities. tion, The Fielding Institute; available through Whole www.interclass.com is a high-trust community of Systems Associates at 415-381-3368) experienced practitioners in large organizations explor- Brown, Juanita et. al. The World Café: A Resource ing innovations in learning and human performance. Guide for Hosting Conversations That Matter www.theworldcafe.com is a global resource for (Whole Systems Associates, 2002; available at hosting conversations around questions that matter in www.pegasuscom.com) both for-profit and nonprofit settings. Goldberg, Marilee. The Art of the Question (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) Leeds, Dorothy. The Seven Powers of Questions: Secrets to Successful Communication in Life and Work (Berkley Publishing Group, 2000) Peavey, Fran. “Strategic Questioning” in By Life’s Grace: Musings on the Essence of Social Change (New Society Publishers, 1994; more information is available at www.crabgrass.org) About the Authors Juanita Brown ([email protected]), Ph.D., Ray, Michael. Creativity in Organizations (Stanford collaborates with senior leaders to create strategic dia- University Press, 1990) logue forums focused on critical organizational and Strachan, Dorothy. Questions That Work: A Resource societal issues. for Facilitators (ST Press, Ottowa, Canada, 2001) David Isaacs ([email protected]) is president Vogt, Eric E. The Nature of Work in 2010 (Aspen of Clearing Communications, an organizational and Institute, Northern Telecom Journal, 1995) communications strategy company working with cor- . The Art and Architecture of Powerful porate leaders in the U.S. and abroad. Questions (MicroMentor Corporate Learning Journal, Eric E. Vogt ([email protected]) operates as a 1994, available through [email protected]) catalyst for innovation and accelerated change with . Learning out of Context in Learning the global corporate members of InterClass, a high- Organizations: Developing Cultures for Tomorrow’s trust network of experienced practitioners at the Workplace (Productivity Press, 1995) intersection of human performance and business strategy. Vogt, Eric E. and Kate O’Keefe. The Joy of Leadership: Recipes for Developing Tomorrow’s Leaders (InterClass Press, to be published January 2004)

Intersections 33 THE ART OF POWERFUL QUESTIONS 14 From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems29

beginning to be occupied by many thinkers; it must be seen to lead the discus sion forward from there. It is not surprising, therefore, that research topics in such projects should take shape along a spectrum fromth e generalized through the modish to the urgent. Generality via abstraction is desirable where maxi mum inclusiveness is needed and where a large stable investment will be made. Thus, for example, Goethe University Frankfurt developed an early Cluster of CHAPTER 3 Excellence on the rather large and foundational subject of normative orders. I From a distance, this appears to have been an effective strategy for rehousing its programs in international relations, philosophy, and constitutional law in a From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems lovely new building and enabling junior scholars to organize fine international conferences. Other large administrative investments run after more specific Slogans and Stances in the Research Group and transient enthusiasms (as universities learn to their cost fiveo r ten years later), but modishness also plays an immediate and inevitable role in short- term funded projects. Both academic and social fashions guide choices. In the first case, we may consider the large number of humanistic disciplines in both the United States and Europe that have sought to ally themselves in projects with cognitive science, the boom discipline of the 2000s. In the second, con sider the efflorescence of research on serial fiction and graphic novels (highly o define a research topic is to create aboundary object, even when an individ visible in funded projects at both home institutions of the authors) as a means Tual scholar works within her own discipline. The topic mediates between her by which traditional literary expertise may be leveraged into new media studies own interests, the history of her discipline, the conversations of her colleagues, and engage with vigorous genres of contemporary cultural creation. and her immediate and long-term professional incentives. It is inflected by her We might more fairly call the second case topicality rather than fashion, and interactions with students and by the kind of institution that employs her. And topicality shades into urgency in much social research: the more so as funding in all but (perhaps) the most rarefied theoretical work, the topic responds not resources grow scarcer. To be sure, as research positions become more precari only to debates within the field but to phenomena in the world, as well as to the ous and competitive, more specifically with the emergence of what we might discourses constructing those phenomena. call fast interdisciplinarity, urgency risks reconverting itself back into mod In interdisciplinary research projects, this complexity is multiplied by all ishness. The hot problem can revert to the merely hot topic. In more serious the individuals and disciplines involved. In interdisciplinary social research, it engagements, on the contrary, it can foster conflict within the research team. H becomes still thicker. The phenomena and discourses are both active, in con This chapter considers the need for interdisciplinary social research to address stant multidirectional metamorphosis. Moreover, the researchers are never "hot" problems and the effect of such topics on the interaction among positivist, alone with their thoughts. The social actors and commentators, with their vari interpretive, and normative disciplines. In later chapters we address the means ous agendas, are likely to be live interlocutors at every level of the research pro by which this heat can be channeled to produce light without fire. cess: as research "subjects" or collaborators, as stakeholders, as the public in whose name accountability is demanded, as the policy makers awaiting expert

Intersections Phenomena and Problems advice, and not least as funders. To achieve buy-in from potential researchers, host institutions, and stu The modern logic of disciplines posits that the world can be broken down into dents, to placate overseers and publics, and of course to win a grant competi functionally specialized components, and that this composition dictates the tion, a research topic must toe a fine line between novelty and obviousness. appropriate organization of the university. Thus—to simplify—the physical

34 That is, it must be "innovative." It must fall into a recognizable territory that is world, the natural world, the social world, and the world of the spirit each have

r" "'Pill p

From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems 30 CHAPTER 3 3i ' I the next new thing. The cutting edge has its own provincialism, perhaps the 1,1! their corresponding faculty, further broken down into disciplines so that each Nil' component of the world receives its due, from music to microbes. As further most dangerous of all. The whole world requires our attention. specializations and reorderings of functions become apparent or important But with the rise of the interdisciplinary project as a tactical response to in the world, disciplines subdivide and reconfigure themselves accordingly. scarcity, funding is more easily won for the investigation not of familiar, cool phenomena but of new, hot problems. In the commonsense terms thathold sway II Any discipline is thus presumed to occupy a distinct position that gives it both an immediate scope of responsibility and a point of view on the wider at this level, we may think of phenomena as relatively stable, intelligible, and world. Disciplinary thought exercises itself on those phenomena lying within normal. Problems, on the other hand, are dynamic, intractable, and exceptional. its assigned scope of vision, moving gradually toward a horizon of broader Phenomena call for understanding; problems demand solutions. Problems may significance. This is what we call basic research. In conversation with one of course cool down into phenomena as we give up on them and they become another, scholars give names to phenomena that recur with sufficient stability a familiar, even naturalized, feature of the landscape. Conversely, phenomena to be recognizable, constructing research objects that then acquire a lineage in may act up and turn into problems, suddenly screaming for attention rather scholarship. Much disciplinary research then proceeds by a continual tacking than simply rewarding it. between the phenomena and the constituted objects that guide the questions of Disciplines vary in their engagements with problems and phenomena (and the field over time. The objects multiply and are refined accordingly. Left-wing here once more we must rely on crude generalizations). Until recently, fields sociologists expecting class struggle to serve as the motor of social transforma such as literary studies or art history did not conceive of themselves as con tion found themselves surprised by 1968-era forms of collective action, which cerned with problems at all, dealing instead with phenomena in all their rich shared many features of worker movements but manifested different principles detail. The social sciences, on the other hand, address phenomena as the inter of affiliation and made different kinds of demand. Accordingly, "new social mediary space behind which causes and laws may be discerned and through movements" emerged as a new constituted object, afocus of scholarly attention which problems may be addressed. And analytical philosophers of the Anglo- distinct from the study of the labor movement, now no longer synonymous with American variety connect problems to eternal logical verities almost with "social movement" but a subcategory. Specialists who stayed with the latter in out reference to phenomena (or so it appears to disciplinary outsiders). These turn had to become as engaged with organizational forms as with revolutionary different orientations create different entry experiences of interdisciplinarity. Through studies of "sister arts" or of historical periods, humanists have tra "'III agendas, given the changed position of labor unions in postwar society. The "new social movements" came in time to acquire more precise, autonomous ditionally turned to neighboring disciplines to enrich their understanding of conceptualizations as specialists continued to attend to them and to scan the phenomena in their complexity. More recently, as the humanities have turned surround for further instances of similar phenomena. Both as constituted schol to critical perspectives, they often understand interdisciplinarity as a valuable arly objects and as exciting phenomena in the world, the new movements also tool for interrogating tired assumptions and disrupting unexamined views of 111! influenced scholars in related fields such as history to look with new eyes at the world: a necessary prelude to identifying, let alone solving, social prob their own disciplinary purviews and see things they had not seen before. lems. Thus, in our cultural property project, the humanists brought quite dif ferent expectations from those of the social scientists, who regularly consult for In such endeavors there may be thrilling discoveries, even theoretical break government and industry. Our German economist, for example, is frequently throughs. They are not enclosed in an ivory tower but instead interact continu called to work with engineers or biologists to design a solution or evaluate a ously with world events; they also take the activities and concerns of neigh program that addresses a problem as defined by a federal ministry. Until he boring disciplines as resources for self-renewal. Still, such investigations may joined the cultural property project, he understood solving social problems to

Intersections be termed "cool." Their value is self-evident within disciplinary logics: they be the default goal of interdisciplinarity. are expected, recognized, and rewarded. Insofar as they push the boundaries 1 of inquiry, they are also conducive to the kind of slow interdisciplinarity that tends toward disciplinary reconfiguration. Cumulative careful scanning and Hot Problems, Slogan-Concepts, and Knowledge Networks the sharing among scholars of findings on complex phenomena in the world

1 nil" 35 are perennial functions of the academy. They are of more importance than ever Whether it is climate change, childhood obesity, or female genital mutilation, a now, while government, business, and other institutions run perpetually after problem is constituted as a threat to something of general value: the economy, 32 CHAPTER 3 From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems33 ., I public health, human rights, national security, and so on. Accordingly, research ilf« agreements and propertization mechanisms for "genetic resources, traditional funding is strongly pointed toward the applied or policy end, with a perceived knowledge, and folklore";2 the European Union (EU) was heavily involved in the need for intervention. The career of such problems in the public sphere veers protection of traditional agricultural products via geographical indicator label between immediate "crises," as represented in news stories, and longer-term ing. Actors at every level fromth e municipality to the United Nations were work "issues," as represented in polarized political debate. Any such problem arrives jJlljjlllL ing to design some version of cultural property: a stable mechanism enabling I! at the researcher's doorstep not as a pristine object but as an already thick tangle collectivities to claim rights in and control the uses of performance traditions, of discourse, capable of pulling the researcher herself out of the office and into landscapes, and other collectively generated and maintained resources. the fray. Scholars fromth e ethnographic disciplines concerned primarily with small- In chapter l we mention some of the concomitants of the new "interdis scale communities and their practices—anthropologists of various kinds, folk- ciplinarity everywhere" described by Strathern: collaboration as the process, lorists, ethnomusicologists, and so on—have frequentlybee n asked to consult innovation as the product, accountability to the public, and—to be stressed at on these initiatives and in some cases to administer them, in their capacity this juncture—a mandate of problem-solving as the justification for the pub as "experts" on local traditions. They were also interested in the initiatives lic funding of universities (2004: 68-85). Harvey J. Graff observes the rise of themselves as objects of study: the bureaucratic logics, the discursive fram what he calls "big bang interdisciphnarity" in the late twentieth- century United ings, the diplomatic rituals, and also the networking and activist strategies States. As a concomitant of the successive "wars on" poverty, drugs, cancer, ter of community-level participants. Further, and most immediately, they were rorism, and other identified global social threats, resources on a grand scale were observingwidespread and immediate negative consequences of heritage inter devoted to interdisciplinary projects intended to make decisive interventions ventions not only for the traditions supposedly being protected, but for the at the core of the problem. "One of the myths surrounding interdisciplinarity is security and freedom of the "tradition bearers." "Cultural property," looming that through it we will save the world" (2014:9; 2016). Universities piggyback on the horizon as a still more powerful objectification than "intangible cul on the high profile of global problems in order to build the profile of their own tural heritage," held out the promise of dignity, recognition, and prosperity to research programs, placing an obligation on researchers to provide not merely marginal communities, but also the specter of more extreme exclusion and "products" for the funders but a public window into the research process via social violence; at the very least, itwas expanding the scope of governance and blogs, press releases, YouTube talks, podcasts, and other such devices. The com bureaucratic intervention into everyday life. bined demands of transparency and marketing do not conduce to relaxation Other disciplinary participants had their own professional concerns drawing among the researchers, especially during the initial sniffing and stumbling them toward cultural property as a boundary object. The international lawyers phase of an interdisciplinary project, during which it would clearly be prefer were seeing culture as both an increasingly prominent concern in the work of able to allow the group a little privacy. intergovernmental organizations and a tricky emerging idiom of diplomatic Still, researchers want their work to have meaning, and interdisciplinary process. Intellectual property specialists had to contend with the sudden wave projects provide them with an opportunity, if not to save the world, at least to of demands to patent or copyright phenomena that did not fit existing legal cri bring their expertise to bear on relevant problems in it. The Gottingen Inter teria, such as novelty, fixity, and individual authorship. Economic policy scholars "l»|l disciplinary Research Group on Cultural Property had its beginnings in this concerned with regional development needed to consider whether mechanisms characteristic mix of professional concern and institutional necessity (dem to protect traditional culture could in fact be expected to generate revenue or 1 onstrating activity, funding students). The cultural and social anthropologists other measurable benefits. And agricultural economists confronted outdated had been occupied for years with the implementation of the 2003 UNESCO policy frameworks: the imperative to provide food security, with its subven Intersections Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, tracing tions for large-scale industrial agriculture, was giving way in Europe to newer its alarming continuities with old nationalist folklorisms and its new alliance demands for flexibility, ecological sustainability, and value-added, prestige, and with tourist production. UNESCO was now only one of innumerable agencies niche products. They had to think about affordances, limitations, and market concerned with "traditional" cultures. The World Intellectual Property Orga saturation as more and more local producers sought certification and controlled nization (WIPO) had been working since 2001 to negotiate intergovernmental

36 appellations. 34 CHAPTER 3 From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems35 niwP! Each of these disciplines could recognize the need for expertises beyond their 3. Insofar as the slogan of the moment gains force and gathers participation own in making sense of this complex emergence of cultural property and its in the public sphere, alternatives are neglected. These include smaller- Iw related forms. How we might use one another's assistance remained, of course, scale negotiated arrangements for local-level problems, alternative policy to be seen. More urgent was the clamor and clash of outside actors concerned frameworks or instruments at midlevel,s and of course the big picture: a with aspects of the issue: indigenous activists, pharmaceutical firms, visual just and sane social order in which poverty would not drive communities artists, tour organizers, Korean island shamans, migrant workers at Angkor to sell their culture to global strangers and in which Westerners would not Wat, the Taliban, California neo-pagan priestesses, the German bakers' union, constandy feel compelled to heal their sick souls through the consumption street musicians in Ghana, and a host of officials at every level of government. of exotic cultural goods. Social issues are emergent social artifacts, shaped in the competing framings 4. And, while the slow wheels of institutions turn, the situation on the of problems by actors in different positions. Something valued by diverse par ground keeps evolving. When and if a WIPO convention emerges, for ex ample, it will address a problem that was defined as such back in 2000 and ties is at stake; discourses are in competition for definition of the situation; the provide a solution that also draws on the economic and political assump outcome of events is uncertain, and its impact extends potentially far beyond tions of that period.6 At a deeper level, it will enshrine the deep structures the immediate realm of concern as well as into the research process itself. All of an earlier politics into policy, institutionalizing the presumed division this held true of the diverse situations addressed by our group. "Cultural prop between the individual, innovative West and the collectivist, traditional erty" was found to be a convenient umbrella, for this phrase now circulates Rest, and creating incentives for that division's perpetuation. internationally to cover a range of attempted solutions to the clash of market logics with older cultural arrangements. Given these dangers, the ivory tower offers a valuable perspective on the We may call cultural property a slogan-concept. It offers the appeal of pull heat of social problems. At a remove from the public sphere and the policy ing a wide range of particular issues into a general framework, then posing fray, the formal rituals of the disciplines can slow an unthinking rush toward a a unified solution to this now-common problem.3 But what economists call predetermined goal. The more deliberate advance can improve the outcomes perverse effects may ensue from too narrow a focus on the hot solution to the of policy interventions. Academics might even—and here we admit ourselves hot problem: Utopian—come up with better alternatives, global or local. More often academ ics break down and reconstruct the problem in such a way as to discredit the 1. The proposed solution presents an intriguing paradox that consumes proposed solution in scientific terms, but sociopolitical forces behind the slogan enormous attention and ingenuity, pulling resources away from closer prevail and the intervention takes place regardless—in the form of a very blunt consideration of the empirical issues. In the case of cultural property, the instrument. research problem is displaced from the social realm of on-the-ground The question of how constructive mutual listening is to take place and be exploitations or instabilities and becomes instead a technical problem: how to accommodate traditional, non-Western, and indigenous cultural sustained over time among publics, academics, politicians, civil servants, and forms within the individualist framework of modern Western intellectual other "stakeholders" exceeds the scope of this essay. We note, however, the rise property law. of a further research format intended to address the need. Concomitant with the 2. In its capacity as slogan, a concept drawing actors together and march interdisciplinarity boom has been the boom in mode 2 knowledge (Nowotny et ' IlLiilr1; ing them toward the center of power, "cultural property" promises people al. 2001). As an ideal type opposed to the presumably durable, universal, and an opportunity to have their grievances heard, their dignity recognized, or "pure" or detached character of academic knowledge production, mode 2 was their innovations advertised.4 The term is therefore appropriated for an posited as the new paradigm emerging from the knowledge economy. Mode

Intersections extraordinary range of purposes and projects, in the course of which its 2 addresses situated problems as they arise by constructing ephemeral teams, meanings expand and relocate and diversify. Lexical unanimity does not whose members are drawn together from different units or even organizations ensure a common referent. Thus the policy solution, if ultimately imple to assemble the diversity of skills and perspectives on which a solution depends. mented, may be irrelevant to many of the particular situations it purported The knowledge produced cannot be parsed out among individual contribu to encompass. tions but is distributed, immanent in the network. It is transdisciplinary and 37 36 CHAPTER 3 From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems37

heterogeneous in its forms and locations. That is, in contrast to interdisciplin solutions that fail to grasp the issues on the ground. On the other hand, the mode ary work, it is not even a planned encounter of specific perspectives but wholly 2 ideal, articulated in relation to accelerating complexity, offers some valuable opportunistic and flexible, shaped within the immediate context of application. dispositions if it is realized in practice rather than simply given homage: humil Posing situated solutions to particular problems, mode 2 is conceptualized as ity before the problem, consultation and mutual listening, provisional rather an alternative not only to academic disciplinary research but also to hierarchi than iron-clad solutions. Funders and institutions can facilitate or (more often) cal business enterprises and to the governmental and intergovernmental policy impede this realization in practice. But in the end it is up to the research team. organisms that seek durable generalizable solutions. In short, mode 2 knowl edge emerged as a work-around to the cumbersome character of institutions. In the Hot Zone After its coinage in 1994, mode 2 itself became a "slogan" of the innovation economy with a range of affordances (Nowotny et al. 2001: ch. 1). The apostles The interdisciplinary trading zone posited by Galison becomes more precarious of mode 2 set out to dethrone universities and established disciplines, bring and intense in problem-driven research, more so when the problem is a matter ing innovation more quickly to market and giving business a stronger role in of public discussion and still more so when the "meta-problem" intrudes itself: driving research. On the other hand, at least potentially, the mode 2 framework the question of how the problem has been socially constructed. The term zone legitimated the participation of lower-status practitioners and publics not just already evokes a space set apart, demarcated for a special limited purpose. This as "stakeholders" but as knowledgeable contributors. In conjunction with the spatio-social removal from the core of disciplinary engagements is exacerbated boom of international NGOs as political actors (Stein et al. 2001: ch. 2) and the in the case of problem-based research. The hard sciences and many forms of larger advance of neoliberalism, this paradigm shift in management discourse social science assume knowability and seek predictability, but problems are by saw the emergence of the flexible network as the favored organizational format definition exceptional, recalcitrant to understanding, and uncertain in outcome. of the turn of the millennium. This linkage between removal and uncertainty invites us to seek guidance The discourse of mode 2 has powerfully inflected academic research funding, in the anthropological concept of liminality. The concept was originally elabo both in the framing of priorities and more immediately in the composition of rated in relation to recurrent threshold states such as seasonal and life-cycle project teams. Consulting and applied disciplines—economics, management transitions (Van Gennep 1909) ? Victor Turner later extended the account of science, urban planning, the health sciences—have long worked with industry, liminality to address indeterminate states and positions with no fixed destina public agencies, and practitioners; in recent years it has become more com tion: marginal social groups, new social movements, natural and human disas mon to involve nonprofessional "community members" or representatives of ters, revolutions (1974). In all of these cases, quotidian social arrangements are the public interest in the process. These interactions can create complexities disrupted, often by the spatial or temporal relocation of participants. Everyday far beyond that of mere intramural interdisciplinarity, amplifying the diver categories are dissolved or inverted; normative procedures are denaturalized, gences of interest, perspective, and power to be found within the university. becoming visible and open to challenge or manipulation. Both creativity and The expansion of participation poses both procedural challenges and important destruction may be unleashed.8 This state of indeterminacy can be seen in many opportunities for more just and effective policy making; it has generated its own of the situations that society defines as problems. More immediately it charac literature and is beyond our present scope. We simply repeat here that, even in terizes the situation of researchers who move their belongings to new offices purely ivory-tower interdisciplinary projects, the voices of interested parties are among new neighbors and set out to become interdisciplinary. never far away. Indeed, they are present by proxy in any social research insofar Interdisciplinary research on hot social problems thus entails layered and as researchers ventriloquize them. The differential alignments and affinities of interacting liminalities. The problem itself, the policy process, and the inter Intersections researchers across disciplines often approximate in microcosm the larger social disciplinary interaction are only the most important of them. Even in the most field of the problem. routine of cases, social research is inherently different from work in the natural Hot problems favor the emergence of slogan-concepts. Both the urgency of sciences. Without dismissing the mind-blowing complexities of the latter, we problems and the attraction of slogans contribute to the present push for fast must concur with Bernstein etal. (2000) that "God gave physics the easy prob

38 interdisciplinarity, with the corresponding danger of one-size-fits-all technical lems." Multiple human agencies interacting in the social world place radical 38 CHAPTER 3 From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems39

limits on predictability and the broader stability of research objects. In the hard that international organizations are inefficient and that negotiations over mea sciences, reduction and the isolation of factors are both possible and necessary sures for the good of humanity are conducted with state interests in mind. He from the very moment of hypothesis formation. In social research, however, a understands that diplomacy is an imperfect and slow-moving instrument; he fuller and closer mapping of the situation is necessary. And as the researchers is tolerant of the players and indeed enjoys the game. On the other hand, he strive to do that mapping, or at least to take a good snapshot, the landscape cannot really be bothered to attend to the local consequences of international keeps shifting under their gaze. conventions, and having listened politely to one example he does not see why There is obvious complementarity in much phenomena-based interdisci more need be adduced. plinary work and even in some problem-based research. In Galison's examples Researchers tend to perceive representatives of other disciplines also as from physics, there is alayering of theoreticians, instrumentators, and experi proxies for stakeholders in the problem; they may in turn identify themselves as mentalists. A superficial approach to a social problem such as cultural property advocates, although this is less common. Amid these suspicions, more abstract would suggest a similar layering from the bottom up, with ethnographers pro compatibilities may go undiscovered. Among the interlocutors of the cultural viding data so that lawyers can propose instruments of which economists will property group were art historians concerned with the safety of monuments, then test the potential.9 In practice, however, even the most focused disciplin social anthropologists engaged with the human security of their field com ary scholars pay more holistic attention to the world than such a slicing would munities, lawyers interested in strengthening the normative and legal force imply, and their expertise in one domain is supplemented by ad hoc experience of international instruments, and so on. The social anthropologists could not and common sense in the rest. Thus it is more useful to think of disciplines as always perceive that their commitment to social justice was shared by the policy providing competing perspectives on the problem as a whole. Although some economists or international lawyers, who sought it through more generalizable embrace complexity while others strive for reduction toward cause-effect rela and top-down means. tionships, every discipline studying human behavior departs fromsom e kind of More fundamental incompatibilities exist in any interdisciplinary team. The "representative anecdote" (K. Burke 1954): a distinctive basic story about how particularist concerns of the humanists came into conflict with the utilitar the social world works, with a distinctive set of assumptions about causality ian framework of the quantitative researchers. Even within each participating and significance. discipline, some individuals were pragmatic, looking for the best available out These different stories and "terministic screens," conceptual frameworks that come, while others were unwilling to give up a principle. The range of political capture some aspects of a situation while letting others slip through (K. Burke commitments among team members inevitably inflected conversations about 1966), contribute to the variable social alignments of researchers in relation the desirability and appropriate form of policy intervention. Furthermore, It" to social problems. Our academic concepts are elaborated in relation to our researchers have a stake in social problems as private citizens, and here the professional commitments, and where we invest our time, emotional commit sociology of academe may play a role. In chapter 3 we note gender imbalance ment also follows. This is particularly true for researchers who practice partici between the high-status sciences and the lower-status humanities, especially pant observation. The old-style anthropologists who go to live among marginal among senior scholars. In many countries there would be a similar imbalance populations, depend on them for human community, share their everyday chal in relation to ethnic minorities and possibly other identity categories—sexual lenges, and listen attentively to their framings of their situations can hardly orientation, disability, and so on.10 Insofar as social identities are part of the escape strong personal feelings. The passion of economists for the municipal mix to be studied in many hot problems, the composition of the research team governments that hire them as consultants (for example) is likely to be more itself may either foreground that issue or occlude it. A diverse research team tempered. But even in such cases, intimacy leads to human recognition and a is both intellectually and normatively desirable, but it is likely further to heat Intersections nuanced understanding of complexity among the interlocutors. up the research zone, so it must be given due attention in planning the group's Conversely, social distance encourages stereotyping. Thus even economists work.11 of leftish tendency reasonably resent generalizations about predatory capitalism Other kinds of private interest inflect the dynamics of the team. Universities to which the ethnographer of an impoverished community is unsurprisingly are of course directly concerned with the economic impact of research. Where

39 prone. The international lawyer rolls his eyes when the ethnographers discover new products or services are foreseeable, institutions forestall accusations of From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems 40 CHAPTER 3 4i

corrupted research outcomes by having individuals sign conflict-of-interest circulation energizes research and can foster creativity as well as parroting. But statements. They also, however, plan to recuperate their research investment it strengthens the slogan-concepts, as we have argued, making sustained and through such mechanisms as Ohio State's Technology Commercialization and careful thought more difficult. Both the slogans and the star power can turn Knowledge Transfer Office, which develops and manages potential intellec the trading zone into a hot zone, a place of rapid contagion of notions whose tual property from research. While the social research that concerns us here spread may not be in the end desirable. Or they can induce polarization, stand is unlikely to generate commercial products, more subtle economic incentives off, polemic, creating not a hot zone but a conflict zone of the kind we saw in affect researchers, collectively and individually: namely, keeping our jobs and the Synberc project. improving our salaries. Each of us knows where our bread is buttered. With the Drawing back to the strictly interdisciplinary challenges of hot-problem diminution of state funding, U.S. and U.K. public universities enter into part research, we repeat that the encounter among the technical discourses of the nerships with industry or state agencies. A folklorist in a university program social sciences, the "experience-near" language of the ethnographic fields closely connected to a board of tourism may do brilliant applied work redesign (Geertz 1983), the performative force of legal utterance, and the slogans of ing cultural tourism as an impressive and subtle pedagogic instrument; in his public policy debate can produce heat or light or both. We may summarize the ethnographic research he may discover ingenious modes of local empower challenges when positivist, interpretivist, and normative disciplines meet over ment generated within the grassroots tourist industry. He is unlikely, on the hot problems by mapping them onto the three "logics" of interdisciplinarity other hand, ever to produce research arguing that the marriage of tourism and identified by Barry etal. (2008): accountability, innovation, and ontology (i.e., 12 folklore perpetuates the local people's exoticization and marginalization from the security and scope of disciplines). full citizenship. On the contrary, at a Research 1 university, the folklorist whose • As Strathern's work on accountability has demonstrated, research funded professional advancement is secured by impressing people from higher-status in the context of policy making is vulnerable to direct manipulation or, disciplines with her acumen has the luxury of criticism. By performing intel more often, to naturalizing the dominant social categories and assumptions lectual detachment in witty prose that skewers the compromises of others, she (2000). In funded projects, the definition of the research problem necessarily builds her reputation and enhances her own autonomy. A third ethnographer intersects with an already defined policy agenda, such as UNESCO's Intan may avail herself of her tenured position to play Cassandra on behalf of subal gible Cultural Heritage initiative or the EU's biodiversity protection pro tern populations, eternally speaking truth to power without risk to herself and gram. Fine lines must be trodden between the initial mandate of the project without ensuring that someone is actually listening. Any of these three, placed and emergent realizations of its limitations, between accountability in a into a room with other disciplines, is capable of talking past them, sucking up context of urgency and the instrumentalization of scholarship. Steering is to them, talking down to them, and so on. in any case mostly illusory when a complex interaction among disciplines Academics partake of frailhumanity , and occasionally the caricatures offered takes place through the common examination of an evolving social situ above are justified. Still, most of us in the academy are surprisingly conscien ation. How do we allow for this dual unpredictability given the need to be tious and, when you give us time, capable of seeing and incorporating other accountable for outcomes? How can we ensure that we interrogate rather points of view. Time is, however, increasingly short in university life, and under than just fulfill the funder's agenda? pressure we are likely to take the path of least resistance. The hot problem cre • In a more specific iteration of the mode 2 argument, Barry et al. tie the ates such pressure, not only as its own urgency excites the research team but innovation sought by funders to the new access to "user-space" (2008:32) because it is also hot or "sexy" in professional terms, attracting attention from that is provided by the softer disciplines in an interdisciplinary project. By colleagues. Atopic such as cultural property, in its various labelings, is not taken incorporating these fields,th e needs of social actors may more clearly be

Intersections understood and addressed. In the best of cases, the "listening disciplines" up by one research group in solitude. It pulls a bandwagon, with journals and (Lloyd 2006:9) may facilitate genuine participation and the inclusion of lay institutes and research groups and conferences and edited volumes burgeon expertises and local priorities in the project, which then becomes a dialogue ing around the world. Both star scholars and minor players circulate endlessly not just among disciplines but among academics, the public, and policy through this network. A reputation can quickly be made by a talented individual makers. Although the typical casting of the public as "users" of resources or

40 who knows how to seize the moment and stick to the point. This competitive nui

42 • CHAPTER 3 From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems43

beneficiaries of policy tends to impede such an outcome, Barry et al. insist accepted at all. Thus far in this book we have adduced many of the circumstances that interdisciplinary social research can provide opportunities for the seri conducive to interdisciplinary mistrust, and in the next chapter we address the ous consideration of marginalized perspectives and for activist critique. building of trust in the course of a project. In the meantime there is the question The transformation of social research into policy offers a lengthy history of how a project is to get started at all in the face of conflicting epistemologies. of both unintended consequences and more intentional control of popula How can a research problem even be specified? tions. How do we explore the possibility of beneficial interventions while recognizing that the ceremony of consultation can open up even greater In this respect, hot social problems exhibitthe qualities of their defects. That potential for abuse? is, the same attributes that make them difficult to capture make them indisput • Barry et al. see interdisciplinarity as having ontological implications for ably present and real. Hot problems are salient in part by virtue of their intrac disciplines. Enlarging the scope of what disciplines identify as relevant, tability to ordering and management. The anxieties they provoke send even I i interdisciplinarity is potentially transformative. This can lead to rich hardened professionals not to their disciplinary tool kits but back to common rewards, as when historians turned to anthropology in the 1970s and, sense: what Gramsci calls the "chaotic amalgam" of everyday knowledge and hearing new questions about ordinary people and everyday life, began belief that accumulates and circulates and is reproduced off the cuff, without to read their own sources in new ways (P. Burke 1993). But in a context vetting or theorizing. For the very inconsequentiality and banality of common of diminishing resources for academic work, this enlargement may also sense confer on it a reassuring "formal solidity" that, as Gramsci observes, is destabilize the receiving discipline and create turf anxieties in the donor independent of its validity as knowledge (2000: 343). Whatever else it is, it is discipline. The emphasis on social relevance brings the value of traditional there. Common sense has, therefore, its own objectivity. phenomena-based research into question and can make students impatient The reversion to common sense need not be seen as only a regression. For with the learning of the past, leading to superficial understandings and a the ethnographic fields it is a methodological starting point, and by the same scholarly trajectory that never ventures fromth e cutting edge. The need to token it should be a starting point for interdisciplinary work. As we show above, grasp the perspectives and dialects of other disciplines can similarly pose the distinctiveness of social research is that it can never be wholly divorced from distractions. Yet when there is a genuine problem at stake and scholars common sense. Many of our research objects are simply appropriated from must take responsibility for their recommendations, they cannot afford to commonsense constructs in the world: the internet meme, teenage pregnancy, accept "packets" of insight unexamined fromth e other disciplines. Mutual in I classical music, locavorism. The trick is not to allow common sense itself to H learning must take place so that each at least comes to understand if not govern the inquiry. Rather, common sense itself shouldbe made the first object necessarily share the other's framework of legitimation. Like historically of examination as the research team is coming together, for example as the focus related languages, disciplines can enjoy partial mutual intelligibility13— of a seed grant. which must be contextualized with some understanding of the position Common sense can be observed; its inputs and diffusion can be traced. each occupies in the world of learning and the world at large. How do we i ! render unto disciplines what is due to disciplines while still opening our Slogan-concepts sometimes have their beginning in a restricted domain of selves up to productive transformation and, not least, shedding light on an specialists, but they build momentum and accumulate meaning only in general urgent social situation? circulation. Such accretions can be seen negatively as baggage: compromising associations with particular actors, agendas, etc. They can be seen positively as resonance, enhancing the force and widening the applicability of the slogan. Common Sense and Consensibility These judgments will inevitably be debated among team members, but they are secondary to the objective observation of users and contexts of use. Intersections In the liminal space of the interdisciplinary zone, ultimately the ontology of Thus, as a first activity, team members can be set to examine media cover disciplines may be at stake, as Barry et al. contend. In the heat of the moment, age, social media discussion, and, where they exist, policy and legal forums and however, it is epistemology, not ontology, that stymies us. We cannot see a situ i |i academic research relating to the problem, each participant working in the area ation with the trained eye of another discipline nor employ the other's idiom to of her own expertise. In this way participants can bridge to the interdisciplin represent it, so claims fromth e other must be accepted on trust if they are to be

41 ary zone from their respective comfort zones, and each, including the junior 44 CHAPTER 3 From Cool Phenomena to Hot Problems45

scholars, will have something immediate to contribute. Some team members all. The exercise of collectively examining aboundary object and negotiating the may conceive of this work as Foucauldian genealogy, but that need not make reduction and interpretation necessary to describe it is at once possible, creative, others nervous: Raymond Williams's work on keywords, or even sociological and productive. We have argued this in relation to common sense, and it applies work on the diffusion of innovation may offer guidance to other participants. also to the situations that common sense is made to define. Just as we can trace But at this stage it is best not to theorize, simply to treat the exercise as a com- who is saying what to whom about "cultural landscapes," we can look together at monsense mapping of common sense: the idiom that is beginning to take shape, the cluster of happenings in and around the Cambodian temple of Angkor Wat who is using it, the situations to which it is applied and what else is said of them, after UNESCO designated it a World Heritage Site (Hauser-Schaublin 2011), the paths of transmission through which the problem is taking social shape. each of us noticing different aspects of it that we can point out to the others. Tracing the social formation of the problem will help everyone understand the Different disciplines may provide "thirteen ways of looking at a blackbird," as llllllll'llll l larger societal stakes in which both they and their disciplines participate. This in the Wallace Stevens poem, but by virtue of singing and moving, the blackbird clears the air intellectually, takes a baby step toward mutual familiarity among still pulls us back to a common referent. We would say that there is an ethical the disciplines, and also helps project leaders identify the fault lines within the duty to look closely at the blackbird and listen to its song rather than simply team where special care must be taken. caging it in any discipline's theory, much less capturing it for any institutional How then to go on and frame the research problem itself? (Of course aviary. Insofar as researchers live in a common social world and share its com researchers cannot always wait until the common sense has been parsed, and mon sense, at least they know there is a bird singing and have an elementary proposing a project is not synonymous with formulating a problem.) In the language for starting to talk about it. In this way, the exercise of describing how funded project, the commonsense understanding of a research problem as a the world works does not immediately invoke or threaten disciplinary identities, troublesome object in the world dovetails with the academic distinctions (ideal- as explanatory questions do. And whether one gets beyond the how-questions typical, to be sure) between topic and problem and also between theory-driven or not, this is already a significant accomplishment. and problem-driven work. In this context, a problem can be defined as a focused Description slows interdisciplinarity down. Working with what- and how- how- or why-question with an empirical referent.14 Such a question can moti questions has multiple benefits. It cools the heat of the problem, allowing vate researchers to tolerate the real and imagined nuisances of interdisciplinary researchers to experience it as a phenomenon, with more collected and open encounter. For example, few sociologists would be drawn to a research group attention. Simultaneously, it lessens the heat among the researchers themselves, dedicated to religion in late antiquity. Such a topic implies dealing with unfa distancing their status tensions and intellectual and professional frameworks. miliar societies and histories in dead languages, while having to talk with dust- It fosters taking real-world actors into account, helping to democratize the covered classicists and tendentious theologians; one might imagine floundering research process. And in so doing it also forestalls the leapfrogging to clueless limn through discussions that feel anecdotal on one side, reductive and impatient on intervention that is so easily made by policy makers. the other. But when presented with a question such as "How did Christianity Consensibility does not entail consensus. Once you get down in the weeds, spread through the Roman Empire and eventually become the state religion?," you may never get out of them again. This is a necessary risk if interdisciplinar a sociologist might see a useful opportunity for a comparative case study on a ity is to mean anything. "What is going on here?" is no easy question once you major area of disciplinary interest: the diffusion of social movements and their introduce multiple points of view and their respective idioms. But it is precisely potential to effect political transformation. The payoff of looking at a case study these arguments over naming and framing that create insight, both into the that is richly documented, well- studied, and historically closed, in a limited and muddle on the ground and into the affordances and limitations of disciplines focused inquiry, might now be felt to justify the investment required. themselves. Intersections Note that the question above calls for empirical investigation, observation, and description rather than the identification of a cause. As Galison found among physicists, how-questions are more productive than why-questions, cer tainly as a starting point. Repeating Ziman's term, they are consensible (1978),

42 allowing interlocutors to point toward features of a phenomenon observable by

! i Our Compelling Interests: The Value of Diversity for Democracy and a Prosperous Society Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Book Series Series Editors, Earl Lewis and Nancy Cantor https://mellon.org/initiatives/our‐compelling‐interests/

In this video, Our Compelling Interests series co‐editors Nancy Cantor and Earl Lewis ask: What is at stake if America does not embrace diversity?

In his essay for the first installment of the Mellon Foundation’s Our Compelling Interests book series, demographer and author William H. Frey stated, “I am convinced that the United States is in the midst of a pivotal period ushering in extraordinary shifts in the nation’s racial demographic makeup. If planned for properly,” he continued, “these demographic changes will allow the country to face the future with growth and vitality..."

One year later, the question we must now ask ourselves is whether we are indeed planning properly, and what shape that plan must take if we are to be successful and prosperous moving forward together.

The Mellon Foundation’s book series, Our Compelling Interest, lays out the premise that for a democracy to thrive, diversity is critical. All of its publications will be of interest to Intersections Group members.

Intersections 43 Pseudocommunity vs. Community An Introduction from Prof. Elizabeth (Buffy) Bondy (Intersections Consultant)

Features of Community (our Intersections goal):

• Characterized by the acknowledgement of conflict, mutual disagreement, and difference • Members have empathy towards one another • Members empty themselves of ego • Heated discussions never get sour, motives not questioned • Members lead together and set a mutually acceptable course of action • Decisions are well-rounded and humble, not one-sided or arrogant • Members examine themselves and their bias, seek self-awareness

Features of Pseudocommunity:

• Members behave as if they all agree • Characterized by surface friendliness, the suppression of conflict, and the illusion of consensus • Lacking genuine communication (members speak in levels of abstraction and generalities) • Speech is regulated by an appointed facilitator OR the pushiest member who controls the conversation • Discussion leaders make no attempt to elicit thoughts of the entire group • Existence of a hidden vs. revealed stage (or “back stage” or “front stage”). Only some members are allowed back stage. Hurtful remarks or actions made in front of whole group are not discussed in the whole group but in the small group (back stage) • Members perform identities that typically reflect positively on them • Execution of group roles goes smoothly so long as everyone gets to play the role they want without being challenged

Adapted from:

Grossman, P., Wineburg, S., & Woolworth, S. (2001). Toward a Theory of Teacher Community. The Teachers College Record, 103, 942-1012.

Peck, S. M. (1998). The different drum: Community making and peace. New York: Touchstone.

Intersections 44 The Transparency Model

From the Amherst H. Wilder Foundation, Collaboration: What Makes It Work https://www.wilder.org/Wilder‐Research/Research‐Services/Pages/Collaboration‐ Book.aspx

Mutual respect, understanding and trust are all identified by our research as factors that support the success of collaboration. Transparency involves openness and communication, and by making information accessible transparency also promotes accountability. All of these elements are essential to building trust. The more transparent you are, the more differences will be acknowledged and conflict will be kept out in the open where it can be addressed. Trust is built when you openly share your commitments and then follow‐ through to do what you said you would. Transparency is the antidote to impulses of ownership and control which often lead to inequitable power dynamics that erode trust.

The Center for Food Integrity conducted research on what helps consumers to trust those who produce their food. The model they developed is applicable in many contexts. Below is their research based model describing the seven elements of transparency. In our Intersections work, we should replace the term “stakeholder” for “collaborative member” ‐ or sometimes we might want to include both terms.

Intersections 45 25 Simple Trust Building Behaviors Taken from: Nan S Russell (2015, August 28) PsychologyToday.com

A good way to look at trust is to look at the behaviors that enable engagement, innovation, great work, sustainable results, and exceptional work relationships. Trust building is a process. Relationship building is a process. Self‐development is a process. Invest the best of who you are in all three and you'll get great results, no matter your role.

Here are 25 that will make a difference in any workplace, organization, or community: 1. Treat people as the talented, creative, resourceful, and innovative adults they are. 2. Listen to learn. Withhold judgment. Engage in real dialogue. 3. Hold yourself to high standards. Own what you do or don't do; silence speaks, too. 4. Be very good at what you do. Competence is a litmus test for believability. 5. Be self‐managed, self‐motivated, and self‐aware. 6. Do what you say you'll do; model what you say matters to you, i.e. behavioral integrity. 7. Keep perspective if things go wrong or setbacks happen (personal ones, too). 8. See people as individuals, not roles; show respect, kindness, and consideration. 9. Check your assumptions, beliefs, and facts. 10. Pay more attention to what people do right, than wrong. See the good, first. 11. Just because you can do something doesn't mean you should. Get beyond the me. 12. Be fair. Engage people in the process. Fairness is about involvement, transparency, and clarity, not support, sameness or agreement. 13. Be risk free. Minimize the fear others' might have sharing their ideas, thoughts, feedback, and dreams with you. 14. Actions. Behaviors. Words. They all count and have ripples. Use caution. 15. Know what matters to the people around you. 16. Show appreciation. Notice what others do to make things easier or better for you; say thank‐you. 17. Be someone people want to work with. Make it easy and enjoyable to work with you. 18. Offer feedback with positive intention, no personal agenda, and helpful consideration. 19. Be responsive. Answer messages. Help others get answers; share your knowledge. 20. Consider the stories you tell, the tweets or links you send, the pictures you post as equivalent to the words you speak. They're telling about you. 21. Be known for how you show up; how you walk‐your‐talk. 22. Stand for something that others can articulate by your actions. 23. Help people see the why behind the what. 24. Operate, at least most days, from a grounded best‐of‐self place. 25. Give more than you take.

About the Author Nan S. Russell is a former corporate executive and the author of four books, including Trust, Inc.: How to Create a Business Culture That Will Ignite Passion, Engagement, and Innovation.

Intersections 46 Notes on the Importance of Listening – Really Listening

The foundation of productive collaborative dialogue is good listening: listening to understand before one seeks to be understood. Working towards a “third space” of collaborative discussion necessitates openness to ways of being, talking, and interacting that go beyond one’s disciplinary training and personal research questions. This kind of listening does not seek to confirm what one already knows, but rather seeks to inhabit novel ideas, as illustrated in the diagram below:

Additional resources on listening can be found in the free online handbooks published by the Difficult Dialogues Initiative at the University of Alaska, Anchorage:

Alternatively, you can visit the http://intersections.humanities.ufl.edu website (Events) to see a short video with Libby Roderick of the University of Alaska, Anchorage, at UF discussing tips for improved listening.

Intersections 47 IAP2’S PUBLIC PARTICIPATION SPECTRUM

The IAP2 Federation has developed the Spectrum to help groups define the public’s role in any public participation process. The IAP2 Spectrum is quickly becoming an international standard.

INFORM CONSULT INVOLVE COLLABORATE EMPOWER

To provide the public To obtain public To work directly with To partner with To place final decision with balanced and feedback on analysis, the public throughout the public in each making in the hands of objective information alternatives and/or the process to ensure aspect of the the public. to assist them in decisions. that public concerns decision including understanding the and aspirations the development of problem, alternatives, are consistently alternatives and the opportunities and/or understood and identification of the solutions. considered. preferred solution. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION GOAL PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

We will keep you We will keep you We will work with 8FXJMMMPPLUPZPV We will implement informed. informed, listen to you to ensure that GPSBEWJDFBOE what you decide. and acknowledge your concerns and JOOPWBUJPOJO concerns and aspirations are directly formulatJOH solutions aspirations, and reflected in the and incorporate your provide feedback alternatives developed advice and on how public and provide feedback recommendations Intersections input influenced the on how public into the decisions to decision. input influenced the the maximum extent decision. possible. PROMISE TO THE PUBLIC 48

© IAP2 International Federation 2014. All rights reserved. A New Liberal Art: How systems thinking prepares students for a complex world The Chronicle of Higher Education By Scott Carlson September 24, 2017 In the eight years that Gladys Wiggins has worked at Yuma International Airport, her job has grown increasingly complex. She has managed operating budgets in the millions, dealt with a raft of state and federal rules, inspected safety equipment, negotiated with local unions, submitted grant applications, conducted environmental studies, and glad-handed local politicians and businesspeople for support. She earned her bachelor’s degree in engineering in 2001, became the airport’s director of operations and resident engineer in 2009, and was running the place by 2013. Today, she credits her success to a learning environment vastly different from the deserts sprawling across southern Arizona. When she was 21, she boarded the Golden Bear, a ship owned by the California State University Maritime Academy, and spent 96 days on the ocean. That meant not only long hours of wrestling with the boat’s mechanical components to keep the generators and diesel engines humming, but also interacting with a chain of command among her fellow students, and in tight quarters, no less. It meant seeing, up close, the logistics of the global economy, her peers’ unfamiliarity with (and sometimes hostility to) foreign cultures, and the government regulations that ruled everything. The Golden Bear is not simply a ship, but an amalgam of technical and human systems. It is the kind of hands-on laboratory that other institutions might consider creating, in their own ways, to prepare students for a complex, interconnected world. "One thing I realized is that you can understand a systematic approach of every working part," she says, "but if you can’t create that culture, that bond, that trust in learning about the individuals you’re working with, then your projects are going to come to a halt." What Ms. Wiggins received, perhaps without knowing it, was an introduction to systems thinking. The term refers to a discipline that examines the relationships between essential parts of an organization or a problem, and determines how to manage those relationships to get better outcomes. At Cal Maritime, professors frequently talk about the ship as a "system of systems": The captain, engineers, and able-bodied seamen work on the systems in navigation, engines, potable water, ballast water, sewage, and more to make the whole thing churn across the ocean. If those students are thinking •really broadly, they are also considering the impacts of systems off the ship: fuel prices, climate, or international boundaries. This kind of broad thinking is a key to success in the workplace of the future.

Intersections 49 The most valued workers, observers say, will understand and incorporate systems thinking into their jobs and lives. Philip D. Gardner, one of the leading scholars of the connections between college and career, has said that systems thinking is a key attribute of the "T- shaped professional" — the employee who has depth of knowledge in a particular expertise as well as the ability to work and communicate across disciplines. Joseph E. Aoun, president of Northeastern University, writes in his new book, Robot-Proof: Higher Education in the Age of Artificial Intelligence, that systems thinking will be a "higher-order mental skill" that could help human workers compete with machine learning. Consider, he says, Koen Olthuis, a Dutch architect who designs floating buildings because he sees how architecture and urban planning intersect with climate change, materials science, and engineering. "Computers could be programmed to think across a variety of silos, enabling them to engage in systems thinking of a sort, but the big creative leaps that occur when humans engage in it are as yet unreachable by machines," Mr. Aoun writes. "Systems thinking is a critical cognitive capacity for anyone in a position of leadership but also for anyone attempting to discover new knowledge, launch a business, or create something original." Although systems thinking is touted as a critical skill for the future, its roots go back several decades, to computer science. David Peter Stroh, author of Systems Thinking for Social Change, notes that systems thinking grew out of system dynamics, a discipline invented 60 years ago by Jay Wright Forrester, a computer engineer and professor of management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Forrester noticed striking parallels between engineering and information systems and social systems. He saw the ways that relationships in all complex dynamic systems can have amplifying or balancing effects, which result in conditions that increase, decrease, or stabilize over time. The models that he and his students built were highly technical, but the underlying ideas were adopted by scholars in other disciplines — notably, environmentalists who saw the connections between human systems and ecological systems. Donella Meadows, one of the authors of The Limits to Growth, a 1972 book that examined how resource shortages could lead to economic and social collapse, became a prominent figure in systems thinking. While systems thinking as a discipline is not as rigorous as Forrester’s method, which relies on mathematical models to track changing relationships, it is much more accessible and more focused on human interactions. "The world is becoming increasingly interdependent," Mr. Stroh says. Linear thinkers believe that problems have direct causes and that you can optimize the whole by optimizing each of the parts. Systems thinkers know that problems can have hidden, indirect causes. It is the relationships among the parts that matter most. Moreover, because there can be long time delays between when a problem arises and manifests, problems and their solutions are also examined on a longer timeline in systems thinking.

Intersections 50 Mr. Stroh highlights a difference between linear thinkers and systems thinkers with an example in his book: To stop a rising crime rate, policy makers might adopt a "get tough" policy in arrests and sentencing. A conventional thinker would assume that if you "optimize" the punishment for crime, you would reduce it. But the systems thinker would see that widespread arrests and longer prison sentences damage the relationship between the police and communities, introduce more people to criminal life through prison, and deprive young children of their parents, extending the problem into the next generation. As a result, get-tough policies lead to more crime, not less. A systems thinker would take a step back and consider how poverty, education, urban planning, and community cohesion are the real factors in play and would seek to put leverage on those elements. Much of systems thinking relies on the soft skills that employers ask for these days: communication, problem solving, collaboration, adaptability. People trained in systems thinking see the gaps where complications or opportunities can arise, and conceive of how that system connects to others within and outside of their industries. They will have their heads up, looking around, not just buried in a discrete task or duty. Those skills are also some of the hardest for employers to find among recent graduates, surveys suggest. To remain relevant, Cal Maritime has had to expand and change its curriculum to focus on systems thinking and large-scale problem solving. Shipping, much like any industry, has been affected by mechanization and offshoring. In the 1950s, there were 1,200 American- flagged ships in the U.S. merchant marine; today, there are about 180. The sailing life also has limited appeal. Many Cal Maritime graduates who get a job as a sailor or engineer on an ocean vessel stay for only about five years. Being isolated at sea, away from home and family, leads them to seek a job on shore. Often those jobs are in shipping-related industries, but sometimes they are in something totally different: managing investment portfolios, running power plants and oil refineries, working for Tesla or Google, or designing rides for Disneyland. New opportunities are emerging in maritime cybersecurity, navigation, and autonomous ships, says Thomas A. Cropper, Cal Maritime’s president, and those disciplines might have applications in seemingly unrelated industries, like banking or finance. His students "have to have an understanding of systems, because they are operating not just in an international economic system, but an international financial system or international logistics systems, and they all come together in maritime," he says. "An understanding of systems will help someone be agile and have some portability." Gerald Spencer, who graduated from Cal Maritime in 2014, uses his training today at 3Scan, a company that uses advanced imaging technology to perform biopsies. He thinks of his job as an extension of his training in the engine room on the boat. The Golden Bear’s pipes of fluid are now thick strands of fiber running from San Francisco to supercomputers in Oregon. The lessons he learned interacting with his fellow sailors — in

Intersections 51 communication, problem solving, and division of labor — have now transferred to this team of Bay Area entrepreneurs. "If the only thing you’re taking away from that education is how to look at a force diagram and running an equation and get an answer, you’re not really getting the full picture," he says. "What you should get is a bigger sense of how the world works and operates." We’re entering a labor market where many people will change jobs half a dozen times or more before retirement, and graduates will have to be flexible thinkers who can adapt to new careers and new challenges. In response, academic programs should look beyond their disciplinary walls at the connections between people and problems. This kind of approach could apply to a range of disciplines — music, journalism, public health, agriculture, theater — that offer vocationally oriented majors. But those programs would need to slightly tweak what they are teaching. Thomas Fisher, the director of the Minnesota Design Center and former dean of the architecture school at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, leads students to use their training in architecture and design to tackle intractable problems in fields far from urban planning or buildings. The students in his program have been recruited to work on the challenges embedded in big systems, like public health. His students might ponder how the rising cost of health care interacts with growing poverty, car-oriented city planning, and government support for sugar, corn, and junk food. A systems approach spirals out from one problem to touch many. Some of his older colleagues, raised in an academic world defined by ever-narrowing specialization, think this approach is nuts. "But the younger people flock here," he says. "They recognize this gives them a lot of adaptability in the marketplace. There will always be people who can design buildings. Now, what the world really needs are people who can help with these bigger systemic failures." For now, colleges are still organized around siloed disciplines, with educators assuming that students will figure out — on their own and in the future — how to make the broader connections to other subject areas. "To me, it’s about just being more explicit and acknowledging the fact that our students are going to end up doing a much wider range of things than what our degree programs assume," Mr. Fisher says. "I don’t think it’s a radical shift. It’s more of a mind-set shift, being more explicit about things that we now are basically teaching implicitly." While liberal education was pilloried as useless in the years following the recession, the reputation of the liberal arts — and, specifically, the humanities — has recently been revamped as the generalist training favored by Silicon Valley start-ups and high-end consulting firms. By discussing Plato or reading American history, the story goes, a student will learn how to see, communicate, and think broadly in the workplace, not to mention in the quiet moments of private life. With a liberal-arts degree, "you can do anything," proclaims George Anders, a Forbes writer. Meanwhile, Randall Stross, a Silicon Valley

Intersections 52 historian and New York Times writer, touts the liberal arts as the new "practical education." By contrast, real practical training — directed at specific careers — is derided by intellectuals. Training for one job or one industry, they say, is perilous in an era when the economy and technology will eliminate many careers and create entirely new ones. But reading Plato or studying American history doesn’t automatically give a student an introduction to systems. Practical, career-oriented education could be just as valuable — perhaps even more so. Consider the Culinary Institute of America, one of the best-known colleges for tomorrow’s head chefs, sommeliers, and other food specialists. The cooking school, as it turns out, shares some remarkable similarities with Cal Maritime: The skills that produce a beef Wellington dinner for two — much like those that keep a ship cruising on the ocean — might seem very specific and difficult to transfer to other kinds of careers. But like the ship, the kitchen functions as a teaching device — a laboratory where students learn how to confront unexpected problems, try a hand at leadership, and start to see the interlocking human and technical systems, the scaffolding of any workplace. One recent morning at the Culinary Institute of America at Greystone, one of the institution’s two California branches, first-semester students decked out in white coats and tall white hats had been divided into teams, set at stations, and assigned to make beef with spätzle for lunch. They organized their teams according to the amount of time or space that a task, like reducing broth or chopping vegetables, might take. They had to be aware of peers moving around them with sharp knives or hot pans. They were accountable for delivering the right ingredients, at the right times, to their various stations. A screwup — which eventually happened when one student delivered liquid broth, rather than a more viscous beef reduction for the demi-glace — meant that the students were an hour or more late getting lunch to the table. All of this serves as an introduction to mise en place — French for "everything in its place" — an organizational framework that allows chefs to manage the various ingredients coming into the kitchen and the food coming off the stovetop. For many chefs, it’s a guiding principle and a way to see how systems — human, financial, environmental — interact with a menu, a restaurant, or even a life. One young cook here has the words tattooed on his arm. "The culinarians have a saying: A cook sees his station, and a chef sees the whole kitchen," says Dan Charnas, a New York University journalism professor and author of Work Clean: The Life-Changing Power of Mise-En-Place to Organize Your Life, Work and Mind. "Being a chef requires a global vision — the ability to see systems, to see how everything fits together." The greatest chefs are not just thinking about when to broil the fish, but how the fish relates to the pasta cooking at another station, the food delivery that evening, the

Intersections 53 fishermen working on the ocean, the changing climate’s impact on their fisheries, and so on. "If you’ve ever seen some of the chefs graduate and go on to do other things — whether it’s run their own businesses or run consumer-products companies — they take their mise en place with them, because it’s now ingrained in them," Mr. Charnas says. While observing students working at their stations, one of the chef instructors says that perhaps only 20 percent of culinary-institute students will eventually work in restaurant kitchens. Among the rest, many might work as restaurant managers or in food-related corporations. Others will go into journalism, education, marketing, or research and development. The chef at CIA said that one of his best students of the past few years graduated and went to work in a top restaurant, but eventually left to work in real estate. Christine Flanagan, a consultant known for her work on competency-based education and career preparation, got a bachelor’s degree in English from the University at Albany, then in her late 20s went to culinary school at Johnson & Wales University, thinking she wanted to be a chef. Near the end of her time at Johnson & Wales, she decided that the kitchen wasn’t for her, and she left one semester before getting her culinary degree. "I still walked away with probably more value from that experience, in being able to apply it to the real world, than I did from getting a B.A. in English," she says. The English degree gave her some critical- thinking and writing skills. "But it did not give me what the culinary arts did in terms of a process within a system that can be applied to other places," she says. In training students to think about systems and develop crucial soft skills, hands-on learning is key. Real-world problems that are unscripted and consequential force students to consider their place within a system, as they work alongside peers, usually for some tangible outcome. A college doesn’t need a ship or a kitchen to create this learning environment. Programs that incorporate concepts of sustainability — which consider an activity’s environmental, social, and financial impacts — inherently place a student’s work in a systems frame. The Sustainable Cities Initiative at the University of Oregon marshals the work of hundreds of students in dozens of courses to solve problems in a selected Oregon city or government agency every year. Projects in one course inevitably interact with the work of other courses, and in the process students start to see the relationships between components of a problem. (Students also frequently say that the hands-on work is among the most rewarding of their college experiences.) The programs at the nation’s various work colleges — which can range from office work to farm work to janitorial services — can have a similar effect. That work is designed to teach students about teamwork, responsibility, communication, and problem solving on the job.

Intersections 54 But at places like Berea College or Warren Wilson College, where sustainability and service learning have been integrated with the work, students are more likely to connect their job on, say, the college farm with the health of the land, the changing climate, the work of farms around the college, poverty and hunger in Appalachia, and the financial footing of the college farm itself. Susan Opp, the provost at Cal Maritime and an entomologist, finds an analogy for hands-on experiences by contrasting them with cookbook experiments, the traditional method of teaching science: "You would give students a canned lab that you had already figured out, and they were just going to replicate what you had done before to show that they can do it, too," she says. Hands-on, open-ended learning environments, she says, help students learn "to solve problems and think more holistically." Her students, too, talk about the lessons of the ship in terms of metaphors. Logan Kent, a senior and a marine-engineering-technology major at Cal Maritime, has developed a more global view of his studies through hands-on work. He tells stories about the times he has worked long shifts, tuning up pipes and pumps, fixing broken couplings, transferring fuel into the ship, or standing watch in the middle of the night, to secure the boat. "If I can get in there and I can physically hold a pipe, run my hand along that pipe, and know which way the flow is going through it, it helps me visualize the whole thing," he says. Professors at Cal Maritime commonly refer to the boat as a city, he says, so you have to know how all the parts work together. But Mr. Kent thinks of it as more like a human body. "Systems are very much like anatomy," he says. "I’ve talked to people in the medical field and told them that they would understand what I do, just because it’s so similar." Scott Carlson is a senior writer who covers the cost and value of college. Email him at [email protected].

Intersections 55 9 Talking Across Disciplines

N HIS BOOK ON INTERDISCIPLIN ARITY, JOE MORAN ARGUES that at first blush interdisciplinarity seems inherently appealing, "a democratic, dynamic and co-operative alternative to the old-fashioned inward-looking and cliquish nature of disciplines."1 He cites Roberta Frank's colorful elaboration of this idea: "Interdisciplinary" has something to please everyone. Its base, discipline, is hoary and antiseptic; its prefix, inter, is hairy and friendly. Unlike fields with their mud, cows, and corn, the Latinate discipline comes encased in stainless steel: it suggests something rigorous, aggressive, hazardous to master; inter hints that knowledge is a warm, mutually developing, consultative thing.2

But as we have seen from our close reading of the six faculty conversations, interdisciplinarity is not necessarily warm and friendly. In fact, the opposite is generally the case; engaging in interdisciplinary dialogue is tough work and conflicts are recurrent. In order to create conversations that are both enjoy able and intellectually productive, it is necessary to manage them carefully. This chapter returns to the two central questions of this book: What makes interdisciplinary conversations so difficult? What are the hallmarks of fruitful interdisciplinary conversations? The first section answers the first question, examining three types of barriers to interdisciplinary conversations: those that occur before the conversations even start, those that occur during the conversations, and those that come into play afterward and limit the sus-

Intersections 56 153 Talking Across Disciplines 155 154 What Have We Learned?

tainability of the conversations' outcomes. The second section briefly sum Having an ineffective leader or the wrong mix of participants can also be marizes the social science explanations for these barriers and reviews ways in a problem at the outset. Selections of both leader and participants need to be which some of the leaders moderated the effects of these barriers to make the made with great care. Does the leader have the authority to lead? Is he or she conversations more productive. The third section makes additional sugges knowledgeable about the subject, highly respected, and able to successfully re tions for nurturing interdisciplinary conversations. The chapter's conclusion solve disputes? Are the participants flexible in outlook? Are they interested in focuses on the centrality of open-mindedness to successful conversations. learning from one another? Is there enough disciplinary diversity to achieve productive conflict? Is there so much diversity that there are no themes of common interest? Are the participants interpersonally compatible? Barriers to Interdisciplinary Conversations Only Joyce said that she took interpersonal compatibility into account when choosing seminar members. Sam felt that the representation seminar Barriers Faculty Bring with Them would have been more successful if he had been able to select participants; The first set of barriers to interdisciplinary conversations are internal, fears he said he would have avoided people who he knew had a tendency to mo that faculty have even though they are unaware of them. A prominent fear nopolize conversation. Nancy, too, had no role in choosing the participants for many humanists and some qualitatively oriented social scientists is that for the seminars she led. Perhaps she too would have reduced the friction in they maybe unequal to the task of understanding concepts and methods that the Adams seminars if she had been able to select participants based on their involve mathematics or science. Lack of sufficient background to understand openness to new ideas and their ability to work with one another, although or appreciate a particular discipline creates not only fear, but also a sense of one of the problems with the Adams seminar was that Nancy did not have the alienation and isolation. Both Louise and Joyce in the Jefferson seminars were authority to lead or the ability to defuse conflict. delighted to find that their fears about being unable to understand technical material were unfounded. Barriers That Emerge During the Conversations Then there are fears associated with presenting one's own discipline-based A second set of barriers emerges during the conversations themselves. No work to colleagues in other fields. Will the work's basic premises and contri matter how careful the selection procedure, no matter the skills of the leader, butions be understood? What will have to be explained that is normally taken there will be jockeying for position as faculty interpret and validate their for granted? Will the work garner respect? Will status have to be renegotiated? power and status or attempt to draw boundaries around their disciplinary Neil observed that these kinds of fears were at hand in the first few sessions of knowledge, and all participants will bring their disciplinary habits of mind the social sciences seminar at Washington. and disciplinary cultures with them. Faculty (and doctoral students) also bring stereotypes and negative feel Diversity of disciplinary cultures and habits of mind are serious obstacles ings about certain disciplines to interdisciplinary conversations. We saw these to interdisciplinary conversation.3 Not only do participants have to learn one in the anecdote about the research meeting of historians and quantitative so another's disciplinary language, they have to learn one another's approaches cial science researchers that opened Chapter i, and in interviews about the to knowledge acquisition and truth claims, as well as one another's styles of social science seminar at Washington, Neil noted his surprise (and consterna intellectual interaction. Intersections tion) at the disciplinary stereotypes faculty held about one another. Also in Disciplinary cultures vary considerably across disciplines, yet faculty the social science seminar, scientist Nick noted the lack of mutual respect be trained in a discipline learn only that particular discipline's cultural prac tween qualitative and quantitative researchers. In the ethics seminar, several tices; as a result, when colleagues from different disciplines come together, participants commented on the lack of respect for postmodern work. And in the cultural gulfs they need to bridge are large, perhaps as large as those in

57 the inequality and ethics seminars, respectively, Donna, the qualitative soci international organizations. In a similar vein, disciplines train people to see ologist, and Nabila, from English and women's studies, felt a lack of respect quite different realities. And they inculcate habits of mind-—habits that are from colleagues. 156 What Have We Learned? Talking Across Disciplines 157

practiced so frequently in a disciplinary context that they become uncon missed an opportunity to improve Barry's mathematics teaching. And at both scious. But in interdisciplinary settings, the divergent habits collide. Jefferson and Washington, administrators missed opportunities to facilitate Members of the representation seminar did not understand why Barry team-taught courses that faculty were considering. Unless one understands was silent all year; they never appreciated how foreign their habits of mind the irrationality of large organizations, it seems strange that administrators were for him. Nor did he recognize how impossible it was for most of the would write grant proposals for seminars that would produce creative ideas others in the group to understand his complex mathematical presentation. for new interdisciplinary courses and then put administrative hurdles in the In the ethics seminar, neither the economist nor the postdoc who censured way so that faculty could never teach those courses. But that is in fact what him understood that they came from entirely different disciplinary cultures happened. with respect to norms for questioning presenters. And when members of the In one of the meetings of all the seminar leaders and reporters that Atlan representation seminar told Evelyn, the studio artist, that they preferred her tic Philanthropies arranged, I asked a question about team-teaching: If two to show slides in a classroom rather than go to her studio to see her paintings, people who are from different departments want to teach a course together, they were not aware that they were imposing their own habits of mind and does each get credit for that course? The answer from Washington was, "It were being disrespectful of hers. depends on their clout." At Jefferson, the answer was, "Even clout doesn't do It is critical for participants in interdisciplinary conversations to recognize it... but if you had a department chair, a dean and a provost, all of whom that the political jockeying for status that goes on in academic settings is ex were interested in making this happen, you could make it happen." The Ad acerbated in situations where more than one discipline is involved.4 Pecking ams response was different: "You can do it without any problem and both orders that have been established within departments or disciplines over long can get credit." But when I probed a bit, it turned out that while both faculty periods of time suddenly need to be renegotiated. Numerous questions need members who designed a new team-taught course would get ful> credit the to be settled diplomatically: Whose discipline is primary to the endeavor and first time they taught it, after that they would have to alternate the credit, each whose is secondary or tertiary? Whose status is highest in a situation where getting full credit only every other year. all the players are used to being kingpins in their fields? How will high status A team-taught course is not the equivalent of half a course. Indeed, taking be rewarded? account of the coordination required, the work is the equivalent of more than Leaders and participants in interdisciplinary conversations should take one regularly taught course. If administrators want more interdisciplinary for granted that there will be a shaking out of power and status hierarchies teaching, they need to figure out how to give full credit to both people who at the beginning and realize that disputes about status and power may come teach a team-taught course.5 to the fore again if, for example, decisions need to be made about who be If university administrators are serious about fostering interdisciplinarity, comes first author on a paper or a grant proposal or who presents work at a the ball is in their court. As noted in the Gulbenkian Commission's Report, conference. But if power issues remain prominent throughout the process of foundations can give grants to foster creative interdisciplinary projects, but it collaboration, they constitute a serious barrier to interdisciplinarity. In the is university departments and central administrations that play the major role ethics seminar, squabbling about power and status as well as efforts to loosen in determining how much interdisciplinarity takes place on a campus.6 (or maintain) disciplinary borders continued all year and were impediments Although the leaders of the Jefferson seminars had asked faculty to write Intersections to enjoyment and intellectual growth for many participants. proposals for interdisciplinary courses and spent one session discussing those proposals, there were no follow-up activities that might have helped faculty Barriers That Emerge After the Conversations to plan those courses. In my interview with dramatist Jane, she said that she Have Been Completed: Absence ofFolloiv-up feared that the course she and chemist Ed had considered teaching about plays

58 I have already noted that administrators at Jefferson who failed to do exit with science themes might turn out to be dilettantish, with not enough deep interviews of faculty who participated in the interdisciplinary conversations material on either science or drama. There was no venue in which she could 158 What Have We Learned? Talking Across Disciplines 159

verbalize those fears, let alone work with Ed toward creating a course that was Mitigating Barriers and Making not superficial. Conversations More Productive Also, there was no follow-up training for faculty about how to make team- Three strategies used by seminar leaders served to mitigate the barriers noted taught interdisciplinary courses integrative. In reviewing the literature about above: having a clear vision about what the conversations were to accomplish how to create successful integration in such courses, James Davis notes the and structuring the seminars accordingly; explicitly committing to the ex importance of collaboration in the planning process as well as in the teaching, ploration of synthesis; and creating trust among participants and attending grading, and evaluation of the course.7 In follow-up sessions to the seminars, to interpersonal dynamics. Three additional strategies, not used by any of it would have been useful to convey this type of knowledge to participants the leaders, could have served to make the conversations even more produc considering such collaboration. Jefferson lost an opportunity to provide some tive: specifically discussing the concepts of disciplinary cultures and habits of its students and faculty with valuable interdisciplinary classroom experi of thought; encouraging participants to set group norms and vary their ap ences. proaches to learning; and seeking formative evaluation early in the course of Absence of follow-up not only constituted a significant barrier to realiz the conversations. ing the original goals of the seminars (the creation of new interdisciplinary courses and research projects), it also made participants' intellectual insights Having a Clearly Communicated Vision and and new collegial relationships more ephemeral. At Jefferson, both Jane and Structuring the Seminar Tightly Evelyn said they wished their seminar had had a reunion, that the whole ex Having a well-defined and well-communicated thread that weaves through all perience seemed so "one-shot." At Washington, both Neil and Matt said they of the conversations appears to be central to making interdisciplinary conver doubted that the interactions with new colleagues that they had enjoyed dur sations productive. One of the reasons for the success of the consilience semi ing the seminar would be sustained. Neil likened the seminar experience to nar was that in implementing it Joyce kept her vision of its purpose clearly summer camp, where one rarely keeps up with friends after getting back to in mind and communicated it lucidly to participants. Everything about the the city. Holding a reunion a few times a semester for several years might well seminar process was in service of the seminar's purpose—choosing partici have sustained those relationships. pants, choosing readings, and tying sessions together. Joyce did not have fac In their book on interdisciplinarity, Liora Salter and Alison Hearn note ulty choose readings and make presentations until after a good many sessions that it takes about two years of submersion for a cultural anthropologist to that she had structured herself, until the purpose of the seminar and the habit be able to work effectively in a new culture.8 At Stanford, the faculty from of exploring syntheses were well established. medicine, physics, and engineering who set up Bio X, a large interdisciplinary Sam, the leader of the representation seminar at Jefferson, was also clear science center, met with one another at least once a week for two years to learn about the purpose of the seminar (exploration of how different disciplines one another's disciplinary cultures, habits of mind, and content before they represent reality), and he too communicated its purpose unambiguously. He were able to begin their collaboration.9 also tightly structured the first few sessions, building largely on what Joyce At Adams, even with follow-up, the seminars would probably not have had done the year before, and in the remaining sessions kept asking partici achieved much in the way of collaboration. Most of the participants seemed pants to explain how their disciplines viewed "reality" and how they repre Intersections glad that the conversations were over. But at both Washington and Jefferson, sented it. follow-up might well have led to more permanent and substantial outcomes. At Adams, the dean and the vice-provost initially had a clear vision of the purpose of the seminars, but it seemed to get lost when they appointed Nancy as seminar leader. Nancy had no vision of the seminars' purposes, and partic 59 ipants were confused about what they were supposed to accomplish. Probably the best description of the Adams seminars' goal was the one Clifford Geertz i6o What Have We Learned? Talking Across Disciplines 161

propounded, having colleagues from a variety of disciplines give a credible ac cussions so that participants observe and give voice to ideas that connect with count of themselves to one another. Larry, a participant in the science studies those of their colleagues' presentations. In her criticism of the inequality sem seminar, thought that goal was too diffuse. He suggested that the conversa inar, Donna said she thought there was too much emphasis on finishing pre tions would have been more productive and less conflict-ridden if the group sentations and not enough "conversation." This is another way of saying that had had a goal against which they could benchmark their progress. participants did not have an opportunity to reflect out loud about the presen In the case of Washington, the original vision for the seminars was clear, tation of the day and make connections to their own work. It is ironic that but the social science seminar was changed as a result of Robert's desire for several participants in the inequality seminar said the proceedings seemed the president and provost to become educated about the social sciences so that to run out of ideas for sessions. The "empty" sessions could have been the they would provide additional financial support for them. In effect, the social conversations Donna was seeking, opportunities for participants to consider science seminar operated with two visions, and law professor Karen felt they what they had heard from colleagues and to explore syntheses. sometimes conflicted. Karen also thought that Robert had not structured the social science semi Creating Trust and Attending to nar tightly enough. She said she thought that merely having people talk about Interpersonal Dynamics their work to one another without giving all of them the same set of questions to answer in the course of their presentation meant that there was no com One of the most important prerequisites for productive interdisciplinary dia mon thread that ran through the seminar. logue is trust. Not only do differences in disciplinary style make it hard to In the inequality seminar, Sheila set the purpose of the conversations (to establish trust, so too do differences in age, gender, national origin, and race. explore the different disciplinary perspectives and findings about inequality) The inability to establish trust results in some people being out of other peo and successfully communicated it to participants. But there was again rela ple's "comfort zone." This, in turn, leads to the development of factions that tively little structuring; each participant talked about his or her work, and the place severe restraints on fruitful conversations. connections among the sessions were not clearly drawn. Midway into the year, Joyce began the work of establishing trust by selecting participants who it was unclear to some participants what the task was for the second semester. had reasonably good interpersonal skills and who she thought could work together. In addition, whenever there were interpersonal conflicts, she worked to smooth them over. She also established a norm of fairness by preventing Explicitly Committing to the Exploration of Synthesis people from monopolizing the conversation. And her willingness to pay at One of the most important reasons for the success of the consilience seminar tention to the feelings of participants who contacted her outside of the semi was Joyce's explicit commitment to the exploration of syntheses among the nar created an environment of trust in that dissatisfied colleagues felt they various disciplines. In particular, she aimed to select participants who wanted had an ally in the leader. to explore syntheses between science and humanities. And she structured the Robert, Sheila, and Sam all were reasonably successful in creating trust readings and discussions to build, week after week, on the syntheses of the among seminar participants, partly because of their own intellectual stature. previous sessions. But Nancy had difficulty creating an atmosphere of trust. Ahsan was probably Intersections Another reason for the success of that seminar was that at each session correct that Nancy could have improved trust among participants had she Joyce encouraged participants to think about how various disciplinary ap taken groups of them to lunch (or coffee) separately and sought to help them proaches could be combined. She particularly wanted scientists and human iron out their disagreements and disaffections or even encouraged them to ists to see the intersections of their fields, but she also wanted artists and so meet without her being present. 60 cial scientists to explore syntheses with other fields. To promote interdisciplinary collaboration, leaders need to structure dis- 162 What Have We Learned? Talking Across Disciplines 163

Additional Strategies to Nurture a participant interrupt for clarification or argumentation? How sharply may Interdisciplinary Conversations presenters be questioned? What are the norms for civility? How are conflicts to be resolved? We come now to three additional strategies that are likely to diminish the ef Understanding habits of mind and disciplinary cultures also leads to fects of disciplinary cultures and habits of mind. awareness that any particular format is only one of many possible ways to Specifically Discuss Disciplinary Cultures and Habits of Mind organize presentations and conversations. At Jefferson, scientists introduced Leaders of interdisciplinary conversations need to help participants under a bit of variety by having participants do lab visits, and dramatist Jane had her stand and discuss the concepts of disciplinary cultures and habits of mind. If colleagues engage in some acting exercises. But artist Evelyn was unsuccessful serious interdisciplinary collaboration is to result from faculty interactions, a in getting her colleagues to leave the classroom and come to her studio for her primary task for participants is to become ethnographers of their own disci presentation. plines, encouraging one another to understand how their disciplines' habits of Interdisciplinary discussions need to experiment with techniques for pre mind and cultural practices structure their thinking. Reading this book and sentations and conversations that are not necessarily familiar to the leader— several of the theoretical frameworks it cites would be a good way to begin. for example, discussing questions in small subgroups, sending groups of par Robert did deal indirectly with facets of disciplinary cultures by asking ticipants out to find answers to questions on their own, asking participants participants to read the Gulbenkian Report on the difficulties of getting so to role-play, having participants question one another one-on-one, or asking cial scientists to work together. But that report is exceedingly technical and participants to write down a few ideas on any given topic and then share them doesn't directly discuss the concepts of disciplinary cultures or habits of with the group. In any interdisciplinary conversation, it is likely that one or mind. another of these styles will in fact be a common way to interact with col At the beginning of the ethics seminar, Nancy tried to introduce the idea leagues, a familiar habit of mind. The main point is to allow variation so that that faculty often fear presenting to colleagues outside their discipline be it is not only the leader's way of engaging in conversation that is used. cause they are concerned about being misunderstood and that this apprehen A pedagogical technique used in fiction-writing classes is to have the sion becomes a barrier to interdisciplinary dialogue. But the effort to get dis group read a group member's story in advance and then discuss it without cussion of that notion failed because Peter countered that if everyone spoke any presentation by the author. The author's job is to be an active listener, tak plainly there would be no need to fear being misunderstood. Nancy's efforts ing careful notes on what his or her critics have to say. Only at the end of the might have been more successful had she taken a sociological approach to the session may the author speak, and then only to clarify comments that were difficulties of interdisciplinary communication and introduced the concepts unclear or raise questions that others did not. of disciplinary cultures rather than taking a psychological approach, which After I learned this technique, I tried it in my doctoral dissertation work required faculty to acknowledge fears. shop. The dynamics of the class changed entirely. There was no "defending" by the student whose work was being discussed, and students felt they learned Allow Participants to Set Croup Norms a great deal about how to give and receive constructive feedback. I note this and Vary Approaches to Learning not only because I think it is a good technique, but also to inspire people who Intersections Once participants in an interdisciplinary conversation understand the con lead interdisciplinary conversations to experiment with multiple discussion cepts of disciplinary cultures and habits of mind and recognize that their own formats. There is nothing sacred about the formats we learned as graduate disciplinary norms are not necessarily shared by others, it is easy to intro students. duce the notion that the group needs to devise its own norms.10 To that end, Seek Formative Evaluation Early in the Conversations 61 the group needs to agree on answers to questions such as the following: How formal should presentations be? How much time should be allowed for pre The use of formative evaluation is a third strategy that would have enhanced sentation and how much for discussion? At what point in a presentation may interdisciplinary learning in the conversations studied here. None of the lead- 164 What Have We Learned? Talking Across Disciplines 165

ers asked participants for a written anonymous evaluation early in the year, relying on your usual habits of thought and disciplinary cultures and peruse although several asked informally. However, just as a professor cannot casu with an open mind. It may be that you will have a direct experience of how ally ask students "off the record" how a course is going and necessarily get an difficult interdisciplinarity can be. honest answer, so too some leaders were mistaken when they assumed partici The believing game requires that participants in an interdisciplinary dia pants were satisfied just because they said they were in response to an offhand logue listen to one another with empathy.13 It requires that they suspend their question. Leaders might have been able to make significant changes had they habits of mind and disciplinary cultures and listen so carefully and consis known early on the kinds of dissatisfactions participants had. tently that they begin to get into one another's heads. The believing game has to be played over a considerable period of time. It takes time for participants in an interdisciplinary conversation to suspend habits of mind and disciplin Conclusion ary cultures so that they can absorb new ideas and frameworks. In Chapter 3, we met dramatist Jane, a participant in Jefferson's representa It also takes time to play the second stage of the believing game: con tion seminar. Troubled by the critical stance her colleagues took early in con necting one's own disciplinary knowledge with ideas and frameworks being versations, Jane said she preferred to "try on" ideas before she judged them. learned from other disciplines. It is in this second stage that a leader can play I noted that Jane's practice of ascertaining the truth of an idea by first trying a significant role, specifically structuring sessions to allow participants to it on is akin to what Peter Elbow calls the believing game, in which one fol synthesize ideas and frameworks. lows the dictum "credo ut intelligam: I believe in order to understand."11 The In the synthesis stage of the believing game, it is useful to think about believing game may be contrasted with the doubting game, which ascertains the rules for improvisational acting. Improv actors, as they call themselves, truth by starting with doubt and deems a new idea worthy only if it is able to think about cocreating scenes. Each builds on what their fellow actors have overcome an initial negative predisposition. already completed. Each seeks to make their partner look brilliant. Each seeks The doubting game is adversarial and seeks to ferret out error. The be to "serve the scene," not his or her own ego.14 lieving game is cooperative and seeks to unearth truth. In playing the be Of course, some degree of doubting and assessing will take place at the lieving game, one runs the risk of believing something that is untrue, but synthesis stage of an interdisciplinary conversation. It is impossible to con one increases the possibility of learning a surprising new truth. The reverse nect one's own disciplinary understandings with all the new ideas one has is the case with the doubting game; one reduces the possibility of believing learned. One must make some judgments about which concepts and frame something false, but increases the possibility of missing something not in ac works will be most interesting to pursue. Nonetheless, it is useful to continue cordance with one's initial prejudices that is in fact true (or useful).12 in a brainstorming mode, not discarding new ideas prematurely. Playing the doubting game is one of academe's principal norms. Indeed, The process of synthesizing ideas from disparate disciplines is unfamil doubting new ideas and effectively arguing against them is often equated with iar and uncomfortable. But it is precisely in that discomfort that the seeds of being a serious scholar. But in interdisciplinary conversations, where one is creativity lie, and if the group can continue to play the believing game—not seeking new truths in new intellectual territory, it is useful to play the be insisting on certainty, closure, or judgments—participants may ultimately lieving game first. We have already discussed the value of having an inter move to new truths and imaginative solutions. It is instructive to imagine Intersections disciplinary group specifically create its own norms. Choosing to play the how some of the altercations and misunderstandings reported in the prior believing game before the doubting game creates a new metanorm for the chapters might have played out differently had participants been committed conversation. to playing the believing game, listening with empathy rather than being quick For you, the reader, the believing game is also likely to be far less familiar to argue, attempting to build on one another's ideas rather than judge them. 62 than the doubting game. As you read these paragraphs on the advantages of For example, in the ethics conversation, Nabila and Peter spent the semi the believing game, you might note the extent to which you yourself can defer nar talking past one another. Peter did not see any benefit to taking Nabila's 166 What Have We Learned?

postmodern perspectives into account; he put on his doubting hat quickly, saw her ideas as sloppy thinking, and began to question her in a way that made her uncomfortable. And Nabila was no more interested in seeking com mon ground than was Peter. His ideas were the very ones against which she had been taught to rebel. Yet they could have learned from one another. Peter was interested in drawing generalizations that would apply as broadly as possible. Nabila was interested in not generalizing; to her, ethical issues were about the erasure of difference. Surely both their ideas are germane to the study of ethics. For example, in the ethics of politics, questions about balancing majority and minority rights originate precisely in debates about the need to protect sub groups from erasure while still allowing majority rule. The two perspectives also relate to ethical questions in the social sciences where quantitative re searchers like to "throw out" outliers in order to reach more robust statistical generalizations and qualitative researchers believe a great deal can be learned by not throwing them out and instead investigating them carefully. Had the seminar been playing the believing game, the difference in per spectives between Nabila and Peter could have been the start of a rich discus sion about ethics in numerous situations, perhaps even a new collaboration. But playing the doubting game from the start foreclosed those possibilities. One of the major reasons why interdisciplinarity is currently being en couraged is that cognitive diversity can enhance creativity and develop new solutions to complex problems." Practicing the believing game before engag ing in the more familiar doubting game might go a long way toward realizing the creative potential of interdisciplinary conversations.

Intersections 63