I Freed Myself: African American Self-Emancipation in the Civil War Era David Williams Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-01649-1 - I Freed Myself: African American Self-Emancipation in the Civil War Era David Williams Index More information

Index

abolitionism Ku Klux Klan in, 225 Harper’s Ferry raid, 51–53 legislature’s prohibition on trade with white Union soldiers attitude toward, slaves, 87 127–128 no quarter to black soldiers in, 142 abolitionists (black), 46, 94, 114 self-emancipated slaves from, 129 on equal rights, 100 Sixth Alabama, 167 question of using violence for in 1850s, 40 slave patrols in, 84 reaction to Lincoln’s voiding of freedom slave resistance in, 88 order, 76 slave uprisings in, 9, 56 secession and, 59 slaveholder complaints of slave resistance violence against, 32, 40 in, 87 abolitionists (white), 75, 100, 154, 183 slaveholder murder by slaves in, 67 attitude toward slavery of postwar, 202 slaves assistance to owners avoiding Republican Party and, 46 Confederate service in, 169 violence against, 32 southern whites attitude toward blacks African Civilization Society, 48 postwar, 213 African Clarkson Association, 34 tenant farming in, 239 African Methodist Episcopal Church, 70, Thirteenth Amendment and, 215 91, 189 Tuskeegee Institute of, 236 Africano (anonymous black soldier), twenty slave law and, 86 205, 206 vigilant committees in, 54 Alabama, 109, 163, 167, 173, 191 Albany (Ga.) Patriot, 50, 65 attacks against white Southern Unionists Albright, George, 52, 115 in, 220 Allen, Jacob, 128 Colored Men’s Suffrage Association of, 235 Allen, W.B., 25, 26 daily attendance at black schools in Allen, William, 109 1865, 212 Alston, J.T., 97 fear of physical labor of slaveholders, 214 American Anti-Slavery Society, 35, 200, 202 Fourteenth Regiment, USCT in, 154 American Missionary Association, 126 friendly conduct between white and black Amnesty Act, 228 troops in, 153 Anderson, Ellen, 204 increased white elite ownership of Anderson, Jeff, 167 farmland, 239 Anderson, Osborne, 51

245

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-01649-1 - I Freed Myself: African American Self-Emancipation in the Civil War Era David Williams Index More information

246 Index

Andersonville prison, 144 Battle of Shiloh, 97 Andrew, Governor John (of Battle of the Crater, 140, 142 Massachusetts), 131 Battle, Moses, 180 refusal of to accept black refugees, 108 Beaufort (South Carolina), 183, 191 Andrews, Sidney, 212 blacks making decent living for themselves Anglo-African, 53, 59, 76, 198, 203, 205, 216 in, 191 anti-abolition violence, 32 Beckwith, James, 228 Antietam Creek, 105 Beecher, Colonel James C., 150 Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the Beecher, Reverend Henry Ward, 101 World (Walker), 40 Bell, James Madison, 94–95 apprentice laws, 34, 217–218 Bell, John, 50, 53 Arkansas, 124, 125 Bellis, Mr., 117 Battle of Poison Springs in, 142 Benton Barracks, 118 blacks making decent living for themselves Berlin, Ira, 20 in, 191 Berry, Fannie, 24, 30 blacks receiving counterfeit money for Bezley, Robert, 166 their services in, 187 Bibb, Henry, 23 draft dodgers in, 86 Bichinel, Lieutenant Francis, 150 fears of slave insurrection in, 50 Biddle, Nicholas, 9, 69–69 schools established by blacks in, 212 Bill of Wrongs and Rights (National secession of, 62 Convention of Colored Men), 204 self-emancipated slaves and, 94 Bird, Francis, 183 slave murders of owners in, 50 Birisbin, Colonel James S., 149 army enlistment. See black enlistment Birney, General William, 130 Army of Northern Virginia, 175 black churches and ministers, 35, 70, 91, Army of Tennessee, 176 189, 223 Army of the Potomac, 77, 120 free schools founded by, 211 arrest, arbitrary of blacks, 231 prayer meetings and, 18–19 Ashburn, George, 226 religious liberty and, 211–212 Ashworth, John, 16 black codes, 100, 203 Atlanta (Georgia), 166 black codes (postwar), 188–189, 208, fall of in September 1864, 206 216–217 Augustus, Benedict, 152 apprentice laws, 217–218 Austin, Hannah, 213 black enlistment, 7–9, 94–99, 123–125 Avery, Celestia, 67 attempt of blacks to in Confederate army, 72–73 Baltimore (Maryland), 117 early volunteering of northern blacks, attack on Union troops in, 9, 69–69 68–70 Union Party convention in, 199 Frederick Douglass’ support of, 123 white attack on a black army surgeon General Hunter’s conscription of, in, 152 95–97 Banks, General Nathaniel, 196, 197 in border states, 129–131 vagrancy order of, 188 in Confederate army, 176–178 Barnes, Reverend Albert, 106 in free states, 131 Battle of Chancellorsville, 175 of Nicholas Biddle, 9, 69–69 Battle of Milliken’s Bend, 137, 141–142 refusal of northern whites to accept, Battle of Nashville, 139 70–71, 97, 99 Battle of Olustee, 143 Second Conﬁscation Act and, 102–104 Battle of Poison Springs, 142 support of by General Robert E. Lee, 177 Battle of Saltville, 142, 149 white ofﬁcers only restriction and, Battle of Seven Pines, 97 131–133

Index 247

black immigration, 31, 38, 43–44, 106–110, changing attitudes toward of northern 194–196 whites, 152–154 black leaders, 114, See also abolitionists Darien, Ga. burned in 1863 by, 16 (black); Douglass, Frederick; Garnet, demands for equal rights by, 203 Henry Highland; Rock, John desertion rates vs. white, 152 criticism of slaveholder compensation by, discrimination in equipping of, 149 110–112 early army volunteering of northern, 9, criticism of Ten Percent Plan by, 198 68–70 opposition to colonization plan by, emancipation of friends and family of, 104–106, 111–113, 115, 204 155–160 petition to Congress to end slavery, 76 Fort Wagner assault and, 137, 139 reaction to preliminary Emancipation General Hunter’s conscription of, 95–97 Proclamation by, 106 letters to Lincoln by, 120, 146, 147, 148, black militias, 48, 66, 98, 132, 168, 227 151, 203 Colfax massacre and, 228 Lincoln’s dodging of issue of, 96 lack of legal and federal protection for, 227 literacy and education and, 154–155 black officeholders, 223 mistreatment of by white soldiers and as Klan targets, 226 officers, 125–126, 127, 146–152 black professionals, rise of, 242 Nicholas Biddle, 9, 69–69 black resistance, 7–9 no quarter shown to or from Confederates black churches and ministers and, 35, and, 141–145 91, 211 Sergeant William H. Carney, 138 black militias, 48, 132, 168 unequal medical care of, 145 black soldiers’ to mistreatment in Union unequal pay of, 146–149 army, 149–152 use of as cannon fodder, 139–140 black soldiers’ to unequal pay in Union value of in battle, 134–139 army, 146–149 white officers only restriction and, demand for equal rights, 202–205 131–133 petition to Congress to end slavery, 76 black spies, scouts, and guides for Union to Fugitive Slave Act, 40–43 Army, 9, 173–175 to streetcar segregation in NYC, 204 border states, 104, 118, 192–193 voter registration drives and, 222 black enlistment in, 129–131 black resistance (postwar), 186 free blacks in, 78 against apprentice laws, 217–218 slave escape and, 116–119 against corruption in Freedmen’s Bureau, Bork, Private Adolph, 126 218–219 Boston (Massachusetts), 60, 100, 120, black churches and ministers and, 227 121, 132 black militias, 227 celebration of Emancipation Proclamation education and schools as, 211–213 in, 114 of southern blacks, 210–212 mass meeting of blacks for enlistment in, 68 Reverend Garnet’s speech to Congress newspaper headline on Giles v. Harris as, 209 in, 235 rise of black professionals, 242 support for slavery expressed in, 31 survival as, 243 Tremont Temple in, 114 to federal confiscation of land, 182–183 Twelfth Baptist Church in, 91 work ethic of blacks vs. former William Lloyd Garrison assaulted in, 32 slaveholders, 214, 241 Boston Courier, 133 Black Role in Civil War Among the Best Kept Boston Herald, 60 Secrets (article, 2012), 11 Boston, John, 80 black soldiers, 5, 63, 68, 70–71, 178, 187, Boutwell, Governor George (of 214–215 Massachusetts), 101

248 Index

Bowen, General James, 188 Campbell, Tunis, 227 Bowser, Mary Elizabeth, 175 Canada, 98, 196 Boyd, W.T., 97 slaves escaping to, 72 Bradley, Aaron, 219 Cannaday, Abraham, 187 Bragg, General Braxton, 90 Carney, Sergeant William H., 138 Branch, Jacob, 167 Cemetery Hill, 140 Breckinridge, John C., 53 Chambersburg (Penn.) Valley Spirit, 131 Brevard, Keziah, 64 Charleston (South Carolina), 171 Brewer, Justice David, 235 Colored People’s Convention rejecting Britain, 103 postwar black codes in, 216 Brooklyn (New York), 106, 108, 121 complaints of Freedmen’s Bureau Brooklyn Eagle, 108 corruption in, 219 Brooks, Julia A. and B.F., 162 Fort Sumter in, 62, 63, 76, 82 Browder, Ann, 214 Fort Wagner assault in, 137, 139 Brown v. Board of Education, 231 slave patrols in, 84 Brown, Governor Joe (of Georgia), 162, slaves as spies for Union army in, 82 163, 165 Zion Church in, 216 Brown, John, 45, 46, 51–53, 59, 99 Chesnut, Mary, 29, 67 Brown, Justice Henry, 235 Chicago (Illinois), 121 Brown, Lieutenant, 152 blacks petitioning for repeal of black laws Brown, Private Spencer, 152 and school segregation in, 203 Brown, Senator Albert G., 39 Chicago Times, 99, 106 Brown, William Wells, 34, 115, 123, 132, Chicago Tribune, 99, 201 216, 219 children. See slave families and children Browne, Junius Henri, 172 Childress, Samuel, 216 Brownlow, Gov. William (of Chiriqui Improvement Company, 111 Tennessee), 221 Christian Recorder, 70, 178 Bruce, Blanche, 223 Christiana riot (Pennsylvania), 42, 43 Buckner, George Washington, 130 Cincinnati (Ohio), 107 Buell, General Don Carols, 78 Civil Rights Act, 230 Burden, Zack, 203 Civil War. See also black enlistment; black Burnside, General Ambrose, 79 soldiers; by state; Confederacy and Burroughs, Lieutenant George, 190 Confederate army; Lincoln, Abraham; Butler, General Benjamin, 63, 71, 78, 81, Union military 90, 93 desertions of Union soldiers during winter blacks complaints to on impressment, 189 of 1862–63, 120 calling up of New Orleans Creoles draft riots in 1863, 121–123 regiment by, 98 fall of Atlanta in September 1864, 206 on pay of black refugees, 186 ﬁring on Fort Sumter and, 62, 63 suggests contraband of war policy toward Lincoln’s goal of saving Union vs. black refugees, 73 ending slavery and, 2–9, 61–63, white supremacist convictions of, 230 75–77 modern public perception of blacks Cain, Reverend Richard H., 91 during, 10–11 California, 39 Clark, Sergeant Achilles, 143 Calvert, Charles, 93 Clayton, Henry, 216 Cameron, Simon (secretary of war), 72, Cleburne, General Patrick, 176 74, 79 Clemens, Harriet, 218 Camp Girardeau (Missouri), 119 Cleveland (Ohio), 121 Camp Nelson (Kentucky), 159 Radical Democratic Party convention Camp Stanton (Maryland), 130 in, 199

Index 249

Clift, William, 171 black leaders petition to end slavery, 76 Cobb, General Howell, 176, 177 Confiscation Act and, 75 Cobb, John, 225 division of former Confederacy into five Colby, Abram, 222, 226 military districts by, 222 Colfax Massacre, 228 enactment of compulsory military Colfax, Schulyer, 230 service, 121 colonization plan, 53, 104–106, 110–113, forbidding use of federal troops in 115, 193–194, 204 capturing and returning slaves, 80 Ile a Vache (Haiti) scheme of Lincoln’s, 193 Fugitive Slave Act and, 39 Colored American Magazine, 236 Garnet as first African American to speak Colored Men’s Equal Rights League, 210 in, 208 Colored Men’s State Suffrage Second Confiscation Act and Militia Act Convention, 46 and, 102 Colored Men’s Suffrage Association of Wade-Davis Bill and, 197 Alabama, 235 Congressional Medal of Honor, 138 Columbus (Ga.) Daily Sun, 164 Connecticut Columbus (Ohio) Crisis, 99 changing attitudes toward black soldiers Comer, Laura, 20 in, 153 Compromise of 1850, 39 race riot in Canterbury, 32 Confederacy and Confederate army, 63, race riot in Norwich, 32 72–73 Twenty-ninth Connecticut Infantry in, 132 Amnesty Act and, 228 voting rights in, 209 black enlistment in, 72–73, 176–178 Conscription (Confederate), 85–87 Confederate soldiers loss of farms, 238 Conscription (Union). See draft riots Conscription and, 85–87 Constitution of the United States, 36 emancipation as avoiding foreign Constitutional Union Party, 53 recognition of, 103 contraband of war, black refugees as, firing on Fort Sumter, 62 73–75, 102 formation of Confederate States of Contraband Relief Association, 91 America, 58 convict labor, 208, 231 no quarter shown to black soldiers by, Cooke, Jay, 60 141–145 Copeland, John Jr., 51 Reconstruction Acts and, 222 Cornish, Reverend Samuel, 35 self-emancipated slave undermining of, Corwin Amendment, 3, 60, 61 81–84 Corwin, Thomas, 60 slave assistance to whites and slaveholders Covey, Edward, 27 avoiding Confederate service, 169–170 Craft, William, 29 slave patrols and, 84–85 Crandall, Prudence, 32 soldiers dislike of twenty slave law of, 85 Crane, Mary, 130 southern blacks undermining of, 9, Crecie (resistant slave), 67 173–175 Crittenden Compromise, 60 Ten Percent Plan for readmission to Union Crittenden-Johnson resolution, 63 for, 215 Crump, Willis, 220 twenty slave law and, 85–86 Curtis, Josh, 243 use of slaves for labor in, 73 Curtis, Mattie, 242–243 Wade-Davis Bill and, 197 Confiscation Act, 4, 73–81, 91–94, 102 Dabney (black spy), 175 Congress Daily Wisconsin News, 109 abolishing of slavery in the District of Darien (Georgia), 16 Columbia by, 92 black resistance against white vigilantes in Amnesty Act and, 228 postwar, 232

250 Index

Davenport, Charlie, 135 on Republican Party, 54 Davids, Tice, 22 on secession, 59 Davis, Jefferson, 73, 90, 175, 178, 180, 200 on white America’s negro problem, 236 conscription and, 85 Radical Democratic Party support by, 199 enslavement proclamation of, 128 support of black enlistment by, 123 slave uprising against on Davis Bend Douglass’ Monthly, 105 plantation of, 88 Downey Plantation (Virginia), 183 Davis, Joseph, 180 draft. See Conscription; draft riots Day, R.H., 171 draft riots De Bow, J.D.B., 37 in 1863, 121–123 Dead Man’s Bay (Florida), 165 in New York City, 122–123 debt slavery, 185, 192, 197, 240–241 Drawn with the Sword, Reflections on the DeGraffenried, J.C., 218 American Civil War (McPherson), 14 Delany, Martin, 132 Dred Scott decision (1857), 25, 46–48, 52 Delaware, 92 Du Bois, W.E.B., 6, 9, 20, 77, 228, 236 free blacks seeking army employment in, 78 Earle, Willis, 24 Democratic Party, 37, 39, 107, 109–110 Early County (Ga.) News, 161, 164, 166 KKK harassment of Republican voters in Eaton, John, 180 South, 224–226 Ebenezer Creek (Georgia) Presidential election of 1864 and, 205–207 stranding of slave refugees by Dennison, Governor William (of Ohio), 70 Sherman, 127 Dent, John Horry, 214 economic justice, 217, 232 Derby, E.H., 101 debt slavery and, 185, 240–241 desertion rates, black vs. white, 152 federal policy favoring southern whites Detroit (Michigan), 121 over southern blacks, 183–192 white mobs trying to drive blacks out financial success of black officeholders, 223 of, 195 unequal pay of black soldiers, 146–149 Dill, Jacob, 23 Edisto Island (South Carolina), 237 Dillard, Benny, 24 Edmondston, Catherine, 21 Direct Tax Act of 1862, 181 Edmondston, Sarah, 174 Dix, General John A., 108 education and schools, 241 Dodson, Jacob, 68 agricultural education, 236 Dorsey, Charlie and Anna, 40 as freedom post–Civil War, 211–213 Douglas, Stephen A., 53 black officeholders and, 223 Douglass, Frederick, 8, 76, 91, 100, 105, black soldiers and, 154–155 106, 115, 230–231 Brown v. Board of Education, 231 attacks on during speeches, 32 education of Rollins and Henry Winslow beating of Covey by, 27 (grandsons of Duncan Winslow), 242 concerns on motivations of antislavery for freed slaves in Port Royal, South sentiment, 128 Carolina, 179 criticism of Ten Percent Plan by, 198 of James McCune Smith at University of objection of to use of term contraband, 75 Glasgow (Scotland), 36 on blatant racism of refusals to accept segregation and, 203 black troops, 70 segregation in Northern schools, 230 on colonization plan, 113 Edwards, John R., 162 on Constitution’s repudiation of slavery, 36 Eighteenth Virginia Infantry, 177 on Lincoln’s reelection, 206, 207 Ellett, Robert, 29 on Lincoln’s voiding of freedom order, 76 Emancipation Proclamation, 2–4, 20, 113, on peace with master class as war on 114–120 blacks, 238 as war measure to end Civil War, 198, 201

Index 251

Lincoln’s 1862 message to Congress black soldiers imprisoned in, 148 and, 193 Everglades, 24 northern whites reaction to, 106–110, 119 Governor John Milton of requests draft preliminary, 104–106 exemption for overseers in, 87 slave escapes from border states and Hunter’s freedom and conscription order occupied South in reaction to, 116–119 in, 95 enfranchisement. See voting rights land repossession for in, 237 enlistment. See black enlistment schools established by black ministers Ennis, John, 172 in, 211 enslavement proclamation, 128 slave murders of owners in, 49 equal rights, 36, 100, 202–205, See also slave resistance in, 88 education and schools; land and Floyd, General R. F., 88 property rights; voting rights Forrest, General Nathan Bedford, 1, 143 black soldiers demands for, 203 Forrester, Jacob, 124 Dred Scott case and, 46–48 Fort Donelson (Tennessee), 5 John Rock speeches on, 203–204 Fort Macomb (Louisiana), 93 Lincoln’s refusal to back during election of Fort Pillow Massacre (Tennessee), 1, 143, 1864, 205–207 144, 242 northern whites betrayal of for blacks in Fort Pitt Cadets, 98 1870s, 228–229 Fort Saint Philip (Louisiana), 93 northern whites resistance to for blacks, Fort Scott (Kansas), 136 202, 207 Fort Sumter (South Carolina), 62, 63, 76, 82 racial division on between Fort Wagner assault (South Carolina), abolitionists, 100 137, 139 Radical Democratic Party and, 199 Fort Williams (North Carolina), 143 religious liberty and, 211–212 Forten, Charlotte, 179 Reverend Garnet’s speech on before Fortress Monroe (Virginia), 63, 73, 82, Congress, 208–209 94, 188 slave codes and, 28–29 Fourteenth Amendment, 222, 230, 231 Erie Weekly Gazette, 62 Fourteenth Regiment, USCT, 154 Estabrooks, Henry, 172 Fourteenth Rhode Island Heavy Artillery, Evans, Ann, 240 132, 178 Evans, Nathaniel, 167 Fourth Division of the South Carolina militia, 86 faithful slave, delusion of, 20–21, 162 Fourth Georgia Cavalry, 143 families. See slave families and children Fourth Louisiana Regiment, 152 Federal Writers Project, 18 Fourth New York Heavy Artillery, 125 Fessenden, William, 191 Fowler, Captain Edmund, 135 Field Orders Number 15, 237 Frazier, Viny, 40 Fifteenth Amendment, 222, 235–236 Free Negro Orphan Asylum (New York Fifth Kansas Cavalry Regiment, 133 City), 36 Fifth Regiment, USCT, 152 Free Soil Kansas militia, 98 Fifty-ﬁfth Massachusetts Regiment, 132 Free Soil Party, 37, 39 Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Infantry, 132, free states, 39, 45, 167, 192 133, 137, 138, 145, 148, 149, 203 1860 election and, 56 First Regiment, USCT, 156, 214 black enlistment in, 131 First Rhode Island Regiment, 68 California as, 39 Florida, 23, 124, 134, 146, 155, 165, 167 Dred Scott decision and, 47 Battle of Olustee in, 143 illegality of blacks to testify or serve in black militia in, 169 juries in, 100 black soldiers from, 145 Maine as, 39

252 Index

free states (cont.) fears of slave insurrection in, 55, 65, 163 opposition to black immigration in, Fourth Georgia Cavalry of, 143 194–196 General Assembly’s mandate on arson by slaves in, 34 black people in, 87 Freedmen’s School Society, 212 Governor Joe Brown of, 162, 163, 165 Freedmen’s Bureau, 105, 213, 216–219 Hines Holt plantation in, 66 corruption in, 218–219 Hunter’s freedom and conscription order creation of, 212 in, 95 freedom, black self-agency in obtaining, 1–2, ignoring of draft call in, 86 15–17, 113, 242–243, See also black Ku Klux Klan in, 225 resistance; slave resistance lack of pay to former slaves in, 217 Frémont, John C., 45, 199, 205–206 laws in forbidding slaves to travel without voiding of freedom order of, 76 a pass, 162 Fry, General S. S., 159 lynchings in, 233 fugitive employment plan, 107 murder of blacks in postwar, 232 Fugitive Slave Act, 3, 40, 53, 71, 92–94, murder of Republicans by KKK in, 226 132, See also self-emancipated slaves newspaper reports of black assembly in, 161 northern black resistance to, 40–43 newspaper reports of slave insurrection in, 55 Gaines, Matthew, 224 passion for school of freedwoman Gallagher, Gary, 13–15 Hannah Austin of, 213 Garnet, Henry Highland, 37, 40, 46, 48, 91 secession and, 58 speech before Congress of, 208–209 self-emancipated slaves and, 67, 94, 98, Garrison, William Lloyd, 32, 36, 128, 202 167, 168 Gelston, Charles, 191 self-emancipated slaves of St. Simons General Orders No. 135, 129 Island, 99 General Orders No. 14, 178 slave murders of owners in, 49 George (resistant slave, Georgia), 165 slave patrols in, 84–85, 162 George (resistant slave, Mississippi), 66 slave resistance to physical punishment Georgia, 19, 57, 82, 84, 171, 173, 176, 178 and abuse in, 66–67 acreage held by blacks in, 240 slave uprising in, 9, 52, 56, 163, 165–166 Andersonville prison of, 144 slaves assistance to stranger avoiding antislavery petition of Darien settlers in Confederate service in, 170 1739, 16 southern whites attitude toward blacks apprentice laws in, 218 postwar, 213 black enlistment in, 124 stranding of slave refugees by Sherman black militias in, 227 in, 127 black officeholders as targets of Ku Klux Thirteenth Amendment and, 215 Klan in, 226 twenty slave law and, 85 black resistance against white vigilantes in voter intimidation in, 224, 235 postwar, 232 voting rights in, 222 black soldiers and, 134, 140, 143 white assistance to slaves in, 166 black supported schools established in, 211 Giles v. Harris (1903), 235–236 black women’s assistance to Union Giles, Jackson W., 235 soldiers in, 171 Gillmore, General Quincy, 139 blacks in Sherman’s march through, 126 Gladdy, Mary, 18 corruption of Freedmen’s Bureau agents Glory (film), 10 in, 218 Goddin, Private O., 85 Darien burned by black soldiers in, 16 Gone with the Wind (film), 10 deserter gangs in, 167 Gooding, Corporal James Henry, 137, fall of Atlanta in September, 1864, 206 146, 147

Index 253

Goodwin, Doris Kearns, 11 Hilton Head (South Carolina), 183 Gordon, General John B., 177 land repossession in, 237 Gorusch, William, 42–43 Hines Holt plantation (Georgia), 66 Gosport Navy Yard, 174 Holden, Major William, 157 Gragston, Arnold, 23 Holland, Tom, 226 Grandberry, Mary Ella, 24 Holley, Columbus, 163 Grandy, Charles, 129 Holley, Silas, 150 Grant, General Ulysses S., 5, 78, 107 Holly, J. Theodore, 35 Battle of the Crater and, 140 Holmes, Carter, 218 biography of, 10 Holmes, Justice Oliver Wendell, 235 Great Dismal Swamp, 24, 50, 168 Holzer, Harold, 11 Greeley, Horace, 59 Hooker, General Joe, 120 Green, Shields, 51 Houston, Governor Sam (of Texas), 57 Greene, General Nathanael, 179 Howard, Private Joseph, 144 Grier, Clara, 126 Hudson, James H., 106 Grierson, General Benjamin, 213 Hunter, General David, 95–97, 98, 99, Guardian (black-owned Boston 124, 153 newspaper), 235 Guttery, Robert, 169 Ile a Vache (Haiti) scheme, 193 Guwn, Betty, 5 Illinois, 1, 44, 107, 110, 121 blacks petitioning for repeal of black laws Hahn, Governor Michael (of and school segregation in, 203 Louisiana), 197 changing attitudes toward black soldiers Hahn, Steven, 14 in, 153 Haiti, 110, 193 Duncan Winslow in, 242 Hall, J.H., 203 Elijah Lovejoy murdered in, 32 Halleck, General Henry, 77, 78, 97, 98 fugitive employment plan and, 107 Hallowell, Colonel Edward, 149 violence against black fugitives in, 195 Halpine, Charles G., 153 voters ban on black immigration in, 194 Hamilton, Clinton, 220 Immigration and Naturalization Service Hamilton, Colonel William, 173 (INS) citizenship test, 12 Hamilton, Robert, 203 impressment policies, 188–189, 192, 197 Hamilton, Thomas, 76 Indiana, 44, 97, 110, 127, 128, 130 Hammond, James Henry, 54 black soldiers from, 145 Hancock, Scott, 16 blacks petitioning for repeal of black laws Hannah (formerly enslaved), 213 in, 203 Harlan, Justice John Marshall, 231, 235 changing attitudes toward black soldiers Harney, General William, 71 in, 153 Harper, Pierce, 225 law barring blacks from entering the Harper’s Ferry raid (Virginia), 45, 51–53 state, 194 Harris, William, 156 National Equal Rights convention in, 210 Hassell, Doc, 117 soldiers mistreatment of blacks in, 125 Hawkins, Ella, 19 Indianapolis Daily Journal, 59, 97 Hawkins, Tom, 32 Iowa, 44, 167, 194 Haynes, Benjamin, 169 Governor Samuel Kirkwood on black Heard, Peter, 67 enlistment, 97 Heasley, Captain A. W., 148 Sixtieth Regiment, USCT of, 210 Henry (formerly enslaved soldier), 157 Isle of Wight regiment, 82 Higginson, Colonel T. W., 134 Hildreth, James W., 125 Jackson, Alonzo, 173 Hill, Louis, 237 Jackson, William Andrew, 200

254 Index

James Island (South Carolina), 137 Lambert, Solomon, 124 Jarvis, Harry, 63 Lancaster (Pa.) Black Self-Protection Jayhawkers (Free Soil Kansas militia), 98 Society, 43 Jim (formerly enslaved), 22 land and property rights, 204, 219 Jim Crow system, 230, 231, 236 black officeholders ownership of land and Johnson, Samuel, 145 property, 223 Johnson, Andrew, 199, 215, 216, 220–221 black purchase of land, 240 Amnesty Proclamation’s restoration of black resistance to federal confiscation of, land to planters, 237 182–183 Johnson, Lewis, 187 Confederate soldiers loss of farms, 238 Johnson, Nancy, 170, 171 Direct Tax Act (1862) and, 181 Johnson, Octave, 68 increased white elite ownership of Johnson, Reverdy, 201–202 farmland in 1860s, 239 Johnson, Sergeant Samuel, 142 Lincoln’s policies of repossession and Jones, Albert, 140 confiscation, 181–182 Jones, Captain Rufus Sibb, 97 northern whites elite support of southern Jones, James, 178 land repossession efforts, 238 Jones, William, 123 Radical Democratic Party and, 199 Jubilee, 114 repossession of by planters via President Julian, George, 196 Johnson’s Amnesty Proclamation, 237–238 Kamper, Jane, 218 squatter sovereignty plan for, 183 Kansas, 117, 167 success of farming freedmen, 179–181 black enlistment in, 98 tenant farming, 208, 239–240 Fifth Kansas Cavalry Regiment of, 133 Lane, Senator James H., 98 Fort Scott, 136 Langston, John Mercer, 132, 210 Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), 44–45 Langston, Reverend Whitely, 233 Kearsey, Archibald, 166 Larke, Alured, 171 Keckley, Elizabeth, 91 Larkin, Samuel, 191 Kellogg, John, 171 Leary, Lewis, 51 Kendricks, Jennie, 31 Lee, General Robert E., 175 Kentucky, 78, 80, 117, 119 support of for black enlistment in 1865, 177 Arnold Gragston (enslaved) assists Lee, Jane, 167 fugitive slaves in, 23 legal status. See also black codes; slave codes atrocities at Camp Nelson in, 159 Confiscation Act, 4, 73–81, 91–94, 102 black enlistment in, 130–131 Dred Scott case and, 25, 46–48 fears of slave insurrection in, 50 Fugitive Slave Act, 92–94 free blacks seeking army employment of self-emancipated blacks within Union in, 78 lines, 71–72 fugitive employment plan and, 107 Second Confiscation Act, 102–104 law forbidding blacks to enter, 192 twenty slave law and, 85–86 slave murders of owners in, 49 Liberator, 32, 49, 100, 132, 179 Kinchlow, Ben, 23 Liberty Party, 37, 39, 46 Kirke, Edmund, 172 Lincoln (film), 11 Kirkwood, Governor Samuel (of Iowa), 97 Lincoln, Abraham. See also Emancipation Knight, Emma, 217 Proclamation Knight, Newton, 169 backtracking on emancipation and refusal Knight, Rachel, 169 to support equal rights in 1864 of, Kock, Bernard, 110, 193 205–207 Ku Klux Klan, 225–227, 232 black soldiers and, 7, 96, 120, 146, 147, black officeholders as targets of, 226 148, 151, 203

Index 255

colonization plan of, 53, 104–106, blacks making decent living for themselves 110–113, 115, 193–194, 204 in, 191 Confiscation Act and, 73–81, 91–94 Colfax Massacre in, 228 draft act and, 120 debt slavery in, 185 exemption of Kentucky from efforts to Emancipation Proclamation and, 116 recruit blacks, 130 fears of slave insurrection in, 65 firing of Cameron by, 80 Fort Macomb in, 93 Fugitive Slave Act and, 92–94 Fort Saint Philip in, 93 goal of saving Union vs. ending slavery of, Fourth Louisiana Regiment of, 152 2–9, 61–63, 75–77 Governor James Madison Wells of, 221 gradual approach to emancipation by, 96 Governor Michael Hahn of, 197 land repossession and confiscation policies impressment laws in, 188, 196 of, 181–182 land sales to northern speculators northern black response to call for army in, 183 volunteers in 1861, 68 Louisiana Native Guards in, 72, 98, Presidential election of 1860 and, 53–55 131, 136 Presidential election of 1864 and, mistreatment at government work camps 205–207 in, 187 Proclamation of Amnesty and murder of Republicans by KKK in, 226 Reconstruction and Ten Percent Plan of, National Equal Rights League in, 204 181, 196–199, 207 newspaper reports of slave insurrection public misperception of as sole freer of in, 50 slaves, 2, 10–17 no quarter to black soldiers in, 142 Second Confiscation and Miltia Acts and, Port Hudson attack in, 136 102–104 self-emancipated slaves and, 68, 81 slaveholder compensation and, 110–112 slave resistance on Pugh plantation, 88 voiding of Frémont’s freedom order by, 76 slave uprising in, 27, 90 voiding of Hunter’s freedom order by, 95 slaveholder requests for help to Union voting rights and, 197, 204 army, 90 Wade-Davis Bill and, 197 swamps as refuges for slave refugees, 68 Lincoln, Mary Todd, 91 vagrancy laws in, 188 Lincoln’s Legal Loyal League (4-Ls), 115 veto of Wade-Davis Bill and, 198 literacy white mob attack at voting rights assembly black officeholders and, 223, 242 in, 221 literacy test for voting, 235 Louveste, Mary, 174 of black soldiers, 154–155 Lovejoy, Elijah, 32 of freed slaves in Port Royal, South Lynch, Reverend James, 210 Carolina, 179 lynchings, 192, 232–234 Little Rock (Arkansas) Lyons, John, 225 schools established by blacks in, 212 Logan, General John, 5 Mack, Marshall, 8 Logan, Mattie, 26 Mackay, Charles, 31 Loguen, Jermain Wesley, 41, 211–212 Maine, 144 Louisiana, 104, 116, 124, 151, 154, 174, as free state, 39 177, 184, 204, See also New Orleans Manning, Private Patrick, 126 black resistance in, 196–197 Mansfield, William, 163 black soldiers from, 98, 124 Manson, Jacob, 30 blacks cheated out of their pay on marriage, 28, 157, See also slave families government plantations in, 183 and children blacks leaving plantations of due to Maryland, 42–43, 92–94, 117, 201 mistreatment in, 186 apprentice law in, 217

256 Index

Maryland (cont.) McNeil, James, 213 attack on Union troops in Baltimore, 9, McPherson, James, 14, 120, 228 69–69 Meadows, Louis, 55 black resistance against apprentice laws media, and public perception of blacks in, 218 during Civil War, 10–11 Camp Stanton in, 130 Memphis (Tennessee) free blacks seeking army employment Memphis riot of May 1866, 221 in, 78 National Equal Rights League in, 204 Point Lookout in, 94 Merritt, Susan, 220 slave murders of owners in, 49 Mexican War, 37, 39 slave woman’s resistance in, 30 Mexico, 167 slaves of in Union camps in Virginia, abolishing of slavery, 37 71, 80 as haven for fugitive slaves, 23 Union Party convention in, 199 Mexican Cession, 39 white attack on a black army surgeon Michigan, 98, 121, 127 in, 152 black demand for voting rights in, 203 Mason, Roberta, 240 changing attitudes toward black soldiers Massachusetts, 73, 100, 111, 120, 127, 201, in, 153 221 white mobs trying to drive blacks out of, black enlistment in, 131 195 celebration of Emancipation Proclamation Militia Act, 102, 103 in, 114 Miller, Captain M. M., 137 changing attitudes toward black soldiers Miller, G.P., 98 in, 154 Miller, Joseph, 159 failed labor strike blamed on black Milton, Governor John (of Florida), 87 competition in, 121 Minnesota Fifty-ﬁfth Massachusetts Infantry of, 132 voting rights in, 209 Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Infantry of, white attempts to expel black refugees in, 132, 133, 137, 138, 145, 148, 149, 203 196 former governor George Boutwell of, 101 Mississippi, 52, 86, 120, 135, 163, 169, 173, fugitive employment plan in, 108 201 Governor John Andrew of, 131 Battle of Milliken’s Bend in, 137, 141–142 Governor John Andrew’s refusal to accept black militias in, 66 black refugees, 108 black ofﬁceholders from, 223 legislature’s vote not to accept black black resistance against apprentice laws troops, 70 in, 218 Massachusetts Republican convention in blacks complaints about vagrancy laws in, 1865, 230 217 newspaper headline on Giles v. Harris in, blacks demand for voting and equal rights 235 in, 210 segregation and voting rights in, 100 blacks leaving plantations of due to support for slavery expressed in, 31 mistreatment, 184 Tremont Temple in, 114 Emancipation Proclamation and, 115 Massey, S.S., 168 fears of slave insurrection in, 55, 64 Maxwell, Colonel C., 118 General Grant’s contraband retreat McClellan, General George, 71, 77, in, 107 205–206 Governor John Pettus of, 64 McClernand, General John, 198 reneging on 40 acres and a mule promise McDonald, William, 170 in, 237 McKenzie, Robert, 239 secession and, 58 McLean, Justice John, 47 self-emancipated slaves and, 67

Index 257

Senator Brown suggestion of northern National Freedmen’s Relief Association, 212 slavery, 39 Ned (formerly enslaved soldier), 129 slave possession of abandoned land in, 180 Nell, William C., 115 slave uprisings in, 50, 88, 163 Nelson (resistant slave), 165 vagrancy laws in, 188 Nettles, Hattie, 18 voter intimidation in, 224 New England Freedmen’s Aid Society, 212 voting registration drive in, 222 New Hampshire, 93 white assistance to slaves in, 166 black population in 1860, 38 Missouri, 78, 133, 167, 173, 195 rape of black women by soldier in, 126 as slave state, 39 New Jersey, 110, 111 Benton Barracks in, 118 apprentice laws in, 34 black soldiers in, 136 Emancipation Proclamation declared Camp Girardeau in, 119 illegal in, 119 free blacks seeking army employment race riot in Newark, 32 in, 78 New Mexico territory, 39 freedom order in, 76 New Orleans (Louisiana) General Orders No. 135 in, 129 black resistance in, 196–197 lack of pay to former slaves in, 217 blacks making decent living for themselves ordinances against blacks in, 192 in, 191 reneging on 40 acres and a mule promise debt slavery and, 186 in, 237 murder of Republicans by KKK in, 226 schools established by blacks in, 212 National Equal Rights League in, 204 self-emancipated slaves and, 117–119 New Orleans Creoles regiment, 98 slave murders of owners in, 48, 50 recruiting companies seizures of blacks, 124 slave uprising in, 53 slave uprisings in, 90 violence against blacks by former Union control of in 1862, 78 slaveholders in postwar, 220 vagrancy laws in, 188 Missouri Compromise, 39, 44–45, 60 white mob attack at voting rights assembly Mix, Colonel S. H, 174 in, 221 Montgomery Advertiser, 56 New Orleans Tribune, 197, 203 Montgomery Weekly Mail, 176 New York, 109, 110, 121, 128, 211 Montgomery, Colonel James, 150 anti-colonization plan meetings in, 111 Moore (formerly enslaved soldier), 155 changing attitudes toward black soldiers Morgan, Colonel Thomas, 154 in, 153 Moses (resistant slave), 135 Colored Men’s State Suffrage Convention Moses, Charlie, 163 in, 46 murder. See violence daily attendance at public schools in 1865, Musselman, Mr., 117 212 Fourth New York Heavy Artillery in, 125 Nashville (Tennessee), 190, 191 Liberty Party of, 37, 46 Battle of Nashville in, 139 National Convention of Colored Men in, freedmen’s convention in, 210 204 National Equal Rights League in, 204 race riots in Buffalo and Palmyra, 32 National Association for the Advancement voting rights in, 100 of Colored People (NAACP), 236 New York City, 36, 60, 106, 108, 121 National Convention for Colored Men draft riots in, 122–123 (1864), 204 Free Negro Orphan Asylum in, 36 National Convention of Colored Citizens lifting of segregation on streetcars in, 204 (1843), 40 mob attack on abolitionists in, 32 National Council of Colored People, 36 Shiloh Church in, 91 National Equal Rights League, 204, 210 Twentieth Regiment, USCT in, 152

258 Index

New York Herald, 59, 62 enlistment and, 70–71 New York Times, 61, 114, 153, 238 kidnapping of free blacks into slavery, 40 New York Tribune, 59, 63, 172 refugee aid societies, 91 Newby, Dangerﬁeld, 51 resistance to Fugitive Slave Act, 40–43 Newby, Harriet, 51 secession and, 59 Nichols, Danforth, 187 northern whites, 10 Nineteenth South Carolina Regiment, 84 anti-black immigration attitude of, 31, 38, Norfolk (Virginia) 43, 194–196 blacks demand for voting and equal rights betrayal of equal rights for blacks in in, 210 1870s, 228–229 kidnappings of blacks in, 126 changing attitudes toward black soldiers North Carolina, 50, 79, 112, 127, 164, 167, among, 152–154 177, 180, 212, 242 draft riots of 1863 and, 121–123 acreage held by blacks in, 240 elite opposition to secession, 59–61 black assistance to White Union soldiers elite support of southern land repossession in, 141 efforts, 238 black militias in, 227 expressions of racism and support for black soldiers freeing of enslaved blacks slavery among (prewar), 31–35 in, 155 opposition to slavery expansion by, 38, black Union soldiers used as slave labor in, 43–44 150 racism among as a deterrent to slave capture of Plymouth in, 142 escapes, 31 debt slavery in, 240 reaction to Emancipation Proclamation First Regiment, USCT in, 214 by, 106–110, 119 Fort Williams in, 143 refusal of to accept black enlistment, freedmen’s demand for right of 70–71, 97, 99 representation in, 211 resistance of to social and political Governor Zebulon Vance of, 85 equality for blacks, 202, 207 Great Dismal Swamp as fugitive slave view of black freedmen farmers of, refuge in, 168 179–181 mistreatment at government work camps Northup, Solomon, 40 in, 187 racism of female slaveholders postwar, O’ Reilly, Private Miles (pseudonym), 153 214–215 Oakes, James, 28 secession of, 62 Obama, Barack, 13 slave possession of abandoned land in, Ohio, 44, 109, 117, 121, 127 180 black soldiers and, 97 slave uprising in, 55 changing attitudes toward black soldiers Somerset Plantation in, 180 in, 153 twenty slave law and, 85 edict not to accept black troops in, 70 value of black soldiers in, 134, 174 fugitive employment plan and, 107 violence against blacks in postwar, 220 Governor William Dennison of, 70 white assistance to slaves in, 166 petitions against black immigration in, 194 North Carolina Standard, 58 Radical Democratic Party convention in, northern blacks, 7–9, 44, 105, See also 199 abolitionists; black leaders; black Representative Thomas Corwin and, 60 resistance slaves in Harper’s Ferry raid from, 51 1860 Presidential election and, 53–54 white attack on black soldier in, 152 dropping percentage of population Oliver, John, 126 between 1790 and 1860 of, 38 One Hundred Tenth Regiment, USCT, 144 early army volunteering of, 9, 68–70 Owens, Reverend Wade, 225

Index 259

Paciﬁc Appeal, 94, 96, 106 Plaquemines Parish (Louisiana), 116 Packard, Mr., 117 Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), 231, 235 Panama, 111 Point Lookout (Maryland), 94 Parker, William, 42 Political Economy of the Cotton South Parrner, Mr., 117 (Wright), 239 Patterson, Delicia, 24 Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom Pemberton, General John, 83 (Hahn), 14 Penniman, William, 143 poll taxes, 235 Pennington, Dr. James, 76 pop culture media, and public perception of Pennsylvania, 11, 44, 101, 110, 120, 127 blacks during Civil War, 10–11 anti-colonization plan meetings in, 111 Port Hudson attack (Louisiana), 136 black enlistment in, 131 Port Royal (South Carolina), 98 black soldiers demands for equal rights school for freed slaves, 179 and, 203 prayer meetings, 18–19 changing attitudes toward black soldiers Presidential campaign of 1848, 39 in, 153 Presidential campaign of 1860, 15, 53–55 Christiana riot in, 42, 43 Presidential election of 1864, 205–207 Fort Pitt Cadets of, 98 Prince, Henry, 140 Lancaster Black Self-Protection Society Proclamation of Amnesty and in, 43 Reconstruction (1863), 181, 196–199 race riot in Columbia, 32 Proclamation of Amnesty and Thirty-second Regiment, USCT of, 148 Reconstruction (1865), 237 Washington Artillerists of, 9 Providence (Rhode Island) Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, 34 black regiments in, 68 Pennsylvania Bible Society, 106 order to local blacks to stop military Percy (resistant slave), 173 drills, 70 Petersburg (Virginia) Pugh plantation (Louisiana), 88 Battle of the Crater in, 140, 142 punishment and physical abuse, 24–25 blacks demand for voting and equal rights in, 210 Radical Abolition Party, 46, 54 Petersburg Cavalry Company, 82 Radical Democratic Party, 199, 202, 206 Siege of, 138–139 Randall, A.B., 157 Pettigrew, Charles, 180 Randolph, Benjamin, 226 Pettus, Governor John (of Mississippi), 64 Rankin, Jim, 163 Philadelphia (Pennsylvania), 106, 111 Rayford, Jeff, 169 anti-colonization plan meetings in, 111 Reconstruction Acts, 221–222 black regiments in, 68 recruitment. See black enlistment mass meeting against Civil War in, 59 Redmond, Charles Lenox, 132 race riot in, 32 refugee aid societies, 91, 179 refugee aid societies in, 91, 179 religious liberty, 211–212, See also black Philadelphia Port Royal Relief Association, churches and ministers 179 Remond, Charles Lenox, 48 Phillips, Wendell, 59, 91, 196 Republican Party, 45, 109–110, 224–226 Radical Democratic Party support by, 199 Dred Scott decision and, 47 Pickel, Private Adam, 120 Presidential campaign of 1860 and, 53–55 Pilgrim’s Church (South Carolina), 227 violence of Ku Klux Klan against, 225–227 Pippey, Sergeant William, 120 white southern betrayal of blacks post Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania), 105 Civil War, 224 Fort Pitt Cadets of, 98 resistance. See black resistance; equal rights; Pittsburgh Post, 62 slave resistance; slave uprisings; Planter, 82–83 violence

260 Index

Revels, Hiram, 223 Seddon, James (Confederate secretary of Rhode Island war), 87 First Rhode Island Regiment, 68 segregation, 99, 208, 229–232 Fourteenth Rhode Island Heavy Artillery in Massachusetts, 100 of, 132, 178 in schools, 203 Rhodes, Susan, 218 Jim Crow system in South, 229, 236 Rice, Private Spotswood, 156 lifting of on NYC streetcars, 204 Richardson, Alfred, 226 Plessy v. Ferguson and, 231 Richardson, Bob, 163 refusal of Supreme Court to declare Richmond (Virginia), 163, 167 unconstitutional, 230 black complaints about black codes in self-emancipated slaves, 1–4, 23–25, 42–43, postwar, 216 67–68, 116–119 Colored Men’s Equal Rights League in, 210 anti-black immigration in North and, Richmond Dispatch, 64 106–110, 194–196 Richmond Examiner, 63 as contraband of war, 73–75, 102 rights. See economic justice; education and banding together of for support and schools; equal rights; land and property protection, 168–169 rights; voting rights Confiscation Act, 4, 73–81, 91–94 Roanoke (Virginia), 189 Dred Scott decision and, 46–48 Roanoke Times, 11 effect on Confederate war effort by, 81–84 Robinson, Tom, 18 fugitive camps of, 24, 67, 79, 168 Rock, John, 100, 115, 203–204 in Missouri, 117–119 on slaveholder compensation, 111 in Washington from Virginia and Rolling Jim position, 25 Maryland, 92–94 Rosecrans, General William, 188, 190 legal status of escapees to Union lines, Ross, Madison Frederick, 212 71–72 Rucker, Private Newton, 152 refugee aid societies and, 91 Russell, Lieutenant James, 69 Second Confiscation Act and, 102–104 southern whites assistance to, 163–167 Sam (resistant slave), 165 Underground Railroad and, 22–23 Sanders (overseer), 67 Senate, 201, 206 Savannah (Georgia), 19 blacks in, 223 apprentice laws in, 218 Seven Days battles, 97 black supported schools established in, 211 Seward, William (secretary of state), 102, 205 black women’s assistance to Union Seymour, General Truman, 139 soldiers in, 171 Seymour, Horatio, 109 ignoring of draft call in, 86 Shackelford, Sis, 24 stranding of slave refugees by Sherman, 127 Shaw, Colonel Robert Gould, 10, 137, 147, voter intimidation in, 235 150, 179 Saxton, General Rufus, 183 Shelby, General Joe, 86 Scaggs, Harvell, 164 Shepard, Virginia, 24 Scaggs, William, 164 Shepley, General George, 90 Scott, General Winfield, 66 Sheppard, Morris, 241 secession Sherman, General William T., 78, 126, 133, fears of slave rebellion and, 55–59 211 northern abolitionists and, 59 field order for 40 acres and a mule promise white northern elite opposition to, 59–61 of, 237 white southern nonslaveholders vote Shiloh Church (New York City), 91 against, 58 Shoots, Giles, 164 Second Confiscation Act, 4, 102–104, 181, Siege of Petersburg, 138–139 199 Simms, J.M., 218

Index 261

Simon (resistant slave), 66 Harper’s Ferry raid, 45, 51–53 Simons, Peter Paul, 34 in 1862, 88 Sixth Alabama, 167 in Louisiana, 27 Sixth U.S. Heavy Artillery, 1 John Vickery’s (white man) plot with three Sixtieth Regiment, USCT, 210 slaves in Georgia, 165–166 slave codes, 17, 28–29, 87 Nat Turner rebellion, 27 apprentice laws, 34 slaveholders fears of in 1860, 55–59 black codes as mirroring, 216 slave women slave families and children, 157 as mistresses, 29–30 apprentice laws and, 217–218 Mattie Curtis, 242–243 as deterrents to escape, 23–25 rape of by Union soldiers, 126 as means of intimidation and control by resistance of, 30 slaveholders, 28–31 slavecatchers, 23, 40, 42–44, 92, 168, 192 emancipation of friends and family of slaveholders, 201, See also black codes; slave black soldiers, 155–160 codes; slave resistance; southern whites of Dangerﬁeld Newby, 51 compensation of, 93, 110–112 of John Boston, 80 faithful slave image as delusion and, slave marriage, 28 20–21 slaveholder naming of children, 29 fears of slave resistance in 1862, 87–90 slave patrols, 17, 64, 84–85, 86, 117, 162 fears of slave uprisings in 1860, 55–59 in Missouri, 117–119 fears of slave uprisings in 1861, 64–66 slave resistance, 9–10, See also black naming of children, 29 resistance; slave uprisings; violence racism of female, 214–215 aid to southern white draft dodgers and slave women as mistresses of, 29–30 deserters, 169–170 slavery expansion and, 38, 39 as cause of Civil War, 8 use of slave families and children as means black militias, 66, 168 of intimidation and control by, 28–31 black spies, scouts, and guides for Union violence against blacks by (postwar), 220 Army, 9, 82, 173–175 violence against by slaves, 9, 42–43, grapevine telegraph and, 52, 116, 171 48–50, 67, 88, 163 in 1860 (pre-election), 55 work ethic of blacks vs. former, 214, 241 in 1861, 64–68 slaves and slavery, 1–4, 40, 110, See also in 1862, 87–90 Emancipation Proclamation; in wake of Emancipation Proclamation, self-emancipated slaves; slave codes; 116–119 slave families and children; slave of Duncan Winslow, 1–2, 242 resistance of Robert Smalls, 82–83 black self-agency and resistance as ending of slave women, 30 vs. Lincoln, 1–2, 15–17, 75 requests for Union army help against by Britain and, 103 slaveholders, 90 debt slavery, 185, 240–241 self-emancipated slaves against delusion of faithful slave image, 20–21 Confederate army, 81–84 expansion of into new territories, 37–40 southern whites assistance in, 163–167 Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) and, 44–45 suicide as, 26 Lincoln’s goal of saving Union vs. ending, to whipping and physical punishment, 2–9, 61–63, 75–77 66–67 Mexico’s abolishing of, 37 Underground Railroad and, 22–23 monetary value of, 30 use of families and children of as means of petition to Congress to end, 76 intimidation and control by slaveholders, Proclamation of Amnesty and 28–31 Reconstruction and Ten Percent Plan slave uprisings, 9, 50, 163–164 and, 196–199

262 Index

slaves and slavery (cont.) newspaper reports of slave insurrection in, punishment and physical abuse of, 24–25, 56 66–67 Nineteenth South Carolina Regiment, 84 racism and support for slavery among non-payment of wages to blacks in, 183 northern whites (prewar), 31–35 Pilgrim’s Church in, 227 Second Confiscation Act and, 102–104 rape of black women by Union soldier in, slave marriage, 28 126 suicide as means of escaping, 26 schools and education founded in, 179 Thirteenth Amendment and, 201–202, secession of, 57, 59 207, 208 self-emancipated slaves and, 168 Wade-Davis Bill and, 198 slave refugees from in 1862, 81 white northerners fear of spreading of, slaveholder complaints of slave resistance 43–44 in, 87 Smalls, Robert, 82–83 slaveholder murder by slaves in, 67 Smith, A.P., 111 slaves as spies for Union army in, 82 Smith, Austin, 191 swamps as refuges for slave refugees, 67, Smith, General Edmund Kirby, 141 168 Smith, Gerrit, 46, 54 Third South Carolina Regiment of, 148 Smith, James McCune, 35, 132, 198 violence against Republicans in, 227 Somerset plantation (North Carolina), 180 white assistance to slaves in, 166 South Carolina, 64, 82, 84, 95, 98, 137, 147, Zion Church in, 216 171, 183, 219 southern blacks, 9–10 black aid to Union army in, 172, 173, 174 as spies, scouts, and guides for Union black complaints about white Republicans Army, 9, 173–175 in, 224 federal economic policies and, 183–192 black enlistment in, 124 hope for a Lincoln victory in 1860, 54 black militias in, 227 legal limits on free blacks, 28 black officeholders as targets of Ku Klux resistance of (postwar), 210–212 Klansmen in, 226 success of farming freedmen, 179–181 black political rallies in, 54 violence against (postwar), 220 black soldiers demands for equal rights Southern Claims Commission, 191 and, 203 Southern Rights Party, 53 black threats of violence against white southern whites, 15, 38 land speculators in, 183 assistance to slaves and to slave resistance, blacks making decent living for themselves 163–167 in, 191 Confederate soldiers loss of farms, 238 certificates of democracy in, 224 federal economic policies favoring, 183–192 Colored People’s Convention rejecting nonslaveholders resistance to serving on postwar black codes of, 216 slave patrols and in army, 85, 86 complaints of Freedmen’s Bureau nonslaveholders vote against secession, 58 corruption in, 219 violence against Union Leaguers economic justice for blacks in, 191 supporting black voting rights, 220–221 fears of slave insurrection in, 65 Spielberg, Steven, 11 Fort Sumter in, 62, 63, 76, 82 Springfield (Mass.) Daily Republican., 108 Fort Wagner assault in, 137, 139 squatter sovereignty plan, 183 Fourth Division of the South Carolina St. Helena Island (South Carolina), 95 militia, 86 non-payment of wages to blacks in, 183 Hunter’s freedom and conscription order St. Paul (Minnesota) in, 95 white attempts to expel black refugees land purchase by blacks in, 182 in, 196 land repossession in, 237 St. Simons Island (Georgia), 99, 124

Index 263

Stampp, Kenneth, 61 Army of Tennessee, 176 Stanton, Edwin M. (secretary of war), 93, Battle of Nashville in, 139 98, 116, 131, 133, 192 Battle of Shiloh in, 97 blacks request not to use white agents in black complaints about black codes in Freedmen’s Bureau and, 219 postwar, 216 fugitive employment plan and, 107 black enlistment in, 130 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 200–201 blacks making decent living for themselves Radical Democratic Party support by, 199 in, 191 Stark, Mary, 23 corruption of Freedmen’s Bureau agents Stephens, Alexander (Confederate vice in, 219 president), 57, 72 economic justice for blacks in, 191 Stephens, George, 71 Emancipation Proclamation and, 116 Steward, Solomon, 146 fears of slave insurrection in, 50 Stier, Issac, 237 Fort Donelson in, 5 Still, William, 47 Fort Pillow Massacre of, 1, 143, Stone, Kate, 20 144, 242 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 29 freedmen’s convention in, 210 suicide, as means of escaping slavery, 26 increased white elite ownership of Summerson, William and Ann, 168 farmland in, 239 Sumner, Senator Charles, 100, 201, 221, Memphis riot of May 1866 in, 221 222, 235 National Equal Rights League in, 204 Supreme Court, 25, 228 order of wage payments to black workers Dred Scott decision (1857), 46–48 in, 190 Giles vs. Harris (1903), 235–236 religious liberty in, 211 Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), 231, 235 secession of, 62 refusal of to declare segregation self-emancipated slaves from, 72, 79 unconstitutional, 230 Sixth U.S. Heavy Artillery of, 1 survival as resistance, 243 slaveholder complaints of slave resistance Susan (rape victim), 126 in, 88 Sutton, Corporal Robert, 134 twenty slave law and, 85 Syracuse (New York), 211 vagrancy laws in, 188 National Convention of Colored Men in, violence against blacks by former 204 slaveholders in postwar, 220 voting rights in, 221 Tallahassee (Florida) Terrebonne Parish (Louisiana), 116 schools established by black ministers in, Texas, 163, 167, 220, 224 211 fears of slave insurrection in, 55 Taney, Chief Justice Roger, 47, 235 Governor Sam Houston of, 57 Taylor, General Zachary, 39 Ku Klux Klan in, 225, 226 Taylor, Grant, 177 newspaper reports of slave insurrection Taylor, Joseph, 218 in, 50 Taylor, Susie King, 19, 171, 233–235 schools in for black students, 211 Ten Percent Plan, 196–199, 207 secession and, 58 Frederick Douglass’ criticism of, 198 slave murders of owners in, 49 President Johnson’s adherence to, 215 slaveholder complaints of slave resistance resistance to in Louisiana, 196–197 in, 88 tenant farming, 208, 239–240 violence against blacks by former Tennessee, 78, 80, 104, 116, 168, slaveholders in postwar, 220 180, 199 Third New York Cavalry, 174 Andrew Johnson and, 215 Third South Carolina Regiment, 148 apprentice law in, 218 Third U.S. Colored Cavalry, 151

264 Index

Thirteenth Amendment (1864), 208–209, free blacks from border states seeking 215 employment in, 78 lack of two-thirds majority in House of lack of prosecution of abuse of blacks, 126 Representatives for ratification of, 202 mistreatment of black soldiers in, passing of by Senate, 202 125–126, 127, 146–152 ratification of, 207, 208 rape of black women by, 126 Reverdy Johnson’s speech repudiating requests for help against slave resistance slavery and, 201–202 by slaveholders, 90 Women’s Loyal National League petition, Robert Smalls assistance to, 82–83 200–201 self-emancipated slaves and, 71–72, Thirty-second Regiment, USCT, 148 73–81 Thirty-sixth Regiment, USCT, 150 self-emancipated slaves as contraband of Thomas, Jacob, 238 war, 73–75 Thompson, Ambrose, 111 soldier’s attitude toward abolition, Time Magazine, 13 127–128 Tinsley, Charles, 72 white soldiers reaction to Emancipation Tirey, Riley, 169 Proclamation, 120 Toledo Blade, 109 Union Party, 199, 202 Tom (resistant slave), 176 Union War (Gallagher), 13 Toombs, Robert, 98 United Daughters of the Confederacy, 233 Tremont Temple (Boston), 114 University of Glasgow (Scotland), 36 Trowbridge, T.C., 99 Utah territory, 39 Trumbull, Senator Lyman (of Illinois), 46 Truth, Sojourner, 194 vagrancy laws, 188–189, 192, 217 Tubman, Harriet, 8, 77, 174 Vance, Governor Zebulon (of North reward amounts offered for capture of, 23 Carolina), 85 Turner, Henry McNeal, 154, 214–215 Vashon, George B., 105 Turner, Mary, 233 Vaughn, Brigadire General, 117 Turner, Nat, 27, 59 Vesey, Denmark, 59 Tuskeegee Institute, 236 Vickery, John, 10, 165–166 Tuttle, General J. M., 188 Vicksburg (Mississippi), 201 Twelfth Baptist Church (Boston), 91 Battle of Milliken’s Bend near, 137, Twelve Years a Slave (Northrup), 40 141–142 Twentieth Regiment, USCT, 152 blacks demand for voting and equal rights twenty slave law, 85–86 in, 210 Twenty-ninth Connecticut Infantry, 132 slave uprising in, 88 Twenty-second Regiment, 138 Vincennes (Ind.) Western Sun, 194 violence, 9, 208 Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 234 against abolitionists (black), 32, 40 Underground Railroad, 22–23, 35, against abolitionists (white), 32 174, 211 against black soldiers, 152 during the Civil War, 91 against blacks by slaveholders (postwar), Union Leaguers, 220–221 220 Union military, See also black enlistment; against blacks in government work camps, black soldiers; by state 187, 190 black spies, scouts, and guides for, 9, 82, against southern black officeholders, 226 173–175 against Union Leaguers supporting black black vs. white desertion rates, 152 enfranchisement, 220–221 casualties in 1862, 97 anti-black immigration in northern states Confiscation Act and, 73–81 and, 194–196 desertions during winter of 1862–63, 120 Colfax Massacre, 228

Index 265

draft riots of 1863, 121–123 Nat Turner rebellion in, 27 in reaction to Emancipation Petersburg Cavalry Company in, 82 Proclamation, 106–110 poor living conditions of former slaves at murder and lynchings in Jim Crow years, Downey Plantation in, 183 232–234 recruiting companies seizures of blacks, of Ku Klux Klan, 225–227 124 punishment and physical abuse of slaves, secession of, 62 24–25, 66–67 self-emancipated slaves and, 167 question of using for black abolitionists in Siege of Petersburg, 138–139 1850s, 40 slave patrols in, 64 rape of black women by Union soldiers, 126 slave resistance in, 88 slaveholder murders by slaves, 42–43, slave uprising in, 52, 55 48–50, 67, 88, 163 slave woman’s resistance in, 30 Virginia, 29, 92–94, 104, 163, 172, 174, slaves as spies for Union army in, 82 175, 182 soldiers mistreatment of blacks in, 125 Army of Northern Virginia, 175 Twenty-second Regiment in, 138 Battle of Chancellorsville in, 175 violence against blacks in government Battle of Saltville in, 142, 149 work camps in, 190 Battle of Seven Pines and Seven Days in, 97 voting rights, 36, 100, 203, 221–223 Battle of the Crater in, 140, 142 Amnesty Act and, 228 black complaints about black codes in Giles v. Harris and, 235–236 postwar, 216 in Georgia, 222 black enlistment in, 129 in Massachusetts, 100 black soldiers from, 140 KKK harassment of Republican voters, blacks assist fugitive slaves in, 23 224–226 blacks making decent living for themselves Lincoln and, 197, 204 in, 191 northern whites betrayal of for blacks in Cemetery Hill (Battle of the Crater) in, 140 1870s, 228–229 Colored Men’s Equal Rights League poll taxes and literacy tests as in, 210 impediments to, 235 daily attendance at black schools in 1865, Reconstruction Acts and, 221–222 212 violence against Union Leaguers Eighteenth Virginia Infantry of, 177 supporting, 220–221 Emancipation Proclamation and, 116 voter registration drives, 222 fears of slave insurrection in, 50 Fortress Monroe in, 63, 73, 82, 94, 188 Wade-Davis Bill, 197 free blacks attempt to join militia of, 72 Walker, David, 40 fugitive resettlement plan, 108 Walker, Sergeant William, 148 government farms in, 183 Wallace, Mr., 117 Governor Henry Wise of, 50 Walton, Rhodus, 25 Great Dismal Swamp as fugitive slave Ward, John, 9, 163 refuge in, 168 Ward, Samuel Ringgold, 37 Harper’s Ferry raid in, 45, 51–53 Washington Artillerists, 9 impressment laws in, 188, 189 Washington, Booker T., 52, 236 Isle of Wight regiment in, 82 Washington, D.C., 218 kidnappings of blacks in, 126 abolishing of slavery in, 92 lack of pay at government sawmill in, 187 blacks demand for higher wages Maryland slaves ﬂeeing to Union camps in, 190 in, 71, 80 blacks petitioning of Congress for voting mistreatment at government work camps rights in, 210 in, 187 emancipated slaves in, 92–94, 117

266 Index

Washington, D.C. (cont.) Wilkinson, J.H., 213 forcible persuasion in as a means of Williams, Captain James M, 133 obtaining black labor, 188 Williams, George, 112 mistreatment at government work camps Williams, Jim, 174 in, 187 Williams, Samuel, 174 schools established by city’s black Williams, William, 123 churches in, 211 Williams, William Ball, 140 Washington, David, 151 Willis (Michigan Quaker), 72 Watkins, Private Sam, 85 Wilson, Claude, 155 Watkins, William J., 46 Winslow, Duncan, 1–2 Webster, Robert, 171 success of grandsons of, 242 Weekly Anglo-African. See Anglo-African Winslow, Henry, 242 Weitzel, General Godfrey, 90 Winslow, Rollins, 242 Welles, Gideon (secretary of the navy), 102, Wisconsin, 109 111, 175 voting rights in, 209 diary entry of on Lincoln’s favoring Wise, Governor Henry (of Virginia), 50 deportation for the colored race, 104 Witherspoon, Betsey, 67 Wells, Governor James Madison (of Women’s Loyal National League, Louisiana), 221 200–201 Wells, Ida B., 233, 236 Woodward, W.E., 10 Wheeler, Chaplain E.S., 154 Wool, General John, 94 Whig Party, 37, 39 Wooten, Henry, 120 White, Garland H., 98 Word, Sam, 125 White, John, 220 Wright, Gavin, 239 White, Mrs., 117 Wright, Mr. (government agent), 184 White, Tom, 129 Wright, Theodore, 34 whites. See abolitionists (white); northern Wyat, Bayley, 182 whites; slaveholders; southern whites Whittle, Mary Ann, 58 Zion Church (Charleston, S.C.), 216