1001 and is in the public domain in the USA. Published online in Wiley Online Library: 6 June 2013 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work Beginning in 1990, the National Agricultural Statistics 6 – 2 Correspondence to: Craig Osteen, 1400 Independence Ave., SW, MailWashington, Stop DC 1800, 20250-0002, USA. E-mail: [email protected] †The views expressednecessarily in represent those this of the paper U.S.State Department or are Federal of Agency. Agriculture those or any of other the authorsEconomic and Research do Service, not Washington, U.S. DC 20024, Department USA of Agriculture, 355 E St, SW, ∗ Service, USDA (NASS), conducted systematic surveys of major field 2Pesticide METHODS: ESTIMATION use OF PESTICIDE estimates, USE ingredient measured (a.i.), for in corn, cotton, million soybeans, wheat,vegetables, pounds potatoes, apples, other citrus, of and other active fruitsU.S. were Department constructed of from Agriculture1964 (USDA) surveys to conducted 2010. from peanuts, rice, The sorghum, estimates barley,alfalfa, oats, exclude hay, rye, pasture, use and otheror nuts, on grains, surveyed because tobacco, infrequently such they aftersulfur, were crops 1982. oils, not The sulfuric as surveyed acid, estimates other alsoharvest non-conventional exclude pesticides, pesticide post- use, andproducts. The non-active Economic Research components Service, USDA ofnational (ERS), conducted pesticide pesticide use surveys1982. in 1964, 1966, 1971, 1976, and policy, and pesticide policy, including implementation of theQuality Food Protection Act of 1996 (FQPA). 1 www.soci.org † Accepted article published: 8 March 2013 and Jorge Fernandez-Cornejo ∗ 69: 1001–1025 2013; pesticide use; pesticide regulation; FIFRA; Food Quality Protection Act

Growth in pesticide use created many controversies about Pest Manag Sci Synthetic organic pesticide use grew dramaticallyto from the the early 1960s 1980s, as farmerslized once adopted farmers this used technology, pesticides but widely. stabi- Sincefactors then, affected other pesticide major use trends:and (1) changes other in economic crop acreage factors,that reduced (2) per-acre application the rates and/or developmenthealthandenvironmentalstandards,and(3)theadoptionofgenet- met of more rigorous pesticides ically engineered insect-resistantsince and the mid-1990s. herbicide-tolerant Pesticidesexpenses crops as (excluding a operator portion dwellings) rose ofto from 1.3% farm in 0.9% 1964, production in to 5.0% 1951, in 1998,nomic but declined to Research 3.9% in 2010 Service, (Eco- products/farm-income-and-wealth-statistics.aspx#27458)). USDA (http://www.ers.usda.gov/data- potential effects onwildlife mortality, food and pest control. safety, Increased public concern about waterthe dietary quality, risks of worker pesticidesa safety, during major the 1980s change and inpolicy 1990s focuses pesticide led on to reducing law. dietary Asstandards, and rather other a than risks weighing risks result, to and meet benefits, currentimpacts safety and by mitigating pesticide finding ‘safer’ alternatives.trends This in paper the reviews quantity overall 2010, and and mix discusses of the pesticides effects used of from economic 1964 factors, to agricultural 1 INTRODUCTION The development and growingcides, other use manufactured of inputs, syntheticcontributed to and organic technological improved pesti- changes genetic thatproductivity increased of stock total U.S. factor agriculture by 2.5 times from 1948 to 2009. Keywords: Abstract BACKGROUND: This paper discussesfrom U.S. USDA agricultural surveys, and pesticide the influence use ofand trends economic mix factors, from of agricultural pesticides policy, 1964 and used. pesticide to regulation 2010 on aggregate based quantities onRESULTS: estimates developed Synthetic organicand pesticide more use acreage. grew UseSubsequently, then dramatically major stabilized, from factors with the affecting herbicidespesticides trends 1960s applied that were: to to reduced (1) about per-acre theadoption changes 95% of application early in genetically of engineered rates corn, crop 1980s, insect-resistant and/or and cotton, acreage as herbicide-tolerant and met and crops. farmers soybean more other treated acres, economic rigorousCONCLUSION: annually. more factors, health The (2) and use use environmentalmarkets of of standards, and pesticides new agricultural and and policies. (3) Changingpolicy, other societal influencing control values the toward practices pesticides pesticide availablepesticide responded risks for regulatory to and use, process benefits but might economic profoundly have onlyof factors affected economic indirectly the pesticide inefficiencies, such public affecting it – aggregate as to might quantities reduce bePublished input used. pesticide 2013. consistent hazards While and This with rather the article than policy output is current minimize preferences a regulatory U.S. held costs. Government by work much and is in the public domain in the USA. pesticide use trends Craig D Osteen (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/ps.3529 Economic and policy issues of U.S. agricultural Research Article Received: 29 January 2013 21 [Wood A 69: 1001–1025 2013; CD Osteen, J Fernandez-Cornejo Pest Manag Sci Compendium of Common Names The estimates for 1964, 1966, 1971 and 1976 were 13,14 Active ingredients were classified into families using Estimates of insecticide and herbicide shares by major families (This paper uses 1995reported in estimates Osteen instead and Padgitt, ofthe both the same previously 1997 source, computed from estimates toestimates maintain from 1991 4–5 to2010 year 2010.) The time were estimates intervals approximated for between materials 2000, from not 2005 NASS reported. and For reports, theseindividual three excluding years, active use acre-treatments ingredients for of usedthe on product of a average crop number ofacreage were treatments treated/100, estimated per acre, and as % crop ofacre-treatments crop acreage can surveyed. (Alternatively, bematerial applied computed by average by per-acretreatment.) application Acre-treatments dividing of rate all active for ingredients quantity reported a were single totaled of for each a pesticide familyavailable for and 2000 crop. potatoes, 2005 Survey wheat, data 2010 soybeans, were and not 2010 reported in ERSestimates survey were computed reports, from while ERS 1982, and 1991 NASS and survey data. 1995 the constructed seriesvariations misses in the USEPA some series. From high 1964trend to 1990, uses and the straight-line constructed interpolations low betweenwhich points survey do estimates, and not account forinterpolated crop crop acreage estimates variation, but accountinterpolated after application for rates. 1990, However, acreage the decreasing frequency variationsof and USDA surveysare after based on 1997 interpolations means andbefore fewer that that on more date. survey estimatesreduce The crop the than reliability greater estimates of reliance thecontribute constructed on to estimates the after interpolations constructed 1997 and and could USEPA2000 trends converging to from 2006, withtrend the decreasing. constructed Due to trend the interpolation increasing procedure,conducted and any surveys after USEPA 2010 wouldaggregate result estimates in in modifications years after of theexample, crop the crop last and was soybean last survey surveyed was (for in 2006). 2.3 Use ofThe pesticide families changing mix of insecticideover and time herbicide compounds was used or illustrated insecticide by shares ‘families’cotton, soybeans, of wheat (or and total potatoes, classes),proportion use which of account total for aggregated for pesticide use a herbicide and large across werethan other surveyed crops. in The corn, more shares were years computed for two(1) use measures: quantity of active2010, ingredient for and selected (2) yearsmultiplied acre-treatments from by 1964 (acreage average to number treated offrom with applications) 1982 for pesticides to selected years 2010provide (since information to the compute 1964 acre-treatments). to 1976 ERS surveys didAlan not Wood’s (http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/class_pesticides.html)] and other sources (seedisagree also about Note the b, classificationas after of a phosphinic glyphosate. the acid, Some others References). asalong classify an with Sources it organophosphorous glufosinate herbicide, and sulfosate.glyphosate Some and recent glufosinate sources leave unclassifiedThis or paper in classifies differentphosphinic families. glyphosate, acids. glufosinate, Sincephosphinic and glyphosate acid sulfosate accounted acre-treatments as forpractical in 95–98% purposes 2000, in of glyphosate 2005 use. this and paper, 2010, phosphinic for acidfrom use 1964 equals toPadgitt. 1991 were previously presented in Osteen and 9 – 7 13,14 www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work However, both sets of ) To estimate quantities 18 – and Osteen and Padgitt 19,20 15 12 ., et al 1990–1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2009 1990–1997, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2010 1991–2009, odd years 1991–2009, odd years, except 2007 1990–2003, 2005, 2010 1990–2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2010 1990–2002, 2004–2006 Padgitt 11 Padgitt, Crops surveyed from 1990 to 2010 10 ., deciduous fruit et al Potatoes Other vegetablesApples Citrus and other 1990–2010, even years, except 2008 Soybeans Wheat Corn Table 1. CropCotton Years surveyed 2.2 Atrends caveat for interpreting pesticide use estimates and Since the totalsome estimates crops constructed and all forthe post-harvest this uses, U.S. paper they Environmental areof excluded always agricultural Protection less pesticide than Agency use (USEPA) (Fig. 1). estimates on crops inapplication non-survey rate years from percomputed 1990 planted as the to acre linear 2010, interpolation for betweenyears the rates each immediately in before average the pesticide and survey after, typeplanted and acreage was multiplied for by that the year.re-computed crop’s (The with 1994 these to procedures, 1997acreage using estimates statistics were NASS’s for final those2007 planted to years.) 2010, Estimates wheat for forfor 2010 soybeans 2010, assume and application from rates vegetables from (except thewere multiplied last by potatoes) survey each crop’s year, planted which acreage for theyear. appropriate It became apparent that thefrom estimates 1992 for to 1997 citrus and insecticides vegetablefrom fungicides 1990 to (excluding 1997 potatoes) in the sources cited above includedthe sulfur, unlike other crop estimates.removing These NASS estimates estimates of were sulfur recomputedinterpolating quantities new by in use estimates survey in years non-survey years and (seea, also after Note the References). wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps 2.1 Quantities ofLin pesticides applied presented use estimates for 1964surveys. to The 1997 estimates developed from from 1964in USDA to this 1982 were paper, used as unmodified apples, were and the other 1990–1993were deciduous estimates computed fruit. for using Estimates field NASSeach estimates crops, for crop of by 1994 type total to (herbicides, pesticidepesticides), insecticides, 2010 use removing fungicides, sulfur, for and oils, other andusing sulfuric methods acid similar (on to potatoes), When those crop in surveys theaverage previously did use rates cited not per reports. plantedwere include acre, assumed all by type, for producing for theestimates surveyed States, were States, remaining obtained the from crop NASS. acreage. (Crop acreage crops, fruits, and vegetables, but reduced frequency(Table after 1997 1). estimates exclude sulfur, oilstrend and (for sulfuric this acid. paper)periods The and constructed and USEPA converge trendnot in conduct diverge others. pesticide for One surveys somefor every reason this year time paper is and are that missing interpolated between estimates USDA survey did estimates, so that

1002 1003 19,20 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps A rise in herbicidean use all-time from high of 48 430 million288 million pounds million pounds pounds a.i. a.i. in a.i. in 1982, in 1964pounds a 2002, in to decline 2010. and to an increaseA to rise 380 in million insecticide usea from 123 high million of pounds 132 a.i. millionmillion in pounds pounds 1964 a.i. to a.i. in 1982 in continuing 1976;in to the a 50–60 1990s; dramatic a million rise fall pounds to to 7525 million 83 million by in 1999–2000, 2010. and a decline to The estimates computed for this paper show a similar pattern to the USEPA estimates (see thepesticide section ‘A use caveat for interpreting estimatesdifferences). Use and of synthetic trends’grew organic from for pesticides 215 on million ahigh these pounds of crops discussion trends 572 million a.i. of pounds in1991, in rose 1964 to the 1982, 558 million to fell pounds in to an 1997,in 471 fell all-time to 2002, million 480 million and pounds pounds rose in to(Due 543 to space million limitations, pounds Table in 2used shows 2010 a to (Fig. subset create 2, of Table Fig. the estimates components 2). 2, in for that trend specific were: crops and crop groups.)• Major • 3.1 Aggregate trends Synthetic organic pesticide usethe grew early 1980s rapidly as from thepesticides the percentages increased. of 1960s crop By to acreages the treatedslowed, late with because 1970s, high proportions growth of ofannually. The crop estimated pesticide acreages quantity of use were synthetic organic treated pesticide use fluctuated since 1980; use generallyincreased declined during the through 1990s, the declined during 1980s, thelimited early 2000s, USDA while survey information2010. suggests Trends an since increase 1980crop through were acreage, heavily the influencedones by replacement applied changes at of lower in per-acre rates, older and,adoption since compounds of the genetically mid-1990s, engineered with the insect-resistant and herbicide- new tolerantseed.USEPAestimatedthatagriculturalpesticideusegrew from 366 million pounds activetime ingredient high of (a.i.) 843 million in pounds 1964 inin1987,roseto767millionpoundsin1997,anddeclinedto684mil- 1979, to fell an to 666 all- million pounds lion in 2007 (excluding sulfur,biocides, petroleum and oil, other wood non-conventional chemicals) preservatives, (Fig. 1). www.soci.org Other selected and is in the public domain in the USA. 26 – 9,22 – 5 (see also Note c, after the References.) 27 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work Paris green (copper acetoarsenite) was developed 2013; 28 Comparison of U.S. agricultural pesticide use estimates. vegetables (headfresh lettuce, and processing fresh tomatoes, and(grapes, and peaches, strawberries), oranges and and grapefruit) processing tree are discussed fruits for illustra- tive sweet purposes, but there corn, are tooin may this crops paper. to Genetically discuss engineered, individually considered insect-resistant an seed insecticide is for not ically this engineered measure. corn, Estimates cotton forwere and obtained genet- from soybeans, NASS beginning in 1996 Pest Manag Sci 3Effective TRENDS chemical IN control PESTICIDE of USE agriculturalin pests the became 1800s. prevalent 2.4 Acreages treated The percentages of acreage treatedfungicides with or insecticides, other herbicides, pesticides and ofengineered acreage crops growing show genetically extent of usepesticide and help use explain aggregate trends.proportion of For crop pesticides, acreagea receiving the specific one type, or measure but does morenumber shows not of pesticides applications. account of the The for estimates quantity weresurvey applied obtained reports or from for USDA the corn, cotton,and soybeans, other wheat spring), (winter, durum, potatoes and apples. wheat. For 2000 potatoestreatments and per 2005 crop wheat, acre quantities forthe and surveys each immediately acre- family before were and interpolated after,the from and crop’s then multiplied acreage by forand wheat, the the average appropriate quantity and year. applications pereach For crop family acre 2010 from for the soybeans previous surveycrop were multiplied acreage. by (New the surveys 2010 ofmodified soybeans estimates for or 2010.) wheat could result in Figure 1. Issues of US pesticide use in the United Statesand in Bordeaux the mixture 1870sdeveloped (hydrated to combat lime in the and France potatoculture. copper in beetle, Prior sulfate) the to was 1880s Worldoils War to were commonly II, used. control However, arsenicals, the disease sulfur developmentorganic of compounds, synthetic in materials, and grape such asheralded the 2,4-D modern age and of chemical DDT, pesticides. during World War II 69: 1001–1025 2013; CD Osteen, J Fernandez-Cornejo Pest Manag Sci The triazine share of quantity increased until 1971, accounting ‘New’ families introduced during the 1970s or later accounted in the range of 30–60% ofuse planted acreage on since durum (Fig. and 6). However, otherbetween spring 90 wheat and is 100% more of extensive,wheat durum varying acreage and 80 since and the 97% mid-1980s.increased of on The other some extent vegetable spring and of fruit herbicideacreage crops. treated For use with example, herbicides potato increased from 60%range in 1966 of to the 80 toincreased 94% from 16% since in 1990 1966 to (Table 40–65% 3). from Apple 1991–2009. acreage treated 3.2.2 Changing mixThe of herbicides changing used pattern of useto of 2010 herbicide compounds reflects fromcompounds) 1964 a succession replacing of olderglyphosate, newer introduced ones. herbicide in However, families thenewer (and families one to 1970s, dominate use displaced compound, since 2000, both butin some families older the used and 1960s continuedFig. 8). to Phenoxys (30–40%) be used andthe triazines largest extensively shares (20–30%) of (Table quantity accounted in the for 4, 1960s,(See and Fig. are footnotes still for widely 7, Table used. 4 for examples of herbicides in each class.) for the second largest sharethe in 1970s the (over 1960s 30%); and share then thein declined largest slowly 2010, share to accounting in less for than 20% thethrough second early largest 2000s share (20–30%) from2010 the and (Fig. 1980s for 7). the Phenoxy third1990s, share largest decreased but share from still in 1964 accountedaccounted into for for the 5% the early in third largest thefrom share late the of 2000s. 1960s quantity Carbamates in through2010. various 1982, Amides years and but anilines share accounted declinedin for small the from shares 1960s, 1982 of but to quantity declining, grew amides by significantly over 50% until and anilines the by more1991 early than 75% to 1990s, from 2010. before Amides accountedin for the 1980s largest and share 1990s of (overthrough quantity 30%), 2010. and In terms generally of surpassed acre-treatments, triazines triazinesthe accounted for largest shares inanilines the and phenoxys 1980s (Fig. 8). and 1990s, followed by amides, for increasing shares ofmarily use. They glyphosate), include bipyridyls, phosphinicfirst benzothiadiazoles acids and (pri- observed pyridines diphenyl in ethers, pyridazinones, the imidazolinones,proprionic aryloxyphenoxy acids 1976 in the 1980s survey; or 1990s; and oximes, isoxazoles, pyrazoles, sulfony ureas, www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work Pesticide use on major crops, 1964–2010. A rise in fungicide use frommillion 22 pounds a.i million in pounds 1997, a.i. declining in topounds 1964 a from range to 2001 of 35 27–30 to 2010. million A rise in use of1964 ‘other to pesticides’ almost from 120 million 21 pounds milliondeclining a.i. pounds to in a a.i. 2002 range in (over of five 101–105 times), million after 2007. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps 3.2.1 Effect ofHerbicide acreage treated use increased rapidly inbegan adopting the herbicides late for 1950s, weed control whenuntil on growers stabilizing major field in crops, thealmost early all 1980s, corn, when soybean growersof were and corn treating cotton and acres.herbicides wheat in Approximately and 1952 10% (Table 5% 3,use of Fig. on corn, 3, cotton, cotton and Fig. soybeans acres 4, (nountil data Fig. were before stabilizing 5, 1966) at increased 90–98% treated Fig. 6). of with acres Herbicide were planted since 1980. adopted Herbicides morepercentage slowly of winter on wheat acreage. wheat,reached Winter 40–45% wheat and herbicide of used use planted acreage on in the a mid-1980s and smaller varied 3.2 Herbicides Herbicide quantity on field,dramatically vegetable during and the fruit 1960s cropsthe and increased early 1970s 1980s, to generally2000s, an declined and, based all-time from on high limited the survey in to 1980s data, its increased to high to the 2010. proportion (Due of early the total total use, pesticide herbicide use usesoybeans, generally trend.) accounting drives for The the major quantity portion applied offrom herbicide 30 to use, million grew pounds corn a.i. in and 1964by (62% of a use factor on the of major 12 crops) crop to use), 377 fell million to pounds 236 a.i. millionto in 307 pounds million 1982 in in (88% 2002 2010 (80%) of (82%), (Table major and 2,and Fig. increased wheat 2). The herbicide quantity use of cotton generallymid-1990s, increased declined from until 1964 2002, until and the peak then in increased the to mid an to all-time potatoes, late vegetables, 2000s. and The fruit quantity generally of increasedand herbicides between 1995–2000, used 1964 on before declining, but thesesmall crops share accounted of for herbicide a quantity. Factors affectingover the time use include pattern changes in acreage treated, changescompounds in used, pesticide and the introduction ofseed herbicide-tolerant after the (HT) mid-1990s. • • Figure 2.

1004 1005 8 2 7 0 5 2 8 5 5 2 8 .1 . .9 .7 .2 .8 .9 .3 . .2 .2 .9 .5 .0 . .9 .0 .0 .2 . . .6 .5 .2 . .7 .9 .5 .1 . . .0 .3 .2 . .0 .8 .8 . .8 .0 .2 .7 .4 . .2 .3 .9 .8 .7 78 117 .710 .58 . .744 .968 .635 .6 113 .753 .61 .40 .31 .725 .858 .00 .00 . .00 .029 .64 .01 .15 .59 .06 .30 .20 .10 .10 .425 .42 .13 .72 .04 .31 .60 .72 .57 .21 .12 .13 .50 .54 .82 .634 .8 109 .928 00 00 .6 491.2 543 .911 .19 .78 .060 .552 .822 .988 .662 .1 173.8 199 .9 105.9 105 .22 .40 .30 .142 .842 .00 .00 .217 . .129 .04 .82 .25 .99 .37 .30 .00 .70 . .437 .42 .12 .72 .24 .11 .70 .32 .516 .65 .1 318.8 383 .52 .85 .50 .74 .31 .921 .685 .328 .5 168.5 196 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps 00 00 .6 525 .116 .413 .07 .061 .561 .020 .778 .689 .3 176 .0 111 .24 .20 .10 .842 .347 .00 . .517 .00 .631 .96 .02 .64 .18 .48 .50 . .00 .00 .874 .04 .65 .52 .64 .03 .00 .50 .743 .010 .2 308 .02 .64 .80 .55 .82 .619 .178 .528 .3 165 032 .2 519 .114 .711 .19 .061 .651 .820 .468 .382 .2 201 .199 .31 .00 .10 .039 .338 .00 .00 .519 .00 .131 .24 .64 .54 .89 .27 .10 .00 .71 .00 .866 .96 .02 .03 .55 .63 .21 .40 .229 .015 .2 322 .72 .14 .40 .76 .52 .618 .968 .2. 186 .4 471 .511 .513 .09 .734 .635 .513 .470 .550 .7 233 .260 .50 .00 .40 .218 .226 .00 .40 .315 .10 .223 .54 .93 .74 .76 .03 .10 .10 .20 .10 .752 .04 .34 .34 .54 .83 .90 .60 .28 .123 .3 335 .51 .36 .60 .34 .62 .513 .269 .4.726 210 www.soci.org .5 572 .05 .516 .310 .221 .824 .023 .1 147 .249 .5 273 .734 .10 .20 .60 .16 .615 .00 .02 .79 .50 .625 .92 .94 .55 .16 .24 .91 .20 .00 .00 .782 .42 .65 .63 .74 .33 .22 .911 .119 .030 .4 430 .60 .86 .60 .44 .81 .919 .1 133 .1.320 243 .4 530 .69 .115 .711 .721 .517 .630 .291 .995 .0 239 .730 .61 .30 .50 .45 .48 .20 .12 .712 .40 .326 .83 .35 .26 .75 .14 .00 .00 .20 .00 .7 131 .63 .04 .83 .35 .83 .77 .67 .464 .532 .7 341 .60 .54 .20 .45 .21 .621 .581 .618 .1 207 and is in the public domain in the USA. .6 364 .26 .914 .512 .320 .715 .213 .742 .0 111 .1 127 .731 .60 .71 .10 .63 .06 .00 .00 .218 .50 .229 .72 .19 .57 .15 .54 .00 .00 .40 .00 .2 127 .12 .93 .54 .28 .02 .91 .25 .973 .625 .4 175 .80 .40 .40 .53 .22 .211 .436 .519 .0 101 .410 .17 .918 .816 .386 .41 .50 .01 .80 .414 .10 .62 .94 .88 .54 .00 .74 .42 .88 .38 .064 .71 .20 .30 .23 4 8 6.18 9.213 0 1 1 0.10 0.00 0.00 0 1 4 7 3.23 0.00 0.00 0.20 0 1 1 1.53 0.90 5.03 0 0 0 1.32 9.28 4.210 19 10.19 95 21.418 41.270 12 22.223 10 78 48.279 15.723 215.0 240 123.3 119 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 2013; Estimated quantity of pesticide applied to selected US crops, 1964–2010 (million pounds of active ingredient) Total Other fruit Citrus Apples Other vegetables 20 Potatoes Wheat Soybeans Cotton Total All pesticides Corn Other fruit Citrus Apples Other vegetables 5 Potatoes Wheat Soybeans Cotton Other pesticides Corn Total Other fruit Citrus Apples Other vegetables 4 Potatoes Wheat Soybeans Cotton Fungicides Corn Total Other fruit Citrus Apples Other vegetables 8 Potatoes Wheat Soybeans Cotton Total Insecticides Corn Other fruit Citrus Apples Other vegetables 2 Potatoes Wheat Soybeans Cotton 4.66 CommodityHerbicides Corn 1964 1966 1971 25.546 1976 1982 1991 1995 2000 2005 2010 Table 2. Pest Manag Sci Issues of US pesticide use

siae ht2%o te eeal ce n96 Andrelinas in1966, acres vegetable other of 28% that estimated . al et Fox but available, not estimate Crop ht8%i 99wr rae ihherbicides. with treated were 1979 in 84% that Ferguson and 1971, in % 40 that

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Pest Manag Sci

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039 8–––––4 76 95 1––– – – 91 51 59 64 47 42 – – – – – 98 95 2003 – – –

028 96 89 0 88 83 467 84 35 58 80 68 – – – – – – 100 91 38 60 99 – 89 2002

019 09 26 08 98 – – – 82 59 85 90 65 52 – – – – 96 90 98 2001 – – –

009 59 53 59 77 33 078 90 39 63 79 57 – – – – – – 97 95 37 55 97 95 97 2000

999 79 07 18 89 – – – 93 58 89 91 75 60 – – – – 96 97 98 1999 – – –

989 59 14 18 28 73 486 94 35 57 81 52 – – – – – – 88 91 47 61 95 95 96 1998

979 69 14 09 07 19 48 – – – 88 54 91 91 75 60 93 90 46 61 98 96 97 1997 – – –

969 39 85 89 15 95 79 78 90 37 54 79 52 91 – – – – – 98 88 56 68 97 93 93 1996

959 79 85 49 37 29 69 – – – 94 66 97 92 74 63 96 94 56 68 98 97 97 1995 – – –

949 49 54 49 26 95 19 76 94 41 52 79 60 92 – – – – – 95 94 49 65 98 94 98 1994

939 29 14 69 36 39 99 – – – 91 49 94 93 64 43 91 96 43 61 98 92 98 1993 – – –

929 19 23 79 36 57 99 90 92 39 75 75 68 93 – – – – – 93 87 33 52 98 91 97 1992

919 29 92 29 27 58 19 – – – 91 51 84 75 73 42 94 92 28 49 97 92 96 1991 – – –

909 59 23 99 9––– – – 79 – – – – – 90 89 34 52 95 95 95 1990 – – –

999 39 13 19 3––– – – 83 – – – – – 96 91 39 61 96 93 97 1989 – – –

989 59 33 39 – – – – – – – – – 94 83 38 53 96 95 96 1988 – – –

979 49 24 99 – – – – – – – – – 95 89 48 62 95 94 96 1987 – – –

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959 49 4–––––––––––– – – – – – – – – – – – 44 95 94 96 1985 – – –

949 39 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 94 93 95 1984 – – –

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929 79 2–––––––––––– – – – – – – – – – – – 42 93 97 95 1982 – – –

909 2––––––––––––– – – – – – – – – – – – – 92 – 93 1980 – – –

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921 2–––––––––––– – – – – – – – – – – – 12 – 5 11 1952 – – –

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hr fslce rparstetdwt ebcds(%) herbicides with treated acres crop selected of Share 3. Table

– – 26 9,22 5 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps

1006 1007 The increased acreage of 27 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps ) The adoption of HT seed has not reduced the percentage 29 of corn, cotton and soybeans acreage treatedhad with a herbicides, but major impact5). on USDA the surveys mix showedwas of that, planted on compounds in 70% 2011, used ofacreage, corn, herbicide-tolerant (Figs large 75% increases seed 3 of from cotton, to 3% and ofsoybean corn, 94% acreage 2% of in of soybean 1996 cotton, (Figs and 7% 3 of to 5). ureas and imidazolinones, increasedand until then the declined. mid to late 1990s, 3.2.3 Effect ofThe genetically rapid, engineered widespread crops adoption of genetically modified, herbicide- tolerant (HT) crops sinceherbicide use the trends mid-1990s by hadherbicides, which encouraging might a otherwise the kill the major crop. application (Herbicide-tolerant effect ofcorn, specific on cotton, and1996. soybeans became commercially available in herbicide tolerant crops (along with falling glyphosatethepatentexpired)isafactorinthedramaticincreaseofglyphosate prices after use in the 1990s and 2000s. Increased use of glyphosate, along with www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 2013; Cotton: acres treated with pesticides and GE seed. Corn: acres treated with pesticides and GE seed. The shares for phosphinic acids, primarily glyphosate, grew Pest Manag Sci Figure 4. triazolopyrimidines, triazolones, pyradazinesanediones in and the benzoylhex- from 2000s. about The 4% of ‘new’ quantity58% and families, of 7% in of quantity acre-treatments total, and infamilies 65% 1982 increased reported to of in the acre-treatments 1960s in declined93% from 2010. of 97% Herbicide of acre-treatments quantity in and acre-treatments 1982 in 2010. to 42% of quantity and 35% of dramatically since 1995,acre-treatments in accounting 1982, for 4%1995, of but 1% 56% quantity of and quantity of and acre-treatments2000, 45% quantity of phosphinic in acre-treatments acids in had and 2010. the By largestfollowed shares of by acre-treatments, triazines,(Fig. 8). Increasing sulfonyl glyphosate ureas, useused displaced since amides, both the 1960s ‘old’ and or materials the 1970s 1980s phenoxys and and ‘new’ 1990s. materials Thedecreased introduced from acre-treatment in 49% shares in 2000 for to ‘old’other 35% groups in than 2010, and phosphinics, for from ‘new’acre-treatment groups 32% in shares 2000 of to low-rate 20% in herbicides, 2010. such The as sulfonyl Figure 3. Issues of US pesticide use 69: 1001–1025 2013; CD Osteen, J Fernandez-Cornejo Pest Manag Sci to 30 million pounds a.i. ininsecticide 1982, greater use than during the that increase in period.about total 21 Use million on pounds a.i. corn in thento 1992, declined to about 10 to million 2 pounds million inaffecting 2000, pounds changing in use 2010. over Similar timeof to include acreage treated herbicides, changes and factors in changes in percentage pesticidealso compounds used, the but introduction ofseed and genetically the engineered, boll weevil insect-resistant eradication program. 3.3.1 Effect ofIn acreage treated the 1950s, insecticides werevalue widely crops used on including avegetables cotton, (Table variety 3). of many Somewhat later, high- fruits, insecticide usegrew potatoes on rapidly. field corn Insecticides and were other acreage applied to during less the than mid-1950s,as 10% but high of rose as corn to 45% in 35–40%treated 1985 with (Table by 5, insecticides 1976, Fig. ranged to 3).1950s between The through the 40 proportion early of 1990s, and increasing cotton 70% to over from 80% in the 1999 and www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work Wheat: acres treated with pesticides. Soybeans: acres treated with pesticides and GE seed. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps 3.3 Insecticides Insecticide quantity on field, fruit, andhigher in vegetable the crops 1960s and was 1970s much than indeclined the 2000s; during quantity the generally 1980s, 1990s andaround2000(Table2,Fig.2).Infact,insecticideusebegandeclining 2000s, with a small increase while herbicide and total pesticide use were stilland increasing. Cotton corn accountedvariation for attributable most to insecticide cotton.from 73 quantity, Cotton million insecticide with pounds quantity a.i. much to in fell 1971 19 to 64 million millionmillion pounds pounds pounds in until in 1976, 1998. Cotton 1982,43 insecticide quantity and million jumped to pounds variedmalathion in between use, 1999 8 declining and to and lessCorn 2000, insecticide than quantity 30 increased due 10 from 16 million largely million pounds pounds in to 1964 in increased 2010. higher corn and soybean acreage since 2002,herbicide increased quantity, estimated because glyphosate displacedrate lower herbicides, such per-acre as sulfonyl ureas and imidazolinones. Figure 6. Figure 5.

1008 1009 ), ), es 1 yl), mall <1 <1 < idines yrazoles mesafen), 1 1 1 < < < 1 1 < < wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps 1 1 < < 1 1 < < 6211 1022411 9 15 13 10 6 1 < < rates, sincecotton quantity acreage declinedorganophosphates treated in and increased. carbamates(Table In periods 6, replaced Fig. the when 9, organochlorines of 1960s Fig. insecticides corn 10). in and (See the and footnotesrapidly adopted 1970s, major to after introduction classes.) Table in the Synthetic late 6 1970s pyrethroidsfor and for accounted were examples over 20%than or 5% more of40% of quantity of insecticide during acre-treatments acre-treatments 1982 andNicotinoids but were to 7% introduced less of 2000, in quantitymuch increasing the in as 1990s to 2005 and 6% over and accountedbut of 2010. for 1% insecticide as or acre-treatments lessinsect growth in of regulators, quantity. 2005 pyrazoles, macrocylic Other and lactones,azomethines; low-rate pyridine 2010, insecticides diphenyl (such oxazolines,pyridinecarboximides as and oxadiazines, tetramics) appeared tetronic duringand 2000s, acids; the accounting for 1990s 3–7% ofof acre-treatments, but quantity 1% during or 2000–2010. less www.soci.org 1124234156 < and is in the public domain in the USA. a by class 13,14,21 027891112131043 4000 0000 2400000 0001223422 30 31 35 31 28 22 17 ––––151310732 –––– 4332128447355 231095111795200 22171998810732 30 32 32 26 29 29 22 22 16 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work l j i 2013; h f k Shares of herbicide use (%) g c d e b Alachlor, acetochlor, metolachlor, propachlor, flufenacet. Atrazine, cyanazine, propazine, simazine, metribuzin, ametryne. Metribuzin was reclassified as a triazinone, but is included in triazines due its s FamiliesidentifiedinNASSsurveysbefore1976,includingarsenicals(DMSA,MSMA),benzoics(chloramben,dicamba,naptalam,pyrithiobac-sodium Glyphosate, glufosinate-ammonium, sulfosate (glyphosate-trimesium). Use is overwhelmingly glyphosate. Also known as phosphorus or Oryzalin, pendimethalin, ethalfluralin, trifluralin. Estimated for corn, cotton, potatoes, soybeans, and wheat. Families first reported in 1976 survey or later, including aryloxyphenoxy proprionic acids (clodinafop-propargil, fenaxaprop, quizalofop-P-eth 2,4-D, 2,4-DB, MCPA, MCPB. Butylate, EPTC, pebulate, vernolate, triallate. Imazaquin, imazethapyr, imazamox. Sum of acreage treated with a pesticide multiplied by average number of applications per acre. Chlorsulfuron, clorimuron, halosulfuron, metsulfuron, nicosulfuron, primisulfuron, thiofensulfuron. Declines in corn acreage treated since 1985 and cotton acreage –, No data available. dinitros (dinoseb, DNBP), phenyl ureas (diuron, linuron, fluometuron, terbacil, diflufenzopyr-sodium). Phenoxys Carbamates Sulfonyl ureas Acre treatments organophosphorus herbicides. Some recent classifications separate glyphosate and glufosinate. bipyridyls (paraquat), benzothiadiazoles (bentazon), benzoylcyclohexanediones (tembotrione, mesotrione) (aka triketones), benzoylpyrazol (pyrasulfotole), dicarboximides (flumiclorac-pentyl, flumioxazin),isoxazoles diphenyl (isoxaflutole, ethers topramezone), (acifluorfen, isoxazolidonones (clomazone), diclofop, nitriles lactofen, (bromoxynil), oxyfluorfen, oximes (clethodim, lactofen, sethoxydim, fo tralkoxydim), p (pinoxyden, pyraflufen-ethyl), pyridinestriazolone (carfentrazone-ethyl, (clorpyralid, flucarbazone-sodium, propoxycarbazone-sodium, fluazifop,(cloransulam-methyl, sulfentrazone, flumetsulam, thiencarbazone-methyl), florasulam). fluroxypyr, and triazolopyrim aminopyralid, picloram, pyroxulam), pyridazinones (norfluorazon quantity. l k h i j e f g a b c d Amides––––201612111010 Phenoxys––––131012587 Triazines––––262418131311 Anilines Carbamates–––– Herbicide classQuantity Amides 1964 1966 1971 1976 1982 1991 1995 2000 2005 2010 Table 4. Other‘old’––––1416161376 Phosphinics––––124203545 Sulfonylureas–––– Imidizolinones Other‘new’––––6611141313 Triazines Anilines Other ‘old’ Phosphinics Imidizolinones Other ‘new’ Pest Manag Sci 3.3.2 Changing mixMuch of insecticides used of thechanges decline to in new insecticide compounds quantity with after reduced 1976 per-acre application reflects 2000 (Table 5, Fig.treated with 4). insecticides ranged Among between 75 fruit and 95% andfrom for the potatoes vegetables, early the 1950s through acreage 2010,in and many exceeded 90% years for between apples were 1966 applied to and high 2010. proportions of Since lettuce,and sweet 1990, strawberries, corn, insecticides exceeding tomatoes 85% onon fresh processing market sweet crops corn and and tomatoes 65% in many years. treated since 2000 contributedused. to The declining insecticide proportion quantity ofdeclined from corn 45% acreage in 1985 treatedof to cotton with 12% acreage in declined insecticides 2010, from while 80% in the 2000 percentage to 55% in 2010. Issues of US pesticide use (Bt) toxin to 69: 1001–1025 2013; Bacillusthuringiensis CD Osteen, J Fernandez-Cornejo Pest Manag Sci cotton and total insecticide use.estimated Malathion insecticide quantity accounted and 38% for of acre-treatments 46% in of 2000, as compared to 15%share of increased quantity to 60% in of 1998. insecticidequantity The acre-treatments in and 2000. organophosphate When 87% malathion of use declinedorganophosphates use share after 2000, declined the and shares forother pyrethroids insecticide and groups increased. 3.3.4 Effect ofThe genetically engineered rapid, crops widespread adoptionsince of the mid-1990s genetically is engineered a major seed of factor in corn the and decline of cottonas percentage well acreage as treated the decline withincludes of a synthetic gene insecticide that quantity insecticides, produces the after 2000.control The Lepidopteran seed pests, allowing growers toinsecticide reduce use. synthetic This technologyborer helps (since to 1996) control and European corn corn rootworm (since 2003), major target www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work Shares of herbicide acre-treatments, five major crops. Shares of herbicide quantity, five major crops. Overall, synthetic pyrethroids and other new insecticide wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps Figure 8. Figure 7. 3.3.3 Eradication ofThe boll boll weevil weevil eradication program contributed to thecotton increase and of total insecticide quantity during thewidespread use late for 1990s. eradication, Due malathion to use increased 26 million pounds a.i. from 1998 to 2000, slightly greater than the increases in ‘families’ (that first appearless in than surveys 10% afterdue of 1976) to insecticide accounted low for quantityof rates in of 1990s insecticide application, and acre-treatmentsmore 2000s, accounted in in but for 1995 2005 about andthe and 30–35% 1960s, 2000, 2010. organochlorines, organophosphates, and However, andstill 50% carbamates, insecticide accounted families or for usedand nearly in for 90% of 65–70%before insecticide declining to of quantity 50% or insecticide in lesscompounds in used 2010, acre-treatments 2005 changed. and in 2010, though specific the 1990s,

1010

1011

siae ht6%o eeal ce n15,7%i 98 8 n16 n 1971, and 1966 in 58% 1958, in 74% 1952, in acres vegetable of 61% that estimated . al et Eichers but available, not estimate Crop ht7%i 99wr rae ihinsecticides. with treated were 1979 in 75% that Ferguson and

d 26 12

siae ht9%o irsarsi 96adAndrelinas and 1996 in acres citrus of 97% that estimated . al et Fox but available, not estimate Crop ht8%i 91wr rae ihinsecticides. with treated were 1971 in 88% that

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b 23 22

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052 11 24 98 67 – – – – – – 79 76 81 79 43 92 – – – – 14 71 23 2005

04––4572*––––––8 89 27 53 71 72 90 88 89 – – – – – – * 2 7 5 4 – – 2004

032 4–––––9 28 48 4–––––– – – – – – 84 83 84 84 42 94 – – – – – 64 29 2003

022 1**––––––9 08 58 60 82 85 85 90 95 – – – – – – * * 11 7 6 – 24 2002

012 81––––9 09 29 3–––––– – – – – – 93 90 82 91 60 95 – – – – 1 68 29 2001

002 0234**––––––9 48 17 64 73 81 87 84 92 – – – – – – * * 4 3 2 80 29 2000

993 42––––9 68 48 3–––––– – – – – – 93 85 84 88 76 97 – – – – 2 84 30 1999

983 124369––––––9 69 97 82 74 89 92 86 95 – – – – – – 9 6 3 4 2 71 30 1998

973 4245129 08 89 1–––––– – – – – – 91 91 88 82 60 96 2 1 5 4 2 74 30 1997

962 9191 29 99 57 71 74 85 93 89 98 92 – – – – – * 3 12 9 1 79 29 1996

952 5245**9 79 48 5–––––– – – – – – 85 89 94 97 67 98 * * 5 4 2 75 26 1995

www.soci.org 71 66 88 94 81 100 83 – – – – – * * 11 7 1 71 27 1994

932 5222**9 69 09 6–––––– – – – – – 86 93 90 99 66 99 * * 2 2 2 65 28 1993

922 51451*–––––8 78 58 580 75 86 95 84 97 88 – – – – – * 1 5 4 1 65 29 1992

913 6256369 49 39 2–––––– – – – – – 92 96 93 98 64 99 6 3 6 5 2 66 31 1991

903 8–––––– – – – – – 88 – – – – – * 7 4 5 – – 31 1990

993 8361 1–––––– – – – – – 91 – – – – – * * 11 6 3 68 32 1989 983 184431–––––8 – – – – – – 89 – – – – – 1 3 4 4 8 61 35 1988

and is in the public domain in the USA. 974 137773–––––––––––– – – – – – – – – – – – 3 7 7 7 3 61 41 1987

964 21 – – – – – – – – – – – – 13 12 5 7 4 – 41 1986

954 575––––––––––––––– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 7 65 45 1985

944 38–––––––––––––––– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 8 63 42 1984

923 61 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 12 36 37 1982

904 1–––––––––––––––– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 11 – 43 1980

99–4 94 – – – – – – – – – – 48 – 1979

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963 071 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 14 7 60 38 1976

913 187–––91 – – – 7 8 61 35 1971 77

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963 442–––92 – – – 2 4 54 33 1966 89

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9866 80 – – – – – – – – – – 66 6 1958

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a ddd d dd d dd 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work

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– – 5 26 9,22 Pest Manag Sci Issues of US pesticide use 33 l, – 1 31 <1 ifen), < From 2001 to 69: 1001–1025 34 <11 <1 2013; <1 CD Osteen, J Fernandez-Cornejo Pest Manag Sci <1 5221 002166 028734 2010, corn following corn increased29% from , 21% while of the corn acreage acreagewith of to Bt insecticides corn decreased. increased So, and acreagethe the treated effectiveness reduced of effectiveness Bt corn of and rotation in controlling rootworm, Historically, rotating corn withinfestations soybeans or of other corn cropsgrowers reduced rootworms could reduce insecticide and use on other cornbut in subsequent soil years, during insects, the so 1990sless effective there that in were reducing reports rootworm that infestations. rotation became in rotation (corn/corn) declinedcrops (that increased) is, from corn the rotated mid-1980s to with mid-1990s other (Fig. 11). www.soci.org a and is in the public domain in the USA. by class Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 13,14,21 70000434277 4000000 0004043122 10 16 15 11 14 9 10 14 –––– ––––141114955 –––– ––––605849614539 ––––212726214145 –––– 7373513192311 20 23 39 49 71 80 77 87 79 74 27 d d h c c b b e e Shares of insecticide use (%), f f Shares of insecticide quantity, 1964–2010, five major crops. g g USDA surveys show that Bt cotton was adopted more rapidly 30 Aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, formetanate, methomyl, oxamyl, and thiodicarb. Acephate, azinphos-methyl, chlorpyrifos, dicrotophos, diazinon, dimethoate, ethoprop, fonofos, malathion, methyl parathion, ethyl parathion, Examples include diphenyl oxazolines (etoxazole), macrocyclic lactones (abamectin, emamectin, hexathiazonx, spinosad), insect growth Sum of acreage treated with a pesticide multiplied by average number of applications per acre. Permethrin, cypermethrin, tralomethrin, deltamethrin, cyhalothrin, cyfluthrin, tefluthrin, bifenthrin, fenpropathrin, and esfenvalerate. Estimated for corn, cotton, potatoes, soybeans, and wheat; excludes oils, sulfur, and other inorganics. Dicofol, endosulfan, methoxychlor, and many materials no longer registered: aldrin, chlordane, deldrin, DDT, and toxaphene. Imidicloprid, acetamiprid, thiamethoxam, clothianidin, dinotefuran. The introduction of Bt corn, by providing another option for corn –, No data available. Organophosphates Other Organochlorines Nicotinoid Other Acre treatments methamidophos, mevinphos, parathion, phorate, phosmet, profenfos, tebupirimiphos, and terbufos. h e f g a b c d Carbamates Insecticide classQuantity Carbamates 1964 1966 1971 1976 1982 1991 1995 2000 2005 2010 Table 6. Pyrethroids Organophosphates regulators (buprofezin, diflubenzuron, novaluron, pyriproxifen, tebufenozide, methoxyfenozide) oxadiazines (indoxacarb), pyrazoles (fiproni chlorantraniliprole), pyridine azomethinestetramics (pymetrozine) (spirotetramat). pyridinecarboximides (flonicamid), sulfites (propargite), tetronic acids (spiromes Organochlorines Pyrethroids Nicotinoid wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps pests for corn insecticide use,andpinkbollworm(since1996),majortargetsforcottoninsecticide and bollworm, tobacco budworm, use. Figure 9. rootworm control, may have discouraged useand of crop both rotation. Before insecticides that introduction, both the percentagecorn of acreage treated with insecticides and of corn following corn than was Bt corn, butcorn was planted acreage on in 73%had of 2010, declined cotton to when and 55% 63% acreage of of (Table cotton 5, treated Fig. acreage 3, and with Fig. 12% 4). insecticides of corn acreage

1012 1013 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps By the early 1970s, a high proportion of fruit acreage was treated with fungicides, including about 70%of of apple citrus acreage, acreage, over 60% andfootnotes nearly a and 60% b in of Table 7). ‘other Since(83–90%), the deciduous 1990s, citrus proportions fruit’ (50–75 of apple (see of orangeother and 80–90% fruit of crop grapefruit), and acres77–95% (70–93% of of strawberry) grape, treated 80–98%increased have for remained some of high crops. peach, and and possibly 3.5 Other pesticides The estimated quantity ofcrops ‘other increased pesticides’ over five usedto times on 118 from the million 21 major pounds million101–105 in pounds 2002, million in before after 1964 declining 2007,1994 to to exceeding 2010 the (Table 100 2, range Fig. million 2). of pounds Thisdesiccants, category growth from includes soil regulators, fumigants, and harvest aids (excludingacid sulfuric on potatoes). The quantity ofthat ‘other of pesticides’ insecticides has exceeded since 1990the and fungicides crops since 1971. included, Among virtually cotton, all fruits, of and thepesticides’ quantity. vegetables not Tobacco account included wasgrowth for a in in major use these use was totals, of not ‘other but large the during surveyed proportional years: 18 million www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 2013; Corn insect management, 1988–2010: insecticides, Bt seed and rotation. Share of insecticide acre-treatments, 1982–2010, five major crops. Potato acreage treated with fungicides increased steadily from Pest Manag Sci 3.4 Fungicides The estimated quantity ofincreased fungicides about used 60% onto between the 2010, 1964 declined major and to crops levels(Table 1997, about but 2, 30% from greater Fig. thantotal 2000 pesticide 2). in use the in Fungicide 1960s most years.potatoes, quantities Fruits accounted and were for vegetables, 92% including less orthat more than time of period. 10% fungicide Most quantity ofother of the over vegetables increase – occurred by on1997. potatoes more and than 2.5 times between 196424% and in 1966 to 85–98%reports estimated over that 1994 fungicides to were‘other 2010 vegetable’ applied (Table acreage to 7). in 1966 ERS about and survey 20%footnote 1971, of and c, 37% Table in 1979 7). (see vegetable Since crops, such the as head 1990s, lettuce (63 high totomatoes 85%) (76 proportions and fresh to of market 94%) have some also been treated. as well as increasing2000 corn prices, to acreage, 2010, andinsecticide use. may production from have discouraged both rotated corn and Figure 11. Figure 10. Issues of US pesticide use

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Pest Manag Sci

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07–1–––––9 – – – – – – – – – – – 91 – – – – – 1 – 2007

06––4621 72 18 76 8 89 81 20 87 – – – – – – 5 15 2 6 4 – – 2006

05*32––––8 78 97 0–––––– – – – – – 90 79 59 80 77 86 – – – – 2 3 * 2005

04––1722 33 97 763 17 77 89 36 63 – – – – – – * 20 2 7 1 – – 2004

03*7–––––9 87 18 1–––––– – – – – – 91 80 61 76 68 90 – – – – – 7 * 2003

02*–*3*6*––––––7 88 6668 6 86 86 28 74 – – – – – – * 6 * 3 * – * 2002

01*4*––––8 48 89 5–––––– – – – – – 85 92 48 83 84 85 – – – – * 4 * 2001

00*6*511 43 68 273 22 84 86 38 54 – – – – – – * 15 1 5 * 6 * 2000

99*7*––––8 18 68 5–––––– – – – – – 95 88 66 85 81 85 – – – – * 7 * 1999

98*62429*––––––8 19 11 96 10 91 94 21 85 – – – – – – * 9 2 4 2 6 * 1998

97*7*11**9 79 58 8–––––– – – – – – 98 84 65 91 87 90 * * 1 1 * 7 * 1997

96*6*11**–––––8 64 08 190 11 86 90 42 76 89 – – – – – * * 1 1 * 6 * 1996

39 66 78 – – – – – – 85 97 69 86 90 93 95*8*213 1 2 * 8 * 1995

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www.soci.org 91*6*333*8 58 59 9–––––– – – – – – 69 96 75 89 75 83 * 3 3 3 * 6 * 1991 and is in the public domain in the USA.

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98––––––––––––6 – – – – – – 62 – – – – – – – – – – – – 1988

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Durum Spring Winter All Soy- Sweet Straw Sweet Head Grape

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– – 26 9,22 5 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps

1014 1015 36 Currently, economists argue 38 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps Model specification can affect productivity estimates; The pesticide price index fell relative to wage, fuel 37 39 Financial risk (variability of returns) and uncertainty (incomplete Relative price trends may have influenced the cost-effectiveness and crop indicesof from rapid the growth late in pesticidewould 1960s have use. to reduced Price the trends about costs duringcontrol of 1980, that pesticides practices a period relative and to period other encouragedlabor, pest fuel substitution and machinery of use pesticides inprices pest relative for control. to The pesticide prices increase would in have crop increasedto the returns pesticides and encouraged greater use. The pesticide price reviewed pesticide productivity studies and foundnot that many, all, but showedfarmer’s pesticides perspective, to because beexceeded marginal cost-efficient cost. return inputs to Some frompesticides. pesticide more the use recent studies indicate overuse of for example,overstate conventional productivity estimates. Cobb–Douglas specification may use them. According toshould economic choose efficiency the criteria,maximizes combination producers the of difference pestreductions between control and the practices control that valuepest costs. control of They inputs until pest should the(the marginal increase damage value value of the of damage use reduction theresult, of last the unit prices of used)influence crops, equals the pesticides the use and marginal of otherFruits cost. pesticides practices and As and should vegetables other a for pest freshthan control markets for often practices. processing markets, bring and higher marketcan prices driven encourage pesticide quality use standards to prevent rots,other surface quality blemishes, defects or to increase returns. information about outcomes) also influence pest control decisions. Risk results fromchanges variations in market in conditionspest and yields infestations, natural and and variations other in factors returnswhich affecting weather, output. can affected Uncertainty, increase by perceivedinformation. risk, Farmers results from dodamage imperfect without not or control or no know thecontrol reductions the practices, in but base damage precise decisions from on expectations using value ofand crop potential value of yield pest orbe quality perceived savings from as control, rangessubjective which of probabilities could potential for outcomes,under those with outcomes. or risk without Rational ordecisions decisions uncertainty for known could pestreducing differ infestations the and from risk crop of profit-maximizing producers, values. some large Because might financial rationally apply losses pesticidesin is or other important excess inputs to ofdamage many profit-maximizing can be levels. reducedlevels from Uncertainty by scouting or information about monitoring; models about predictingfrom pest yield pests, pest losses weather, and infestation other factors;effectiveness and of information pest about control the practices. 4.1 Cost efficiencyOne of pesticides argument for thethe increase end in of syntheticcost World pesticide War less use II and from previously through contributed used 1980 to methods. is Fernandez-Cornejo higher, that and pesticides less co-workers often variable yields than that productivity estimation should account for factors influencing pest damage and the effect of pesticides on pest damage. of pesticides and theprice amount index used. fell Overall, relative the1965 to to NASS the 2011, pesticide NASS while wagein it and some increased fuel years relative and indices to decreased from ratio in the between others, crop pesticide with price and essentially index crop the(Fig. price same 12). indices in 1965 and 2010 www.soci.org 35 and is in the public domain in the USA. However, the quantity of methyl bro- 7 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 2013; Potatoes and other vegetables have accounted for most of the The quantities of other pesticides applied to apples, citrus, and Fumigant use is a major source of increased quantity on pota- The use of growth regulators, desiccants and harvest aids on mide on vegetables and strawberriesthe declined phase-out under since the Montreal 1994 Protocol and due the Clean to Air Act. Pest Manag Sci 4 ECONOMICOF FACTORS PESTICIDES AFFECTING THE USE Various economic factors affectpractices farmers’ (pesticides choices and of other pest practices) and control how intensively to Issues of US pesticide use pounds in 1964, 19 million pounds inin 1976, 1996. and 25 million pounds increase in the quantity of ‘other pesticides,’ fromin 6 million 1964 pounds to 101declining million to pounds 85 million in pounds 2002acreage in (about 2010. treated The 17 with proportion times), such ofto before potato materials 40–70% increased from from 1991 9%showed to 1% in 2010 of 1966 ‘other (Table vegetables’ 8).1966 treated and Similarly, 24% with in USDA 1971 other (see reports pesticides footnote c in over in Table 50% 8). By of the mid-1990s, freshand market slightly tomatoes, less nearly than 70%with 50% of other of strawberries, pesticides, processing primarily tomatoes fumigants,2000. were before However, treated declining after only smallsuch as acreages lettuce and of sweet corn, some were treated. other vegetables, ‘other deciduous fruit’ are small, generally notpounds exceeding per year 4 (except million from 1997 to 2000 dueapplied to to larger quantities grapes). However, for someof fruit bearing crops, the acreage percentage treatedacreage has treated with been other high pesticides increased into from 28% some the in years. 1966 range Apple the of early 55–65% 1970s, nearly indeciduous 70% most fruit’ of acreages years were citrus, treated from but withfootnotes ‘other less 1990 a pesticides’ than (see and to b 5% 2009. in oforanges Table By and ‘other 8). grapefruit From treated 1990 was lessgrapes to than 2009, exceeded 20% the 20% , acreage in in of many mostpeaches was years, years; less reaching than 56% 20% in in most, 1999; but and not all years. toes and other vegetables,peppers, and such strawberries. as Soil fumigants fresh areacre market applied at rates tomatoes, high per- bell anduse have since 1991. accounted The for estimated quantitymide, 50–67% of 1,3-dichloropropene, fumigants (methyl chloropicrin of bro- and otherthe metam-sodium) pesticide included on crops increasedduring the from 1964 to about 1971 period 6–10late to nearly 1990s, million 70 but million pounds pounds declined inUse to the of less fumigants on than potatoes 60 (primarilymetam-sodium, million 1,3-dichloropropene but metam-potassium and pounds since 2005) in increased from 2010. 25 million pounds a.i. in 1991acreage to treated increased 51 steadily million from 11% pounds in in 1991 to1999–2001 2010, over as 25% to in the 35% in 2010. cotton and other crops accountswith for ‘other pesticides.’ most The of quantity used the on cotton acreage50% increased from treated only 12 million pounds invarying 1964 to between 19 million 13 pounds and incotton 1994, 22 acreage million treated increased pounds from afterin 26% that the in date. 1966, late to The 1990s, overeffect of to 60% increased over percentage of 85% acreagebeen in treated offset on 2007 by quantity changes has and from older 2010sodium materials, chlorate, (Table such and tribufos, as 8). to arsenic newer The acid, onesacre applied rates, at such lower as per- ethephon, mepiquat chloridethidiazuron and and pentaborate, paraquat.

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1016 1017 49 An 50 – 45,48 others show Some studies 46 45 – 42 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps found that crop insurance participation 51 . while even others show a small effect. FCI covers more than 80% of major field crop et al 47 41 Declines in diverted acreage may have contributed to 40 Some economists have argued, since the 1970s, that crop Changes in diverted and CRP acreage may have affected show that crop insurance increased pesticide use; acreage (ERS,practices-management/risk-management/government- USDAprograms-risk.aspx). The (http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm- NoninsuredProgram provides Crop catastrophic Disaster coverage fornot Assistance covered crops by and FCI for locations a nominal fee. insurance could discourageinputs, use of but pesticides empirical as evidence risk-reducing is mixed. encouraged producers to grow highermore pesticide value use. crops, Subsidized encouraging premiums could encourage more decreased use; importantissuewaswhetherpesticideswererisk-increasingorrisk- reducing (as measured by effect onpesticidesreducedtheprobabilitiesofindemnitiesasbothaverage income variance), or whether and variance of yields or revenues increased. However, Wu crop acreage and, thus,decreased pesticide during the use. early Crop 1990s acreagesince and have restrictions then. been relatively Acreage stable kind, acreage diversion reduction, and programs, paid land diversion, suchby were 1996 terminated legislation, as but 1985 payment-in- legislationReserve created Program the (CRP). Total Conservation acreage in diversion programs during the 1980s and 1990s and CRPin since 1988 to 1985 55 declined million in from 1995; 77 CRP acreage million acres increased from in 34 million 1996 to 372010. million in 2007 and declined to 31 million in and Claassen increased pesticide quantity inof the changing early CRP 1990s, acreageacreage since but since 2007 the might 1996 have effects encouraged are pesticide use. unclear; reduced CRP 4.2.2 Federal cropSince insurance the 1996 Farm Bill eliminated price-sensitivements deficiency and pay- acreage diversion programs, croplarger insurance role has had in a agriculturalcrop risk acreage, per-acre management input use, and and aggregate could pesticidemultiple-peril use. Federal influence The Crop Insurance Program (FCI), administered by USDA’s Riskpolicies, Management with Agency,participation. has premiums yield subsidized and revenue 38–67% to encourage www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 2013; The combination of target prices, loan rates, acreage Relative prices, 1965–2011: pesticides to crops, fuels and wages. 37 Pesticideusegrewrapidlyduringthe1960swhenfarmprograms 4.2.1 Changing farmFarm policy legislationdecreased in incentives forinputs, 1977, continuing with pesticides 2002 1985, and or 2008steadily legislation. reduced restrictions These 1990 other on changes planting decisions and yield-enhancing the relation between and current production and 1996 programprograms payments. Since permit steadily 1996, producers to plantplus 100% additional of acreage total to basefruits acreage and any vegetables) crop without (withgreater loss some planting of Federal flexibility exceptions subsidy. could for when However, lead idled to land returns increased to production. pesticide use restrictions, andcommodity inflexible programs base may havefinancial acreages increased risk returns historically and forencouraged reduced in greater program per-acre U.S. crops. useincreasing of As inputs), pesticides more a (and program otherpesticide result, crop use. yield- acreage, However, they acreage and, restrictions reduce thus, may totaluse more pesticide in have comparison to previous years. restricted crop acreage. Fromwhen the pesticide use mid-1970s grew to to market saturation, the acreagewere restrictions early relaxed, export 1980s, demand for U.S.crop commodities prices and was acres high, increased. and During theacreage 1980s, diversion, low crop and prices, land retirement contributedin pesticide to use. reductions Pest Manag Sci 4.2 Effects ofMany farm and economists energy policy argue thatmore commodity pesticide programs use encouraged markets. than would have been optimal under free index rose relative to fuel and crop1990s, indices and from relative to 1980 the until wage the index late during thefalling mid-1980s, before again. Increasing relative pesticideperiod prices may during have reflected this high time production demand for and pesticide contributed use in tothe crop use late 1990s, stabilizing the since pesticide 1980. pricewage index and Since declined fuel relative indices, to crop, reinforcedfuel prices, by thus large reverting increases to insubstitution the crop of longer and pesticides term trend, forpest encouraging control labor, and fuel more pesticide and use to machinery protect higher used crop values. in Figure 12. Issues of US pesticide use 69: 1001–1025 These concepts 55 2013; Economists also examined 61 Treatments are economically 53 – CD Osteen, J Fernandez-Cornejo However, rapid growth rates and 58 57 Pest Manag Sci – 55 62,63 According to economic theory, thresholds and pesticide Pest monitoring information and damage projections, which mobile pest externalities, as discussed in the section ‘Mobilecould pests’, justify treatment of smallat infestations other to locations prevent and damages inexceed the current damage future, reductions. even if current control costs justifiedwheninfestationsexceedthethresholdorpestpopulation level where damage reductioneliminate equals uneconomic control applications they cost. can If reduceand pesticide thresholds various use adverse health, safety and environmental effects. application rates will respondprices to or economic factors. lowerthresholds. Higher control crop With costs somethat increase exceptions, risk economists optimal and generally uncertainty rates encourage argue higher more or rates pesticide or lower use lower through thresholds. the impacts ofwith optimal population control models. dynamics on economic thresholds 5 COUNTER-PRODUCTIVEPESTICIDES APPLICATIONS OF Despite theincreased apparent pesticide contribution use isScheduled to or not prophylactic a production treatments when panacealow pest efficiency, for infestations may are all have pestreduction little problems. might effect on notbeneficial yield, exceed organisms and and cost. the naturalsecondary Some value enemies outbreaks to could applications of require pests. damage species destroy additional As treatments, that a while result, werebecome adequately pests. controlled Continuedpesticide exposure by often of naturalreduces leaves pest the enemies pesticide’s effectiveness, the populations creates the potential to foroutbreaks, most pest and a resistant encourages furtheruse. individuals, counter-productive pesticide Continuous which plantingsgrowth of of pest some populationswould crops and can rotating greater encourage useuniform, several high-yielding of varieties the and crops. pesticides high use of than pesticidesregard A without for monoculture beneficialpotential of species for or genetically pest damagingpesticide resistance use pest could can lower outbreaks. pest create damagecircumstances. As Stern and the and control others a discussed costs the in economic threshold some result,and integrated reducing control concepts as waysof to address counter-productive the problems pesticide applications. pesticide use, andwith pest use. Growers populationof who pesticide growth, do use might which not increaseFor pesticide consider decreases the use the group, to increase the long-term control. resistance most effects by effective reducing strategy application might rates,rotating be eliminating use treatments, to of manage pesticidesnon-chemical with practices, and/or different maintaining refugia modes of susceptible ofpest action, populations. using Suchregulations, approaches such might as require EPAplanting government requirements Bt crops, for or non-Bt large area refuges programs. when incur costs, are needed to implement thresholds. Sexton and have had a significant influence onpest management. the science and economics of 5.1 Economic thresholds The economic threshold concept is based onshould the notion be that pests controlled only whenexceeds the the value cost of damage of reduction control. www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. say that markets 37 . Accounting for pest Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 53 et al Second, use of methyl tertiary butyl ether 54 52 Similarly, tax credits and mandates for biodiesel production Mobile pests can also spread resistance to pesticides and reduce mobility could encourageslow greater the pesticide spread use ofarea pests to control and programs prevent damages can or effectively coordinate to grower control new actions mobile locations. and Large andcreate more damaging economies pests. ofGovernment They scale may pest for also eradication monitoringboll or programs, weevil, controlling for might require pests. suchto and/or pests improve subsidize program grower as effectiveness participation and the growers prevent from non-participating benefiting. 4.3 Mobile pests Mobilepestsmaycreateexternalities,whicharecostsanddamages not considered by the grower because another growerimpact bears some from the decision.greater The the more externalities mobile canthe be. a landscape Mobile pest or pests species, re-infest can a the For spread treated area a across from group anfor untreated of area. all farmers, to the treat.potential most However, pest a effective single damage strategysome farmer might of (and might be it under-estimate benefitsto occurs treat from elsewhere or control), or tohave in because treat developed the less decision future, thanspecies models is and that desirable. decide for consider Recently,risk not exotic pest economists and pests uncertainty, population and dynamics or externalitiesmonitoring associated and invasive and with mobility, management exclusion, strategies. (MTBE) as an oxygenate in gasoline declined, becauseterminated the 2005 the Act requirement for oxygenatesliability and did protection not provide forpollutant. Third, MTBE tax credits asethanol for imports ethanol a encouraged producers domestic carcinogenic andcredits ethanol tariffs expired groundwater production. on (Tax in2013.) January Higher 2012, fuel but prices2003 were and increased corn corn-based renewed prices, ethanol acreage in and demand production,increased January which since corn in pesticide turn use. encouraged production of(ERS, soybeans, USDA the (http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/soybeans-oil- primarycrops/policy.aspx#Bio_Policy), raw material butproduction and the pesticideethanol use policy effect on is corn. EISA lessmillion included on gallons dramatic biodiesel by mandates than of 2009 soybean USEPA 500 effects rule-making. and A legislatively 1 of created billion $1 perfor gallons gallon biodiesel tax by credit produced 2012, andeffect pending used in in 2005. (It the expired on Unitedin 31 States January December 2013.) 2011, went but into was renewed might fail tointervention. Farmers protect trade pest off susceptibility resistance, which without increases government with wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps 4.2.3 Energy policy:Recent biofuels energyencouraging farmers policy to grow indirectly moreFirst,thereweremandatesforincreaseddomesticuseofrenewable corn for affected ethanol production. fuels pesticide in the Energy use Policy Actand of the by Energy 2005 Independence (7.5 and billion Security gallonsbillion gallons Act by by 2022). (EISA) 2012) of 2007 (36 high-value crop acreage and pesticide usesound’ than premiums. would ‘actuarially their effectiveness. While not a newattention issue, due resistance to has concerns regained about insectweed resistance resistance to Bt to crops glyphosate. and Sexton

1018 1019 argue that high costs 37 . etal wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps Table 9 lists a summary of important 74,75 37 Important effects were the development of 73 Public concerns about environmental hazards of pesticides Re-registration became a major focus in the 1980s and 1990s. Regulatory requirements affect the innovation of pesticide The regulatory process defines what pesticides and use practices Regulatory policy recognizes a role for pesticides in crop low-application rate pesticides and genetically engineered crops. 6.1 A reviewFrom of the changing policy early 1900s, beforethe pesticide use 1960s, was widespread, when until encouraged pesticide adoption use ofproduct effectiveness, labeling grew contents, the and warning rapidly, users newacutely about toxic U.S. ingredients. technology legislation by regulating pesticide legislation. Concerns about thechemical residues presence in food and emerged safety in the of FFDCA 1950s, amendments which in resulted 1954 in and 1958tolerances requiring pesticide residue for rawproducts. food The and feed 1958prohibiting commodities amendment food and additives included found processed the toanimals. induce Delaney cancer Clause in humans or emerged in theamendments 1960s, in when the useprocess 1960s was on and protection growing frombut 1970s rapidly. health created focused FIFRA a and role the environmentaldecisions. for The hazards, regulatory result balancing was a risks series of andbenefits formal reviews benefits of on pesticides. in the risks regulatory and The review of previouslyre-registration registered in the pesticides 1978 was amendments; 1988the identified amendments process as sped and provided additionalfees. financial During resources through re-registration,risk issues, USEPA and identifiedlabels in many many or cases, pesticide canceledcostly registrants uses formal voluntarily reviews. to changed The meet regulatory safety process standards emphasized and risk avoid products and market structure. Sexton health and environmental hazards of pesticide use,worker including farm safety, cancer risks, birthquality, endangered defects, species, wildlife and food mortality, safety. Over water time, regulatory policy changed from balancing risksstandards. and benefits to meeting risk are legal, andUnder indirectly the influences Federal aggregate(FIFRA) Insecticide, quantities and Fungicide, the used. and FederalUSEPA Food, Rodenticide decides Drug, whether Act or and not Cosmeticregisteredorunregisteredpesticides,modifyexistingregistrations, to Act register new (FFDCA), uses ofand previously cancel some or all registered(see uses of also pesticides on Note the market d,Air after Act, Clean the Water References).Safety Act, and Such Endangered Health laws Act, Species and as Act, thepesticide Plant the Occupational use. Protection Act Clean can also affect production, but emphasizesUSEPA’s approach protection is to test from andnew assess hazards hazards pesticide before of registering uses;health use. and safety re-evaluate standards, routinely registeredconcerns; and and in mitigate pesticides response risks to by against specific modifyingcanceling use rates uses and practices, not‘reduced-risk’ pesticides. meeting safety standards, and registering of testing andand introducing encourages new market pesticides concentration.Cornejo impedes Ollinger said innovation that and regulation Fernandez- encouragestoxic the development pesticides, of discourages less new registrations,to encourages abandon firms registrations forover minor smaller crops, ones. and favors large firms www.soci.org 65 55 and is in the public domain in the USA. 66 The concepts of bio- 69 Some European countries, 67 64 Since 2001, EPA, USDA and the 72 During the 1990s, some groups argued 70,71 68 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work said that farmers choose between responsive 2013; 37 The United States, in the 1990s, instituted a policy of More recently, IPM became a policy tool to reduce the use intensive and ecologically baseduse IPM were of developed synthetic toreduced-risk reduce organic pesticides. pesticides and increase emphasis on Land Grant Universities collaborated in promotingsupport for IPM, four including regional IPM centers. including Denmark and Sweden,pesticide instituted use programs by to 50%. reduce Pest Manag Sci 6 PESTICIDEPesticide use REGULATORY has POLICY grown within thepolicy, shaped context by of changing public regulatory attitudes law and and Since political the pressure. 1960s, there have been major public reactions to alleged Organic farming systems incorporatetechniques, various and pest growers management certified underavoid national use standards of must most synthetic organic pesticides. IPM focuses on optimizingcultural the controls, use ofcrops, including chemical, augmentation varietal biological of and manage resistance natural pest problems enemies, rather to than and relying solelyand pests, crop on often chemical rotation, use, trap include to pest monitoring and economic thresholds. 5.2 Integrated pestIntegrated management pest management (IPM)an was approach originally to control developed pests as can more cost-effectively reduce over counter-productive time pesticide and applications.others originally defined Stern integrated control and as ‘applied pest control which combines and integrates biological and chemical control.’ Issues of US pesticide use co-workers that the practice of IPM waspests, overly when reliant it should on promote pesticides reduced to use. control implementing IPM to reduce pesticiderisks, health and but environmental never adoptedspecific percentage. a In 1993, goal the Clinton offor Administration reducing set 75% a pesticide goal of useuse farms by to by a use 2000;of IPM in Understanding techniques 1994, for that USDAProtection an reduce Act and of IPM 1996 pesticide required EPA USDA Initiative, and EPA signed toand while conduct research education a the programs Memorandum Food toGeneral Quality support Accounting IPM Office adoption. (now In theOffice) Government criticized 2001, Accountability USDA the IPMuse, programs saying for that not the programs reducing shouldpractices pesticide promote biologically that based reduce use. and risks of pesticides.argued that In some pesticides the were over-used and late soughtor to 1980s, restrict reduce some the interestmore total groups amount efficient of applicationpest pesticides technology, monitoring and used. economic non-chemical thresholds, They or practices, cropreduce rotations said pesticide could use and that adverse environmental and health effects with relatively small economic losses. applications (basedpreventative applications, on bypesticide cost monitoring comparing savings monitoring andexpected and choosing costs profits. the to type So, thresholds) thatmonitoring if cost offers is pesticide higher low, and a cost responsiveprofitable, approach savings but is the more are likely opposite to high isor be more monitoring and/or likely costs if are pesticidesabout are high. cheap Improved pest monitoring damage information dosages or can increase thresholds. reduce uncertainty and thus reduce 69: 1001–1025 2013; CD Osteen, J Fernandez-Cornejo Pest Manag Sci Under its interpretation, USEPA revoked 77 Purpose or denied the tolerancea for processed a product raw wasClause, commodity revoked leading if or to denied a cancellation under tolerancethat of the for crop. the Delaney NAS pesticide’s argued registrationClause for that would rigorous restrict USEPA’s application flexibilityrisks of to the by reduce Delaney preventing dietary cancer registrationrisks that of displace more pesticides hazardous materials, with andactivity focus slight regulatory on cancer negligiblehealth dietary risks. USEPA attempted risks to apply instead aDelaney negligible Clause, which risk of the rule Ninth to Circuit more the U.S. CourtUSEPA rejected significant in subsequently 1992. wrote rules to revoke tolerances under the regulatory confusion created by the ‘Delaney Paradox’carcinogenic-risk where rule a applied no to residuethat tolerances concentrate for in processed pesticides food and a benefit–riskto those rule applied that did not. www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. farmers and ranchers from marketing of ineffective products. pesticides, in food. the substance was poisonous. residues be established (or exempted) forrisks food and and benefits. feed (Section 408). Allowed consideration of does not consider benefits (Section 409);additives included found the to Delaney induce Clause cancer which inclassified prohibited humans as food or food animals. additives, Pesticide while residues residuespesticide in on applied processed raw to foods commodities a were were raw not. commodityfoods When appeared were residues in not of a to a processed be product, regulatedraw the as commodity. residues food in additives processed if levels were no higher than sanctioned on the denial or cancellation of registration andto the prevent immediate an suspension imminent of hazard a to registration, the if public. necessary, pesticide only if it did notenvironment; cause required ‘‘unreasonable an adverse examination effects’’ of to thewithin human safety 4 health of years or all using the previously new registered healthexceeded pesticide and those products environmental criteria protection were criteria. subject Materials toconsideration with cancellation of risks of risks that registration. and Specifically benefits included in these decisions. and prices of relevant agricultural commodities. reregistration but required an expeditious process. registered before November 1, 1984, befinancial reregistered resources by through 1995; reregistration provided and EPA annualregistrations. with maintenance additional fees levied on pesticide foods: ‘‘ensure that there is afrom reasonable aggregate certainty exposure.’’ that Pesticide no residues harm areboth will no fresh result longer and to subject processed infants to foods and the maytolerance children Delaney contain levels Clause residues determined of of to FDCA; pesticides be classified safe.pesticides as EPA within carcinogens was 10 at required years, to with reassess priorityhealth. existing to Benefits tolerances pesticides no of that longer may have pose adecisions the role concerning greatest in existing risk setting tolerances. to new Included public tolerances, specialminor but provisions use may to and have encourage public a registration health limited of pesticides. role in fees for registration actions in theRegistration Antimicrobials, Divisions Biopesticides of and EPA’s Pollution Office Prevention, ofeligibility and Pesticide decisions Programs; for required pesticides that undergoing pesticide tolerancetolerance reregistration reassessment assessment be deadlines; completed and set by a theother deadline FQPA pre-1984 of pesticides. October 3, 2008 to complete reregistration of Prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transport of adulterated or misbranded pesticides; protected Provided that safe tolerances be set for residues of unavoidable poisonous substances, such as Required pesticides to be registered before sale and the product label to specify content and whether Increased authority to remove pesticide products from the market for safety reasons by authorizing Amended FFDCA to give authority to regulate food additives against a general safety standard that Required consideration of the effects of registration cancellation or suspension on the production Accelerated the reregistration process by requiring that all pesticides containing active ingredients Amended FIFRA to significantly increase authority to regulate pesticides. Allowed registration of a Identified review of previously registered pesticides as reregistration; eliminated the deadline for Amended FIFRA and FDCA to set a consistent safety standard for risks from pesticide residues in Amended FIFRA to provide for the enhanced review of covered pesticide products; authorize service Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work In 1987, NAS described the 76 Important pesticide legislation in the USA 1938 (FFDCA) Rodenticide Act of 1947 (FIFRA) 1958 (FEPCA) of 1972 (FQPA) Act of 2003 The Insecticide Act of 1910 Table 9. Legislation Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Miller Amendment to FFDCA of 1954Food Additives Amendment to FFDCA of Amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) to require that tolerances for pesticide FIFRA Amendments of 1964 Federal Environmental Pest Control Act FIFRA amendment of 1975 Federal Pesticide Act of 1978 FIFRA amendments of 1988 The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 The Pesticide Registration Improvement wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps 6.2 Food QualityTwo Protection Act of important 1996 issuesof led 1996 to (FQPA), theconcerns which Food amended about Quality FIFRAconsumed pesticide Protection by and children, and Act FFDCA: (2) residues enforcement of (1) theIn Delaney in Clause. public 1993, food, thethe National especially unique Academy sensitivity food ofUSEPA’s of Sciences risk assessment (NAS) children process. highlighted and suggested changes to assessment data andrisk procedures, and benefit reducing comparisons. the Thepesticides focus role continued on with of reviewing the registered reassessment formal FQPA-required from 1997 residue to tolerance re-registration 2006 review of and, each initiated active ingredient in every 2006, 15 years. another

1020 1021 79 80 However, some 81 Replacements were other 79 In addition, the tolerance and 79 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps . estimated a $203 million producer and consumer et al According to the National Academy of Sciences, many adopters The tolerance assessment and re-registration process may have The economic effects of FQPA are unclear. There appear to be 1700 residue tolerances inand 1997, 150 more lowered; thanvoluntarily of 700 cancelled 49 were or active revoked identified phased ingredients out. registered, potential Van 18 adverseIPM Steenwyk were and programs pest Zalom using controlmonitoring and organophosphate treatment effects: thresholds, insecticides reduced changespest ability resistance to based to in manage pesticides, and on potential pesticideif use increases alternatives were less effective. It isregulatoryactionspriortothedecisions,andwhilemanyregistered very difficultorganophosphate to uses were canceled anticipate andtotal ban tolerances the never revoked, occurred. a entire combination of 6.3 Plant ProtectionGenetically Act engineered crops,use, which are may approvedwell influence as under pesticide FIFRA thePlant and Health Plant Inspection FFDCA Service Protection (APHIS) inmovement, has Act some import authority to and (PPA), cases. regulate crops field USDA’s as as potential testing plant Animal pests. of If and unconfineda release genetically significant does risk not engineered to pose agriculture orregulate the the environment, crop, APHIS allowing commercialization. can In de- registers addition, USEPA plant incorporated pesticides,FIFRA. USEPA such does as not regulate Bt geneticallytolerance, crops, engineered but herbicide does under regulate thefor herbicides. food FDA and regulates feed use safety under FFDCA. of GE cropsdue have to more higher cost-effective yields weed controlresulting and/or or reduced in lower insect losses, production less costs tillage and insecticide use. stated that FQPA might encourage development of new pesticides meeting health and environmental standards and mitigate the loss of pest control alternatives. influenced the mixcumulativeriskassessmentsoforganophosphatesandcarbamates of pesticidesmight used. have The contributed to high declinesuse from in priority 2000 their to 2010, and shares and increases ofshares of insecticide (Fig. pyrethroid and 9, nicotinoid Fig. 10, Table 6). synthetic pesticides;genetically natural and engineeredand biological crops; other toxins, pheromone semiochemicalmeasures; including mating approaches; and disruption organic biological production. and Van Steenwyk cultural and Zalom cumulative risk assessments(included of in amides) triazines mightshares and have of influenced herbicide chloracetanilides use the from declineHowever, 1995 in to increased 2010 their (Table glyphosate 4,since use Fig. it 7, reduced was the Fig. shares 8). another ofafter most 2000, major other as major well. factor, herbicide families no ex-post analyses ofregulatory the actions resulting overall from economic the tolerance impactthere reassessment, of but were FQPA ex-ante or Metcalfe analyses of potential actions. For example, loss if organophosphate use on 13 California crops was banned. potential environmental problemsmanaged by include USEPA requirements to Bt-resistant plant portions of Bt insects, non-Bt fields seed; with glyphosate-resistant weeds, subject toof development resistance management strategies;traits (gene or flow) to possible other plants. transfer Gene flowweedsreceivingaherbicide-tolerantgene,orcontaminatingcrops, of raises the GE possibility of rendering them unsuitable for markets that limit or prohibit GE www.soci.org USEPA coordi- and is in the public domain in the USA. 78 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 2013; One result of the tolerance reassessment was cancellation of In setting pesticide tolerances, FQPA required USEPA to consider FQPA required a review of pesticide residue tolerances against nated the tolerance reassessment with the ongoing re-registration process, reviewed existing tolerances ofuse a was pesticide proposed, when and revoked auses. tolerances new Ecosystem of canceled and pesticide with worker dietary, drinking safety water, and risks non-occupational exposureUSEPA risks. were conducted examined cumulative along riskphate insecticides, carbamate assessments insecticides, triazine of herbicides, and organophos- chloracetanilide herbicides, highest priority pesticides determined to have common mechanisms of toxicity. (USEPA conductedcumulative a risk fifth assessment, of lower-priority synthetic pyrethroids and pyrethrins, duringerance 2010–2012.) review USEPA in completed Septemberdecisions the 2007 for tol- and pesticides re-registration registered(http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/tolerance/reassessment.htm)]. before eligibility 1984 inUSEPA 2008 reviewed 9721 [USEPA tolerances, confirming54% the safety (5237) of and about (3200) recommending and modification of the 12% (1200). revocation of aboutsome 33% registered uses, whichpest control may alternatives. For have organophosphates, of reduced approximately the number of Pest Manag Sci 6.2.2 Thetolerances Food Quality Protection Act and the reassessmentIn of 1997,organochlorines, and USEPA probablehighest identified or priorities possible organophosphates, for carcinogens tolerance as carbamates, the reassessment. 6.2.1 The FoodThe Quality Protection Act FQPA and new resolved safety standards risk the standards, Delaney required Paradox,and created effectively a eliminated the new reassessment consideration of dietary of economicfor benefits dietary residue risk decisions. Pesticides tolerances, wereDelaney no Clause, but longer to subject a new, to uniform the safetyrisks standard in for raw pesticide and processed foods: ‘a reasonable certaintyfrom of no aggregate harm exposure to thecarcinogens treated pesticide as non-threshold chemical effects, residue.’ this standard For negligible means risk, instead of no risk, for both rawFor and threshold processed foods. effects, the standard isby satisfied an ample if margin exposure of is safety lower than the no-effect level. dietary exposures from all foodas uses non-occupational and drinking exposure, water,pesticide such as for well as lawn home-ownerchildren care; or use increased other of susceptibility sensitiveeffects sub-populations; of a from and infants the other and cumulative toxicity’ substances (a with common a toxicor ‘common effect essentially to the mechanism same, human of FQPA sequence health directed USEPA of by to major use the an biochemical additional same, in 10-fold events). margin setting of residue safety tolerances in somechildren. cases to protect infants and this new standard by 2006,pose giving priority the to greatest pesticides that risk1999, 66% may to by 2002, public and the health, remainderexceeded by the 2006. with If standard, a 33% pesticide’s FQPA risk reviewedor required by tolerance residue revocations limitmechanism reductions of to toxicity was meet identified foracceptable a the group risk of standard. for pesticides, the one If pesticideother pesticides. could a be common reduced by risks from Issues of US pesticide use Delaney Clause, creating strong incentives for agricultural interests to seek a Delaney Paradox resolution. 86 69: 1001–1025 2013; CD Osteen, J Fernandez-Cornejo Pest Manag Sci While the FQPA might limit regulatory flexibility and not The use of agricultural pesticides and other pest control Increased pesticide use has not solved all pest control problems. minimize risk reduction costs, it might be consistent with thepreferences policy held by much of the public. This preference maythe reflect fear of unknown pesticide residues on food and thenature involuntary of such risks, even if scientists view them as insignificant. In addition, theadditional FQPA’s safety special margin for risk childrenhigher assessment imply marginal costs a provisions for willingness protecting them and to frompesticides incur the than dietary for risks adults. of 7In SUMMARY the U.S. the use of synthetic organic pesticidesfrom grew dramatically the 1960stechnology, but to it has the stabilizedfarmers early and used fluctuated 1980s, pesticides since then, widely.same as once The as farmers the overall herbicide trend adoptedgradual trend, increase is of but this ‘other largely pesticide’ other use until the components thegeneral early decrease are 2000s, in and insecticide a a use since the more mid-1970s. Herbicides and insecticides reached their maximum acreage treatedlarge on many acreage crops by early 1980s.overallusetrendsince1980havebeen:(1)changesincropacreage, So, major factors affecting the affected by economic andolder policy compounds with factors, newer ones (2) applied at the lowercontributing per-acre replacement to rates, reduced of pesticide quantities, and (3)of the genetically adoption engineered crops since thegenetically mid-1990s. engineered Adoption of insect-resistant cornacreage and treated cotton with synthetic reduced insecticides and quantities applied, while adoption of herbicide-tolerantencouraged corn, dramatic cotton increases and in soybeans glyphosateuse of use many that widely displaced used older and newer herbicides. practices andmarkets technologies and agriculturalprograms,which responded influenced crop acreage, management to and production. Some studies input indicate that, from the farmer’s and viewpoint, financial output returns justifieduse, increased but pesticide more recenttrends studies may suggested have over-use. encouraged pesticide Relativeperiod use price of from rapid 1965 growth toof 1980, in slower a use, growth, and but from fromreflected 2000 1980 high to to pesticide 2000, 2011, price demand ause. trends period and There may contributed is have also tothat an farm stabilizing programs encouraged argument, more pesticide supported use per acre by thaneconomically is efficient, economic but theory, acreage restrictionsuse reduced pesticide as comparedlegislation to since previous years. 1977on Changes weakened pesticide in the use farm by effectsplanting reducing program of flexibility, financial but farm incentives changes and in programs divertedhave increasing and affected CRP crop acreage acreage may and,economists thus, argued pesticide that use. crop Whilepesticides insurance some could as discourage risk-reducing use inputs,However, of Federally empirical subsidized crop evidence insurance is andmay biofuels have mixed. encouraged policy greater crop acreage and pesticide use. One concern isdevelopment of pest that resistance and mortality over-used of beneficialincluding species, pesticides natural cause enemiesmuch of overly pests, on rapid so pesticidesotherwise that and occur. farmers incur The spend greater useeliminate too pest unnecessary, of counter-productive losses pesticide IPM applications than andand economic would thresholds encourage can feasible. non-chemical While economic thresholds practices would eliminate where treatments economically 85 Such rules 84 www.soci.org and is in the public domain in the USA. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work A risk-only approach can According to Breyer, if the 82 83,84 However, USEPA assessed worker 79 30 The FQPA rules limit USEPA’s ability to consider the impacts of The FQPA increased regulatory flexibility, on the one hand, by Within the context of benefit–cost analysis, the use of a safety and ecosystemreassessment, risks which in could have conjunctionfrom increasing prevented other with pesticide tolerance risks. the decisions tolerance allow an ‘efficient allocation ofsingle regulatory chemical,’ restrictions but affecting do a between they not aggregate ‘address economic directly benefits..., the and nor trade-offs environmental do they risks assureamong an regulations efficient affecting allocation different of chemicals.’marginal As social cost a resources result, per the decisions life could vary saved from pesticide or tothe pesticide, illness relative depending cost-effectiveness upon of prevented alternatives. If by theof marginal tolerance tolerance costs regulations wereother higher regulations, the than only way the to marginal equateto marginal costs costs make would the of be other regulations stricter. a decision on the availabilityand of alternative on pest other controladdress practices pesticide the highest risks. risk pesticides Whileprocess earlier in the meant the FQPA that tolerance review the decisions requirement effects should on to other not risksreassessment increase are could unclear. have dietary Conceivably, forced risk, the growersincrease tolerance to risks use alternatives to that workersregulatory or actions, wildlife, or which forcedof in growers less-effective turn to pesticides. cause use more greater quantities wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps 6.4 Risk managementThe implications current pesticideuntil regulatory standards approach areinformation is met and to (risk-only analysischoices approach), reduce to using risks that identify economic through meet cost-reducing benefit–risk standards, regulatory comparisons. rather than setting standards traits, such as organic crops. Consumerof concerns about food the safety producedand from European GE government crops,for despite import some regulatory restrictions GE approval, limited crops.withdrawal In markets of 2004, an such application for concernsthe genetically may United engineered States. have wheat in led to the marginal cost of riskunit of reduction adverse effect, (the such cost assome saving of a regulations statistical than preventing life) others, is the risks greatereffectively last for could by be making reduced regulations morestringent with cost- and/or higher those with marginal lower cost marginal cost less more stringent. resolvingtheDelaneyParadox,butreducedflexibility,ontheother, by imposing risk standards inThe place FQPA of standard risk–benefit did comparisons. Breyer not described, entirely eliminate because theuse USEPA problem when that cannot setting consider newfoods, residue benefits except tolerances in of for specialwhat raw Harper cases. or and The Zilberman processed FQPA call standard a is safety-fixed rule. similar to limit flexibility to addressrisks trade-offs and between between risks differentrisk–benefit and types economic comparisons. of benefits, Similar to asonly the compared Delaney approach to Paradox, could a risk- decreases prevent in decisions some that risksrisks bring while that about allowing might large smallreducing exceed increases risks or standards, in smaller other resulting risk reductions in for the higher same cost. costspesticide of would bethe regulated regulation (costs so avoided that bycost reducing the (lost risks) marginal equals economic marginal benefit benefits). of

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1024 1025 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps are listed in the footnotes to Tables 4 and 6. estimates are linear interpolations between survey years. under FIFRA, currently administeredspecify sites (such by as specific crops USEPA. or livestock) where Registrations can pesticides be applied, applicationof rate, use methods for of pesticide use,for products. or For locations use a on pesticideor to a exemptions be from food registered tolerance crop,processed for foods and feeds, FFDCA the rotational crops, raw and requires livestock where commodityresidues residue and can all tolerances be found.while USEPA FDA monitors establishes residues and residue enforces tolerances, the tolerances. c Estimates in Figs 3–6 and Fig. 11 for years with no published d Before a pesticide can be used in the U.S. it must be registered b Examplesofcompoundsineachherbicideandinsecticidefamily www.soci.org . for 10 . Outlooks et al and is in the public domain in the USA. and re-interpolating citrus pesticide 12 . et al 69: 1001–1025 Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work 16:244–248 (2005). 2013; Breaking the Vicious Circle: Toward Effective Risk Regulation and Padgitt 10 . Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA (1993). Pest Manag ‘all vegetables’ in 1992,and 1990 1992 estimates, rates and 1991 re-interpolated and from 1993 estimates 1979 recomputed. in 1993 (based onet al NASS estimates) from the estimate in Lin use in 1992 and 1994. Based onremoved 1992 NASS from estimates, the sulfur per was acre fungicide estimates in Lin 86 Krieger R, Reviewing some origins of pesticide perceptions. 85 Breyer S, a Citrus insecticide estimates were modified by removing sulfur Pest Manag Sci 7.1 Notes Issues of US pesticide use