Sufi Mysticism forms an important part of all religious traditions in the world. With the natural religion such as Hinduism and Paganism, it began with the beginning but with Abrahamic religions, it emerged as a counterweight against the dogmatism and institutionalized creeds. In Islam, mysticism is known as Sufism and Tasawwuf. The 10th century marked a new phrase in the history of Islam. The Abbasid State collapsed and with it collapsed the rationalist or Mutaliza philosophy. The Mutalizas were favoured by the Abbasids because they could be used to suppress the orthodox Ulama and the systemization of theology by applying reason (aqal) to it. The Mutalizas believed that the man was the maker of his own destiny and the Quran was created. They disagreed with the traditional view that it was the word of God. Soon after the collapse of Abbasid and Mutalizas, the situation of the traditionalists was strengthened. This led to the formation of the four schools of Islamic laws. Of these, the Hanafi school which was the most liberal was adopted by the Turks and which later came to India. The first important early Sufi was Hassan Bari and his follower, the woman mystic Rabia who laid great emphasis on fasting and prayer. Zunnu Misri of Egypt believed in the concept of mystic union with God by the process of contemplation. This concept of the spiritual merger with God led to the conflict with the orthodox Ulama. Thus, Bayazid Bayat shocked the Ulana by stating: “Glory to me! How great is my Majesty! I saw Kaba walking around me.” His successor Mansur was executed on the charge of heresy and the proclamation of the doctrine of Anal- Haq (I am the truth/God). It is believed that Sufism assumed the form of a movement in Persian during the 9th century. It was a reaction against the rigid formalism of Islam. It received a philosophical basis during the reign of Abbasid Khalifa. They were influenced by the tenents of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Judaism. The credit for bringing about reconciliation between traditional Islam and Sufism went to Al-Ghizali. The term Sufi was derived from Safa (Pure) because of the purity of their hearts. Others derive the term from Saff (line, queue). They were called so because they were in the forefront of the line of the queue before God. According to a third definition, the word Sufi is derived from the word Suf (bench) because the qualities of these saints were similar to those of Ahsab al Suf who were attached to the Prophet (PBUH). They were called his companions (Sahba). The word Sufi bears close resemblance to the word Suf which means wool. They might have been called so because of their habit or wearing a woolen blanket. Sufism in India came with the advent of Islam. It is wrong to assume that Islam invaded India. Islam did not invade India. It came to India well before the arrival of Mughals and Turks. There was an Afghan invasion or a Mughal or Mongol invasion. It is believed that the Indians were held in good spirits in the Arab countries. The 11th century Geographer-author Idrisi has written about the honesty of the Indians. Thus, the Sufis came to India with the advent of Arabs and roamed its villages and cities in the robes and style of the Indian mendicants (Sadhus) and established their hermitage at a number of places. The mystics who preached to their disciples came in the highest category. In the second category came their disciples. The rulers and the scholars came next. The common people who had neither the desire for learning nor the desire for spiritual elevation came in the fourth position. Sufism was based on the monistic philosophy which is the fundamental principle of Islam. However, their belief in Wahadat-al Wajud (God and his creation are one) make them distinct from the fundamental Islamists. This idea is in conformity with the Vedantic theory of absolute monotheism. The Sufi saints, in their capacity as pirs, the living teacher or the spiritual guide showed the path to their followers called Murid for the attainment of that eternal bliss which was called Ma’rifat (gnosis) and wasl (union). They also compared the relationship between the God and his devotee as the one existed between the Lover and his beloved. A sufi has to pass through ten stages of dedication to God before he could attain communion with him. These were: Tauba (Repentence), Wara (Abstinence), Zuhd (piety), Faqr (poverty), Sabr (patience), Shurk (Gratitude), Khauf (Fear), Raja (Hope), Tawwakul (Contentment) and Riza (Submission to the Divine Will). Impact of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism on Sufi: It is now universally believed that Bhakti movement had a profound impact on the ideology of the Sufis. The Khanqas were built in the fashion of the Buddhist monasteries and Hindu mathas. Just like the Hindu saints, they freely followed the Hath Yoga ascetic practices of physical torture and showmanship. Some of the Pirs shaved the heads of the new entrants to their sect and observed the rituals which were unknown to Islamic countries. The Sufis owned some of their beliefs to the Nath Panthis who had their headquarters at Peshawar. The Sufis learned the practice of Hath Yoga from them. Amrit Kund, the Sanskrit book on Hath Yoga was translated into Persian and Arabic by the Sufis. The famous poets of the time such as Sanai, Attar, Iraqi and Rumi also helped to spread the message of Sufism. Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti He was born in Seistan in 1141 and turned into an ascetic soon after his father’s death. He was initiated into the Chisti order by Khwaja Usman at Nishapur. He later migrated to Lahore and then shifted to Ajmer. It is believed that the Khwaja had two wives one of which was a Hindu converted to Islam. He believed in Divine monotheism and Wahadat-al-Wajud. His mausoleum at Ajmer has become a place of pilgrimage for both Hindus and Muslims Muhammad Bin Tughlaq visited his grave and a dome on this tomb and a mosque was built by Mahmud Khilji of Malwa. His disciple Hamiduddin settled at Nagaur. He was so careful of the Hindu sentiments that he became a vegetarian and wrote Sufi poetry which promoted Hindu Muslim unity. The Qubrawiya on the other hand encouraged their supporters to demolish temples in Kashmir. Sheikh Hamiduddin Chisti and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki: He was one of the disciples of Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti. Sheikh set up his abode in a mud-house near Nagpur in Rajputana and carried on the peaceful propagation of Islam. Sheikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was an immigrant from Farghana. He settled in Delhi during the reign of Iltutmish on the directives of Muinuddin Chisti. The Chisti influence at Delhi was set up by Khawala Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. Sheikh Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi was the last of the great Chistis. He was with Muhammad Tughlaq’s army in Sind when the Sultan died and helped in the elevation of Firoz to the throne. Sheikh Fariduddin Ajodhan: He was a disciple of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki and was an Afghan by caste. Though a householder, he lived in the state of utmost poverty. A large number of his shabads (Sayings) are incorporated in Guru Granth Sahib. One of his most important disciples was Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya. He set up his headquarter at Ghiyasup near Delhi and gave the capital true Islamic touch. He was popularly called Mahbub-i-Illahi by his followers. His famous disciples were Nasiruddin Chirag- e-Delhi and Sheikh Salim Chisti. The latter was the patron saint of Emperor Akbar.

Two forms of Sufi Silsilsas remained popular in pre-15th century India-the Chisti and the Suhrawardi. Three more came into prominence after the 15th century. They were Shartari, Qadiri and Naqshbandi. During the last days of Delhi Sultanate, each Sufi Silsila had a distinctive character. Each Silsila had distinctive belief and each Pir (head of a Silsila) was labeled as Khalifa. Sufi movement had a love-hate relationship with the traditional Islam. Some Sufi Pirs claimed that they had received enlightenment from God. This created severe rift between the two. Al-Ghizali (1111 AD) tried to make a compromise between the two but soon after his death, ideological conflict renewed. The main cause of this rift was the principle of Wahadat-al-Wajud (the Unity of Being) propagated by Ibn-al-Arabi (died 1240 AD). Wahadat-al-Wajud was in direct opposition to the Shariat (traditional Muslim Laws). The early Sufi ideology was also opposed by the Ulama because it initiated the practice of the worship of the saints and their graves. Despite all these developments, some of the Sufi saints such as Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud Chirag-i-Delhi tried to bring a compromise between the traditional Islam and Sufis. Their Sufi poetry deals with this subject. Other saints such as Sheikh Alauddin Simnani criticized the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-Wajud and propagated Wahadat-al-Shadud (Oneness of Appearance). This doctrine states that there is a clear distinction between God and his creation. It was in direct opposition to Wahadat-ul-Wajud which states that God and his creation are one. The Sufi movement in the Mughal period can be divided into three distinct classes: 1. Wahadat-al-Wajud (God and his creation are one) 2. Wahdat-al Shadud (God and his creation are distinct) 3. Wahad-us-Shadud (the anti-Hindu and pro-Shariat Ideas) UN-TRADITIONAL SUFIS: In all the ages of the Muslim history, we come across a distinct class of Sufi traditions which were known for their complete disregard of Shariya. They were called the Ecstatic Ones (Majzub). One of the most famous among them was Sheikh Saadullah Bani Israel who started his career as an orthodox Muslim but turned into a moderate Sufi during his last years. He fell in love with a prostitute and spent all his wealth on her. But he spent his later years in the study of Islamic mythology and religion. Another important Saint was Sheikh Jalal Kannauji who used to blacken his face with dirt and roamed the streets of cities shouting and beating his chest. But the most famous among the ecstatic ones was Sarmad who was famous for his unusual and strange way of life. He was executed during the reign of Aurangzeb in 1661. Naqshbandi Movement Naqshbandi movement was born in the early years of the 13th century in Transoxiana. It is believed that Babur was a devotee of Sheikh Ubaidullah Arhar and his successors. The founder of the movement in India was Baq-i-Billah. Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was one of his most trusted Devotees. He was an orthodox Muslim and a firm propagator of Wahadat-al-Shadud. Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was influenced by the two important developments of his age. The first was liberal policy of Akbar and the second was the popular notion that a new prophet will descend the earth as soon as Islam completes its 1000 years of existence. Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was convinced that he was the second prophet of Islam and assumed the title Mujadid-i-Alaf-i-Sahni. He criticized Ulama-i-Su (worldly Ulamas) because they were ignoring the true Islam. Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi considered Shias heretics and criticized their religious believes in a series of his letters entitled Radd-i-Rawafiz. He also criticized the Hindus and called Ram and Krishan lowly and immoral individuals. Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi also criticized Wahadat-al- Wajud of Ibn-al-Arabi. He supported Wahadat-ul- Shadud of Alaudullah Simnani in Mabd-wa-Maad. Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was also against Akbar’s policies. He was arrested in 1619 on the orders of Jahangir. Though Aurangzeb was sympathetic to his cause, he too had to ban his publications in 1679 in Aurangabad. Shah Waliullah of Naqshbandi Silsila Another branch of Naqshbandi Silsila did not oppose Akbar’s liberal policies. Thus, Naqshbandi Silsila was divided into two branches. The first branch supported Wahadat-al-wajud and the second branch supported Wahadat-al-Shadud. The most important propagator of Wahadat-al Wajud was Shah Waliullah (the proponent of Wajuid Branch of Naqshbandi sect). It was an era of the decline of Mughals. The Marathas had overran the whole of India and the Jats and the Sikhs were rising to prominence in North India. The foreign invasions convinced him that Islam was in decline in India. He wrote letters to the Mughal rulers, nobles and important commanders advising them to reform the administration and strengthen the Mughal state by strengthening Islam in India. He invited Ahmed Shah Abdali and prompted Rohilla chief Najib-ud- Daulla to fight against the Jats. But his influence on the state policies was negligible. Tariqa-i-Muhammadiya The most important leader of Tariqa-i-Muhammadiya was Khwaja Muhammad Nasir Andlib and his son Khwaja Mir Dard. Khwaja Nasir wrote a few books entitled Nala-e-Andleeb and Ilm-ul-Kitab. Mir Dard tried to bring a compromise between Wahadat-al-Wajud and Wahadat-al-Shadud. He was the representative of the Sufi tradition of universal unity and equality. He stated that there is no basic difference between the two ideologies for a true Sufi. He was tolerant to the Hindus and believed that the Vedas were Ahl-i-Kitab. Chisti Sect Akbar was a loyal devotee of Sheikh Salim Chisti. From 1562 to 1579, he made 10 pilgrimages to the shrine of Muinuddin Chisti. He built a new capital Fatehpur Sikri in the vicinity of the Chisti Shrine. The Sufi tradition believed in the division of the areas. Thus, when a singer requested Baba Farid to pray for his well being, Baba Farid replied that he should rather go to Bahauddin Zakariya because his influence ends at the water tank. The Chisti saints believed in Shariyat but they were not opposed to the Hindus. The contradiction in Sufi ideas is clearly visible in Sheikh Abdun Quddus Gangohi who belonged to the Chisti Saviri tradition. He advised Babur and Sikander Lodhi to establish Sharia in India but he also believed that Shariya is not necessary for those who are spiritually mature. He believed that there is no difference between a Kafir and a Muslim because all are created equal by God. He wrote Rushad Nama in which he accepted Pantheistic doctrine of the Yogis and he also composed verses under the pen name of Alakh. He believed in the worship of Shiv and Shakti. Another important Sufi saint who was well versed in Chisti, Naqshbandi, Sohrawardi and Qadri Silsilah was Shah Qalimullah Jahanabadi. He was a strong supporter of Sama (Sufi musical gatherings). His teachings are compiled in Maqtubat-i-Kalimi. He was succeeded by Sheikh Nizamuddin Aurangabadi in Deccan. Shartari Silsila Shartari Silsila was known as Ishqiiya in Persia Bistamiya in Turkey and Turan. They were tolerant to the Hindus and believed in Wahadat-al-Wajud. The founder of this Silsila was Sheikh Abdullah Shartari and it was popularized by Sheikh Muhammad Ghauss of Gwalior. Sheikh Muhammad Ghauss wrote Jawahar-i-Khamsa which discusses the mystic and magical aspects of Sufism. He studied Sanskrit and compiled Qaleed-i- Makhazin. He translated Amrit Kund under the title of Bahr-ul-Hayat. This sect became popular in Gwlior, Mandu and Burhanpur during the reign of Shahjahan and Auranzgeb. Sohravardi Silsila: The foundations of this Silsila in India were laid by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya. He had spent a considerable time of his life in Central Asia. He was initiated into mysticism by Sheikh Shahabuddin of Baghdad. Unlike the Chistis, the Suhravardis were politically influential and did not believe in austerity and self mortification. The visitors in their Khanqas were treated like guests. Bahauddin Zakaria is reported to have said that he had nothing to do with the common people because no reliance could be placed upon them. His blessings were for a specific few. The doors of their Khanaqas were closed for qalandars and fakirs. The Sohravarids accepted unsolicited gifts from the Sultans or uncultivated land where they could labour themselves. They laid emphasis on the observance of all of the external form of religion. The Suhravardi saint Sheikh Jamaluddin did not hesitate to make forcible conversion. Bahauddin Zakariya openly sided with Iltutmish. It is also true that most of these changes were taking place at the top, among the ruling class, the nobility and the upper class and did not affect the common people. These developments occurred in the rural circles and spread in urban areas and cities. It was a process that was to remain in action for centuries to come. The Purdah tradition was popular among the aristocracy in the old civilizations especially among Greeks, Persia and the Western Asia. The tradition started in Byzantine court circles where the women were kept in secluded corners and the eunuchs were employed to guard their quarters. It travelled to Russia where there was a strict seclusion of women right upto the time of Peter the Great. It had nothing to do with the Mongols who did not segregate their women folk. The Arabic and Persian civilization was influenced by the Byzantine elements. Still, there was no seclusion of women in Central Asia and Arabia. The Afghans did not segregate their women folks. Purdah became popular in India during the Mughal period when it became a mark of prestige among the upper classes. Thus, the Sufis were not instrumental in bringing about a cultural revolution. The Sufis did not have the means to initiate such a change. Qadri Silsila Another important development in the Mughal era was the effort to bring together Wahadat-ul-Wajud and the Hindu Vedanta. Qadri Silsila was the result of this effort. The movement was founded by Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani. The headquarter of the movement was in Uchch. Another important Sufi of Qadri Silsila was Abul Haq Dehlvi. His ideas about Islam were very close to Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi. He propagated Shariya but he did not condemn the principles of Wahadat-al-Wajud. He wrote Akbhar-ul-Akhyar(life stories of important saints), Madariz-ul-Nububwa (the Supremacy of the Prophet) and Nuriya-i-Sultania. He was very close to Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan). However, Mian Mir and his disciple Mullah Shah were more inclined to Pantheistic doctrines. Mulla Shah was the ideological teacher of Dara Shikoh and his sister Jahan Ara. Jahan Ara later wrote a tract entitled Sahibiya (biography of Mulla Shah). Dara Shikoh was sympathetic to Qadri sect. Dara Shikoh’s books deals with the different aspect of Sufi mysticism. He also held a series of discussion with Yogi Baba Lal. Safinat-ul-Auliya (biographies of the Sufis of different Silsilas), Saqinat-ul-Auliya (Biography of Qadri Saints) , Hasnat-ul-Arifin (poetry of the saints), Tariqat-ul-Haqiqat (different spiritual ways) Risila-i-Haq-Numa (Sufi prayers) Majma-ul-Bahrain (Comparative Studies of Hindus and Muslim Sufi Sects) Translation of Yoga Vashishta and Bhagwad Gita Sirra-i-Akbar (Translation of 52 Upnishads) Some modern historians have tried to describe the War of Succession as the battle between two ideologies of traditional Islam and Sulh-i-Kul. But this view is criticized by Muhammad Athar Ali. Even Aurangzeb had read and respected Sufi saints such as Sheikh Sharfuddin Shahiya Maneri’s Maqtubat. This text deals with the middle way between traditional Islam and the mystic Sufism. Sufism and the Regional Literature The Sufi ideology had a direct influence on the development of regional language and literature. The development of Pashto language began with the Sufi poetry of Sheikh Bayazid Ansari and Sufi Abur Rehman of Raushniya sect. Sheikh Bayazid Ansari was the founder of Raushniya Sect. The development of Punjabi literature began with Sheikh Ibrahim Farid, Sheikh Sultan Bahu, Waris Shah and Bulle Shah. Their Sufi poetry laid the foundation of Punjabi literature. The Sindhi literature commenced with Shahju Risalo of Shah Abdul Latif. Hindi had found its founder leaders in Malik Muhammad Jayasi and saint Kabir. Decline of Sufi Movement The Sufi movement began to decline in the early years of 18th century and it is in decline even today. The early Sufi saints were the considered as the spiritual teachers. But in the later Mughal period, they became to indulge in superstitions. The decline of the Mughals and the Sufism occurred simultaneously. Even Sheikh Waliullah, the great Sufi saint of the later Mughal period could not revive the Sufi movement and returned to the ways of Shariya. Islam experienced modernization under Syed Ahmed Khan but Sufism remained in decline.