List of Contributors

Michael B eeson Department of , San Jose State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, CA 95003, USA beeson@cs .sj su.edu http://www .mathcs.sjsu.edu/faculty/beeson

D aniela C erqui University of Lausanne, Institute of Ant hropology and Sociology, BFSH2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland http ://wwwpeople .unil.ch/daniela.cerquiducret

B. Jack Copeland Philosophy Department, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand [email protected] http://www .AlanTuring.net

M artin D avis Professor Emeritus, Courant Institute, NY University, Visiting Scholar, Mathematics Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA martin@eipye .com

Daniel D ennett Center for Cognitive St ud ies, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA http: / / as e. t uft s. edu/cogst ud

Eugene Eberbach Computer and Information Science Department, University of Massachusetts, North Dartmouth, MA 02747-2300, USA eeberbach@umassd .edu http://www .cis.umassd.edu/-eeberbach 532 List of Contributors

Lee A. Gladwin Archival Services Branch of the Center for Electronic Records (NWME), The National Archives, 8801 Adelphi Road , College Park, MD 20740-6 001, USA lee.gladwin@nara .gov

Dina Q Goldin Computer Science & Engineering Department , University of Connecticut, 371 Fairfield Road, Unit 1155, Storrs , CT 06269 , USA [email protected] http://www.cse .uconn.edu/-dqg

Andrew Hodges Wadham College, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PN, UK andrew.hodges@wadh .ox.ac.uk http://www .turing.org.uk

D ouglas Hofstadt er Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition , Indian a University, 510 North Fess Street , Bloomington, IN 47408, USA http://www.cogsci .indiana.edu

R ay Kurzweil KurzweilALnet [email protected] http://www. kurzweilai .net

Daniel Mange Swiss Federal Instit ute of Techno logy, Lausanne, Logic Systems Laboratory, EPFL-IC-LSL , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland daniel [email protected] http://lslwww.epfl.ch

Valeria Patera TIMOS Teatro Events, Association for t he Communication of Science, Rampa A. Ceriani, 10, 1-00165 Rom e, Italy timos@inwind .it

Diane Proudfoot Philosophy Department , University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand [email protected] .nz ht t p: / /www . Al anTuring .net List of Contributors 533

Elisabeth Rakus-Andersson Blekinge Institute of Technology, Campus Annebo, S-37179 Karlskrona, Sweden [email protected] http://www.bth.se/ihn

Hector Fabio R estrepo Swiss Federal Inst itute of Technology, Lausanne, Logic Systems Lab oratory, EPFL-IC-LSL, CR-I015 Lausanne, Switzerland and Grupo de Percepcion y Sistemas Inteligentes, Escuela de Ing. Elect rica y Electronica, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia fabio [email protected]

Tony Sale Ex Muse ums Director, , UK , 15 Northampton Road, Bromham, Beds MK43 8QB, UK tsale@qufaro .demon.co .uk http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk

Helmut Sch nelle Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, 44780 Bochum , Germany [email protected]

Mike Stannett Department of Computer Science, , Regent Court, 211 Portobello Street, Sheffield SI 4DP, UK [email protected] .ac.uk http://hypercomputation.net

Jonathan Swinton E-mail: [email protected] Web-site: http://www.swintons.net/jonathan

Gianluca Tempesti Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Logic Systems Laboratory, EPFL-IC-LSL, CR-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland [email protected] http ://lslwww.epfl.ch/-tempesti 534 List of Cont rib utors

Christof Teuscher Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Logic Systems Laboratory, EPFL-IC-LSL, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland [email protected] http://www.teuscher .ch/christof

Christopher G. Timpson The Queen's College, University of Oxford, High Street, Oxford OX1 4AW, UK christopher .timpson@queens .ox.ac.uk http://users.ox.ac.uk/-quee0776

Peter Wegner Department of Computer Science, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA pw@cs .brown.edu http://www .cs.brown .edu/people/pw

Andrew J. W ells Depart ment of Social Psychology, The School of Economics and Political Science , Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, UK a [email protected] Index

A-calculus 45 ,162,175,181 - learn ing 333 rr-calculus 176,181,191,289 - Logic Theorist 329 $-calculus 176,182,189 - manifesto of 331 - program 329 a-machine 161, 163 ASCII code 91 A-type unorganized machine 167,500, asymptotic behavior 196 507,508 atomic bomb 321 abstract objects Austin, John Langshaw 233 - resemblance of physical objects to Automatic Computing Engine see 234-235,237 ACE Abwehr 420,427 automaton 272, 278, 290 accessible temporal boundedness (ATB) - cellu lar 176, 18:{ , 245 151 - computing 322 ACE 6,165,187,200,324,326,331 - ecological 281 - circuit designs 325 - universal 322 - construction 325 - derivatives 327 B-type - electronics 324 - link 511 - hardware details 324 - machine 334 - machine code 325 - unorganized machine 167,500,511 adaptation 245 Babbage, Charles 321 AI see Banbarismus 454 , 456 air defence 326 Belinfante, Johan 123 algorithm 88, 159, 175, 195, 196, 334 Bell Labs 464, 468 - digital-analog 399 Bertrand, Gustave 423-430 algorithmic computation 159 BI-type anthropocentrism 375 - link 515 anthropomorphism 375 - link state diagram 515 appropriate interference 513 - machine 515 artificial binary - brain 67,70 - dec ision machine 246 - elements 59, 60 - recurrent network 510 - life 43,169,335,374 biotechnology 403 - neural networks (ANN) 501 Bletchley Park 5, 164, 319, 329, 428, artificial intelligence 6,45,65,168, 436,441,444,451,453,460,479 191,227,298,299,302,328-330, Bombe 5,330, 332, 453 359-360,372,499,506,523 - 'Agnes' 318 - birthplace 329 - 'Victory' 318, 451 536 Index

-British 436, 467 - theory 45, 164, 190 - generate and test 330 computability 4, 53, 353 - improved model 318 computable language 201 - logical design 318 computation 77,353 - Polish 330 - interactive 174 - US Army 469 - neuron-like 334 - US Navy 465 - theory 159, 188 Boole,George 82 computational boolean - analogy 214,218,219,227-232,237, - algebra 80 238 - function 166 - basis 215, 216 - network 334 - complexity 217 boundedness 151 - efficiency 217 Br avais , Auguste 485 - theory 273,280 Bravais, Louis 485 computer 196, 317 British Tabulating Machine Company - classical 213 , 215-217 318 - fundamental concept s 321 Brooks, Rodney 361 - IBM 701 320 Burks, Arthur 199 - intelligen ce 331 - meaning of 353 c-machine 163,174,183 - modify inst ruct ions 322 Calculemus 82 - quantum 148,213-217,227 cellular automaton see automaton -- power of 216-217 chemical embryology 335, 480 - simulat ion 334 chess 29,168,300,329,361,385 - program 333 - st ored-program 317, 318,320,322, 324 ,325,327,329 Chinese Room Argument 11,341 - universal 218, 220-226 choice 253 - virus 411 Church , Alonzo 4,90,161, 197,200, 218-219 comput ing automaton see automaton Church-Rosser Theorem 189 computing machine 318, 329 Church-Turing Thesis 56, 135, 136, - cont ro l 317 140,163,170, 189,197,213-214,217, - universal 317,324 218,220-221,226,238,332 concurrency 146, 289 Churchill, Winston 23 condit ional iteration 253 clock cycle 512 connection CMOS 393 - closed 511 coarse-grained 245 - disabled 511 cod e breaking 319,419,441,455 - enabled 511 cognitive scienc e 271 - op ened 511 Cog robot 371-376 connectionism 333,360,366,499,501 Colby, Kenneth 304 context-dependent 354 Cold War 326 context-free 354 Colossus 164, 166, 319, 326 Cope,David 79, 124 complex Copeland, B. J ack 47-53,204,208, - behavior 325 218 - system 245,505 counteractive mechanism 354 complexity crib 330,444,446-447,451,455-458, - of algorit hms 196 466-467 Index 537 cryptanalysis 23, 24, 419, 430, 463 embryonics 245 cryptography 419 EMI (Experiments in Musical cryptology 419 Intelligence) 124 cyberculture 63 ENIAC 166,319, 321 cybernetics 27,67,502 - Eckert-Mauchly group 321 CYRUS 306-308 Enigma machine 5,72,330,472 - attack on 318 daisy 478, 487 - breaking of 32, 164,389, 419, 424, Dawson, Michael 272, 277 464 decision problem 225 - description of 431,441-451 - for arit hmet ic 225 - doldrums 458 - for first-order-Iogic 225 - EINS catalogue 455 decision procedure, for trigonometry - inventor 419,441 103 ~ Letchworth implementation 444 Deep Blue IX , 78, 168 - letter frequency 451,456 degrees of certainty 354 - network 330,450 de la Mettrie, Julien Offray 208 - rotating drums 422 ,450 Dennett Test 301 - settings 319,446 Descartes, Rene 191,208,297 - solution of 430 detector 503 - wheel position searching 318 determinism 22 Entscheidungsproblem 3,84,160,162, DEUCE 326 164,166,197,359 Deutsch, David 147-148,214, - solution to 88 216-224,226,227,232-234,236-238 environment-agent interaction 281 DHW (driving home from work) EQP (Equational Prover) 79 problem 172 error correction learning 504 diagonal board 318 evolution 245 digital computer 138-139 evolut ionary discrete-time step 508 - computation 167, 178 distractions 354 - process 383,391 DNA 367,384,390,406,411 - search 332 - sequencing 391 Experiments in Musical Intelligence double slit experiment 215 ,216 see EMI draughts player program 333 expe rt system 306,308 exponential growth 381 E .M.I. Business Machine 327 externalism 360, 367 Eckert, Pres 321,322 ecological perspective 271 fault tolerance 245 EDSAC 165, 325 Feynman, Richard 213,227 education 507,512 Fibonacci EDVAC 165,166,199,325 - numbers 36,335,477-480 - first CPU 325 - phyllotaxis 477-496 effective calculability 218-221,223, field-programmable gate array see 224,230 FPGA Einstein, Albert 17 flip-flop 509, 510 Ekert, Artur 223 Flowers , Thomas 319 electronic brain 26, 28 Fodor, Jerry 273,287 elementary memory 511 FPGA 245 embryonic elect ronics 245 Frankel, Stanley 321 538 Index

Frege, Gottlob 82 Hyman,John 228, 231 Friedman,W illiam 470 hypercomputation 135- 152, 204, 343 , 519 G15 326 hypercomputer 43, 47, 49, 343, 344 Godel, Kurt 90,160, 197,204,219 Godel Argument 331 lAS computer 166, 320, 329 Gandy, Robin 197 immedi ate recognizability 276 generate-and-test method 330 infinite memory 144, 147 ,272 genetic algorithm 177,332 In formation Soci ety 59- 73 genetical search 332,500, 514,521 inhibitor 483 geno me 246 initial con dit ion 516 geometrical phyllotaxis 485, 487 input stream 174 Giorello, Giulio 10 instructi on s global clock 500,511 - hard-wired 317 Goldbach 's Conject ure 224 intellectual proper ty 9 Golden Ratio 478 intelligent Goldstine, Herman 199 agent 178 group theory 423 - beh avior 67 Grover 's Algorithm 217 - machine 68,73, 399, 506, 513 guided search 330 Intelligent Machinery 44, 138,167, 331 - mechan ical 330 interfering - input 70, 507 , 515, 517 , 520 Hacker, Peter Michael Stephan 230, - training 334 371 int ernalism 364 hackin g 9 internal stat e 366 , 373 halting problem XIII , 161, 188, 223, In ternet 9-31 225 - machine 183-184 Haugeland , John 303 intuitionism 356 Hebbian learning 502 Henry, John 77 Jevons, W illiam Stanley 82 heurist ic search 333 Johnniac 92,328 high-level la nguage 253 Joy, Bill 409, 410 Hilbert , David 3, 77,84, 160, 219 history of computing 323 Kaczynski , Ted 410 Hobbes, Thom as 208 Kasparov , Garry IX , 78, 168 Hodges, Andrew 206,479, 496 Kilburn, Torn 328 Hogar th, Mark 224-226 kissing problem 106 homosexu ality XII, 7, 21, 22, 33 knowled ge engineering 306 Howard, John 466 Knox, Alfred 428-430 human Knuth, Donald E . 111, 190 - being 10,26,28,39, 59-73, 362 Knuth-Bendix Method 110 - body 61-64, 403 Kripke-Wit tgen st ein Paradox 369 - bra in 26,29,61- 71, 392,397, 414, 501 lambda calculus see A-calculus - computer 317 langu ages 201 - cortex 511 lat ti ce generati on 484 - genome 245, 399 learning 504 - int elligence 64, 386 - algorithm 503 Huntington Equation 80 - classes of algorithms 504 Ind ex 539

- error correction 504 McCune, Bill 79 -Hebbian 502 mechanism 208, see com putat ional - reinforcement 167,504 an alogy - situated 373 memory - supervised 504 - high-speed 325 - un supervised 504 method Leibniz, Gottfried 82 - formal-logical 323 level sat urat ion 118 Millikan, Ruth Garret 369 limiting par allels 96 mmimax 29, 30 Loebner P rize 314-315 Minsky, Marvin 403 logical basis 516 MIT 9, 371,404 Logic al Piano (J evons) 82 mobile communicating system 291 Lorenz cipher machine 319 modern philosophy of mind 332 Lovelace, Ada 321 Moor e's Law 107,383,387-394 Lukasiewicz, J an 121 morphogenesis 7,43, 54,61, 169, 187, LUNAR program 302- 305 335,477- 496 Lupacchini, Rossella 223 morphogen theor y 487 MOSAIC 326 m-configuration 279, 281 multi-t asking 287 machine Munich Conference (1938) 428 - B-type see B-type machine - fixed structure 318 NAND 168, 509, 516 - intelligence 329-331,406, 414, 523 nanobot 398, 404, 408-409 - learning 322 , 329, 331 nan otechnology 403, 410 - organized 69 National Physical Laboratory (NPL) - unorganized 69, 335, 360 6,165,167,361,499 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) natural context 355 397 nervous system, model of 334 Malament-Hogarth sp acet ime 224- network 61,62,334 226 neural Manchester - computation 506 -Baby 325 , 334 - computer 272 - computer 44, 46 - net 201, 392,396 - Mark I 327 neural network 167,189,334-335, 373, Manhattan Project 321,436 401,499, 501,506, 508, 510,517, 520 Marsh all, George C. 468-469 - an alog 184 mathematical - B-typ e 360 - certainty 233-234 - simulat ion 334 - det erminants 220, 222-223, 226, 227 neurobiology 356 - game 24 neuron 334,360, 501, 503,511 - ignoramus 228-232 - cluster 400 - knowledge 214, 233-237 neuron-like elements 334 - necessity 229 neuroscience 503 - objection see Godel Ar gument Newell, Allen 280 - proof 238, 368 Newm an , Max 6,8,44,46,138,319, - truth 214,234,236,237 486 MathXpert 115 -Newmanry 319 Mauchly, John 322 non- computable see Turing, non­ McCarthy, John 45 comput ability 540 Index non-det erminism 145 primitive node 511 normal machine operation 513 probabilistic logic 356 normativity 229-231 probability amplit ude 217 - mechanical 230,231 problem planner 324 - vs. causation 230 process 286 Norvig, Pet er 186 program instru ctions 317 P rolo g 188 o-machine 174, 183, 204 Proudfoot, Diane 47- 51, 204 online link modifi cation 516 pseudo-random operationalism 135, 300 - program 52 oracle 47-48, 50,1 38, 144, 151, 164, - simulation 53 174,177,183, 205 quantum P-type - algorit hm 215- 217 - machine 334 - bits see qubit - unorganized machin e 167, 371,500 - computer see computer, quantum pain 371 - comput ing 208-210, 406-408 paper interference 513 - .device 367 parallelism 401 - gates 216 parallel process 286 - information 213 parallels, limiting 96 - mechan ics 3,7, 149, 213, 216, 221, PARRY 304- 306 227 part-of principle 343 - network model 216 partial solvability 225 - parallel processing 215,216 participation condition 368 - physics 53-56 pattern recognition 401 - simulator, universal 214 Peano, Giuseppe 86 - speed-up 217 Penrose, Roger 406 - superposit ion 215-217 perceptron 502 - Turing machine 216 perpetual motion machine 195 qubit 215-216 personal computer quick probe assumption 298- 301, 308 - first 326 phyllot actic lattice 486 random 22, 334 physical - access memory (RAM) 272 - determinants 220, 222-223, 226, - Boolean network (RBN) 510 227,233 - element 52 - knowledge 214,233-237 - noise 468 - symbol system 71, 361 randomness 45, 53,149,208 pi-calculus see Jr-calculus rat ing games 341 P ilot Model ACE 326 reaction-diffusion systems 477-496 Pl atonism 214,234 real numbers 201 Poincare,Henri 85 recursion formula 467 poisoned apple XII , 10, 11,39 recursive Polish Cipher Bureau 423- 427 - fun ct ion 139, 162,218,219 possible solution space search 330 - neural network 139 Post , Emil L. 197 reinforcement learning 167,504 potential solut ions 330 reverse engineering 397, 414 Pour-El, Marian Boykan 139,150 ribosome 246 priming effect 340 RISC 166, 325 Index 541

Robbins Conjecture 79 supervised learning see learning robotics 177-178, 359 supervisor 504, 514, 520 rule-following 362- 377 switch 511 Russell, Bertrand synchronizing unit 508 - let ter to Frege 83 - letter to Simon 93 Tarski, Alfred 104 Russell, Stuart 186 Tarski algebra 104 TB-type satisfiability problem 209 - link 517 sausage s 85 - unorganized machine 517 Schrodinger TBI-type - equat ion 148 - link 517 Schrodinger, Erwin 66,148 - unorgan ized machine 517 Scot t , Dana 207 T ETRA machine 464 screwdriver interference 513 therapy 36 self-con sciousness 312, 403 thinking self-modifying machine op eration 513 - definition of 337 self-organization 335 - machine 26,68,296, 309,359, 361, self-organizing system 374 ,502 374, 375 self-replicating 374 thread 146 sequence 253 three-dimensional chips 390, 391 sequent ial digit al system 511 TM see Turing machine serial process 286 training set of support 118 - algorit hm 334 Shanker , Stuart G. 218,219,228 - history condition 368 Shor's Algorithm 215, 217 traj ectory calculation 321 Shor, Peter W . 217 trans- computational 354, 355 Siegelmann, Hava 189,200,201 Turin g, Alan IX , 9, 33, 43, 47, 54, Simon, Herb 78, :n 2 88, 135,159,160,188,197,199,204, simulation 218-221,223,227,228,238,271,295, - of q.m . systems 213 301, 436,441, 451, 464 - of quantum comput er 217 - birth 3 - perfect 218 - Bomb e 165,444,451 singularity 381- 416 - computability 219, 232 software- based human 412-413 - inst ability 477, 481 solipsistic model 273 - legacy 43, 495 stack 257 - machine 221, 225 state of a unit 508 - manuscript 487 Stecker-Knockout 466 - model 67 Stepped Reckoner (Leibnitz) 82 - non- com putability 224-226 st rawberry 354 - par adox 54 - enjoying m achine 357 -Principle 214,217-224,226,238 Strong Tu ring Thesis 160, 171 - theory 322 structured 253 - thesis 162 sub-computational 355 - Turing Net 334 suicide XII, 7, 39 Turing machine X , 4, 66, 77, 136, 159, super- Turing computation 159, 160, 162,167,216,218-220,223,224,226, 170,173,177,186 230,231,271,278,295, 317- 318, 334, supertasks 224 500,519 542 Index

- accelerating 144 - quantum gates 216 - child-machine 334 - symbol-processor 334 - persistent 177, 179-181 - TUring machine see TUring machine - probabilistic 216 universality thesis 171 - un iversal XI , 4, 5, 48, 168, 170, 198, unorganized machine see machine 279,318, 334,373, 519 unpredictability 150 IX , 7, 9-11, 38, 64, 65,167, unsolvable problems 197 185,229,295, 336,362,401 unsupervised learning see learning - associ ative priming obj ection 340 - French 's objectio ns 340 virtual - imitation game 37, 135, 138, 168, - im age 14 296-311, 336 - reality 62, 387 - obj ections 338 - world 10, 34 - predictions 344 visual cortex 511 - rating games obj ect ion 341 von Neumann, John 4,8, 43, 54, 169, - scori ng 337 183, 199, 319- 322, 386, 436, 472 -Searle's objection 341 von Neumann architect ure 186 - Shannon-McCarthy objection 339 - Shieb er 's criticism 339 Wang, Hao 93 - time factor 340 Warwick, Kevin 63 - total 186, 187 Watts, Lloyd 399, 407 Turochamp 168, 332, 333 Webb, Judson 208 typ ewriter 13,25,31, 422 weight 201,503 White, A . 233 u-machine 167, 183 W iener, Norbert 67, 502 unitary op erator 216,226 W inograd,Terry 298 UNIVAC 328 WISARD 505 universal Wittgenstein, Ludwig 214,227, - automaton see automaton 229-231,236,359-374 - computation 500 Wo od, William 302 - computer 317, 321 World War II 5, 9, 10, 23, 164, 174, - machine 513 319,320,385, 441 - qu antum computer 214, 216, 218, 226 Zeilberger 's P aradigm 117