History and Approaches  Random Assignment: assigns participants to either control or  INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: (2-4%) experimental group at random – establishes significance (meaningfulness)  is derived from physiology minimizes bias, increase chance of equal Significant results = NOT due to chance (biology) and philosophy representation  ETHICAL GUIDELINES (APA)  EARLY APPROACHES  Random Sample: method for choosing o Confidentiality o Structuralism – used INTROSPECTION participants – minimizes bias o Informed Consent (act of looking inward to examine  Validity: accurate results o Debriefing mental experience) to determine the  Reliability: same results every time o Deception must be warranted underlying STRUCTURES of the mind  NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: Biological Basis o Functionalism – need to analyze the Adv: real world validity (observe people PURPOSE of behavior in their own setting) Disadv: No cause (8-10%)  APPROACHES KEY WORDS and effect  NEURON: Basic cell of the NS o Evolutionary – Genes  CORRELATION: Adv: identify o Dendrites: Receive incoming signal o Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, relationship between two variables o Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus) actualization Disadv: No cause and effect o Axon: AP travels down this o Biological – Brain, NTs (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL o Myelin Sheath: speeds up signal o Cognitive – , thoughts CAUSATION) down axon o Behavioral – learned, reinforced o Positive Correlation – Variables vary o Terminals: release NTs – send signal o Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, in the same direction onto next neuron childhood o Negative Correlation – variables vary o Synapse: gap b/w neurons o Sociocultural – society in opposite directions o Biopsychosocial – combo of above o The stronger the # the stronger the  PEOPLE: relationship REGARDLESS of the o Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA pos/neg sign o Charles Darwin: Natural selection &  : Adv. Studies ONE evolution person (usually) in great detail – lots of o Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental info Disadv: No cause and effect institutions in U.S.  DESCRIPTIVE STATS:shape of the data o Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA1st journal o Measures of Central Tendency: o : Father of American . Mean: Average (use in normal  Action Potential: movement of sodium Psychology – functionalist distribution) and potassium ions across a membrane o Wilhem Wundt: Father of Modern . Median: Middle # (use in skewed sends an electrical charge down the axon Psychology – structuralist distribution) o All or none law: stimulus must trigger o Margaret Floy Washburn–1st fem. PhD . Mode: occurs most often the AP past its threshold, but does not o Christine Ladd Franklin – 1st fem. increase the intensity of the response Research Methods (flush the toilet) (8-10%) o Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset before it can send another  EXPERIMENT : Adv: researcher AP (toilet resets) controls variables to establish cause and effect Disadv: difficult to generalize  Sensory neurons – receive signals o Independent Variable: manipulated  Afferent neurons – Accept signals by the researcher . Experimental Group: received the  Motor neurons – send signals treatment (part of the IV)  Efferent neurons – signal Exits . Control Group: placebo, baseline  CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord (part of the IV) . Placebo Effect: show behaviors  PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS o associated with the exp. group Somatic NS: Voluntary movement o when having received placebo Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, . Double-Blind: Exp. where neither lungs, etc) the participant or the experimenter . Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body are aware of which condition for fight/flight (generally activates) people are assigned to . Parasympathetic NS: established o Dependent Variable: measured homeostasis after a sympathetic variable (is DEPENDENT on the response (generally inhibits) independent variable)  NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NTS):  Operational Definition: clear, precise, Chemicals released in synaptic gap, typically quantifiable definition of your received by neurons o variables – allows replication GABA: Major inhibitory NT  Confound: error/ flaw in study o GlutamatE: Major Excitatory NT o Dopamine: Reward & movement o Serotonin: Moods and emotion o Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory o Cornea – protects the eye o Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: o Pupil/iris – controls amount of light sympathetic NS arousal entering eye o Endorphins: pain control, happiness o Lens – focuses light on retina o Oxytocin: love and bonding o Fovea–area of best vision(cones here)  Agonist: drug that mimics a NT  BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain can “heal” o Rods – black/white, dim light  Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT itself o Cones – color, bright light o Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and  Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up  NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER ganglion cells into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective IS BOTH o Ganglion cells – opponent-processing serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block o Twin Studies: occurs here reuptake – treatment for depression . Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ) o Blind spot – occurs where the optic  AREAS OF THE BRAIN: . Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ) nerve leaves the eye  Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain o Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher o Feature detectors – specialized cells o Cerebellum – movement (what does it percentage of also developing a disease take to ring a bell) o Environment: MZ twins raised in that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. (experiments by Hubel & Weisel) o Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP) different environments show differences o Pons – sleep/arousal (Ponzzzzzz)  ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends  THEORIES OF COLOR VISION: o Trichromatic – three cones for  Midbrain hormones throughout the body receiving color (blue, red, green) o Reticular formation: attention (if you o Pituitary Gland: Controlled by . Explains color blindness - they are can’t pay attention, You R F’d) hypothalamus. release growth hormones missing a cone type  Forebrain: higher thought processes o Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic o Opponent Process – complementary o Limbic System NS: releases adrenaline . Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da! colors are processed in ganglion cells – You’re so emotional!) Sensation & explains why we see an after image . Hippocampus: memory (if you saw a (6 – 8%)  Visual Capture: Visual system overwhelms all others (nauseous in an hippo on campus you’d remember it!)  ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: detection of IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular) o Thalamus: relay center signal 50% of time (is it there)  Constancies: recognize that objects do o Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center,  DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (also eating behaviors not physically change despite changes in called a just noticeable difference (JND) sensory input (size, shape, brightness) o Broca’s Area: Inability to produce and follows WEBER’S LAW: two  Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink speech (Broca – Broken speech) stimuli must differ by a constant on/off in succession – looks like o Wernicke’s Area: Inability to minimum proportion. (Can you tell a movement (traffic signs with arrows) comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?) change?)  Stroboscopic movement: motion o Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the  SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY brain – higher order thought processes produced by a rapid succession of slightly . Occipital Lobe: located in the back of varying images (animations) the head - vision  MONOCULAR CUES (how we form a . Frontal Lobe: decision making, 3D image from a 2D image) planning, judgment, movement, o Interposition: overlapping images appear personality closer . Parietal Lobe: located on the top of the o Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually head - sensations similar in size, the smaller one is further . Temporal Lobe: located on the sides away of the head (temples) – hearing and o Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear face recognition  Sensory Adaptation: diminished further away . Somatosensory Cortex: map of our sensitivity as a result of constant o Texture Gradient: coarser objects are sensory receptors –in parietal lobe stimulation (can you feel your closer . Motor Cortex: map of our motor underwear?) o Relative Height: things higher in our receptors – located in frontal lobe  Perceptual Set: tendency to see field of vision look further away o Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that something as part of a group – speeds up o Linear Perspective: parallel lines connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes signal processing converge with distance (think railroad severed in patients with severe seizures –  Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice tracks) leads to “split-brain patients” something b/c you’re so focused on  BINOCULAR CUES: (how both eyes . Lateralization: the brain has some another task (gorilla video) make up a 3D image) specialized features – language is  Cocktail party effect: notice youro name Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly processed in the L Hemisphere across the room when its spoken, when different on each retinal, location of . Split-brain experiments: done by you weren’t previously paying attention image helps us determine depth Sperry & Gazzanaga.  VISUAL SYSTEM: o Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking . Images shown to the right o Pathway of vision: light  cornea inward) as objects draw nearer hemisphere will be processed in pupil/iris  lens  retina   TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: Whole  the left (& vice versa), patient can rods/cones  bipolar cells  ganglion smaller parts verbally identify what they saw cells  optic nerve  optic chiasm   BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: Smaller occipital lobe Parts  Whole  AUDITORY SYSTEM: States of Consciousness  Activation Synthesis: Brain produces o Pathway of sound: sound  pinna  random bursts of energy – stimulating auditory canal ear drum (tympanic (2 – 4%) lodged memories. Dreams start random membrane)  hammer, anvil, stirrup  STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS: then develop meaning (HAS)  oval window  cochlea  o Higher-Level: controlled processes –  HYPNOSIS auditory nerve  temporal lobes totally aware o It Can: Reduce pain, help you relax o Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal o Lower-Level: automatic processing o It CANNOT: give you superhuman o Middle Ear: ear drum , HAS (bones (daydreaming, phone numbers) strength, make you regress, make you vibrate to send signal) o Altered States: produced through drugs, do things against your will o Inner Ear: cochlea – like COCHELLA fatigue, hypnosis  PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: (sounds 1st processed here) o Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming o Triggers dopamine release in the brain  THEORIES OF HEARING: both occur o No awareness: Knocked out o Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, in the cochlea  METACOGNITION: Thinking about tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics) o Place theory – location where hair cells thinking . Decrease sympathetic NS activation, bends determines sound (high pitches)  SLEEP: highly addictive o Frequency theory – rate at which actiono Beta Waves: awake o Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine, potentials are sent determines sound o Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine (low pitches) o Stage 1: light sleep . Increase sympathetic NS activation,  OTHER : o Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles highly addictive o Touch: Mechanoreceptors  spinal cordo Stage 3 (delta waves: Deep sleep o Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana  thalamus  somatosensory cortex o Stage 4: extremely deep sleep . Causes hallucinations, not very o Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a o Rapid Eye Movement (REM): addictive “gate” to control how much pain ix dreaming o Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to experienced Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM achieve the same effects o Kinesthetic: of body position occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts o Dependence: Become addicted to the o Vestibular: Sense of balance longer throughout the night drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal (semicircular canals in the inner ear symptoms effect this) o Withdrawal: Psychological and o Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: physiological symptoms associated bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory) with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant – o Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does can kill you. NOT route through the thalamus 1st. Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala Learning  : Whole is (7-9 %) greater than the sum of its parts  CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: o Gestalt Principles:  CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: 24 hour PAVLOV! . Figure/ground: organize information biological clock o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): brings into figures objects (figures) that stand o Body temp and awareness change due about response w/o needing to be apart from surrounds (back ground) to this learned (food) . o Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic o Unconditioned Response (UR): nucleus (SCN) in the brain response that naturally occurs w/o o Explains jet lag training (salivate)  SLEEP DISORDERS o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that o Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due normally doesn’t evoke a response to stress/anxiety) (bell) . Closure: tendency to mentally fill in o Sleep walking: (due to fatigue, drugs, o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once gaps alcohol) neutral stimulus that now brings about . Proximity: tendency to group things o Night terrors: extreme nightmares – a response (bell) together that appear near each other NOT in REM sleep – typical in o Conditioned Response (CR): response . Similarity: tendency to group things children that, after conditioning, follows a CS together based off of looks o Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere (salivate) . Continuity: tendency to mentally form (due to deficiency in orexin) o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, a continuous line o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly NS/CS must be presented immediately while asleep (due to obesity usually) BEFORE the US  DREAM THEORIES: o Acquisition: process of learning the o Freud’s Unconscious Wish response pairing Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification o Extinction: previously conditioned of unconscious desires and needs response dies out over time . Latent Content: hidden meaning of o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period dreams of time the CR comes back out of  . Manifest Content: obvious storyline nowhere of dream o Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell) o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS  CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & O Continuous Reinforcement schedule:  Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us Wagner – classical conditioning involves Receive reward for every response remember info easier cognitive processes O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X o Acronyms – using letter to remember  CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION number of response (every 10 envelopes something (PEMDAS) (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John stuffed get $$) o Method of loci – using locations to Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every remember a list of items in order classical conditioning to occur in one trial X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks  Context dependent memory – where (food poisoning) get a paycheck) you learn the info you best remember  COUNTERCONDITIONING: Little O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded the info (scuba divers testing) Albert and John Watson (father of after a random number of responses (slot  State dependent memory – the ) – conditioned a fear in a machine physical state you were in when baby (only to countercondition – remove O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded learning is the way you should be when it- later on) after a random amount of time has testing (study high, test high)  OPERANT CONDITIONING: passed (fishing) STORAGE: Retaining info over time SKINNER! O Variable schedules are most resistant to  Information Processing Model – O LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike): extinction (how long will keep playing a Sensory memory, short term memory, Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes slot machine before you think its long term memory model are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken broken?)  Sensory Memory – stores all incoming a behavior (cat in the puzzle box)  SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL) stimuli that you receive (first you have  PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: LEARNING: BANDURA! to a pay attention) O Pos. Reinforcement: Add something  Modeling Behaviors: Children model o Iconic Memory – visual memory, nice to increase a behavior (gold star for (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo lasts 0.3 seconds turning in HW) dolls to demonstrate the following o Echoic Memory – auditory memory, O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away O Prosocial – helping behaviors lasts 2-3 seconds something bad/annoying to increase a O Antisocial – mean behaviors  Short Term Memory – info passes behavior (put on seatbelt to take away  MISC LEARNING TYPES from sensory memory to STM – lasts annoying car signal) O Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items O Pos. Punishment: Add something bad hidden until useful (rats in maze get o Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets to decrease a behavior (spanking) reinforced half way through, the clock O Neg. Punishment: Take away performance improved  Working Memory Model splits STM something good to decrease a behavior . Cognitive maps – mental into 2 – visual spatial memory (from (take away car keys) representation of an area, allows iconic mem) and phonological loop O Primary Reinforcers: innately navigation if blocked (from echoic mem). A “central satisfying (food and water) O Insight learning (Kohler!) – some executive” puts it together before O Secondary Reinforcers: everything else learning is through simple intuition passing it to LTM (stickers, high-fives) (chimps with crates to get bananas)  Long term memory – lasts a life time . Token Reinforcer: type of O Learned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no o Explicit (Declarative): Conscious secondary- can be exchanged for other matter what you do you never get a recollection stuff (game tokens or money) positive outcome so you just give up . Episodic: events O Generalization: respond to similar (word scrambles) . Semantic: facts stimulus for reward Cognition o Implicit (Nondeclarative): O Discrimination: stimulus signals when unconscious recollection behavior will or will not be reinforced (8 – 10%) . Classical conditioning (light on means response are accepted) ENCODING: Getting info into memory . Priming: info that is seen earlier O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery:  Automatic encoding – requires no effort “primes” you to remember same as classical conditioning (what did you have for breakfast?) something later on (octopus, O Premack Principle: high probability  Effortful encoding – requires attention assassin, climate, bogeyman) activities reinforce low probability (school work) . Procedural: skills activities (get extra min at recess if you  Shallow, intermediate, deep processing:  Memory organization everyone turns in their HW) the more emphasis on MEANING the o Hierarchies: memory is stored O Overjustification Effect: reinforcing deeper the processing, and the better according to a hierarchy behaviors that are intrinsically remembered o Semantic networks: linked motivating causes you to stop doing  Imagery – attaching images to information memories are stored together them (give a child 5$ for reading when makes it easier to remember (shoe w/ o Schemas: preexisting mental concept they already like to read – they stop spaghetti laces) of how something should look (like a reading)  Self-referent encoding – we better restaurant) O Shaping: use successive approximations remember what we’re interested in (you’d  Memory storage to train behavior (reward desired remember someone’s phone number who o Acetylcholine neurons in the behaviors to teach a response – rat you found extremely attractive) hippocampus for most memories basketball)  Dual encoding – combining different o Cerebellum for procedural O Chaining: tie together several behaviors types of encoding aids in memory memories  Chunking – break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #) o Long-term potentiation: neural basis of  Babbling stage: infants babble 1st stage of Motivation & Emotion memory – connections are strengthened speech over time with repeated stimulation (more  One-word stage: duh (6-8%) firing of neurons)  Two-word stage: duh duh THEORIES OF MOTIVATION RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage  Theories of language development:  INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed  Serial Position Effect: tendency to o Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear patterns and are not learned (explains remember the beginning and the end of the – but they don’t do it perfectly animal motivation) list best . Overregularization: grammar  DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need  Recall: remember what you’ve been told mistake where children over use creates aroused tension (drive) that w/o cues (essays) certain morphemes (I go-ed to the motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by  Recognition: remember what you’ve been park) homeostasis: equilibrium) told w/ cues (MC) o Operant conditioning: reinforced for o Primary drive: unlearned drive based  Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid language use on survival (hunger, thirst) memories for highly important events o Inborn universal grammar: theory o Secondary drive: learned drive (9/11 attacks) comes from – (wealth or success)  Repressed memories: unconsciously says that language is innate and we are  OPTIMUM AROUSAL: humans aim to buried memories – are unreliable predisposed to learn it seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks  Encoding failure: forget info b/c you o Critical period: period of time where requires more arousal, harder tasks need never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the something must be learned or else it less first place (which is the real penny) cannot ever happen (language must be  Encoding specificity principle: the more learned young – Genie the Wild Child) closely retrieval cues match the way we o Linguistic determinism: language learned the info, the better we remember influences the way we think (Hopi the info (like state dependent memory) people do not have words for the past,  Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly thus cannot easily think about the past) at first, then reaches a plateau after which developed by WHORF little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS) THINKING  Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics  Prototypes: all instances of a concept are  HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived compared to an ideal example (what you by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid first think of) have priority over needs higher in the  Algorithms: step by step strategies that pyramid guarantee a solution (formula)  Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of thumb)  Proactive interference: old info blocks o Representative Heuristic: make new inferences based on your experience  Retroactive interference: new info blocks (like a stereotype) – assume someone old must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet  Misinformation effect: distortion of o Availability heuristic: relying on memory by suggestion or misinformation availability to judge the frequency of (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land) something (over estimating death due to  Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves plane crashes due to recent events) forward (forget new info – 50 first dates)  Functional Fixedness: keep using one  Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves strategy – cannot think outside of the box backwards (forget old info)  Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting  ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: caused by beliefs to distort logical reasoning by destruction of acetylcholine in making invalid conclusions hippocampus  Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to LANGUAGE our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence  Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation –  Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch  Inductive reasoning: data driven sound in chat) you do it b/c you like it decisions, general  specific  Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain  Morpheme: smallest unit that caries  Deductive reasoning: driven by logic, meaning (syllable) a reward (trophy) specific  general  Grammar: rules in a language that enable  Divergent thinking: ability to think about us to communicate many different things at once  Semantics: set of rules by which we

derive meaning (adding –ed makes

something past tense)

 Syntax: rules for combining words into

sentences (white house vs casa blanca)

HUNGER THORIES OF EMOTIONS  Employee Commitment:  Signals of hunger:  JAMES-LANGE: stimulus o Affective: emotional attachment (best o Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry physiological arousal  emotion type) o Glucose (sugar) level is maintained by  CANNON-BARD: stimulus  o Continuance: stay due to costs of leaving the pancreas (endocrine system). physiological arousal & emotion o Normative: stay due to obligation (they o Insulin decreases glucose. Too little simultaneously paid for your school) glucose makes us hungry.  SCHACTER TWO FACTOR: adds in  Meaning of Work: o Orexin is released by the hypothalamus cognitive labeling (bridge experiment) o Job – no training, just do it for $$. No – telling us to eat. stimulus  arousal interpret external happiness o Other chemicals include ghrelin, cues  label emotion o Career – work for advancement. Some obestatin, and PPY  Some stimuli are routed directly to the happiness o Lateral hypothalamus: when stimulated amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut o Calling – work because you love it. Lotsa makes you hungry, when lesioned you reaction to a cockroach) happiness will never eat again. (I’m LATE for  Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal Development lunch. I’m hungry. The LATEral emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, hypothalamus makes you hungry.) surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL (7-9%) o Ventromedial hypothalamus: when cultures  Prenatal Development: stimulated you feel full, when destroyed  Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile o Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing you eat eat eat eat (fat woman and cake) (you can tell a real smile from a fake one) o Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital o Leptin: leptin signals the brain to reduce  Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced organs being formed appetite to smile will make you happier (facial o Fetus: 9 wks to birth, overall  Obesity: expressions influence emotion) development o Increased risk of heart attack, STRESS AND HEALTH o Teratogens: external agents that can hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes  GENERAL ADAPTATION cause abnormal prenatal development o Can be genetic – adopted children SYNDROME (GAS): three phases of a (alcohol, drugs, etc) resemble their biological parents stress response (SELYE came up w/ this) . Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large o Set point: there is a control system that o Alarm: body/you freak out in response to amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes dictates how much fat you should carry – stress deformities, mental retardation, death every person is different o Resistance: body/you are dealing with  Physical Development:  Eating Disorders: stress o Maturation: natural course of o Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15% o Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any development, occurs no matter what ideal weight, distorted body image more, give up (walking) . Causes: overly critical parents, o Reflexes: innate responses we’re born perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals with o Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go . Rooting, sucking, swallowing, through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat grasping, stepping massive amounts, then throw up) o Habituation: after continual exposure . Causes: same as anorexia you pay less attention – used to test SEXUALITY babies  Biology of sex: o Eyes have the most limited o Hypothalamus: stimulation increases development, takes till 1 year sexual behavior, destruction leads to  Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person, . Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth sexual inhibition perfectionist. At risk for heart disease perception, so they will cross a “cliff” o Pituitary gland: monitors, initiates, and  Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed. o Other senses are fairly developed restricts hormones INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH o Brain development continues for a few . Males – testosterone  Industrial / Organizational Psych: years . Females - estrogen psychological of the workplace – focuses on  ’S COGNITIVE DEV. o Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement employee recruitment, placement, training,  Schemas – concepts or frameworks that phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period satisfaction, productivity organize info (resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again  Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection  Assimilation: incorporate new info into until you reset, guys only) of engineering and psych – focuses on existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff) o Alfred Kinsey: 1st researcher to conduct safety and efficiency of human-machine  Accommodation: adjust existing schemas studies in sex, suggested that people were interactions to incorporate new information very promiscuous. Studies lacked a (ACcommodation - All Change) representative sample, created scale of  Hawthorne effect: productivity increases when workers are made to feel important  Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: homosexuality focused on exploring the world around o Homosexuality: biological roots:  Theory X management: manager controls them differences in the brain, identical twins employees, enforces rules. Good for lower level jobs o Lack Object Permanence: Objects when more likely to both be gay, later sons removed from field of view are thought to more likely to be (hormones from mom)  Theory Y management: manger gives employees responsibility, looks for input. disappear (peek-a-boo) o Dev. Sense of Self: by 2 yrs can Good for high level jobs recognize themselves in the mirror

 Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use  KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV  CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: studies pretend play, developing language, using o Preconventional morality: Children: ppl of different ages at the same point in intuitive reasoning they follow rules to avoid punishment time o Lack Conservation: recognize that o Conventional morality: adolescents: o Adv: inexpensive & quick substances remain the same despite follow rules b/c rules exist to keep order o Disadv: can be differences due to changes in shape, length, or position (girls o Postconventional morality: adults: they generational gap with juice in glasses) do what they believe is right (even if it  LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same o Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse goes against society) ppl over time operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4)  Carol Gilligan: said moral reasoning and o Adv: eliminates groups differences, lots o Are egocentric: inability to distinguish moral behaviors are two different things of detail one’s own perspective from another’s – (what you say isn’t always what you do) o Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high think everyone sees what they see  ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : drop out rates  Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use 8 stages, each stage represents a crisis that  Stages of Grief (crap btw) operational thinking, classification, and must be resolved, results in competence or o Denial: “this can’t be happening” can think logical in concrete context weakness o Anger: “why me?”  Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use o Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months): if o Bargaining: “just let me live to see my abstract and idealist thoughts, needs are dependably met infants dev kids graduate” hypothetical-deductive reasoning basic trust o Depression: “why bother”  Problems with Piaget’s theory: stages to o Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1 -3 yrs): o Acceptance: “its going to okay” discrete, dev. differs b/w kids toddlers learn to exercise their will and  Problem-focused coping: solving or doing  VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive think for themselves something to alter the course of stress development is a social process too, need to o Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to (planning, acceptance) interact w/ others initiate tasks and carry out plans  Emotion-focused coping: reducing the o Zone of Proximal Development: gap o Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to emotional distress (denial, disengagement) b/w what a child can do on their own and puberty): learn the pleasure of applying w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) themselves to tasks Personality SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT o Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence (5-7%)  Temperament: patterns of emotional thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION reactions and babies (precursor to roles and forming an identity said personality was personality) o Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): form largely unconscious. Came up w/ the  Imprinting: baby geese believe the first close relationships and gain capacity for following: thing they see after hatching is their mom – love  Conscious: immediate awareness of current happens during a critical period (from o Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): environment LORENZ) discover sense of contributing to the  Preconscious: available to awareness  : discovered that world, thru family & work (phone #s) o contact comfort is more important than Integrity vs despair: (60s and up):  Unconscious: unavailable to awareness reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth  id: our hidden true animalistic wants and failure mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation desires – operates on the pleasure principle,  PUBERTY! (rapid skeletal and sexual couldn’t socialize all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil  MARY AINSWORTH: developed the maturation) on your shoulder – entirely unconscious) o Primary sex characteristics: necessary strange situation paradigm (children left  superego: our moral conscious (angel on structures for reproduction (ovaries, alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited your shoulder, all 3 consciousness) testicles, vagina, penis) w/ mom – determines your attachment style  ego: reality principle, has to deal w/ society, o Secondary sex characteristics: o Secure attachment (60% of infants): stuck mediating b/w the id and superego (its nonreproductive characteristics that dev upset when mom leaves, easily calmed you! – conscious and preconscious) on return. Tend to be more stable adults during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening of voice, body hair) When ego cannot mediate b/w the id and o Avoidant attachment (20% infants): superego, we use defense mechanisms actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully developed till 25)  Repression: push memories back into the she leaves unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too  GENDER DEVELOPMENT: sex = o Ambivalent attachment(10% infants): traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it) actively avoids mom, freaks out when chromosomes, gender = what you identify yourself as  Projection: attribute personal shortcomings she leaves & faults on to others (man who wants to o Disorganized attachment (5%): o Gender roles: expected behaviors (norms) for men/women have an affair accuses his wife of having confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse one)  BAUMRIND: parenting styles o Social learning theory: we learn gender roles and identity from those around us  Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality o Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my (refuse to believe you have cancer) way or the highway” – kids lack  AGING: o Cellular clock theory: cells have a Displacement; shift feelings from an initiative in college unacceptable object to a more acceptable o Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules maximum # of divisions before they can’t divide anymore one (can’t tell at teacher, go home and yell – kids lack initiative in college at the dog) o Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – o Free-radical theory: unstable oxygen

kids become socially competent and molecules w/in cells damage DNA

reliable o Over time skills decrease (reaction time, memory)  Reaction formation: transform NEO-FREUDIANS  Individualistic Cultures: give priorities to unacceptable motive into his opposite  : believed in the collective own goals over group goals. Define your (woman who fears sexual urges becomes a unconconcious (shared inherited reservoir identify in terms of you (American society) religious zealot) of memory – explains common myths  Collectivistic Cultures: give priority to the  Regression: transform into an earlier across civilizations & time) goals of the group, your identity is part of development period in the face of stress  KAREN HORNEY: said personality that group (China) (during exam week you start to suck your develops in context of social relationships, SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE thumb) NOT sexual urges (security not sex is  Behavior is a complex interaction of inner  Rationalization: replace a less acceptable motivation, men get womb envy) process and environmental influence – reasoning with a more acceptable one (don’t TRAIT PERSPECTIVE which influences personality get into your college – justify it was a sucky  Traits are enduring personality  Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs, college anyway) characteristics, people can be described by expectations, and goals  Sublimination: replace unacceptable these – have strong or weak tendencies.  BANDURA! Talked about RECIPROCAL impulse w/ a socially acceptable one (man They are stable, genetic, and predict other DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior, w/ strong sexual urges paints nudes. Dexter) attributes. cognitions, and environment make up you. FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES  Use factor analysis to find these: statistical   Oral stage (0-18 months): pleasure focuses procedure used to identify similar {I’m outgoing on the mouth (id) components (behavior), I  Anal stage (18 – 36 months): pleasure  TRAIT THEORIES: choose to teach involves eliminative functions (ego forms)  Big Five: (by Costa & McCrae) (acronym b/c it lets me be  Phallic stage (3 – 6 yrs): pleasure focuses OCEAN) You vary on each of these outgoing on genitals (superego forms) o Openness : imaginative, independent, like (environment), o Oedipal complex: young boys learn to variety and I have thought this through which is identify w/ their father out of fear of o Conscientiousness: organized, careful, why I teach despite making less money retribution (castration anxiety) disciplined (cognitive)} o Electra complex: young girls learn to o Extraversion: sociable, fun-loving,  Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed, identify w/ their mother b/c they cannot affectionate (opoosite it introversion: so you ensure you do with their father (penis envy) shy, timid, reserved)  Internal locus of control: you control your  Latency stage (6 yrs to puberty): psychic o Agreeableness: soft hearted, trusting, own fate time out – personality is set helpful  External locus of control: chance / outside  Genital State (adulthood): sexual o Neuroticism (emotional stability): calm, forces control your fate reawakening – oedipal and electra secure What’s wrong with social-cognitive? – Too “feelings” are repressed, turn sexual wants What’s wrong with trait theory? – ignores specific, cannot generalize onto an appropriate person the role of the situation in behavior What’s good about it? – Highlights  FIXATION: can become “stuck” in an What’s good about it? - identifying traits situations, and cognitive explanations of earlier stage – influences personality (oral gives us perspectives about careers, personality stage smokes/drinks, anal is “anal relationships, health How do we test it? – Observations & retentive”, phallic is promiscuous) How do we test this approach? interviews (time consuming) What’s wrong w/ Freud theory? –  MMPI – helpful for mental health and job Testing & unverifiable, descriptive not predictive placement What’s good about it? – 1st theory about  Myer’s Briggs – gave you 4 letter combo Individual Differences personality, sparked psychoanalysis What’s wrong w/ these tests? (5-7%) How do we test this approach?  They’re long, social desirability can be an Individual Theories about Intelligence  Psychoanalysis: analyze a person’s influence, and they’re too broad  GALTON: 1st to suggest intelligence was unconscious motives thru the use of: HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE inherited. Intelligence based on muscle o Free Association: say aloud everythying  Emphasized personal growth and free will. strength, size of head, reaction time, etc. that comes to mind w/o hesitation You don’t like yourself? So change!  CATTELL: 2 clusters of mental abilities o Transference: looks for feelings to  : talked about our self- o Crystalized intelligence: reasoning and transferred to psychoanalyst concept (idea of who we are). Your self- verbal skills - what you learn in school – o Dream interpretation: analyze the concept is the center of your personality the cold hard (like crystals!) facts manifest (seen message) and latent o Actual (social) self: what others see o Fluid intelligence: spatial abilities, rote (hidden messages) content o Ideal (true) self: who you WANT to be memory, things that come natural to you o Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli o A positive self-concept makes us perceive – can’t learn in school. Also decrease shown to look at your unconscious the world positively (optimist) over time motives (THESE SUCK B/C THEY o A negative self-concept makes us feel ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE) dissatisfied and unhappy  SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR: said a . Thematic apperception test (TAT) : What wrong with humanistic theory? - general intelligence (g) underlies all mental tell a story about a picture (when too optimistic about human nature, abstract abilities (typical IQ of today) someone has a tattoo (tatt) you ask concepts are difficult to test  GARDNER: multiple intelligences (8): what it means What’s good about it? – emphasizes linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, . Rorschach inkblot: show an inkblot conscious experiences and change spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (social), naturalist

 STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY  Standardized tests establish a normal CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS: o Analytical: mental components to solve distribution  Psychodynamic: repressed thoughts & problems, what IQ tests assess (book  Standard deviations are used to compare feelings manifest in anxiety and rituals smarts) scores.  Behaviorist: fear conditioning leads to o Practical: ability to size up new  Standard deviation measures how much anxiety, which is then reinforced. Phobias situations and adapt to real-life demands the scores vary from the mean. The might be learned through observational (street smarts) percentages stay the same in every curve learning o Creative: intellectual and motivational  Biological: natural selection favored those processes that lead to novel solutions, with certain phobias (heights). Twins often idea, products share disorders. Often see less GABA in the  BINET: developed 1st intelligence test, brain combined with TERMAN – developed SOMATOFORM DISORDERS the STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST  Psychological disorders w/ no apparent physical cause o Conversion disorder: loss of feeling or usage of a limb or body part (sight) – o Chronological age = actual age absolutely no physiological cause though o Mental age = tested age compared to o Hypochondriasis: person interprets other of that age normal symptoms as a major disease – o 100 is average must disrupt their life  WECHSLER: developed the WAIS and Abnormal Behavior DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS WISC – most commonly used today  Dissociative Identity Disorder: formerly  FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over (7 – 9%) multiple personalities – person fractures the past 80 years – probably due to  Defining abnormal behavior: into several distinct personalities who education standards and better IQ tests o Must be deviant, distressful, and normally have no awareness of each other.  Extremes of Intelligence: high IQ = above dysfunctional NOT SCHIZOPHRENIA! 135; mentally retarded = below 70  Historical causes: biology, psychological o Usually caused by traumatic childhood  Causes of mild retardation: issues, supernatural issues (demons) abuse o PKU – liver fails to produce an ezyme  Medical model: emphasizes treatment of o Legitimacy is doubted by some, more needed to breakdown chemicals – leads disorders, as they have a biological origin. common in those w/ good health to brain damage Came through the reformation of insurance st o Down syndrome – extra copy of 21 institutions in U.S. (DORTHEA DIX) o Treatment involves integration of the chromosome  Biopsychosocial model: currently used personalities o Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to model – stress biological, psychological,  Dissociative Fugue: following a traumatic ONE X chromosome and social causes event a person leaves, taking on a whole  Influence on IQ:  Diagnosing abnormal behavior: new life & personality w/ no memory of the o Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, o DSM: manual listing all currently previous one adopted kids more similar to biological accepted psychological disorders. MOOD DISORDERS parents Classifies them based on criteria –  Major depressive disorder: extreme o Environment: early neglect leads to provides no explanation of causes or sadness and despair, apathy towards life, w/ lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ treatments no known cause  Types of Tests: ANXIETY DISORDERS  Dysthymia: milder form of depression, o Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn Most common disorders in the U.S. lasts for years (Eeyore!) a new skill (ASVAB)  Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD):  Bipolar disorder: bouts of severe o Achievement: tests what you know(SAT) person is generally anxious, all the time, for depression & manic episodes  TEST CREATION: NO REASON o Mania: heightened mood, characterized o Standardization: administer a test to a  Panic Disorder: person is prone to frequent by risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of representative sample of future test takers panic attacks (feeling like you’re having a ideas to establish a basis for meaningful heart attack). Can come w/ agoraphobia:  Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): form st comparison (test it out 1 ) anxiety about being in places you cannot of depression that occurs typically winter – o Should be reliable: same results over escape (fear of public spaces / people) found mostly in Northern areas (Alaska, time  Phobias: irrational fear that disrupts your Ireland) UNIQUE TREATMENT = . Split-half reliability: compare two life LIGHT THERAPY halves of the test  Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD): CAUSES OF MOOD DISORDERS . Test-retest reliability: use the same person if overwhelmed with both:  Biology: lower levels of serotonin & test on 2 different occasions o Obsessions: persistent unwanted thoughts norepinephrine linked to depression, higher o Should be valid: test is accurate – (did I leave the stove on?) levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. measures what it is intended to o Compulsions: senseless rituals (hand Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin . Content validity: test measures what washing) studies also support this. you want it to (an IQ test actually  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):  Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads measures IQ) characterized by flashbacks, problems w/ to depression . Predictive validity: test is able to concentration, and anxiety following a accurately predict a trait (high math traumatic event (war, natural disasters) scores predicts good engineer) SCHIZOPHRENIA Treatment of  BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: CALLED NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES! BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES THEY HAVE ONE PERSONALITY! Psychological Disorders o Drug therapies (psychopharmacology):  SYMPTOMS (5-7%) . Anti-psychotics: decrease dopamine: o Positive Symptoms (not good – means treats schizophrenia  PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH: SEE something added))  Side effects: TARDIVE DYSKINESIA: PERSONALITY SECTION . Hallucinations: sensory experiences hand tremors (similar to Parkinson’s-  HUMANISTIC APPROACH: w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or due to lack of dopamine), worsening o Client-centered therapy: (developed by hearing things) of negative symptoms, extreme CARL ROGERS) techniques include . Delusions: fixed, false beliefs (people sedation active listening, accepting environment, are out to get them, grandiose thoughts  Drug names: thorazine, clozapine focuses on patient growth (you figure (I am God) . Anti-depressants: increase serotonin out what needs to change and do it) . Disorganized thinking through REUPTAKE inhibition  COGNITIVE APPROACH: . Disorganized speech  Side effects: drowsiness, anxiety, can o Rational-emotive therapy: (developed o Negative Symptoms (something taken increase suicide risk in teens away) by ELLIS) techniques include analyzing self-defeating behaviors to change  Drug names: SSRIs (selective . Flat affect: lack ability to show serotonin reuptake inhibitors) like emotions thought patterns – and then change behaviors associated w/ said patterns Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil. SNRIs (selective . Impaired decision making, inability norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) . Best for anxiety disorders to pay attention Cymbalta, Effexor . Very confrontational o Catatonia: become frozen over periods . Mood stabilizers: used in the treatment of time (exhibit waxy flexibility: can o Cognitive therapy: (developed by BECK) illogical thoughts  of BIPOLAR disorder : LITHIUM move them into new positions) . Anti-anxiety drugs: depress the  CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA psychological problems, challenges those thoughts central nervous system (dangerous in o Brain abnormalities: enlarged ventricles combo w/ alcohol) Xanax, Ativan . Best for depression (atrophy), smaller frontal cortex o Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): send . Self-directed – you figure out your o Genetics: runs in families, MZ twins at electricity into the brain to induce minor errors higher risk seizures. Used (rarely) to treat depression  BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (typically o Dopamine hypothesis: too much (when nothing else works). Thought to used for anxiety disorders / phobias) dopamine in the brain “reboot” the brain o Classical Conditioning: o Diathesis – Stress: individual has a o Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomy): . Counterconditioning Little Albert & genetic predisposition, disease must be frontal lobe is surgically destroyed. Used Watson “turned-on” by environmental stimuli to treat depression or violent individuals –  Aversive conditioning: associate an (like stress) – explains why it is most almost never used anymore commonly developed during college unpleasant experience (e.g. nausea) years w/ an unwanted behavior (e.g. Social PERSONALITY DISORDERS drinking alcohol) (8-10%) . Exposure therapy: slowly expose  Marked by disruptive, inflexible, enduring SOCIAL THINKING behavior patterns – makes this very people to whatever it is that makes them anxious  Attribution theory: we explain others difficult to treat! behaviors by crediting the situation or the o Antisocial: NOT “avoidant of  Systematic desensitization: associate a pleasant relaxed state w/ person’s disposition (they only passed b/c socialization” – more like “anti-society” – they cheated) disregard for others, manipulative, breaks gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli (create a  Fundamental attribution error (very laws similar to Actor-observer bias): o Borderline: instable interpersonal desensitization hierarchy – ex. List of things about flying that makes you tendency for observers to underestimate relationships & self-image, “I hate you, the importance of the situation and don’t leave me” nervous – step through each one till you can do it) overestimate the impact of personal o Histrionic: excessive emotionality & disposition (that guy cut me off b/c he’s a attention seeking (slut disorder)  Intensive exposure therapy (Flooding): force someone to jerk – not that his wife could be in labor) o Narcissistic: need for admiration & lack ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS of empathy (who cares about everyone experience the fear (afraid of drowning, throw you in a pool)  Central route to persuasion: change else – look at me!) people’s attitudes through logical o Operant Conditioning: use behavior modification (reward good behaviors w/ arguments and explanations. Leads to long term behavior change token reinforcers ). Used in schools, w/  Peripheral route to persuasion: change autistic children, etc. people’s attitudes through incidental cues  OTHER THERPAIES: (like a speaker’s attractiveness). Leads to o Family therapy: treats the family as a temporary behavior changes system, individual behaviors are influenced by family dynamics  Foot in the door phenomenon: complying w/ a small request then leads o Group therapy: therapy through a group – lets patients see “they’re not alone” to going along w/ a larger request (can I have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?)

 Door in the face phenomenon: a large  Scapegoat theory: prejudice offers an  Approach approach conflict: win – win request is turned down, when then leads you outlet for anger by providing someone situation; conflict is which win you have to be more likely to comply w/ a small else to blame to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your request (can I have $100? Heck no! How  Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your two favorite restaurants – you can only about $20? Okay) own group as more important than others choose one though)  STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT  Just-world phenomenon: tendency for  Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose (ZIMBARDO): classic “experiment” ppl to believe that the world is just and situation; outcome has positive and where individuals were assigned to be therefore ppl get what they deserve negative aspects (marriage) guards / prisoners. w/in days they took on (homeless ppl)  Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose – their roles and went too far. Highly AGGRESION lose; both outcomes are bad but you have unethical  Genetic influence: runs in families, can to choose one (clean your room or do  Cognitive dissonance (FESTINGER): two breed for in animals your homework) opposing thoughts conflict w/ each other,  Lower serotonin, higher testosterone  Multiple approach avoidance conflict: causing discomfort (dissonance), which  Environmental influence: social two (or more) win-lose situations; conflict makes us find ways to justify the situation learning theory (BANDURA) – observing is which to choose (College A is good for (cult that was going to be abducted by violence in others makes us more violent your major but no scholarship, College B aliens, smokers) for a time is bad for your major but has a SOCIAL INFLUENCE o Also: pollution, crowding, heat, humidity scholarship)  Conformity: classic experiment done by  Frustration-aggression hypothesis: SOCIAL SELF ASCH – showed lines of different lengths, frustration creates anger, which leads to  Self-concept bias: what we consider confederates gave wrong answers to see if aggression important in ourselves is what we others would go along w/ it ATTRACTION consider important in others o Normative social influence: we  Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure  False-consensus effect: we overestimate conform to gain approval or to not stand to novel stimuli increases liking of them the degree to which everyone else thinks / out from the group (be part of the norm (the more time you spend around acts the way we do o Informational social influence: we something the more you like it)  Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that conform to others b/c we think their  Physical attractiveness: pretty ppl are leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you opinions must be right thought to be more credible, less likely to all to pass, you know this, you study –  Obedience: classic experiment done by do bad things fulfilling my prophecy) MILGRAM: participants were to “teach”  Similarity: we prefer ppl similar to us  Self-serving bias: readiness to perceive another individual using shocks. 60% of ALTRUISM ourselves as favorably participants would administer lethal shocks  Altruism: unselfish regard for the  Spotlight effect (self-objectification) : to another person simply b/c they were told welfare of others tendency of an individual to overestimate to  Bystander effect: the more ppl around the extent to which others are paying GROUP INFLUENCE the less likely we are to help someone in attention to them  Social facilitation: perform better on need simple or well learned tasks in the presence  Social exchange theory: social behavior MULTIPLE CHOICE STRATEGIES of others (helping) is an exchange process – aim is  Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group to maximize benefits and minimize cost  Bubble as you go – you don’t want to run to exert less effort when pooling their effort  Reciprocity norm: we give so we can get out of time! together (tug of war) CONFLICT  Answer EVERY QUESTION – you don’t  Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness  Social trap: conflicting parties pursue lose points for guessing and self-restraint occurring in group their own best interests, which can result o If you run out of time pick either B, C, situations that foster arousal and anonymity in destructive results (prisoner’s dilemma or D and bubble straight down. DO (mob mentality) – game theory) NOT ZIG ZAG  Group polarization: the more time spent  If you don’t recognize an answer choice – w/ a group the more similar (polarized) their it probably IS NOT THE ANSWER thoughts / opinions will become  Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a ESSAY WRITING STRATEGIES group leads to everyone going along w/ the same thinking, ignoring other possibilities ANSWER THE STUPID or bad ideas QUESTION!  Risky shift: groups make riskier decisions  Don’t write in bullet points! together rather than alone o No Fluff – no transitions – no topic / PREJUDICE thesis statements  Ingroup: “US” – ppl w/ whom we share a  Be specific and apply the answer to the common identity prompt  Outgroup: “them” – ppl perceived as different or not part of the group Created by C.Thompson; 2013  Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our own group  [email protected]