Post-Extractive Transition the LA PALOMA GLACIER LOCATED in the YERBA LOCA PARK, ABOUT 50KM from SANTIAGO, CHILE’S CAPITAL

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FRONT COVER: THE RAÚL ROJAS OPEN-PIT MINE IN CERRO DE PASCO, THE PIT STRETCHES FOR 1.2 MILES AND IS OVER 1,000 FEET DEEP. CREDIT: JONATHAN CHANCASANA / ADOBE STOCK; OPPOSITE: ANTI-MINING PROTEST IN HONDURAS’. CREDIT: MATYAS REHAK CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2

Infographic 4

1. Climate Justice, Just(ice) Transition 5

2. Extractivism in the decades to come 9

3. The transition-mining nexus 11

4. Greenwashing, political will and investment trends 13

5. Metal mining as a driver of conflict 17

6. Moving beyond extractivism to promote a just transition 19

CONCLUSION 24

Recommendations 25

Annex of Cases 29

References 30 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

While the global majority disproportionately technologies account for relative to suffer the impacts of the climate crisis and other end-uses. the extractivist model, the Global North’s 4. Greenwashing, political will and legacy of colonialism, the excess of the investment trends expose how world’s wealthiest, and the power of large the mining industry is attracting corporations are responsible for these investment and justifying new interrelated crises. projects by citing projected critical The climate change mitigation commitments metals demand and framing itself as thus far made by countries in the Global a key actor in the transition. North are wholly insufficient; not only in terms of emissions reductions, but in their 5. Metal mining as a driver of socio- failure to address the root causes of the environmental conflict offers a crisis – systemic and intersecting inequalities sense of the systemic and global and injustices. This failure to take inequality nature of the social and ecological and injustice seriously can be seen in even impacts of metal mining. the most ambitious models of climate 6. Moving beyond extractivism mitigation. offers a sense of possibility in This report sets out to explore the social and suggesting different ways forward, ecological implications of those models with by addressing both the material a focus on metal mining, in six sections: and political challenges to a post- extractivist transition. 1. Climate justice, just(ice) This report finds that: transition locates the report’s contributions within the • Current models project that as broader struggle for climate and fossil fuels become less prominent environmental justice, explains the in the generation of energy, metal- reasoning for the report’s focus on intensive technologies will replace mining and emphasizes the social them. The assertion that economic dimension of energy transitions. growth can be decoupled, in absolute terms, from environmental 2. Extractivism in the decades to and social impact is deeply flawed. come discusses projections for total • Central to these models is the resource extraction over the next unquestioned acceptance that four decades and raises concerns economic growth in the Global about the interconnected ecological North will continue unchanged, impacts of increased resource and as such, will perpetuate global extraction. and local inequalities and drive the 3. The transition-mining nexus demand for energy, metals, minerals section places in perspective the and biomass further beyond the significance of renewable energy already breached capacity of the technologies in driving demand, by biosphere. examining the share of critical metal • The assumption that economic end-uses that renewable energy growth is a valuable indicator of

22 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition THE LA PALOMA GLACIER LOCATED IN THE YERBA LOCA PARK, ABOUT 50KM FROM SANTIAGO, CHILE’S CAPITAL. THIS GLACIER IS ALLEGEDLY UNDER THREAT FROM THE CURRENT UPGRADE PLANS OF ANGLOAMERICAN’S LOS BRONCES PROJECT. CREDIT: JAIME VALDIVIA

wellbeing must be challenged. • Increased investment and political Scarcity is the result of inequality, will for large-scale mineral and not a lack of productive capacity. metal extraction is not an inevitable Redistribution is the answer to both consequence of the transition, social and economic injustice and it is one of the fundamental the threat that extractivism and contradictions within a vision of climate breakdown pose. climate change mitigation which • Reducing fossil fuel energy fails to understand extractivism as dependence on its own is not a model fundamentally rooted in a sufficient response to the injustice. intersecting socio-ecological crises, • Around the world, frontline the extractivist model as a whole communities are pushing back must be challenged. the expansion of extractivism • There is a need to address the and offering solutions to social extractivist model because mineral, and ecological injustice. But metal and biomass extraction unfortunately, their voices, demands threaten frontline communities and and visions are far too often absent the interconnected ecologies that in climate policy and campaigning sustain life and wellbeing. spaces and agendas. • This need is particularly urgent • Justice and equity need to be because the mining industry understood as cross-cutting issues is driving a new greenwashing that touch every aspect of the narrative by claiming that vast transition. These principles are fully quantities of metals will be needed compatible with ecological wellbeing to meet the material demands of and mutually enhance one another. renewable energy technologies. Increasing access to energy, food • This greenwashing narrative serves and public services goes hand- to obscure and justify the inherently in-hand with reducing excess harmful nature of extractivist consumption through processes mining. International financial of redistribution. The solutions are institutions and sectors of civil fundamentally social; technical fixes society that have embraced these and increases in efficiency do not assumptions are complicit in the bring about justice or ecological mining industry’s greenwashing wellbeing on their own. efforts.

3 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition

POST-EXTRACTIVE TRANSITION

E Q

N I

E ,

I O

M S

U M

I T

’

O STRATEGIES

S • E Community-led resistance

L and solidarity F BEYOND

- D • Taking on corporate power

E T EXTRACTIVISM • Redistribution and reparations E R to the South coupled with M degrowth in the North I N E T H E IR

FU TU LL RE R A , D FO IGNIFIED LIFE IMPACTS Disproportionate concentration of

IMPACTS impacts in aﬀected

W E

H communities in the

• T

Thousands of documented R

O Global South resulting

conﬂicts related to resource F

S in eroded livelihoods,

extraction (EJ Atlas) and hundreds S

of documented killings every year C displacement and X

E loss of life. of environmental human rights

defenders D

A • Mining and mineral processing

alone is responsible for 20% of Y N

global climate impacts (UNEP) CLIMATE CRISIS A M

+ intersecting social E

I G H ( H

- H

I N and ecological crises

E T N

I R

GREENWASH O

E F

X P Green capitalist and

O neocolonial vision of the T R I

T transition which does not

- A

O question growth, injustice U

R or inequality Q I E

E N N I

T FALSE SOLUTIONS T S A • E , V Carbon capture storage D BT EXTRACTIVISM EC DE • OL AL Geoengineering E OGIC INCREASED DEMAND X • Biofuels T Global resource extraction is projected R to more than double between 2011 • Oﬀsetting A

C and 2060 under business-as-usual • “Climate Smart Mining”

I I - the rate of growth is even higher N

O U

M I

N for metals and minerals (OECD)

, D

C N A

R R E E

A T W

O O

N P

F ’ E T

‘SAC NES

RIFICE ZO A

(NEO) COLONIALISM Y

A I R T A P , M IS C A R D IC IS M PO STE SSESSION, SY 1 Climate Justice, Just(ice) Transition

The urgency to mitigate climate change and 10% are responsible for nearly half of all its impacts grows greater with the passing global lifestyle emissions.4 of every day. For many in the Global North, The disproportionate distribution of carbon this urgency was made palpable following emissions closely mirrors, and is bound up the publication of the most recent IPCC with, the global distribution of wealth. report.1 But for the global majority, this The specific ways in which an increasingly urgency is often felt in the ever-worsening destabilised climate is experienced are and increasingly unstable climatic conditions determined by the material conditions and which erode livelihoods and threaten those 2 power dynamics that shape the ability to be most directly impacted. resilient, adapt, recover or migrate in the In a recent article calling for a Global Green face of these impacts.5 Deal, Asad Rehman makes clear how the Inequity and injustice are at the heart of impacts of the climate crisis are already the climate crisis, its causes and impacts. manifest in the lives of many: The transition to an energy system no “Warming of just 1°C has been enough longer dependent on fossil fuels presents to unleash killer floods, droughts and an opportunity to transform these power famines. In every corner of the world relations and reduce this vast global inequity. However, the dominant vision put climate violence has already been forth by industry, international financial exacting a heavy toll on the poorest institutions, Northern states and many and most vulnerable. [...] The most Northern NGOs threatens to simply displace conservative estimates are that each emissions from the North while generating year close to a million lives in the global greater impacts in the South through south are already being claimed by offsetting and market mechanisms, as well the violence of climate change with as increased metal mining and extractive many more millions losing their homes projects. This is bound up with the fact that in even some of the most ambitious and livelihoods. The climate crisis also scenarios of transition towards a less fans the existing flames of economic carbon-intensive world, the total volume inequality and poverty, resulting in a of extracted resources is projected to grow deepening crisis of hunger, increased significantly.6 conflict and deepening existing racial Dangerously, a subset of these growth and gender inequalities. All of which projections is emerging as the basis of determine the very ability of people to the widespread greenwashing of metal survive climate impacts and to adapt mining projects. This greenwashing to, and respond to, the realities of the narrative is based on the claim that a 3 substantial increase in metal mining is climate crisis.” necessary to meet the material needs While the global majority disproportionately of renewable energy technologies and suffers the impacts of the climate crisis, the associated infrastructure. This report Global North and the world’s wealthiest contributes to the broader aims of have a vastly disproportionate role in climate and environmental justice by generating the climate crisis. The wealthiest taking a critical look at the expanding

5 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition FIGURE REPRODUCED FROM AFTER PARIS: FAIR SHARE, INEQUALITY AND THE CLIMATE CRISIS

extractive frontier, deconstructing these by agro-extractive interests appears in emerging greenwashed narratives and policy discussions, but metal and mineral ultimately argues that the communities mining rarely feature as a central issue. Yet and ecosystems on the frontlines of metal these industries are responsible for a fifth mining need to take a central place in of global emissions and the same share climate justice. of global health impacts from particulate matter.8 In some countries, such as Chile, Why focus on mining? the mining sector is the largest consumer of electricity.9 Discussions about the relationship between extractive industries and climate change Most climate and energy policy agendas, tend to focus on the burning of fossil iterations of a ‘Green New Deal’ in the US fuels. Occasionally deforestation driven and the UK, and the demands of many movements and organisations which identify with climate justice principles do CARBON INTENSITY refers not explicitly address metal mining. Nor to carbon emissions per unit of do most divestment campaigns or most production. Given that production ‘ethical’ investment funds screen for mining is expected to increase, the relative companies in their determination of what decoupling of carbon emissions from constitutes harmful investments. production are cancelled out by the For all of these reasons, the voices of total increase in projected production. communities impacted by mining must be brought to the fore of debates and visions of GREENWASH: “The phenomenon an energy transition rooted in justice. of socially and environmentally The challenges highlighted in this briefing destructive corporations attempting raise key questions: to preserve and expand their Will climate movements in the Global markets by posing as friends of North broaden their scope, beyond a focus the environment and leaders in the struggle to eradicate poverty.” (CorpWatch definition) 7 on fossil fuels, to build solidarity with This report is concerned with ensuring that the communities and ecosystems on the the transition is rooted in justice. The term frontlines of metal mining? ‘just transition’ is most often associated Or will the procurement of ‘critical metals’ with a series of proposals, born out of collaborations between trade unions and be left in the hands of the same mining 10 companies responsible for socio-ecological environmental NGOs. These proposals crises around the world? have centered on ‘green jobs’ for workers currently employed in the fossil fuel sector Will a collective silence allow mining and related industries as a way of ensuring companies’ bottom line and corporate that the labour rights and conditions image to benefit as these territories become of workers in the fossil fuel and mining new zones of sacrifice and the extractivist industries are not sacrificed in the transition. model expands, now masked behind the While this is a vital issue, and an inspiring veil of meeting the material needs of the case of collaboration between interests transition? whose (potential) antagonism has been a This report sets out to engage with point of leverage for corporate interests, these questions and help us find ways to this preoccupation with a very specific integrate the concerns of mining-affected matter of justice in the transition has largely communities upstream of the supply chains monopolised use of the term. of these technologies into the climate justice Other actors concerned with questions of agenda and progressive energy policy. justice in the transition11 are using a much The intention of this report is not to broader and more inclusive framework, cast doubt on the value or necessity of renewable energy technologies; we must urgently break away from fossil fuel EXTRACTIVISM: high-intensity, dependence while ensuring the demands export-oriented extraction of common for energy access and energy justice are ecological goods rooted in colonialism met. Instead, this report sets out to raise and the notion that humans are concerns about the ‘green growth’ ideology separate from, and superior to, the rest which is driving dominant visions of the transition, coupled with how the mining of the living world. industry stands to benefit from an uncritical and unjust transition. If the world’s largest mining companies are allowed to position “A CRITICAL METAL is a metal of themselves as key partners in the transition, high economic importance that faces communities will suffer the consequences supply risks (i.e. geographical and/or while other dimensions of the ecological geopolitical constraints) and for which crisis become more acute. there is no actual or commercially A Just(ice) Transition? viable substitute. It is a relative concept, The process of winding down the fossil and the list of critical metals will fuel energy system and developing a vary depending upon the needs of new system based on renewable energy industry, especially those of emerging technologies, along with the storage and technologies.” (International Resource transmission infrastructure to accompany 12 Panel) them, is most commonly referred to as the ‘transition’. But visions of the transition, and NOTE: The author does not favour this term, how we might get there, are as varied as due to the geopolitical values (‘strategic those imagining it. resource’, ‘metals important for national security’) it is often associated with. However, due to its widespread use in the literature, has chosen to use it in this piece. 7 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition whilst others are adopting the term ‘justice previous energy transitions offer insight and transition’13 to make this distinction clear. help us to re-imagine the current transition. Communities on the frontlines of The power structures that gave rise to a extractivism, indigenous peoples, peasant fossil fuel-dependent economy are based in movements and their allies are raising colonial, patriarchal and capitalist relations. important questions about what shape this An industry-led transition threatens to transition ought to take for it to be truly just: reproduce these power relations. This is

14 important to bear in mind, as the dominant • Who will guide the transition? industry and mainstream environmental • Who will have access to renewable narrative posits that technological 15 energy? efficiency and market dynamics, imagined • How much energy is really as somehow being detached from their necessary? material, ecological, political and social underpinnings, will positively conspire to • Who stands to benefit from a 16 guide us away from ecological crisis. transition led by major fossil fuel and utility companies?17

Will the transition perpetuate: • Structural racism? COLONIALISM is often defined as the process by which a nation- • Gendered oppression?18 state or empire establishes control, • Is a just transition compatible with nearly always through violence and capitalism19 and an economic model 20 imposition, over peoples and lands predicated on infinite growth? outside its formal territory. The • Will it account for the ecological and processes of colonization by European 22 colonial debt between the Global powers over the past five centuries North and South? throughout the Americas, Africa and • Will renewable megaprojects Asia have left profound and painful displace communities23 and damage legacies of violence, displacement, ecosystems? destruction and dependency which largely shape the global inequalities Theorising energy transitions and injustices that characterise the and climate justice contemporary world. Energy transitions have always been It is important to note that “Colonialism shaped by social, political and economic was not a monolithic process, but structures, rather thansimply and linearly one of diverse expressions, stages driven by increases in efficiency or cost and strategies.” However, it can be savings. Transitions have occurred when broadly characterised “as a triple political, economic and ideological interests violence: cultural violence through intersected with certain means of energy 24 negation; economic violence through production or storage. The lessons of exploitation; and political violence through oppression.” 25

CLIMATE JUSTICE is an approach NEOCOLONIALISM can be that centres the systemic, root causes understood as an extension and of the climate crisis, often understood reproduction of these forms of as the intersection of dominant power violence beyond formally defined relations. colonial power relations. 2 Extractivism in the decades to come

The global economy relies on a system of (ECO-ECONOMIC) DECOUPLING production and consumption that has a refers to the separation of the material massive material footprint. Over the coming basis and environmental impact of decades this footprint is projected to more productive activities from economic than double, while shocking degrees of growth. Relative decoupling takes place inequality in material consumption are when the resource, carbon or energy projected to persist. efficiency in the generation of a unit Under ‘business-as-usual’ projections, such of value increases, but at a slower rate as the OECD’s Global Resources Outlook than the production itself. Absolute 26 to 2060 which models for global GDP to decoupling takes place when resource, triple by 2060, even with substantial leaps in energy or carbon inputs fall in absolute efficiency and recycling, the global economy terms while economic activity increases. will require a greater share of minerals, There is ample evidence that while metals, fossil fuels and biomass to maintain relative decoupling is possible in some this model predicated on indefinite growth and persistent inequality. cases, its ability to reduce absolute environmental impact and the material To put this into quantitative perspective, and energy footprint of economic the total mass of extracted resources is activity is limited. Reliance on decoupling expected to grow from 79 to 167 billion as a strategy for ‘green growth’ has the tonnes per annum (a 111% increase) between 2011 and 2060.27, 28 potential to distract from the underlying causes of the ecological crisis and This increase is disaggregated as follows: bolster growing demand in the Global 29 • 14 to 24 billion tonnes of fossil fuels North. See: Decoupling Debunked (a 71% increase); • 8 to 20 billion tonnes of metals (a 150% increase); plans, these approaches envision the ability to continue extracting and burning • 37 to 87 billion tonnes of minerals fossil fuels by placing unfounded hope (a 135% increase); and in sequestration technologies, offsetting • 20 to 37 billion tonnes of biomass mechanisms and geoengineering. (an 85% increase). But these numbers also reveal another There are multiple reasons for the troubling trend: the share of mineral and dissonance between business-as-usual metal extraction relative to fossil fuels projections and the stated intention of will increase significantly over time. More the party members of the UNFCCC to not progressive models which reflect the breach a 1.5C average global temperature ambition necessary to phase out fossil fuels rise by the end of this century. The as quickly as possible often end up shifting nationally-determined contributions (NDCs) the material burden of energy production of countries in the Global North have been even further onto other sectors, particularly wholly insufficient; these are also voluntary, metal mining and biomass extraction for rather than binding commitments. False renewable energy technologies and biofuels. solutions are at the heart of many mitigation In other words, reducing fossil fuel energy

9 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition dependence on its own is not a sufficient The global ecological crisis is not response to the intersecting socio-ecological just about climate, and the climate crises: instead, the extractivist model as a crisis is not just about carbon whole must be challenged. Ths model of extraction will continue to Mining projects often entail the rerouting, wreak ecological and social violence, and contamination and depletion of water in doing so it will aggravate many of the bodies, the destruction of habitats, 31 threats which proponents of the transition deforestation, ecosystem fragmentation set out to resolve. and the resulting loss in biodiversity. This is true even under the current best The OECD measures nine factors of practice model laid out on page 69 of a environmental impact that metal and report by the Heinrich Boell Foundation mineral mining are responsible for. These entitled “Green Economies Around the factors are: acidification, climate change, World” which projects global annual material cumulative energy demand, eutrophication, consumption to reach 93 billion tonnes by freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity, terrestrial 2050.30 ecotoxicity, photochemical oxidation, land use and human toxicity. On the following page of the report, hypothetical factors of reduced These impacts also undermine the social consumption in the Global North and and ecological fabric which enables greater redistribution of resource communities and ecosystems to be consumption show how these values resilient to the impacts of climate change. might translate into a much smaller, more By destroying habitats and biodiversity, by ecologically viable and socially just level of contaminating and depleting freshwater extraction. This dual approach of reduced bodies, and by eroding land-based demand from the world’s wealthiest and livelihoods, mining projects increase the largest corporations coupled with greater threat that an unstable climate already equity and access is the only viable way poses. out of the intersecting social and ecological crises.

ANTOFAGASTA - ‘MINE IN COQUIMBO REGION, CHILE, WHERE LOS PELAMBRES MINING SITE IS LOCATED’. PHOTO CREDIT: FXEGS JAVIER ESPUNY

10 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition 3 The transition-mining nexus

Which metals play a key role in the supply chains for renewable energy generation, transmission and storage?

Dozens of metals are employed in renewable energy technologies. However, the role they play, scale at which they are consumed, availability and ability to be substituted, vary widely. As such, there is little consistency among the studies cited in this section as to the scope of metals covered by their projections. The column (left), from a recent report32 prepared for Earthworks by the Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Australia (ISF-UTS), offers a good sense of the metals used in renewable energy technologies, their application and relative importance to these technologies.

What insights do projections of demand for these minerals and metals offer? REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION FROM INSTITUTE FOR SUSTAINABLE FUTURES, UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY. NOTE: THIS FIGURE HAS BEEN CROPPED, THE FULL FIGURE CAN BE SEEN ON PAGE 16 OF THIS REPORT: https://earthworks. There is a growing body of literature org/cms/assets/uploads/2019/04/MCEC_UTS_Report_lowres-1.pdf attempting to determine the volume of key A common element throughout this metals and minerals necessary to develop literature is the concern over a supply a renewable energy matrix. These studies bottleneck for certain critical metals. Yet employ different methodologies and vary the current and even projected material widely in their conclusions. The variations demand for minerals and metals generated are primarily due to the scope of the study by the renewable energy sector are, and will (range of metals and range of end-uses) and remain, a minor factor in overall extractive the assumptions made about the future demand. The following section suggests energy mix, total energy demand, potential that the most urgent link to be brokenis improvements in efficiency, recycling and discursive, rather than material. substitution. None of these studies question the assumption that total economic activity Critical metal end-uses and overall energy demand will continue to increase. It is particularly concerning Contrary to the narrative advanced by that they do not consider the possibility mining companies, the reality of critical of a reduction in the disproportionate metal end-uses is more varied than their consumption of the Global North. greenwashed claims would suggest.

11 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition Renewable energy is currently not the The table below shows that for the primary driver of demand for any given commonly greenwashed copper, in critical metal, and the projected share of even the highest demand scenario, the renewable energy technologies within renewable energy sector will under no overall end-uses varies considerably from circumstances consume the majority of one metal to another. Construction, aviation, this metal’s annual production. For the key nuclear technology, electronics and the battery metals: lithium, cobalt and nickel, arms industry are among the diverse, and demand figures are startling, however this often destructive, range of critical metal end- projected demand is largely driven by the uses. private electric vehicle market, rather than 33 the demands for energy access and the Buccholz and Brandenberg (2018:150) 35 explore the primary drivers of demand for provision of public transit. the critical metals examined in their study. It is important to disaggregate projected For copper, they found that demand is demand further and critically evaluate closely tied to overall economic growth. This which of these end-uses most contributes is consistent with other research on copper to meeting the demands of energy justice demand,34 which, despite growth in demand and access, rather than the continuation of a coming from renewable energy technologies model of excessive and unjust consumption (electric vehicles in particular), projects driven by the Global North and the world’s that the construction industry will remain wealthiest. copper’s primary driver of demand. Regardless of the accuracy of these However for other metals¬– cobalt and projections, these figures are driving lithium in particular – projected demand increased investment, concerns over is much more closely tied to ‘emerging bottlenecks are shaping policy concerns, technologies’. Among these technologies, and these trends have concrete impacts on electric vehicle batteries feature communities and ecosystems. prominently.

REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION FROM INSTITUTE FOR SUSTAINABLE FUTURES, UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY. THE FULL FIGURE CAN BE SEEN ON PAGE 27 OF THIS REPORT: https://earthworks.org/cms/assets/uploads/2019/04/MCEC_UTS_Report_lowres-1.pdf

12 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition Greenwashing, political will and 4 investment trends

Mining companies stand to benefit by positioning themselves as key actors in GREENWASHING BASED ON the transition. They are taking advantage ASSUMPTIONS OF INJUSTICE of the projected increase in critical metals AND MATERIAL IMPOSSIBILITY: to greenwash and justify new operations, the demand for metals that are regardless of whether their output will be closely tied to projected demand used in renewable energy technologies for renewable energy technologies: or not. This greenwashing strategy serves cobalt, lithium and nickel, is driving to mask the harm, abuses and human assumptions that are unjust and rights violations that are systemic in the unsustainable, such as the ambition extractivist model. of having one billion, mostly private, electric vehicles on the road by 2050. Old guard mining companies Such ambitions reflect the inequalities The London-based multinational mining and ideology of growth which led company, Anglo American, states on its to the climate crisis, rather than the website: demands to provide energy access and public transit. “Our products are essential to almost every aspect of modern life and are critical to a successful transition to a low-carbon economy. From the GREENWASHING BASED ON DECEPTIVE CLAIMS: much of the platinum group metals needed for metal demand being cited to justify catalytic converters and fuel cells, to the the expansion of metal mining is copper needed for intelligent buildings not closely tied to renewable energy and renewable energy, the low-carbon technologies. This is true for copper, economy is relying upon responsible iron and aluminum which are used miners to take action.” 36 overwhelmingly in construction and other sectors - including very Yet, the company’s opportunism is on damaging industries such as the arms display in an internal assessment of various trade. energy scenarios set out in a climate change plan37 the company published in 2017.

On page 15 of the document, the company investment, regardless of the future energy demonstrates that in all four of the mix or the state of the climate. scenarios outlined (three of which are not consistent with the globally agreed targets In the same report they justify their coal on emissions reductions) there will be high operations and investments, claiming that demand for the metals in their portfolio. greater efficiency in coal burning and carbon It is evident that their concern, as is true capture and storage (CCS) technologies of any publicly-traded corporation, is to will ensure a long future for this fossil fuel, provide shareholders with the confidence despite the resounding criticism and lack of 38 that they have made a sound and profitable evidence surrounding CCS’s viability.

13 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition This rhetoric does not only have the effect In line with its counterparts, the Anglo-Swiss of increasing shareholder confidence and multinational, Glencore, states: the company’s external image, it manifests “We support the development of green itself in concrete impacts. Anglo American is technology and renewable energy marketing the massive Quellaveco copper mining project in the Moquegua region of sources by supplying copper, cobalt and southern Peru by highlighting the mine’s nickel for use in engines and batteries potential contribution to electric vehicle which will power the electric vehicle production. The company expresses revolution.” 43 Quellaveco’s reserves as a figure equivalent It is worth noting that Glencore’s coal to the amount of copper required for the mining and commodities trading activities manufacture of 90 million electric vehicles.39 rank it among the world’s highest-emitting 40 BHP, another London-based mining giant, companies, alongside BHP.44, 45 also cites projected demand for copper41 The three aforementioned multinationals in the transition as a key justification to collectively own the massive open-cast increase its copper output. Cerrejón coal mine in La Guajira, Colombia. Yet, when it comes to practice, the The health, spiritual and economic impacts company’s CEO, Andrew Mackenzie, has suffered by indigenous, peasant and Afro- been vocal in his criticism of the partially descendant communities, as well as the renewable energy mix supplying power region’s water systems and dry tropical to the company’s operations in Southern forest are well-documented. War on Want’s Australia. report ‘The Rivers are Bleeding’ summarises many of these impacts.46 An article from Energy and Mines entitled “BHP knocks renewables after $100m loss”, opens by quoting Mackenzie: Emerging ventures

“‘Let’s talk about affordability, reliability Canadian deep-sea mining company, 47 and emissions reduction, as opposed DeepGreen Metals, is perhaps the ultimate to having some secondary target about expression of the ‘metals-for-renewables’ just having more renewables, which greenwashing phenomenon which is might deny you all three,’ Mackenzie rapidly spreading across the industry. Deep- sea mining exploration is already facing said. ‘We have lost $US100m in this 48 period because of the intermittency of opposition for the potential damage it will cause to livelihoods and ancestral power in South Australia, and also we waters of fisher folk in Papua New Guinea. are facing more expensive electricity, The degree of potential destruction that frankly, than we budgeted for at this this new extractive method would cause time last year.’ 42 is unknown, but many have raised grave 49 A planned expansion of Olympic Dam to concerns about these potential impacts produce 450,000 tonnes of copper a year on deep-sea ecosystems. Yet, the language may not occur if the reliability and cost of the company’s CEO, Gerard Barron, of energy doesn’t improve, Mackenzie frames deep-sea mining as a solution to the cautioned. He noted that he believes: problems posed by terrestrial mining:

“carbon capture and storage is the “Earth is our home, and future best way to address emissions, rather generations need its resources in order than renewables.” to survive and thrive. It’s crucial we

14 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition move off of reliance on dirty energy and “Climate-Smart Mining supports the towards renewable energy. To create sustainable extraction and processing the physical resources for battery, wind of minerals and metals to secure and solar power, we need metal, but supply for clean energy technologies by common metal mining practices cause minimizing the social, environmental, huge negative impacts.” (interview)50 and climate footprint throughout the value chain of those materials by scaling London’s Alternative Investment Market up technical assistance and investments 51 (AIM) is home to younger and smaller in resource-rich developing countries.”55 mining companies, such as the lithium miner Savannah Resources.52 The company’s The International Council on Mining and mine in Portugal faces community Metals (ICMM), an organisation comprised opposition53 over its potential impact to the of large mining companies and industry region’s agricultural livelihoods. associations, promotes a similar vision for the role of mining in the advancement of International institutions renewable energy technologies: “The mining and metals industry also Mining companies are not the only actors promoting their role in the transition. A has a vital role in enabling a swift 2017 World Bank report, ‘The Growing Role transition to a low-carbon economy. of Minerals and Metals for a Low Carbon Minerals such as lithium and cadmium, Future’, defines its target audience, and its for example, are essential for renewable hopes, in the following way: energy technologies, alongside steel, copper and aluminium.” (ICMM)56 “While the study’s intended audience is the World Bank Group and relevant A narrative that reinvents itself client governments, it is also meant to engender a broader dialogue between The claim that mining brings economic development is central to the industry’s the mining and metals constituency public image and serves as a justification and the climate change and clean for much of its activity. This narrative has energy community. Too often, effective evolved in the second half of the twentieth collaboration between the two has been century with the rise of the developmentalist hampered by perceptions of conflicting discourse, and more recently the advent of “Corporate Social Responsibility”. While it interests: this study is an attempt has taken on different shades, from populist to break through that logjam, resource nationalism to a neoliberal race effectively demonstrating that a low to the bottom to attract foreign direct carbon energy shift will be very much investment: the common assumption of dependent on a robust, sustainable, these strategies is that mining brings macro- economic benefits which can be used for the and efficient mining and metals 54 long-term benefit of a country’s economic industry.” 57 development. Following on from their report, the World The vulnerabilities that dependency on Bank has launched a new program, ‘Climate- primary resource extraction-for-export to Smart Mining’, which they describe as which national economies are exposed has follows: been well documented in recent decades.

15 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition RESOURCE CURSE refers to the counter-intuitive tendency for countries with significant endowments of natural resources to suffer greater economic instability, conflict and corruption.

DUTCH DISEASE is an economic phenomenon in which a sudden increase in a currency’s value (often due to the increase in volume or value of resource exports) reduces the competitiveness of other sectors, particularly agriculture and light manufacturing, and leads to increased import dependence.

The resource curse, Dutch disease, and Development-oriented programmes and other theories have been developed and industry-led initiatives based on voluntary their implications observed in numerous principles and guidelines have a long history cases of crisis, hyperinflation and instability. of failure and disappointment. By promoting The response of international financial or engaging in these initiatives, civil society institutions to these contradictions and organisations and policymakers lose sight failures has focused on institutional capacity of what should be our common goal: solid, building for mineral export-dependent enforceable regulatory mechanisms that countries to benefit from extractive guarantee the rights of affected people and industries through increased royalties, taxes their territories. and employment. In a ‘double-movement’, the same These efforts have not brought justice or corporations and financial institutions reparations to mining-affected communities, backing these initiatives and praising nor have they helped to resolve the their participation in them, actively seek structural problems that mineral export- to dismantle and block regulation that dependent nations face. They have, threatens to slow or roll-back extractive however, created a powerful PR narrative for the industry, providing it with the license projects. to continue generating harm.

CAMILA MENDEZ OF COSAJUCA CHALLENGES THE MINES AND MONEY CONFERENCE IN LONDON’ IN SOLIDARITY WITH COMMUNITIES CREDIT: GO TO FILMS

16 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition Metal mining and socio-environmental 5 conflict

SCREENSHOT FROM THE EJ ATLAS ON 3.5.19 FILTERING FOR SILVER, COPPER, LITHIUM AND RARE METALS CONFLICTS.

Systemic impacts experienced in the cultural disarticulation and spiritual loss that comes through the Mining companies and the state actors who severing of people from their land and the support them generate harm at every stage relationships that existed before large-scale of a mining project. State support is often mining. conditioned by explicit or implicit political interests, corruption, bribery and the An annex can be found at the end of this ‘revolving door’ phenomenon. This proximity report which offers links to resources and and entangled interests often obstruct publications that have documented these the ability for decisions to be taken in the impacts in detail, taking into the account public interest, limit the scope of effective the specific dynamics that condition these oversight, compliance with regulation and impacts and the way people experience and recourse to justice for those impacted. navigate them in a diversity of contexts. Common impacts that frontline Indeed, there is evidence to suggest communities experience58 across modes that mining is a leading cause of socio- of extraction are displacement, internal environmental conflict globally. The 59 and external conflict (including threats EJ Atlas, an ambitious database and and killings of land defenders and social interactive mapping project coordinated by leaders), eroded livelihoods, contaminated the Autonomous University of Barcelona’s air, soil and water, lack of access to arable Institute for Environmental Science and land and freshwater, economic dependence Technologies with contributions from and severe health impacts. Some of the organisations and communities around the most profound damage to communities is world, has documented (as of 21 August

17 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition 2019) 2,865 cases of socio- environmental conflict. Of these, the mining of mineral ores and building materials extraction represents 587 of these cases, more than any other category listed in the EJ Atlas. Of these documented conflicts, at least 260 are related to the extraction or processing of critical metals.60 This number of conflicts is fewer than those related to the extraction and processing of fossil fuels – with 279 documented oil conflicts, 212 for coal and 153 for gas. However, metal mining conflicts could well overtake fossil fuel-related conflicts if the extractive frontier expands in line with the aforementioned projections. In another mapping effort, The International Institute for Sustainable Development has overlaid data which indicates state fragility and perceptions of corruption with critical metal reserves across the globe in a mapping exercise of “green conflict minerals”.61

PROTEST TO DENOUNCE BRUMADINHO DISASTER IN RIO DE JANEIRO. CREDIT: RODRIGO S COELHO

18 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition Moving beyond extractivism to promote 6 a justice transition

Identifying causes of the crises: improvements. picking apart false narratives and This unquestioned faith in technology also underlying truths echoes the arrogance of the eurocentric, patriarchal and capitalist attitudes which In order to address the systemic causes of have helped form the extractivist and these crises, we have to come to a collective colonial rationale for centuries. understanding of what these causes are. The second framing mistakenly places Misleading narratives abound, while some an emphasis on the role of population fundamental truths remain at the margins growth in understanding the causes of of the dominant story of what has generated environmental impact, and in doing so these intersecting crises of inequality and reproduces a troubling and dangerous ecological breakdown. narrative. This narrative, places blame on population growth in the regions that Challenging neocolonial have little-to-no historical responsibility for narratives within eurocentric the ecological crisis, and where levels of environmentalism consumption per capita are significantly lower than in the Global North. Suggestions The greatest factor in human impact that these growing populations are a cause on ecosystems and planetary ecology is for concern emerge from and promote, economic growth. While improvements in technological efficiency help reduce the intentionally or not, a narrative that is material and energetic intensity of economic rooted in racism, colonialism and horrific activity, these improvements have not eugenicist policies which have been succeeded in bringing about an absolute manifest in xenophobic migration laws, reduction in impact due to the rapid pace of forced sterilisation and genocide. Women of economic growth. colour, particularly in the Global South, are those who have suffered most from these Yet, this reality is often obscured by two forms of violence. dangerous discursive and conceptual trends within mainstream, eurocentric, pro- The global ecological crisis has not capitalist environmentalism. primarily been brought about by a growing population; it is the responsibility of the The first, places a ‘gospel’-like62 blind faith excess of the world’s wealthiest and the in constant improvements in eco-efficiency largest corporations that consume a vastly and the ability of these improvements to disproportionate share of energy and non- significantly offset the negative impact renewable common ecological goods. of increased consumption in the Global North. This narrative draws attention Both of these dangerous narratives away from the politically and historically- leave the assumption that GDP must rooted systems at the heart of extractivism increase indefinitely unquestioned, even and climate change, and relies on highly in regions where consumption is already contested assumptions about the viability excessive. These notions are manifest in of decoupling. The work of Ward et al. the implicit and explicit assumptions of (2016)63 is one of many rigorous critiques many researchers who have modeled the of the belief in the ability to achieve metal demand and resource consumption absolute decoupling through efficiency patterns cited earlier in this paper. No single

19 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition INDISPENSABLE EXTRACTION depend on placing these boundaries on the is a concept articulated by Eduardo extractive industries. Gudynas which proposes only the A proposal for an energy cap65 at the extraction of resources necessary to European level, developed by the Resource ensure wellbeing, while operating Cap Coalition, is one example of a policy- within ecological limits. oriented move towards a more structural RESOURCE SUFFICIENCY is a approach to addressing the excess consumption of energy and materials in similar vision based on equity and the Global North and among the world’s wellbeing within ecological limits, wealthiest. this concept is explored thoroughly in a report64 by Friends of the Earth Such a cap must go hand-in-hand with a Europe. shift away from the use of GDP growth as an indicator of wellbeing and progress.

What can be considered just projection thus far has cited models for an demand? absolute decrease in energy consumption In relation to the points made above, a key in the Global North. The lack of such studies question emerges: for whom and what will reflects an inability or unwillingness to this demand serve? imagine a world where ecological limits and social justice take precedent over Are the demand projections aimed at sustaining and expanding the excessive, the arbitrary value attached to economic 66 growth. These assumptions monopolise imperial mode of living experienced by the what is considered possible and leave us world’s wealthiest? with the limited non-solutions mentioned in To raise a more specific question: is it the first section of this paper. reasonable, just or necessary to deploy an estimated one billion electric vehicles67 in Establishing limits the decades to come? Will most of these vehicles be privately owned, rather than Collective ambition needs to extend beyond dedicated to public transport or other vital the demands to place limits on greenhouse services? Will most of them be used in the gas emissions. Clear limits must be set Global North? on the extractivist model as a whole. The livelihoods, rights and cultural survival of This is particularly relevant because the thousands of frontline communities– and electric vehicle industry is projected to the integrity of countless ecosystems – be by far the largest driver of lithium and

REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION FROM INSTITUTE FOR SUSTAINABLE FUTURES, UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY. THE FULL FIGURE CAN BE SEEN ON PAGE 18 OF THE REPORT: https://earthworks.org/cms/assets/uploads/2019/04/MCEC_UTS_Report_lowres-1.pdf

20 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION FROM INSTITUTE FOR SUSTAINABLE FUTURES, UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY. THE FULL FIGURE CAN BE SEEN ON PAGE 16 OF THIS REPORT: https://earthworks.org/cms/assets/uploads/2019/04/MCEC_UTS_Report_lowres-1.pdf cobalt usage. As discussed earlier, these two compounds and elements from any kind of metals are projected to experience the most anthropogenicstocks, including buildings, severe supply shortages. infrastructure, industries, products (in and out of use) […] The stocked materials may Solutions: the material represent a significant source ofresources, with concentrations of elements often Even with a decrease in consumption in the 68 comparable toor exceeding natural stocks.” Global North and the implementation of Urban mining’s role in offsetting primary mechanisms for the global redistribution of demand is growing and has significant wealth and energy access, some metals will potential to reduce primary demand. be needed to meet the demands of energy One of the challenges facing this emerging justice and energy democracy mentioned sector is the lack of data and mapping in the first section of this paper. Given this of above-ground metal stocks. The material reality, structural transformations International Resource Panel, part of the of power relations must be coupled with United Nations Environment Programme, alternative material sourcing strategies. published a report in 2010 compiling previous studies of metal stocks from Urban mining around the world. The report highlights the Urban mining is an approach to secondary lack of available data; it reveals the need sourcing which actively seeks to repurpose for better accounting of above-ground above-ground metal stocks by “reclaiming stocks and the vast disparities among the

21 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition per capita concentrations of different metal Solutions: the social stocks from region to region. The issues at the heart of the climate crisis Prospecting Secondary raw materials in the and extractivist model are fundamentally Urban mine and Mining wastes (PROSUM)69 rooted in social relations of power, injustice is a Europe-wide initiative aimed at and inequity. A truly just transition must improving the available knowledge of above- transform these dynamics by empowering ground metal stocks. It is vital to support those who have been systematically this project and similar initiatives around dispossessed and limiting the destructive the world in an effort to reduce primary power of corporations and political actors demand. who seek to maintain the status quo.

Circular economy and end-of-life Solidarity with communities There are substantial economic, technical resisting mega-mining and regulatory challenges to achieving the Around the world, communities are rising highest potential rates of metal recycling. up and pushing back the frontiers of A 2013 publication by the International 72 73 70 extractivism. From Colombia to Finland, Resource Panel outlines many of these 74 75 from South Africa to Spain, there are challenges, as does the ISF-UTS report thousands of documented cases of people prepared for Earthworks. defending their water, land and livelihoods, A key step to overcoming these challenges and too often being forced to risk their lives lies in developing strong regulatory and freedom in the process. frameworks which oblige industry to take These communities, and the movements responsibility for the end-of-life of their that have developed to support them, best products. The EU’s Waste Electrical and understand the challenges and solutions Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) to the conflicts they face. The first step in passed in 2003, marks a step, although supporting these affected communities is incomplete and imperfect, in this direction. to listen to the specific demands and visions The cost of recycling is expected to decrease they hold, which are diverse, specific to by roughly 15% over the coming decades, context and vary widely within and among while the cost of mining is expected to communities. increase by approximately 10%. Additionally, This report is not framed in a way that recycling is more labour-intensive and clearly centres the voices of those most less capital-intensive than mining.71 impacted. However, the work of London These characteristics make recycling less Mining Network, Yes to Life, No to Mining favourable than mining to the interests and their member organisations, among of investors, yet more favourable for many other organisations and networks, generating employment, and of course to offer concrete models of solidarity that those impacted by the mining industry. prioritise and are guided by those most Relating to the secondary metal stocks affected. mentioned above, it will be necessary to redistribute above-ground stocks of metals Calling the bluff on mining more equitably around the world in order companies: they don’t have for a circular economy to be viable globally, solutions, communities do not just in the regions where there are already high concentrations of above- The greenwashing power of the critical ground stocks to feed this circular system. metal-transition narrative pushed by

22 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition mining companies, international financial institutions and even progressive governments, poses a real threat to frontline communities. Our collective ability to challenge and invert this narrative is a key element in the movement towards a post-extractivist world. Communities and peoples whose livelihoods and identities are intrinsically linked to their territories are not only holding back the extractive frontier, their livelihoods and worldviews point the way beyond and outside of extractivism. Defending, celebrating and learning from76 (without appropriating, romanticising or essentialising) the great plurality of non- extractivist ways of living and knowing must be at the heart of overcoming these intersecting socio-ecological crises. Extractivism has gone, and continues to go, hand-in-hand with epistemicide. Breaking out of the extractivist framework also requires us to fight against a singular, universal understanding of wellbeing and how we define and value ways of knowing.

ATACAMA DESERT, CHILE - ‘TERRITORY THREATENED BY COPPER AND LITHIUM MINING. CREDIT: DELPIXE

EPISTEMICIDE is the systemic destruction of knowledge systems. This has occurred on a massive scale as an integral part of the violence and imposition of European colonialism.77

23 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition CONCLUSION

COMMUNITIES AFFECTED BY THE SAMARCO DISASTER MARCH ALONG THE BASIN OF THE RIO DOCE ONE YEAR AFTER THE EVENT THAT CAUSED BRAZIL’S WORST EVER ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER. CREDIT: ISIS MEDEIROS, JORNALISTAS LIVRES

There is a collective responsibility, those affected. The rising tide of resistance particularly among NGOs working on from the edges to the centre of the climate and energy issues, to take the extractivist model will make it challenging, greenwashed framing out of the hands of if not impossible, to extract the volumes of mining companies and their promoters. We metals cited in the second section of this must reiterate the simple truth that these report. companies are structured solely to generate A full and rapid transition away from fossil profits – the way in which they achieve this fuels is desperately needed, but it will not is ultimately extraneous to fulfilling this succeed, nor will it bring about justice or objective. Claims to respect the rights or ecological wellbeing if it is predicated on wellbeing of those affected and to consider indefinite economic growth among the environmental impacts holistically are often world’s wealthiest and persistent inequality hollow, and have only come about through globally. The damage that would be brought decades and centuries of resistance by on by the scale of projected material workers, affected people and their allies. extraction to meet the demands of growth Voluntary frameworks and industry-friendly would be deleterious to the aims of the certification schemes risk propping up the transition. extractive industries, and have the potential A transition rooted in justice will only come to create schisms between NGOs, frontline about hand-in-hand with the redistribution communities and their allies. Instead, of energy and material access, decreased binding mechanisms which defend the consumption among the world’s wealthiest, rights of affected people and limit the power and the systemic transformations needed of corporations must be a key part of the to tackle the root causes of our intersecting way forward. social and ecological crises: the persistence The mining industry is aware of the popular of colonial, patriarchal and capitalist power opposition it faces, and often struggles to relations. obtain the ‘social license to operate’ from

24 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition RECOMMENDATIONS

These recommendations align with the most Parallel to these serious gaps and failures progressive calls for a Global Green Deal in corporate accountability policy are the for People.78 This plan will seek to deliver a legal, political and economic tools which major step change in the current discourse have been designed for corporate actors to around the climate crisis. It will open up the pay less tax, be less transparent, have the political space for other policy solutions as power to sue sovereign states and to finance the axis of debate and solutions shifts. It will private and state security for their benefit. propose a set of transformational policy demands that are easy to communicate, Recommendations that can engage movements and • NGOs and social movements organisations and start to populate the new – advocate for a meaningful wave of climate politics. The breadth and Binding Treaty on Transnational ambition of these recommendations reflect Corporations and Human Rights the radical and systemic changes needed to at the UN to create binding and address these crises in a holistic and justice- enforceable mechanisms to hold oriented way. transnational corporations to This section highlights inspiring policies, account for corporate crimes and campaigns and movement strategies, rights violations. Example: Global 79 which embody “non-reformist reforms” Campaign to Reclaim Peoples’ aimed at facilitating structural change. Sovereignty, Dismantle Corporate These recommendations first present Power and Stop Impunity80 major challenges, gaps and failures in • NGOs and social movements – current policy and practice, and then offer campaign for a new public duty to suggestions for new policy and action to be imposed on the extractive and address these failures. They should be fossil fuel sectors to tackle inequality understood as indications of directions and contribute a ‘fair share’ of the to explore, rather than a definitive set of effort to prevent a breach of 1.5°C. demands. Similarly, the examples cited Example: Climate Damages Tax81 serve to offer a sense of possibility and precedent, rather than to be necessarily • State actors and multilateral interpreted as ideal models for policy. institutions – end the use of investor state dispute settlement (ISDS) courts: this mechanism in trade STOPPING CORPORATE POWER deals has enabled corporations to sue countries for pushing any The power and influence of corporations, kind of regulation that places their particularly multinationals, is a threat to both (projected) profit in danger, including social justice and ecological wellbeing. The environmental and financial need for effective and binding mechanisms regulations. These corporate courts to ensure the respect of human rights, and are a key obstacle to governments the lack of an international justice system to being able to adopt transformative hold transnational corporations to account policy changes to energy, food and for crimes has created a vacuum in which resource extraction. Example: Stop corporations can act with near impunity. ISDS campaign82

25 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition Corporate power and face displacement and lost livelihoods. The accountability in the UK context damage done to the rest of the living world, to waterways and soils, and to the profound London bears a unique historical connections many affected communities responsibility as a former colonial seat have with their territory are incalculable. The of power and today as a global centre of model of industrial mining is predicated on finance. Most of the world’s biggest mining displacing the costs of operation onto the companies, and many smaller mining state, other economic sectors, communities companies, are listed on the London Stock and ecosystems. Any attempt to internalise Exchange, and its Alternative Investment the cost of these damages helps bring this Market (AIM). The mining industry’s key unjust reality into the quantifiable language lobbying organisation, the International of cost, which regulators, companies and Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) is also investors are accustomed to, and to which based in London. So are the world’s most they react and make decisions upon. important metals price fixing mechanism, the London Metal Exchange, and the Recommendations leading precious metals trader, the London Bullion Market Association (LBMA). The • State actors – implement a UK Government often gives UK-based mechanism that can ensure the mining companies diplomatic support maintenance of tailings storage overseas, even when their activities face facilities and the treatment of opposition and are known to cause harm to wastewater from acid mine communities and ecosystems. drainage; this mechanism could be funded through a duty imposed • State actors and the London Stock on mining companies. Example: Exchange – introduce a duty on all implementation of the proposed companies to prevent human rights requirements for the hardrock abuses and an offence of failure mining industry under section to prevent human rights abuses 108b of the Comprehensive for all companies, including parent Environmental Response, companies, similar to relevant Compensation,85 and Liability Act provisions of the Bribery Act (CERCLA) in the US and chapters 83,84 2010. 2.6, 4.1 and 4.2 of the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance INTERNALISING EXTERNALITIES (IRMA) standard86

The activities of mining companies harm • State actors and multilateral institutions – manufacturers must communities and ecosystems in deep and be made responsible for the afterlife often irreversible ways. Nearly all of this of their products. More rigorous damage is external to the cost calculations regulation for manufacturer end- of a mining project. Negative impacts of-life responsibility is needed to include: the state and communities are often ensure that recycling becomes a left with the costs of increased healthcare viable practice for all metals, market provision for workers and other affected dynamics and innovation alone people; the local, regional and national will not be sufficient.Example: a economy suffers the loss of productivity broader and more rigorous version and competitiveness in non-extractive of the EU’s WEEE Directive87 sectors; and those directly affected often

26 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition • Investors – challenge companies others’ work with mining-affected on the basis that investor risk is not communities properly accounted for – litigation, • Social movements, NGOs, state community resistance and future actors and multilateral institutions regulation could result in greater – implement binding mechanisms risk. Investments in areas where to ensure the right of communities mining projects face resistance or to determine the future of their are unlikely to comply with urgently territories. Example: Right to Say No needed improvements in regulatory to Mining Campaign in South Africa standards should be considered 92 and the Popular Consultation in re-evaluated. Example: class-action 93 Colombia lawsuit brought by BHP investors in Australian court following the • State actors – respect customary and Samarco disaster88 indigenous land rights, and restore lands dispossessed through colonial SOLIDARITY WITH COMMUNITIES and neocolonial land-grabs. • State actors – ensure access to water At the heart of a transition rooted in justice as a fundamental right; water for is the need to ensure that the people most domestic and agricultural use should affectedby extractive projects have the right always be prioritised over extractive to determine their future, the nature of their and industrial activities. livelihoods, their right to remain in their territories, to have access to clean water, air • State actors – devolve the and soils, to not be forcibly displaced and responsibility for the management not suffer the multiple forms of violence of subsoil resources to regional, that mega-mining entails. local and/or customary governance structures. Around the world, communities and the alliances they form have been leading the • State actors – promote non- way89 in making these rights a reality, with, extractivist economies, diversify or in most cases without the support of the economic activity and the public state. revenue base. Example: conclusions This work goes hand-in-hand with the from the report “Development alternatives in Peru’s mining strengthening of non-extractivist livelihoods 94 that are already well-established or regions” emerging as new alternatives. Ensuring the • State actors and multilateral economic and political conditions for these institutions – ensure context- livelihoods to thrive must happen alongside specific protection measures for with the struggle to stop the expansion of environmental and human rights extractivism. defenders and social leaders being threatened and killed for their Recommendations opposition to extractive projects. • NGOs – build links of solidarity with those most directly affected; allow JUSTICE, EQUITY AND the demands and vision of those REDISTRIBUTION on the frontline guide strategies and agendas. Example: London The overwhelming majority of climate Mining Network,90 WoMin,91 among campaigning currently focuses on the

27 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition rejection of dirty energy. Many of the world’s eliminating excessive and poorest people are rightly demanding that disproportionate consumption they are provided with access to energy and promoting decentralised as the foundation to realise their right to energy systems. Example: Labour’s a dignified life. In the global South, three proposal to bring the UK’s national billion people currently lack access to grid back into public ownership electricity and clean cooking, and many while ensuring access for all, governments are under pressure to meet decentralizing management and these demands. This lack of energy access decarbonising97 is just one dimension of a much broader set • State actors and multilateral of inequities and injustices that are bound institutions – develop mechanisms up with the systemic causes of the climate for global redistribution so that crisis, and condition how the impacts of states, by levying duties on the an increasingly destablised climate are extractives and fossil fuel sectors, experienced by those most affected. A pay their fair share98 to finance transition rooted in justice must create the the development of energy and conditions for everyone to live a dignified 95 transport infrastructure necessary life. to meet the demands of a justice An alternative pathway is technically transition.99 and financially viable, it simply lacks • Multilateral institutions – apply a the necessary political will. The need framework of differentiated and to transform the energy system, from historic responsibility100 to metal extraction, production and delivery is crucial. stocks and create mechanisms However, to shift an economy powered and for redistribution of these stocks; built on fossil fuel extraction to one powered this is necessary in ensuring viable by renewable energy will require industrial circular economies throughout the policy and external intervention in the world, not just in regions which energy market. The rapid transformation of have accumulated disproportionate the energy system within the timeframe for secondary metal stocks. 1.5°C requires reframing energy as a public good, and for a global plan to build energy • NGOs and researchers – develop alternatives. A people-owned decentralised new models and projections based energy system remains the only viable on scenarios of greater equity option that can meet energy demands and justice in the distribution of whilst also addressing energy poverty, both wealth, energy access and resource in the global North and South. Democratic consumption to more accurately ownership models are an essential part of illustrate the material demands of a the new energy systems needed. transition rooted in justice.

Recommendations • State actors – guarantee public transit for all. Example: free municipal public transit96 • State actors – treat energy as a public good, not a commodity - guarantee access for all, while

28 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition ANNEX:

Recommended reading on extractivism, frontline impacts of metal mining and strategies of resistance

Lithium in Argentina: Lithium extraction in Argentina: a case study on the social and environmental impacts by FARN101

Cobalt in Katanga, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Cobalt blues by SOMO102

Deep Sea Mining in the Pacific: Publications Collection by Deep Sea Mining Campaign103

Rare earth elements in Inner Mongolia, China: Short Circuit by the Gaia Foundation104

Copper in Chile: Living Under Risk by War on Want and CATAPA105

Copper in Zambia: Copper with a cost by Swedwatch106

Copper in Bougainville: Growing Bougainville’s Future: Choices for an Island and its peoples by Jubilee Australia107

Women, Gender and Extractives: Publications Collection One by WoMin108

Alternative Investment Market-listed companies: AIM-traded companies and human rights by London Mining Network109

Investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) cases in Latin America: Extraction Casino, Mining companies gambling with Latin American lives and sovereignty through supranational arbitration by Mining Watch Canada, Center for International Environment and Law, and the Institute for Policy Studies110

Regional analysis – Latin America: Conflictos mineros en América Latina: Extracción, saqueo y agresión - Estado de situación en 2018 by the Observatorio de Conflictos Mineros en América Latina (OCMAL)111

Regional analysis – Africa: Publication Collection Two by WoMin112

Inspiring stories of resistance and revival from around the world: Yes to Life, No to Mining emblematic case series113

29 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition REFERENCES

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32 A Just(ice) Transition is a Post-Extractive Transition Published September 2019

Researched and written by Benjamin Hitchcock Auciello

The author is especially grateful to Sebastián Ordoñez Muñoz, Hal Rhoades, Andy Whitmore, Asad Rehman, Diana Salazar, Richard Solly, Lydia James, Liz McKean, Ruth Ogier, Holly Blaxill, Steph O’Connell, Illary Valenzuela Oblitas and TJ Chuah for their input and support.

Report and infographic designed by Natalie Lowrey

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BACK COVER: ATACAMA DESERT, CHILE - ‘TERRITORY THREATENED BY COPPER AND LITHIUM MINING. CREDIT: LMSPENCER