Australian Educational Computing: Journal of the Australian Council for Computers in Education

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 365 284 IR 016 388

AUTHOR Nanlohy, Phil, Ed. TITLE Australian Educational Computing: Journal of the Australian Council for Computers in Education. Volume 8, Special Conference Edition. INSTITUTION Australian Council for Computers in Education, Brisbane. REPORT NO ISSN-0816-9020 PUB DATE Jul 93 NOTE 312p. AVAILABLE FROMNew South Wales Computer Education Group, Instructional Technology Centre, School of Education, MacQuarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 2109 ($30 Australian; more than 10 copies $15 Australian plus postage). PUB TYPE Collected Works Serials (022) Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021) JOURNAL CIT Australian Educational Computing; v8 Jul 1993

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC13 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adoption (Ideas); Business Education; *Computer Assisted Instruction; Computer Software; Educational Research; *Educational Technology; Electronic Mail; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; Hypermedia; National Surveys; Professional Associations; Science Education; Tables (Data); Teacher Education; Technological Advancement IDENTIFIERS Australia

ABSTRACT The 43 papers in this collection were presented at the Australian Council for Computers in Education1993 annual conference. The papers focus on research and scholarshipin the use of computers at the elementary, secondary, and highereducation levels. The papers address the following aspects of the useof computers in education: (1) theoretical issues such as telecommunications research. global literacy and cognitivemodeling; (2) computers and special groups including the disabled;(3) specific technologies, including virtual reality, multimedia,electronic mail, hypermedia, and hypertext; (4) topical applications such asbusiness, law, geology, geophysics, computer programming and computer simulations; (5) software packages and their uses; and(6) the use of computers in training and supporting teachers and theextent of teacher use of com,uters. The collection alsocontains a 1992 national survey on the integration of computers into theclassroom. Many of the articles are illustrated with graphs,tables, charts, or other graphics, and most papers contain references.(KRN)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can bemade from the original document. *********************************************************************** U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTEER ) r Thos document has been reproduced as received from the person Or organization ongmatong C Minor changes nave been made to improve Australian reoroCluCtson ouaiity

Points of view or oomoons slated in [MS doCu- n ent do not necessarily representofficial OE RI positron or policy ACCE wc114 Educational

Journal of the Australian Council for Computers in Education

Y AV LE BEST "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Phil Nanlohy A a TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Australian Educational is the journal of the Australian Australian for Computers in Education (ACCE). Subscription is complimentary to members of affiliated computer education groups. Correspondence All educational material including press releases, books and software, and other products for review should be sent to: The Editor Australian Educational Computing GPO Box 1669 Brisbane Q 4001 Journal of the Australian Council for Computers in Education ACCE Affiliated Groups ACS CEGSA Volume 8, Special Conference Edition July, 1993 PO Box 319 PO Box 116 Darlinghurst Kingswood SA 5062 NSW 2021 CESIGT CEANT PO Box 216 CONTENTS PO Box 41806 Sandy Bay Casuarina NT 0810Tasmania 7005 CEGACT CEGV Editorial iv PO Box 44 PO Box 1061 Barker Centre Richmond North ACT 2603 Victoria 3121 President's Report QSITE ECAWA GPO Box 1669 PO Box 297 Telecommunications Applications in Education: Brisbane Q 4001 Claremont WA 6010 A Research Taxonomy NSWCEG Betty Collis 1 Instructional Technology Centre School of Education Macquarie University Global Literacy in a Gutenberg Culture NSW 2109 Al Rogers 13 Advice to Contributors The editors welcome contributions in Increasing Self Esteem and Creativity of Peoplewith a the form of articles, letters, reports and reviews. Authors should ensure that Development Disability Through the use of their manuscripts conform to the Computer Technology Harvard bibliographic convention. All 19 manuscripts should be typewritten, Greg Alchin double-spaced on one side only of numbered pages. Figures, tables and Virtual Reality: Exploring the Potential graphics should be provided in camera 25 ready form. Photographs should be Ray Archee black and white rather than coloured. Authors should limit articles to a The Development of a Pictorial Database to Teach Plant maximum of 4000 words including an abstract of 100-150 words. Identification Nicholas Bailey and Jamie Pearson 31 Authors are asked to include a brief autobiographical statemen t and a passport sizephotograph. All material in this special A Spreadsheet System for Educational Use Based on conference edition of this publication Microsoft Excel carries an "educational copyright" and m ay only be reproduced where material is to Richard Beare 35 be used for non-profit educational purposes. Multimedia and monstrosities: Reinventing Refereed Section Computing in Schools Again? Authors who wish their articles to appear in therefereed section of thejoumal, should Chris Bigum, Bill Green, Lindsay Fitzclarence and provide three copies of the manuscript at Jane Kenway 43 least two weeks prior to thy: deadline for an edition. Employing Consultants to Retrain Business Studies Teachers Opinions expressed by contributors do 51 not necessarily represent the views of Greg Calvert the editors or the Australian Council for Computers in Education. The Australian Open Discourse Towards Enriched Computing Hther Council for Computers in Education does not endorse products or services Education Background for An Interpretive advertised in Australian Educational Action-Research Case Study Computing. Mark Campbell-Williams 55 Conference Edition Editor: Phil Nanlohy Students, Teachers and Electronic Mail: A Voyage of Design: Discovery into a New Wave of Educational Issues Linda Vogler ISSN 0816-9020 Pau; Chandler, Jeffrey Clement, Roland Gesthuizen, Glen Waverley and Aileen Hall, 61

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 So Now We Have A National K-12 Curriculum: CONTENTS Where do we go from here? George E. Duckett 67

Cognitive Modelling in Intelligent Tutoring: Individualising Tutorial Dialogue John H. Eklund 73

Enhancing Thinking Skills in Computer Supported Contexts Alison Elliot 81

Using Multimedia in Law Lectures Jay Forder & Mal Shinn 93

Hypermedia Technology as a Cross Curriculum Teacher Tool Neville Fraser 95

The Execution and Animation of Dataflow Diagrams as a Computer Aid to Learning Process Modelling Stuart Garner 103

Geological and Geophysical Modelling in the Classroom A.A.Geiro, M.W.Jessell, R.K.Valenta, G.Jung & J.P.Cull 109

An Introduction to CBL Authoring with Authorware Professional John Harvey 113

Constructing Knowledge and Organizing Information Michael Jay and Marge Cappo 117

Preparing Primary Teachers for the 21st Century Anthony J. Jones 123

Electronic Communication in Support of Teachers Ros Keep 129

Current Pre-service Teacher Education: Handicapping the Computer, The Teacher and The Student! lain Kelly and George E. Duckett 133

The Personal Computer as a Business Law Teaching Tool Richard G. Kunkel,J.D. 139

Teacher Change Philosophy and Technology Helen McDonald 149

Object Oriented Programming: Teaching Object Oriented Programming Using Eiffel and Software Engineering to Undergraduates Peter McKenzie 155

Computer Simulations: Do they have Merit? Allan Morton 161

Sunrise Research Laboratory: Ubiquitous Personal Computing - Can we 'see' how it's different? Liddy Nevi le 167

ii AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 4 Sunrise Research and the Lure of Experience CONTENTS Liddy Nevi le 173

Are Australian Classrooms Ready for Computers? Paul Newhouse 179

The Influence of Training on Beginning Teachers Use of Computers Ron Oliver 189 Information Retrieval from Interactive Multimedia Sources Ron Oliver & Lesa Perzylo 197

Using a Microcomputer-based Bulletin Board for Course Delivery and Student Communication in Distance Education John Pearson 205 Gender Equity Interpreting the Past: Implementing the Vision Gregory D. Preston 211

Computers in Australian Secondary Schools David Roberts and Peter Albion 217

Aspects of Gender and Computing Participation Glenn Russell 225

Computer Education or People Education? Graeme Salter 231

Changing Classrooms - A National Perspective: A National Survey on the Integration of Computers into Schools: Teachers' Current Practices and Experiences. Cathie Sherwood and Phil Buchanan 235

IT in Science Education - A Clouded Vision? Maurice Tebbutt 239

Hypertext and Learner Acceptance of Control: Learning Outcomes of Hypertext use. Denise Tolhurst 245 Call for articles Implications of the Studies of Experts and Novices for Readers are invited to contribute articles for future editions of this Teachers and Students of Computer Programming journal. Denise Tolhurst 255 Articles should be no longer that 4000 words and include an abstract of 100- Government Support of Computer Education in Schools and 150 words. Contributors are asked to provide a brief autobiographical Teachers' Confidence in the Use of Computers: A Report statement. Rob Walker 265

Have your say. Why not share your interest and Computers and Collaborative Interactions concerns about educational Kathy Watson 293 computing by writing a letter to the editor of Australian Educational Computing. The National Vision for Technology Education: Address all correspondence to: Do the Policy makers have a Crystal ball? The Editor Arna Wesley 301 Australian Education Computing GPO Box 1669 Brisbane Q 4001

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 iii Welcome to the ACEC'93 Confer- Both publications have been de- Following the call for papers and ence issue of Australian Educa- signed to be attractive and acces- the receipt of expressions of interest tional Computing. First, a thank sible.The covers focus on the a set of guidelines were sent to those you to all those who wrote or read people in whose benefit the papers who had responded. As part of the these papers and thus made this might be read. These publications call for papers people who were issue of the journal possible. Thisare meant to be used now and not prepared to act as referees were publication marks a departure put away for later reference. Ide- asked to nominate themselves to from previous conference pro- ally they will left on staffroom ta- the editor.This pool of "peers" ceedings. The Program committee bles for your colleagues to pick up were then sent one or more of the decided to divide all papers re- and browse. The bright colours submitted papers to review. They ceived into two publications. This might also help these publications werechosenbecauseof theirlcnown decision reflects our philosophy to stand out in a rack of serials or expertise or because of their geo- that th s national conferencenew books in your library. In this graphical proximity to an author. should be useful to a wide range of area of education information They were asked to discuss their educators who are interested in dates very quickly. The "use by" suggestions directly with the author educational technology. date is not long off.Please be of the paper they had read and to active in sharing these resources send a summary of their comments As far as possible the conference is with your peers.Copies of the to the editor. A list of the referees open to all in the educational journal will be sent to libraries appears at the end of this section of community who wish to sharearound the country. Additional the journal. The papers were then their experience with their peers. copies will be on sale from revised by their authors and sent to The conference sessions are limited NSWCEG at the address on the fly the editor. The Program committee only by available space. The pub- leaf. of myself, Leanne Samootin and lished papers were directed into Stanislaw Wawrzyniak next made two broad streams that are of an This journal is a refereed journal. final decisions as to which papers equal standard but which addressThe review of these papers was would be published and in which two different audiences.The different from the traditional document it was most appropriate Proceedings is made up of papers anonymous process where all to publish them. We believe that of a practical nature while this communication is mediated by the this is the best way to encourage co- edition of the Journal contains journal's editor.In view of the operative improvement in the "refereed" papers that report on collaborative philosophy of the original draft papers. research or scholarship. The Pro- conference, the intended audience ceedings are intended for class- for the papers and the publishing Finally I would like to thank the room practitioners who are mainly timeframe, a peer review process national editorial panel for their concerned with issues of practical was chosen by the Program com- generosity in allowing us to use the pedagogy. TheJournalis intended mittee.The rapidly developing journal for the publication of con- for whose who have more of an nature of this area of education ference papers. The layout of this analytical perspective on Infor-requires current information on publication is not up to their usual mation Technology. We firmly innovation and research if pub- excellent standard but our hope is believe that each audience will lished material is to retain any real that this special conference issue benefit fromtheothers relevance. will raise the profile of the journal understandings and so all confer- and encourage more of you to send ence participants will receive both more articles to them more often. documents.

iv 6 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 PRESIDENT'S REPORT

On tiie eve of the Eleventh Aus- The national conference is conducted My great concern is that people tralian Computers in Education each year on behalf of the Australian may start to believe that these two Conference I would like to con- Council for Computers in Education "major activity areas" for want of a sider an important matter with (ACCE) - the federation of all state better term, are mutually exclusive you. It is an exploration of an issue and territory professional associa- and that each has an audience that which is always with us but which tions. A host association organises will not tolerate or appreciate the is brought into clear focus at this theconference on behalf of the ACCE other. Are some trying to paint a time of the year. and in doing so helps the ACCE to picture of teachers as an unsophis- fulfil a number of its primary aims. (I ticated group of practitioners only The national conference is with us have outlined these in my column in concerned with day to day sur- again and, as has become custom- Australian Educational Computing vival issues ? What of academics? ary in recent years, it is a time to Vol . 8. No. I.) The conference is our Do they really exist in cloistered not only enjoy the fruits of the centrepiece - our yearly chance to surroundings not understanding labour of our generous hosts, this showcase the talents and achieve- the challenges facing those "at the year the New South Wales Com- ments of Australian educators chalkface"? I think not. The great puter Education Group, but also working with computers and related majority of people I have worked to reconsider our learned gather- information technologies. It also with in this area over the last dozen ing and its place in the Australian exists to provide us with a window or so years have been uniformly educational scene. Last year in to the rest of our region and the professional in their outlook, in- Melbourne we had spirited debate world at large. This window works terested in broad issues as well as concerning the current roles and both ways. We have the chance to the speci fic, and as such have drawn futuredirections of the ACEC. Had glimpse activities and trends from benefit from all aspects of repre- the institution of the national around the globe and compare them sentative conferences. I make no conference become tired and out- with our own circumstances, and, as distinction regarding the nature of dated? Was it too academically importantly, we have the opportu- their daily tasks when I judge them oriented? Had it become too nity to show our overseas colleagues my colleagues. I assume that in focussed on tech nological esoterica what we are capable of here. order to best appreciate and un- at the expense of grassroots cur- derstand the impact of informa- riculum issues? The national conference is not meant tion technologies on education we to be an enlarged version of the all must be prepared to consider Should questions like these be largely classroom-oriented confer- and have an interest in the broad- taken seriously? Are they to be ences and workshops that state as- est possible range of practical and dismissed with a wave of con- sociations run so well. Neither is it theoretical considerations. tempt? Are they to be nervously designed to be solely an academic sidestepped each year? No. In talkfest. It should and it must provide The national conference must seek addressing issues like these we the opportunity for educators work- to strike a balance in its program to perform the necessary exercises of ing directly with students to exam- cater for the needs and interests of self examination and review - ine the issues that relate to day to all delegates. All the conferences I critical steps if we are to continue day concerns. As well it must be have been associated with have providing a quality service to edu- prepared to provide a forum for "big striven to do this and Iam confident cators throughout the country. We picture" debate and the airing of that all in the future will do the must continue to re-examine the research findings. To have one with- same. ACEC 93 will no doubt be a nature and structure of our con- out the other would be to either define example of the type of quality ferences, their impact on the edu- value the activities of the classroom conference we are able to offer to cational scene and their ability to or dismiss the importance of aca- the Australian educational scene capture theZeitgeistas well as demic thought. Either of these fail- and will provide a forum which is provide a springboard for the fu- ings is unacceptable. both enlightening and stimulating ture. for computer education professionals -no matter where we spend our work days.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 JOURNAL REFEREES The following people have given Dr. John Harvey, Stan Wawrzyniak, freely of their time and expertiseThe University of Sydney Baulkha.rt Hills H.S. during the preparation of this Dr. John Hewitson Glenice Watson, document. The committee Prof John Hughes, Griffith University wishes to thank them for their Uni Technology Sydney Mark Williams, assistattce with this project. We Ros Keep, Edith Cowan University would also like to extend an ECAWA, Apple Centre Arna Wesley, appoiogy to anyone who Ass. Prof. Bruce Keepe,s, Loretto College assisted but whose name does The University of Sydney not appear below. Robin Mc Lachlan, ACEC'93 CONFERENCE COMMITTEE Charles Stuart University Greg Butler, Michael Arthur John Messing, UWS Macarthur Dr. Wing Au, Charles Stuart University Peter Dailhou, Uni of Newcastle Phil Nanlohy, Penrith Tech. in Ed. Centre Dr. Laurel Borholt, UWS Macarthur Leonie Fraser, The University of Sydney Liddy Neville, Miller Technology Centre Tony Brown, RMIT Neville Fraser, University of New England Dr. Ron Oliver, Macquarie University Greg Butler, Edith Cowan University Phil Nanlohy, UWS Macarthur Glen Patterson, UWS Macarthur Margaret Butterworth, DSE, North Coast Leanne Samootin, Edith Cowan University Graeme Salter, Baulkham Hills H.S. Marg Carss, UWS Macarthur Ted Sawyer, University of Queensland Leanne Samootin, Australian Catholic University Errol Chopping, Baulkham Hills H.S. Stan Wawrzyniak, Charles Stuart University Ken Sinclair, Baulkham Hills H.S. Dr Simon Cox, The University of Sydney Monash University Mr Geoff Romeo, SPECIAL CONFERENCE Dr. Kathryn Crawford, Mrs Susan Ing RESPONSIBIUTIES University of Sydney Ms Carolyn Dowling, Sally Blackwell, Hassell Grove P.S. Prof Donald Cunningham, Australian Catholic University Leigh Finney, Bald Face P.S. University of New England Newton Sigrist, Anne Irish, Macquarie Uni Toni Downes, Tas Dept of Ed & Arts Adrienne Sal lay, Drummoyne P.S. UWS Macarthur Prof Geoff Rohl Alan Slater, Hammondville P.S. George Duckett, Ur.i. Western Australia Paul Sweeney. Hoxton Park P.S. University of Tasminia Rodger McShane, Sue Tooth, Ingleburn H.S. Dr. Peter Eklund, Quill Consultancy Colin Wood, Colyton H.S. University of Adelaide Cathy Sherwood, Dr Allison Elliott, University of Queensland Sponsorship The University of Sydney Roderick Sims, This conference was sponsored by Greg Evans Uni Technology Sydney the companies whose add appear Peter Evans Dr Peter Taylor, in this publication. The committee Cheryl Fatouros, Curtin University would like to thank the sponsors UWS Macarthur Noel Thomas for their participation in ACEC'93. Andrew Fluck, Ass Prof Bill Ticehurst, Claremont College Uni Technology Sydney Eddie Gray

vi AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 CI 10 TELECOMMUNICATIONS APPLICATIONS IN EDUCATION: A RESEARCH TAXONOMY BY BETTY COLLIS

University of Twente Enschede, The Netherlands

INTRODUCTION cation, we thus develop a two-dimen- The implications of connecting people sional taxonomy for research activity to each other or to distant resources via in the domain. technology have been research focuses in the distance education community Such a taxonomy should serve more for a considerable time, but are becom- than categorization purposes. Its major ing more and more of interest through- value should come from its application out the broader educational commu- to the emergence of more-coordinated nity. Advances in computer and com- research activity in the domain area. Telecommunications munications technologies are now Thus the secondary purpose of this ar- applications in education making wide-area inter connectedness ticle is suggest how the ta xonomy could for communication and information be applied. One such way is to help are the subject of many handling increasingly feasible for prioritize research activities; we illus- different projects, learners and teachers.Research re- trate this through a series of hypoth- interventions, and lated to these possibilities is increasing eses relating to which types of inter- at a rate parallel to the escalation of ventions are most likely to have an research investigations. possible educa tional a pplications of this impact on which types of outcome In this article, the domain computer-mediated interconnected- measures in the domain. Another ap- for such applications is ness. The domain of this activity is still plication of the taxonomy is to suggest emerging and is far from well-defined. a global performance indicator against first defined and then a which the productivity of research ac- two-dimensional An immediate consequenceof this state tivity in the domain can be measured. taxonomy for research in of affairs is that research and experi- We also illustrate this possibility. ence in the area is difficult to collect the domain is suggested. and analyze. As was the case with the DEFINITIONS The taxonomy is used as a emergence of computer applications in Before we can go further, however, framework for hypotheses education a decade (or more) earlier, some definitions and delimitations are researchers are multi-disciplinary in necessary.First, the awkward term about the productiveness background and tend to approach the "computer-mediated interconnected- of different research investigation area through their own ness" must be defined, and exchanged focuses in the area. An frames of reference and with their own fora morecommonly understood term. vocabulary. This also complicates re- We will limit ourselves to the subset of "intermediate indicator" of search synthesis. telecommunications-mediated appli- increased usage of cations ineducationin whicha person telecommunications in PURPOSES OF THIS ANALYSIS teacher or learnersitting at his or her The major purpose of this analysis is to computer makes contact with a person educational practice as a suggest a pattern for conceptualizing or persons in other locations or with common performance research in the domain of telecommu- electronically stored resources in other indicator for different nications applications in education in geographically distant locations. For order to help better integrate the many simplicity, we will call this domain research activities is different research activities occurring "telecommunications applications in suggested and explained. in the area. After offering a overview of education." the domain under investigation, telecommunications applicationsedu-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 1 CONCEPTUALIZING THE RESEARCH DOMAIN Scale: Educational Purposes: There aremany ways in which a re- Communicate Work Together Share Find search domain could be conceptualized. Resources Information Our approach is to dit,ide research in One-to-One: E-mail E-mail File transfer. the domain of telecommunications- Document applications in education into twobroad sharing categories: one dealing directly with Small Group: E-mail. CSCW (Group- File transfer. the educational impact of such appli- Confercncing ware). Document cations and the other with strategies to CSCL. sharing Confereneing (eventually) facilitate the realization of the desired impact. By educational Larger Group: E-mail (Emery). BBS down- Institutional impact, we mean outcomes or results of Confcrcncing. and uploading data base the use of telecommunications, in terms BBS Forms. of files of educationally relevant measures. By News items facilitating, wz mean ways to intervene Many-to- System- On-line data in or help the telecommunications-use Central wide news bases (full Resource: text or situation so that the desired educational relational) results are more likely to occur.

CATEGORIZING IMPACT Figure 1. Educational applicationsof telecommunications, froma functional-How can "educationally relevant" out- technological perspective. comes for telecommunications applications be categorized?Although we Figure 1 shows a conceptualization of are sometimes the teachers and other could use the cells of Figure 1 as a the domain, with dimensions relating times the students and other times both framework, we believe that from an to the human scale of the telecommuni- in interaction. In reference to Figure 1, educational perspective, it is not the cations activities and to the educational for example, "small groups" could be technology which should be the focus function of the activities. teachers working together on a cur- of outcomes but rather performance riculum-development project, or adult indicators related to general educational By this definition, it should be noticed trainees in a company with branches at goals, thus to learning, to attitude, and that we have delimited the use of the different locations, or young students to the process of education. We suggest term telecommunications, so that we in two or more classrooms working on therefore the following as focuses for do not include television broadcasting a common research project. "One-to- measuring the impact of telecommuni- or video-conferencing or audio- One" could be, for example, two teach- Cations use in education: impact relative conferencing or FAX transmission or ers talking to each other about lesson to the individual student, impact rela- voice mail or other such communica- ideas, two young learners getting active to the teacher, and impact relative tion variations, even though of course, quainted with each other electronica lly, to society. This impact dimension will microcomputer technology is involved or a tutor and client in a distance-edu- be the first of the two dimensions of our in the variations. In our delimitation, cation setting. "Large Group" could be proposed taxonomy of the research from the user's point of view, he or she course members in a distance educa- domain for telecommunications appli- is sitting at the keyboard of a personal tion program or could be a group of cations in tducation. Table 1 shows this computer. professionals, such as science teachers, first aspect of the research taxonomy. interacting informally (see, for exam- Following the table, the categories are Finally, we will focus on education ple, Ruopp, Gal, Drayton, and Pfister, discussed in more detail. broadly, to include not only school- 1993, for a description of the "LabNet" level sectors but also higher education, community). STUDENT-RELATED OUTCOMES professional education, training, and Based on our analysis of the research non-formal education. Thus we will In concise terms, then, how can we literature (Collis, 1992a) we can expand use the terms ",eachers" and "students" categorize research about telecommu- the points mentioned in Table 1 as stu- for simplicity, but relative to the typeof nications applications in education? dent outcomes into eight categories of educational setting involved, we real- How can we use this categorization to results, Although sometimes the cat- ize terms such as "trainees" or "learn- suggest a action-oriented research egories overlap. Many different studies ers" and "tutors" "instructors", "in- agenda in the domain? could be cited as examples of each of the structional materials providers" or categories; we list one or two per cat- "trainers" would sometimes be more egory as representative. appropriate. Also those involved in telecommunications-mediated activities

2 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 12 AFFECTIVE: 7. Enjoyment and Motivation, where it is assumed that increases will transfer Categorizingthe Impact of Educational Uses of Telecommunications to better learning or at least to better work habits leading in turn to better On Students: (in Teachers On Society learning (D'Souza, 1992; Teles & Duxbury, 1991). -Content-related learning -Changes in instructional -More equiiable access to educational oppt..nunitics (faster, more, better) Jeff s cry 8. Other Affective Results, a diffuse More llexible acc.ess to -General technological -Enhanced proiessionali.rn category with outcomes such as in- literacy relevant educational creased appreciation of the scientific -Increased el ficienc opportunities method or of cultural differences and -Process-related growth (communication skills, similarities among fellow on-line information handling skills, learners (Kearsley, Hunter, & Furlong, cooperation skills) 1992, pp. 45-62; Ruopp, Gal, Drayton, & Pfister, 1993, see in particular pp. -Attitudes 227-244).

Teacher-Related Outcomes. Under the grouping, "teacher-related outcomes", we see three major categories of results, Table again occasionally overlapping: LEARNING-RELATED: 1. Content-Related Learning, where the Underwood, 1990). Usually, general 9. Changes in Instructional Style, where measure is improved subject-area con- literacy is assumed to have been the outcome is that the teacher adopts tent learning (more, or faster, or of a achieved if the student has had some new strategies for instructional organi- higher level) than what would be likely experiences in using a target technol- zation and delivery (Hunter, 1990; U.S. to occur with instructional methods ogy (Anderson & Collis, 1993). Congress, Office of Technology As- not involving telecommunications. sessment, 1989, pp. 87-107). The as- (Krendl & Fredin, 1985; Riel, 1989) PROCESS-RELATED: sumption is usually that such change is 4. Improved Communication Skills, v irable. 2. Content-Related Enrichment, where where the measure is in terms of lan- the measure is more in terms of what is guage-use growth rather than of spe- 10. Enhanced Professionalism, where inadeavailable to the student--a richer, cific achievement outcomes and where the outcome relates to the teacher hav- deeper, broader, range of learning communication in a second language ing more professional contact with his stimuli than is likely to occur with in- is often a particular issue (Levin, 1985; or her peers, more access to different structional methods not involving tel- Scott, 1988). professional materials, more discus- ecommunications (Irving, 1991; Stuve, sions with colleagues, and a broader 1991). With such enriched learning 5. Improved Information-Handling awareness of the field (Kimmel, Kerr, possibilities, it appears to be generally Skills, where the measures again are of & O'Shea, 1987; Riel, 1990). assumed that students will take intel- growth and increased maturity as well lectualadva nta ge of the enriched range as of increase in specific skills and effi- 11. Increased Efficiency, where the of possibilities available to them and ciency in the use of those skills measure is that the teacher can do vari- that in consequence improved learning ( Bingham, 1992; Grice,Galbrait h,Carss, ous educational tasks more quickly or will occur. Endean, & Warry, 1990). easily or cheaply so that more time or resources are available for "quality" 3. General Literacy, where the measure6. Improved Skills in Cooperation and educational interactions. (Kearsley, is improved awareness of and general Collaborative Work, where outcome Hunter, & Furlong, 1992). facility with telecommunications-me- measures are hard to define but where diated applications. As with computer- it frequently is assumed that the fact of SOCIETY-RELATED OUTCOMES. literacy learning goals of the previous participation in collaborative activities Under this grouping we put out- decade, the belief that students should is so likely to lead to other desirable comes relevant to larger patterns of acquire familiarity with the full range educational outcomes that the partici- educational opportunity. In particu- of socially utilized information tech- pation becomes a goal in itself (Brienne lar we see outcomes relative to the nologies now includes expectations & Goldman, 1988; Durfee, Lesser, & following social perspectives: about telecommunications (Anderson Corkill, 1990). & Collis,1993; Underwood &

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 3 19 12. Reducing Inequities in Educational Opportunity, with outcomes related Summary of Results from 42 Studies Relating to "Telecommunications Use in Secondary to reducing discrepancies in educa Education tional access and possibility caused by geography or other demographical I. Content-Related characteristics of the potential learner Eastman, (1986) 2. Content-Related, Enrichment (Denton, 1992; U.S. Congress, Office of Cohen & Miyake. (1986) Technology Assessment, 1989, pp. 135- Bowers. (1989) 151). 3. General literacy Lenardon. (1989) Swanson, (1989) 13. More Flexible Access to Relevant Archer. (19891 Educational Opportunities, in terms of 4. Improved Communication Skills time of delivery, forms of participa- Hoffman. (1989) Riedl. (1986) tion, and choice of activity (Cade, 1992; Meyer. (1990) Longworth, 1988). This is believed to Renwick, (1990) be important to increasing relevance, Cohen & Ricl, (19891 Galvin. (1987) choice, and participation in educational Reed, (1989) activities, which in turn is expected to Lcmp. (19881 lead to desirable learning outcomes. Schwartz. (19861 Caftan. (19810 AndresSyer. ((987a. (9147h) APPLYING THE IMPACT CATEGORIZA- Cohen & Miyake. (1986) TION TO RESEARCH IN THE DOMAIN 5. Improved Information-llandling Skills Eastman. (1986) In Table 2 we reanalyse data from an Teague, Teague. & S1archunum, n 1986i earlier research summary (Collis,1990) Cohen & Miyake. (1986) in which mo*e than 30 studies relating Goldberg. (1988) 6. Improved Skills in Cooperation and Collaborative Work to telecommunications application in Rogers. Cowick. & Powell. (1989) secondary education weresynthesized. Galvin. (1987) The table shows that the results in these Rancho. (1990) studies were more related to Outcome 7. Enjoyment and Motivation Edybum, (1987) Categories 4 and 7 of the above list Teague, Teague, & Marchionim. (1986) than they were to the other outcomes. Barden, (1989) Rogers, Cowick, & Powell, (1987) Hoffman, (1989) A similar analysis of 13 telecommuni- Wilson. (1990) cations projects in Dutch secondary Galvin. (1987) education (Collis & De Vries, 1991) Andres-Sycr. (1987a, 1987h. 1988) TERC, (1987) showed similar results, with the fol- Douglass. (1990) lowing results per category: Outcome S Other Affective Results Categories 1 and 10 (one time each); Bajard, (1989). ("Students learned that them are two sides to every issue. Students wanted Outcome Categories 2, 3, and 4 (two to hear from the other side "1 Vlahakis. (1990). ("Learning much alxiut each other's cultures, to make this world a times each); and Outcome Category 7 peaceful place to live ") (six times). Again student motivation TERC, (1987), ("Empower students to engage in the work of scientists and explore and enjoyment were the most fre- questions of importance.") quently mentioned results. 9 Change in Teaching Style Within these 13 kinds of impact out- 10 Change in Professional Habits comes, we can see further subdivisions Adam & Mackie. (1989) Marshak. (19891 with respect to educational research. Moon, (1988) In particular, we note that for each of AndresSyer. (1987h) the 13 categories, the results were more Schmidt. )1988I often "expected to occur" or "perceived II Increased Efficiency to have occurred" than they were of measured outcomes. Many studies are 12 Reducing Inequities in Educational Opportunity a hybrid of two types of results ("ex- 13 Making the Provision of Educational Opportunities More Flexible pected to occur" and "perceived to Gunn. (1989) have occurred"), are highly descriptive Mome. (1989) in nature, and focus on what happened in the organization and execution of Adapted from Colli,. (9'%) some on-line activity. The assumption

4 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL. COMPUTING, JULY 1993 appears to be that the process of pro- Collis, 1992b; Cohen & Miyake, 1986, ronment, and the types of information viding various on-line activities to stu- and Riel & Levin, 1990). More explic- and communication available through dents will to lead to impact goals, even itly, many research studies focus di- the on-line environment. Although lit- if the goals are not directly addressed rectly on what might be called facilitat- tle has been written about the data or progress toward them measured. ing factorscharacteristics of the tel-communications software that the Further analysis of the studies in Table ecommunications-use situation thatareteacher or student uses to mediate on- 2 and the 13 Dutch projects (Collis & of interest in that they are assumed to line activities, some research is being De Vries, 1991) showed that only six of directly or eventually lead to better done (see Soepboer, 1992, and De Vries these projects supported their results realization of the desired educational Si Collis, 1993). There is more research with an objective form of measured impact of on-line activities. available about the user interface of effectiveness data. The remainder specialized on-line systems, such as based their statements of outcomes on Thus we propose that research into those for on-line information systems the perceptions of the researcher or the these so-called "impact facilitators" has (Horton,1990);forcomputer teachers involved. come to form a second major category conferencing (Alexander, 1991); for of types of educational research relat- "groupware" (software to facilitate the As a general summary of the impact ing to telecommunications applications exchange and sharing of information literature with respect to telecommu- in education. We will thus make this and ideas among learners involved in nications in education (see also kind of research the second dimension cooperative tasks over a distance, see Wellbum, 1992), we think it is fair to in our proposed taxonomy of research Marca & Bock, 1992); and for compu- say: relating to telecommunications in edu- ter-mediated communication of the e- cation. mail sort (Samis, 1992). In all cases, the 1. There is strong expectation of sub- assumption is that, through improved stantial educational impact from tel- MICRO- MESO-, AND MACRO-LEVEL software, users will find it easier to use ecommunications use, in each of the 13 FACILITATORS theon-line environments efficiently and categories suggested by Table 1. The impact facilitators can be catego- effectively, thus leading to eventual in- rized in many ways. We choose not to crease in impact performance indica- 2. There is enthusiasm for telecommu- map them directly on to the 13 catego- tors. nications activities among those who ries of impact outcomes (see Table 1) participate in them, particularly for but instead to use the idea of micro-At the system-functionality level, re- communications-oriented activities. level, meso-level, or tnacro-level inter- search is also being done to identify ventions (see Pelgrum & Plomp, 1991, which on-line functions, organized in 3. Measuring the educational impact fora conceptualization of these levels). what ways, are most useful for educa- of telecommunications activity is ap- By "micro-level" we the actual on-line tional purposes. Palme (1991), for ex- parently difficult to do, or considered learning environments themselves. By ample, has made such an analysis for unnecessary, in that objective meas- "meso-level" we mean the persons, computer conferencing; Doyen and urement of educational payoff occurs events and materials that surround the Wheeler (1989) for on-line information infrequently. When measurement does actual use of telecommunications for retrieval; and Collis, De Dia na, and Sterk occur, it is most likely to relate to affec- an educational purpose. By the "macro- (1992) for communication and infor- tive variables. (Collis & De Vries, 1991, level", we mean those policies andmation systems for education more 1992) practices outside of the actual on-line generally. Again, the motivation for use that influence that use. We next such research is to facilitate as much as FACILITATING IMPACT give examples of research concerning possible the micro-level aspects of on- In almost all of the studies mentioned each of these levels. We will also note line use so that the user is helped and above, as well as in many other exam- for each of the levels of facilitators some stimulated, not hindered or frustrated ples, the research reports contain not critical factors that form baseline con- by the human-computer interaction in- only some comments about impact ex- ditions for telecommunications use to volved in on-line activities. pectations and (perceived) outcomes, occur. Without these conditions being but also an analysis of what factors met, it is unlikely that impact outcomes The content that should be available influenced the level of impact that was will have a chance to emerge (Collis & via on-line access to information is also achieved. Typically, at least some of De Vries, 1991, 1992). a research area (see, for example, Van the anticipated outcomes did not Beckum & Van Der Burg, 1992). Those emerge. Most studies then make rec- RESEARCH ABOUT MICRO-LEVEL who favour on-line communication as ommendations for how subsequent FACILITATORS. the major aspect of telecommunications researchers and practitioners can bet- Micro-level facilitators can relate to the use are not as much affected by this ter facilitate the desired impact out- software with which the user interacts issue as are those who wish to access comes from telecommunications use while on-line, the user interface of the educationally relevant learning mate- in education. (See, for example, Adam on-line environment, the architecture rials from on-line sources. However, in & Mackie, 1989; A ndres-Syer, 1987b; and organization of the on-line envi-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 5 all cases, there are issues relating to the full class of students, where only oneCosts of access to on-line services are internal management of the on-line er.-modem and telephone line are avail- difficult to predict and budget but. vironment, be it the human manageable, and where the school computers strategies must be found to support ti.,1 ment needed for effective moderationare only accessible within the net- costs. How to compensate the time of CMC and computer conferencing worked computer laboratory is a major needed by teachers to gain familiarity (Mason, 1991), or the managementconcern at the meso level (Collis & De with the innovation is another facilitat- needed to maintain on-line collections Vries, 1991; 1992). Thus instructional ing issue at the macro-level. of information (see, for example, strategies and lesson materials that ac- Horton, 1990). knowledge this implementation-bot- At the least, macro-level facilitation tleneck scenario are necessary, but not needs to address the following critical Thus considerable research is being much yet produced (see Keursten conditions for telecommunication use: done with respect to facilitator vari- Nieveen, 1992). Research that investi- ables at the so-called micro-level. At the gates effective ways to help the teacher The teacher must be able to connect least, micro-level facilitation should in his or her preparation and execution a computer and modem to a tel- relate to the following critical baselineof lesson activities involving telecom- ephone connection and to make conditions for telecommunications use: munications use is also important outside calls (Stapleton, Levin, & Waugh, 1992). The teacher or institution must have Communications software and the a subscription to some sort of on- user-interfaces of on-line services At the least, meso-level facilitation P.ne communication and informa- should not be frustrating to inter-should address the following critical tion service and a budget to handle pret and use conditions for telecommunications use: connection costs On-line functionality should not be Appropriateinservice and technical poorly designed (i.e., no unexpected Lesson suggestions and materials support must be available system crashes occur, exit proce- should be available that show ex- Strategies to give the teacher ad- dures are manageable, on-line ma- amples of relevant integration of equate time and opportunity to terials can be saved and used off - telecommunications use into cur- work on-line for the preparation of line, etc.) riculum areas taught by the teacher lesson materials must be found -Content of on-line information Teachers must be willing and moti- There must be enough flexibility in should be appropriate to the char- vated to try new forms of instruc- school procedures regarding com- acteristics of the students and cur- tional activity puter use so that student access to riculum Teachers must be willing and motion-line systems can occur. - On-line costs must be affordable vated to invest additional time and - What is obtained from the on-line effort on learning to use on-line APPLYING THE RESEARCH TAXONOMY: use needs to appear to be worth the systems. RELATING EFFECTIVENESS OUTCOMES effort of obtaining it. AND FACILITATORS RESEARCH ABOUT MACRO-LEVEL Inthe previous section we have argued RESEARCH ABOUT MESO-LEVEL FACILITATORS. that the research domain for telecom- FACILITATORS. Even if the teacher has a manageable munications applications in education How to better help teachers in envisag- plan for instructional use of telecom- can be expressed in a two-dimensional ing instructional integration of tel- munications, and access to attractive framework, where the 13 categories of ecommunications applications within and reasonably easy-to-use on-line en- impact indicators form one dimension the curriculum and within the confines vironments, there are still many other and the three levels of facilitators form of their teaching-delivery setting is a facilitators to be considered. Many a second.Figure 2 shows this idea. critical area for research at the so-called critical issues relating to cost, subscrip- However, it is important that the re- meso-level of facilitators (see, for ex- tion to on-line infrastructures and serv- search taxonomy do more than catego- ample, Roberts, Blakeslee, Brown, & ices, reacher training and preparation, rize existing research, as intellectually Lenk, 1990). In a multi-year evaluation and general provision for access to tel- helpful as such a categorization may study in The Netherlands, for example, ecommunications resources in thebe. It is also important that the tax- we have found that teachers need con- school and preparation locale must be onomy suggest applications for subse- siderable help in the implementation addressed at the macro-or system level quent research. We will suggest two aspects of telecommunications use, even (Collis, Veen, & De Vries, 1993; U.S. such possible applications in this sec- when curriculum-relevant lesson ideas Congress Office of Technology Assess- tion. are carefully worked out and made ment). Personnel issues are involved available to the teachers (Verwijs, 1993). with any decision to support on-line learning environments. System opera- Figure 2. Helping the teacher to implement a Hypothesized order of influence telecJmmunications experience with a tors and moderators are needed, as well as other categories of support persons. of facilitators on impact outcomes

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 6 1 R. APPLICATIONS OF THE TAXONOMY: Figure 2 has presented an hypothesized Because each of these is directly related IDENTIFYING CRITICAL AREAS FOR order of influence for different types of to the contents of what is available on- RESEARCH AND INTERVENTION interventions, relative to different im- line and how well it is organized. For One such application is to use the tax- pact outcomes. Let us examine some Outcome Ca tegories (2) and (13), and to onomy as a stimulus for discussion of implications of these hypotheses more a lesser degree Outcome Category (10) what facilitators are likely to have the closely. to occur, large quantities of attractive, strongest effect on what outcomes. This timely, relevant and well-indexed ma- discussion can then be helpful for terials must be easily and affordably priorization of research choices, based MICRO-LEVEL FACILITATORS. available and findable on-line. For Out- on which outcomes are stressed within We hypothesize micro-level facilitators come Categories (5) and (7), quantity is a particular situation. Figure 2 also to have the strongest influence relative not as much important compared to the shows this application of the taxonomy. to the meso- and macro- levels on five organization and structure of the infor- The indications "1st", "2nd" and "3rd" of the impact-outcome categories: (2) mation, learning materials, and com- within the cells of the matrix are hy- Content-Related Enrichment; (5) Im- munication possibilities offered by the potheses as to the order in which each proved Information Handling Skills; on-line environment (Walker, Young, type of facilitator may have most sub- (7) Enjoyment and Motivation; (10) & Mannes, 1989). For Outcome Cat- stantial impact on which type of out-Teacher-Enhanced Professionalism; egory (7) to occur, user-handling prob- come. The hypotheses are based on our and (13) More Flexible Access to Rel- lems and frustrations must not occur; synthesis of the research literature and evant Educational Opportunities. as simple as that. our own work in the area. The rankings Why? in Figure 2 are hypotheses based on the MESO-LEVEL FACILITATORS. assumption that the minimal conditions We hypothesize meso-level facilitators for telecommunications use have been to be of :laramount importance with generally addressed. respect to .)utcome Categories (1) Con- tent-Related Learning, (4) Communi- cation Skills Improvement, (6) Coop- Impact Facilitation Levels eration Skills, and (8) Other Affective Outcome Category: Results. Why? Micro- Meso- Macro 1. Content-Related 2nd hi rd Because we believe that all of these Learning outcomes are most directly connected 2. Content- I q 2nd 1rd with the teaching process, and, as has Related Enrichment been demonstrated again and again in 3. General educational research, the teacher is the Literacy critical variable in such processes (see,

4. Communication I 2nd ht 'Id for example, Collis, 1988). How the ISkills teacher organizes the learning experi- S. Information- ; s `od lid ence and environment, the interaction Handling Skills It between the learners and the teacher, 6. Cooperation 2nd hi ird the skill and flexibility and creativity Skills that the teacher brings to integrating

7. Enjoyment, j lst j 211(1 i 1rd media of any sort into a learning set- Motivation tingall of these we believe to be just as 8. Other Affective ' 1st pertinent to the effectiveness of tel- Results ecommunications-mediated activities

9. Teacher-Changes lid 2nd i I st as they are to any other media-medi- in ated learning situation. The meso-level Instructional Sole variables are those which most directly 10. Teacher- 1.i I ltd 2nd involve the teacher-teaching-learner- Enhanced Pro- fessionalism learning moment and thus will be most directly involved with student-learn- 11. Teacher- :nil +rd Ist Efficiency ing outcomes.

12. Society -Equo lid . 2nd r ,st It is arguable if Outcome Category (7) 13. Society- 1st 1rd ± 2nd should not also be included in this meso- flexibility, Relevance i level teacher-oriented group of I facilitators. However, we have placed

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 7

1 P.1- it in the micro-level category because common "performance indicator" for ers and experiences and ideas and in- we feel that the novelty value of tel- the different types of intervention ac- put into the various on-line systems ecommunications may be enough at tivities that occv,r in this domain. Thus will not occur, thus also drying up their the present time to have a strong affec- a second application of the research potential educational value and moti- tive impact on learners even above the taxonomy suggested by Figure 2 can be vational level. effect of the teacher, and conversely to suggest a common interim per- that badly designed and hard-to-use formance indicator against which the 4. Without broader use in practice than on-line resources will frustrate even contribution of different facilitatingis now occurring, research activities in the efforts of the excellent teacher. strategies can be evaluated. This al-this area will appear more and more Similarly, we have placed Outcome lows the taxonomy to contribute moredivorced from reality and the field, a Category (5), Information Handling directly to action research in the area of perception to be fought against for Skills, in the micro-level category, for telecommunications in education. Such many different reasons. the negative reason that poorly-de- a common intermediate performance5. Broader use in practice implies at signed and poorly-accessible informa- indicator should be measurable and least the perception of impact potential tion materials will also defeat the ef- easy to understa nd. We suggest "usage among those involved in the use. It also forts of even the excellent teacher in in practice", expressed in terms of an implies that baseline conditions for im- terms of telecommunications use. increased number of persons making plementation at the micro-, meso-, and use of telecommunications for educa- macro-levels have been met. MACRO-LEVEL FACILITATORS. tional purposes, as a useful intermedi- Finally, we hypothesize Outcome Cat- ate performance indicator relative to Thus we have suggested a second ap- egories (9), (11), and (12) to be most the overall taxonomy. plication of the taxonomyby super- strongly influenced by macro-level imposing over it the intermediate crite- facilitators. We believe that expecta- Why is increasing the quantity of use of rion of "Will such an intervention be tions about change in teachers' pre- telecommunications applications in likely to lead to more use of telecom- ferred styles of teaching or patterns of education a reasonable intermediate munications by teachers and stu- work (Outcome Categories 9 and 11) goal for the different facilitative strate-dents?decisions about priorities for are highly context-bound. Without an gies identified in the research tax- research can be commonly grounded. institutional framework to support and onomy? Not because of technologyResearchers coming from different value and reward and facilitate inno- push, but for at least the following rea-backgrounds and with different per- vation in teaching and working habits, sons: ceptions of the target domain can per- it is unlikely such innovation can take haps come to relate to this common root, beyond the stray-blooming "pio- 1. Without broader use in practice than outcome. neer enthusiast" (see, for example, is now occurring, the payoff of telecom- Roberts, Blakeslee, Brown, & Lenk, munications use relative to educational As a final comment, we believe the 1990, pp. 139-151). And the enthusiasts impact outcomes may not be consid- "more use in practice" criterion needs are not enough to bring about change ered substantial enough from a system- to beat the short-term rather than long- in a system; diffusion must occur and wide perspective to justify financialterm level as much as possible.Al- this must happen under institutional resources and support. though researchers should not be support (Fullan, 1982). Outcome Cat- pushed by technology, the rapidly in- egory (12), relating to increased equity 2. Without broader use in practice than creasing interconnectedness of society, in educational opportunity, is particu- is now occurring, a market will not especially for mass communication and larly a function of policy and top-level develop for telecommunications-re-information purposes (see, for exam- facilitation. lated activities in education, and thus ple,Dertouzos,1991,and Romiszowski, the benefits of scale and competitive 1990), should not occur in isolation from APPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH supply that come with such a marketwhat goes on in schools. Already the TAXONOMY: TOWARD A COMMON AND will not develop. As telecommunica- notion that information and ideas are MEASURABLE PERFORMANCE INDICA- tions use requires depth and complex-entities to be nurtured and transmitted TOR ity of resources to meet many of itsby the educational system is no longer In addition to the use of the taxonomy hoped-for impact outcomes (see Out-much relevant to many students. We to suggest priorities for types of facili- come Categories 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, andas educators may not be in control of tation research relative to types of im- 13), the lack of development of a viable our long-term perspective if we fail pact outcomes, we see a second appli- market for on-line services will be a now to analyze the ways - which we cation.The taxonomy allows us to serious and even deadly blow to even- operate relative to the ways in which more easily consider the research activ- tual impact. our students are already communicat- ity relating to telecommunications ac- ing with and getting information about tivities in education as a whole, and 3. Without broader use in practice than the outside world. thus suggests the value of suggesting a is now occurring, a critical mass of us-

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Amsterdam: Elsevier (Canada): Ministry of Education tional Uses of Telecommunications (in press). Resources Branch. in the Secondary School. Report Douglass, R. (1990). Computer Pals Bajard, T. (1989). Interprovincial bilin- prepared for the National Curricu- profile. Computer Pals Newsletter, gual exchange. In M. Moran (Ed.), lum Institute, Enschede, The 3(0,12. Classroom Technology: 1989 Re- Netherlands. Doyen, S. E., & Wheeler, D. D. (1989). search and Development Project Collis, B. (1992a). Supporting educa- Subject searching in a university Reports, (pp. 22-23). Victoria, BC tional uses of telecommunications on-line catalog: Implications for (Canada): Ministry of Education in the secondary school. Part I: An school libraries. In W. C. Ryan (Ed.), Resources Branch. overview of experiences. Interna- Proceedings of NECC '89 (pp. 175- Barden, K. (1989). Electronic informa- tional Journal of Instructional Me- 179). Eugene, OR: International tion retrieval. In M. 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Report Robertson, W. Zachary, & J. B. Black Bowers, C. (1989). International on-line presented to PTT Telecom and (Eds.), Cognition, Computing, and research. In M. Moran (Ed.), Class- PRESTO, The Netherlands, January Cooperation(pp. 159-186). room Technology: 1989 Research 1993. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing and Development Project Reports, Collis, B., & De Vries, P. (1991). Prelimi- Company. (pp. 14-15). Victoria, BC (Canada): nary Analysis, Telecommunications Ministry of Education Resources in Education. Reported prepared Branch. for PRINT-VO, Ministry of Educa- tion, The Netherlands.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 9 1 Q Eastman, S. T. (1986). A qualitative Horton, W.(1990). Designing and Writ- Longworth, N. (1988). EuroPACE: study of computers and printouts ing Online Documentation. New Helping to Make Europe Competi- in the classroom. Educational Com- York: John Wiley & Sons. tive. Paper presented at the munication and Technology Jour- Hunter, B. (1990). Computer-mediated COMMEIT Conference on Value- nal, 24(4), 207-222. communications for teacher col- Added in Advanced Training for Edyburn, D. L. (1987). An Evaluation of laborations: Researching new con- Technology, Brussels. the Information Retrieval Skills of texts for both teaching and learning. Marca, D., & Bock, G. (Eds.). (1992). Students with and without Learn- EducationalTechnology, 30(10), 46- Groupware: Software for Compu- ing Handicaps using Printed and 49. ter-Supported Cooperative Work. Electronic Encyclopedias. Unpub- Irving, A. (1991). The educational value Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer lished doctoral dissertation, Uni- and use of on-line information serv- Society Press. versity of Illinois, Urbana. ices in schools. Computers in Edu- Marshak, J. (1989). Cooperative class- Fullan, M. (1982). The Meaning of Edu- cation, 17(3), 213-225. rooms. In M. Moran (Ed.), Class- cational Change. Toronto: OISE Kearsley, G., Hunter, B., & Furlong, M. room Technology: 1989 Research Press. (1992). We Teach with Technology. and Development Project Reports, Wilsonville, Oregon: Franklin, (pp. 26-27). Victoria, BC (Canada): Galligan, M. (1988). (Ed.). Schools across Beedle & Associates. Ministry of Education Resources Australia, October/November Keursten, P., & Nieveen, N. (1992). Branch. Newsletter. 547 Ann Street, Bris- Teacher materials as a part of bane, Queensland, Australia. courseware packages: Current situ- Mason, R. (1991). Moderating educa- Calvin, P. (1987). Tele-Learning and ation and promising directions. In tional computer conferencing. Audiographics: Four Case Studies. Tj. Plomp, J.Pieters, & A. Feteris, DEOS News, 1(19). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. (Eds.), Proceedings of the European Meyer, W. (1990). E-mail presentation Goldberg, F. S. (1988). Telecommunica- Conference on Educational Re- in East Germany. Computer Pals tions in the classroom: Where we search (pp. 143-145). Enschede: Newsletter, 3(1), 4. are and where we should be going. University of Twente. Moore, D. (1989). Computer telecom- The Computing Teacher, 15(8), 26- Kimmel, H., Kerr, E., & O'Shea, M. munications for school use. In M. 30. (1987).Computerized collaboration: Moran (Ed.), Classroom Technol- Grice, R., Galbraith, P., Carss, M., Taking teachers out of isolation. The ogy: 1989 Research and Develop- Endean, L., & Warry, M. (1990). To- Computing Teacher, 14(11), 36-38. ment Project Reports, (pp. 10-11). wards a definition of basic literacy Krendl, K. A., & Fredin, E. S. (1985). The Victoria, BC (Canada): Ministry of skills for an information age. In A. effects of instructional design char- Education Resources Branch. McDougall & C. Dowling (Eds.), acteristics: An examination of two Morin, A. J. (1988). Specialnet. A na- Computers inkiucation (pp. 97- communication systems. Journal of tional computer-based communi- 102). Amsterdam. 1.1sevier. Educational Technology Systems, cations network. Journal of the Gunn, D. (1989). Student use of infor- 14(1), 75-88). Apple Education Advisory Coun- mation networks. In M. Moran (Ed.), Lemp, R. W. (1989). Review of cil, 4, 13-34. Classroom Technology: 1989 Re- Telematics: A New Tool for the Palme, J. (1991). Computerconferencing search and Development Project Classroom?' (D. Kunert, U. Kunert, function and standards. In A. R. Reports, (pp. 6-7). Victoria, BC & A. Struder). Educational Tech- Kaye, (Ed.), Colla borative Learning (Canada): Ministry of Education nology Research and Development, Through Computer Conferencing Resources Branch. 37(1), 95-96. (pp. 225-245). Berlin: Springer- Harvey, G., Kell, D., & Dexler, N. G. Lenardon, L. (1989). Beyond the text- Verlag. (1990). Implementing Technology book: Comparative analysis on-line. Pelgrum, H., & Plomp, Tj. (1991). The in the Classroom: Paths to Success In M. Moran (Ed.), Classroom Tech- Use of Computers in Education and Failure. Paper presented at the nology: 1989 Research and Devel- Worldwide. Oxford: Pergamon. 1990 Annual Meeting of the Ameri- opment Project Reports, (pp. 252- Ranebo, S. (1990). New Communica- can Educational Research Associa- 253). Victoria, BC (Canada): Minis- tion Technologies in Learning. tion, Boston. try of Education Resources Branch. Keynote speech presented at the Hoffman, R. (1989).Gitksan- Levin, J. (1985). Computers as Media European Community Conference wet'suwet'en schools link up. In M. for Communication Learning and on Telematics, Hemicycle, Luxem- Moran (Ed.), Classroom Technol- Development in a Whole Earth bourg. ogy: 1989 Research and Develop- Context.Paper presented at the ment Project Reports, (pp.114-115). 15th Annual Symposium of the Jean Victoria, BC (Canada): Ministry of Piaget Society. Education Resources Branch.

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9 1i Reed, J. (1989). Victoria to Amsterdam Samis, M. (1992, May/June). The e- Teles, L., & Duxbury, N. (1991). The via telematics. In M. Moran (Ed.), mail must go through! Electronic Networked Classroom. Vancouver, Classroom Technology: 1989 Re- Learning, pp. 30-34. BC (Canada): Simon Fraser Univer- search and Development Project Schmidt, C. (Ed.). (1988). Large Dis- sity Faculty of Education. Reports, (pp. 28-29). Victoria, BC tance Learning Newsletter, 1(i), 1- TERC. (1987). National Geographic (Canada): Ministry of Education 4. Society Kids Network Project. Resources Branch. Schwartz, J. (1986). Sharing Writing on Cambridge, MA: TERC. Renwick, I. (1990). International writ- an Electronic Network. Vermont: Underwood, J. D. M., & Underwood, ers week. Computer Pals Newslet- Middlebury College. (ERIC Docu- G. (1990). Computers and Learn- ter, 3(1), 8-9. ment Reproduction Service No. ED ing: Helping Children Acquire Riedl, R. (1986). CompuServe in the 299 588) Thinking Skills. Oxford: Basil classroom. The Computing Teacher, Scott, A. P. (1988). Intercultural com- Blackwood. 13(6), 62-64. munications using computer-me- U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Riel, M. (1989). Telecommunications: diated communication systems. Assessment. (1989). Linking for A Tool for Reconnecting Kids with Computer Pals Newsletter, 1(1), 11- Learning: A New Course for Edu- Society. Encinitas, CA: AT&T Long 12. cation. Washington, DC: U. S. Gov- Distance Learning Network. Soepboer, W. (1992). Development of a ernment Printing Office. Riel, M. (1990). Cooperative learning Prototype of the Simulation Soft- Van Beckum, J., & Van Der Burg, C. across classrooms in electronic ware "Telesirn". Unpublished (1992). Toward an On-Line Videotex learning circles. Instructional Sci- masters' thesis, University of Geographic Information System for ence, 19, 445-466. Twente, Enschede, The Nether- Educational Applications. Utrecht: lands. Faculty of Social Sciences, Univer- Riel, M., & Levin, J. (1990). Building Stapleton, C. E., Levin, J., & Waugh, M. sity of Utrecht. electronic communities: Success L. (1992). Network activity stages: Verwijs, C. (1993). An Evaluation of the and failure in computer network- Organization of successful elec- Multi-Media Learning Package, ing. Instructional Science, 19(2), 145- tronic collaboration and communi- "Computerjournaal". Unpublished 169. cation. In S. Gayle (Ed.), Proceed- master's thesis, University of Roberts, N., Blakeslee, G., Brown, M., ings of NECC '92 (pp. 241-247). Twente, Enschede, The Nether- & Lenk, C. (1990). Integrating Tel- Eugene, OR: International Society lands. ecommunications into Education. for Technology in Education. Vlahakis, R. (1990). Computer pals Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Stuve, M. J. (1991). Exploring virtual connection. Computer Pals News- Rogers, A., Cowick, D., & Powell, H. classrooms: Network communica- letter, 3(1), 14. (1987). Networks, Functional tion in a cross-cultural context. In- Walker, J. H., Young, E., & Mannes, S. Learning Environments, and Lan- telligent Tutoring Media, 2(2), 51- (1989). A Case Study of Using a guage Acquisition. Report submit- 62. Manual Online. Paper presented at ted to the California Assembly Swanson, J. (1989). District-wide young the Annual Meeting of the Ameri- Education Committee, Sacramento, writers' bulletin board. In M. Moran can Educational Research Associa- CA. (Ed.), Classroom Technology: 1989 tion, San Francisco. Romiszowski, A. (1990). Shifting para- Research and Development Project Wellburn, E. (1992). Information, Tel- digms in education and training: Reports, (pp. 126-127). Victoria, BC ecommunications and Learning: A What is the connection with tel- (Canada): Ministry of Education Review of the Research Literature. ecommunications? Education and Resources Branch. Sidney, BC (Canada): Educational Training Technology International, Teague, M., Teague, J., Si Marchionini, Technology Centre of British Co- 27(3), 233-237. G. (1986). The high tech road to lumbia. Ruopp, R., Gal, S., Drayton, B., & Pfister, research. The Computing Teacher, Wilson, B. (1990). Computer Pals: A M. (1993). LabNet: Toward a Com- 14(3), 8-10. Canadian diary. Computer Pals munity of Practice. 1993: Lawrence Newsletter, 3(1), 10. Erlbaum Associates.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 11 %.;

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12 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 22 GLOBALLITERACY IN A GUTENBERG CULTURE BY AL ROGERS

Executive Director, FrEdMail Foundation [email protected]

UVING IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE pendent upon a tiny handful of execu Since Marshall McLuhan coined the tives in Atlanta. In fact, the "informa term in the 1960's, few of us have truly tion media" boil down to this: a limiter understood what the term "global vil- cadre (or cabal?) of reporters, writen lage" means. Most of us have been im- publishers, editors, producers, an pressed with CNN's instantaneous other arbiters of "news," "good taste global video broadcasting, but the pas- or "political correctness" decide wivz sive medium of television gives few ofis "news," what is "important," what i us the feeling of much involvement "good for us," and eve!, what is "art beyond our favorite reclining chair. (For and "entertainment." an incisive critique of the influence of There are important television on our culture, see Postman, In contrast to this managed flow pedagogical, political, 1985. information, however, the glob social, cultural, and Internet of networks is giving millior Yet today, growing thousands of chil- of people direct access to informatio economic reasons why dren in dozens of countries around the in ways the world has never befot schools should consider world are living the reality of the global seen. Information of every sort floss telecommunications village in personal, hands-on, interac- freely, across national borders an tive ways. Through the medium of around the world, directly from "whet technologies as learning networking and telecommunications it's happening" to where there as tools. This article technologies these students are for the "inquiring minds who want to know examines a number of first time learning to think of themselves as global citizens, seeing the For instance, the world was electrifie these issues. world, and their place in the world, in in August 19,1991 by the coup d'etat i ways much different than their parents. Moscow. For the first time in over thousand years, Muscovites raised tt Today's global networks create con-barricades and defied the powers b nections between people which span hind the coup. Boris Yeltsin, preside± time and distance in ways the world of the Russian Republic, issued a deer( has never before seen... and with impli- of defiance, proclaiming the leaders cations which are beginning to havethe coup to be illegal and seizing al major political, social, and economic thority within the Russian Republ implications. (Toffler, 1990) from the central government.

Since the days of Gutenberg, the pub- Within hours the following messal lishing of information has been an au-containing Boris Yeltsin's decree, tocratic enterprise. _Time Ma gazine's _" both transliterated Russian and Engli: Man of the Year" for 1991 was Ted translation, flashed around the worl Turner, founder and owner of CNN, in directly to tens of thousands of cor recognition of CNN's news coverage of puters on college campuses, business( global events. Yet the fact of the matter homes, and schools: is, the "selection" of that news is tie-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

7 DECREE of the president of the Russian This message came directly from Mos- To: NEWS.GENERAL cow to the people of the world... From: dorrithq.demos.su (Dmitry V. Federative Socialist Republic unfiltered, unedited, without the ben- Volodin) An attempt of a coup d'etat was taken, efit of selection or "commentary," "in- Organization: DEMOS, Moscow, USSR the President of the USSR, who is the terpretation," or embellishment. (This Subject: Yeltsin's decree Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Army, kind of internetworking transmission Date: Mon, 19 Aug 9121:20:13 +0300 was dismissed from this post. The Vice is substantially different than radio or (MSD) President of the USSR, the Prime Minister of the USSR, Ministers of television broadcasting, which require expensive transmitters: anyone with Please redistribute this as wide as Defence arid Internal Affairs of the USSR access to a personal computer and a possible the followin in stripped Russian formed an unconstitutional body, phone line can accomplish the same and an approximate translation to therefore committing a state crime. thing as our Moscow "correspondent.) English. It'll be fine, if this reachs world As a result of this action the activity of information agencies. Thank you. the constitutional executive power of the The quality of "news" and information Dima ukaz USSR was paralised. In this situation I decree: which flows through the global village networks can also be substantially dif- PREZIDENTA rOSSIJSKOJ 1. Until the emergency Congress of the ferent than what we have come to ex- fEDERATIWN01 sOUIALISTIAESKOI People's Deputies of the USSR is pect as "news." It becomes more per- RESPUBLIKI taken all bodies of the executive power of the USSR, including the sonal and intimate and "real." Read this message which came out of Bosnia pREDPRINQTA POPYTKA KGB, Internal Ministry, Ministry of during the early days of the troubles GOSUDARSTWENNOGO Defence, acting on the territory of the PEREWOROTA, OTSRANED OT RSFSR, are taken under the submis- there: DOLVNOSTI pREZIDENT sssr, sion of the President of the RSFSR, Date: November 26,1991 11:22 QWLQCJIISQ wERHOWNYM elected by the people. Subject: Appeal for Vukovar gLAWNOKOMANDUO) IM 2. The KGB of the RSFSR, Internal wOORLIVENNYH sIL sssr. wICE- Ministry of the RSFSR, State Translation courtesy of Tomislav PREZIDENT sssr, pREMXER- Committee of the RSFSR on Defence MINISTR sssr, PREDSEDATELX kgb Problems are prescribed to temporary Subj: APEL ZA VUKOVAR IZ sssr, mINISTRY oBORONY I execute the functions of the corre- wNUTRENNIH DEL sssr WOW W sponding bodies of the USSR on the VLIKOV ARA "1111111 11.* ANTIKONSTITUCIONNYI ORGAN, territory of the RSFSR. All the How can I start a story of death and desire SOWERUW TEM SAMYM territory and other bodies of the to live? GOSLIDARSTWENNOE Internal Ministry, KGB and Defence How can I describe millions of feelings in PRESTUPLENIE. w REZULXTATE Ministry on the territory of the plain words? \TIH DEIS WTWIJ DEQTELXNOSTX RSFSR immediately have to obide How can I concentrate when a packet of ZAKON NOIZBRANNOJ decrees and orders of the President of death explodes nearby every few minutes? ISPOLNITELMVOI WLASTI SO@ZA the RSFSR, the Consil of Ministers of How can I ask for help from someone whose ssr OKAZALASX the RSFSR, the orders of the the KGB face I cannot even imagine? PARALIZOWANNOJ. of the RSFSR, the Internal Ministry of the RSFSR, the State Commettee of How can I ask in the name of thousands of people, and whom can I ask, when all the ....lines deleted the RSFSR on Defence Problems. appeals and cries for help to stop this insane pREZIDENT rsfsr b.eLXCIN 3.All executive bodies, persons, and citizens of the RSFSR have to take bloodshed have been unanswered? mOSKWA, kREMLX immediate actions to prevent the Death has become the most important aspect 19 AWGUST 1991 CODA execution of any decrees and orders of of life in this devastated city. She follows us n 61 the unconstitutional Commettee on Emergency Situation. in every step; she is an integral part of every Executive persons, obiding orders of this thought, of every word that is being said. commence, are dismissed from their posts Separated from our wives, mothers, sisters, in accordance with the Constitution of and brothers; in the constant presence of the RSFSR. Bodies of the Procurature of terrible massacres of our closest friends; the USSR have to immediately take deprived from the most basic needs; de- actions to enforce the criminal law onto graded to the level of the cattle awaiting to this persons. be slaughtered we live in damp cellars with The President of the RSFSR no electricity, running water, toothpaste, B.Yeltsin soap, diapers for the babies; with no hope of Moscow, Kremlin resting even for a moment, because dreams August 19,1991

14 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

24 on improvised beds are only the horrible Information of all types circulates on My name is Joe Quain and I'm looking for repetitions of the cruel reality. "the net." NASA scientists, aviation 5 (five) classes from various countries and professionals and hobbyists, biologists the U.S. to participate in a simple Geo/ Can anyone who has not experienced even mapping the human genome, Semitic Cultural project with my middle school a little piece of Vukovar's reality understand and Middle Eastern Scholars studying (ages 12-14) geography class located on St. the bitter feeling in every single one of us? the Dead Sea Scrolls, musicians, dissi- Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Can anyone explain to him /herself and ac- dent Chinese refugees... and teachers cept us as savage reality that maybe and thei students... can all be found on EmailContact: tommorow they will not see their families line, a'_ing with the information gener- qjoeevirgini.cerf.fred.org anymore? In our twisted world there are no ated by their research and activities. lies. There is only one truth; the truth about The implications for schools are pro-Length of Project - 2 weeks life. Life in Vukovar today is the fight for found. every doorstep, for the remains of our hopes, DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT of a town that in the morning mist resem- SCHOOL IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE At the beginning of this project you wil bles the site of a Hollywood horror movie. When teachers and their students are receive two essays created by my stu "connected" to the world, teaching and dents in the Virgin Islands. One essa We are not asking for charity, we are only learning strategies cha ngelle "world" will describe the physical geography o asking for life with basic human decency. becomes an indispensable curriculum our Caribbea n island and the otherclas We are asking for a chance for our children resource. When students communicateessay will contain a description of ou to have their children. How would the West with people in distant and foreignisland's culture. react if 2,000of their children were confined places they begin to understand, ap- to damp cellars with a threat of imminent preciate, and respect cultural, political, Two weeks after you receive these es death foreveryone who dares to go out; with environmental, geographic, and lin- says, you will send back two simila only one skimpy meal a day and uncer- guistic similarities and differences. essays about your geography and cu' tainty of how long such state will persist? Their view of the world and their place ture, using our essays as models. Thes Can you imagine something like that in in the world changes. When teachersessays will also be forwarded to th London, Paris, Washington, Berlin, Vi- use their international connections as a other participating sites. enna? learning medium, Subject matter becomes current, Virgin Islands students will then con We may be separated by thousands of miles, 7..-.1evant, and integrated from a pile this information and give oral n but are our hearts separated that much? Let multi-disciplinary, global perspec- ports. We will video tape these repot us bring negotiators to Vukovar! Let any- tive. and send you a copy of the video tac one come up with a single argument for the Students learn about their own (in USA VHS format). war when surrounded by dying babies! Let culture and foreign cultures, their us gather all the children that have lost their differences and similariti..2s... di- OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT parents, whose chance to walk side by side rectly from their distant peers, in (1) Each class learns about their ot, with their fathers and mothers has forever real, meaningful, and exciting ways geography and culture and tran been lost. No institution will ever be able to Students consider issues that are of mits this knowledge to real and replace the care of the parents. global concern. ences Consider this simple project an- (2) Students become better commur Vukovar is not just a bunch of shattered nouncement ("call for collaboration") cators buildings; it is a live organism that breathes. from a teacher in the U.S. Virgin Is-(3) Students conduct collaborative r Vukovar has got its own bloodstream, its lands: search culminating in the final vide life that is being taken away from it. Its flesh tape is being torn apart; its bones are being To: SCHL.CALL.IDEAS (4) Students compare and contrasts ea, broken. And while the city is defending From: site's essays. itself in a spasm, it is being attacked by [email protected] people to whom it represents only a point on Date: Feb 6, 1992 13:07 REGISTRATION the map. Subject: Virgin Islands GeographySend email as soon as possible to J Project Quain at: This message is directed to all of those who qjoeevirgini.cerf. fred.org love life; to all those who can appreciate the This simple geography project should little things that make life; to all those who suit a teacher in your building. Please Include your full name, voice pho have ever seen a smile of a baby; to all of circulate this call for collaboration number, school, district, city, count. those who still care... among your geography-teaching col- and mailing address. Please inclu leagues. your grade and subject area.If me STOP THE WAR IN CROATIA, GIVE than five schools reply, I will select fi VUKOV AR A CHANCE! Hello from the Virgin Islands in the Car- classes which represent an interesti ibbean!

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

o geographical and cultural diversity. To contact project coordinator Joe programs as the Bay Area and National will notify all schools by February 21 Quoin, send mail to: Writing Projects all agree on the impor- regarding their selection. qjoeOvirgini.cerfired.org tance of audience:give children a sympathetic audience, something of TIME LINE Within two weeks after announcingvalue to write about, and help them to February 21 - Five sites chosen for this project, Joe had over 40 replies. He find their voice, and they will become project are notified on Email selected eight sites to jlin him in this eager writers. February 24 - Virgin Islands Essays project: sent to participating sites. - Helsinki, Finland Telecomputing offers an efficient, ef- March 9 - Five remote sites send - Tartu, Estonia fective means of finding and using Physical Geography class essay to the London, England many interesting and varied audiences Virgia Islands. Amsterdam, the Netherlands for the exchange of various student March 16 - Five remote sites send Madrid, Spain activities. Furthermore, the activities Cultural description class essay to the Cape Town, South Africa can be embedded in other content ar- Virgin Islands. Melbourne, Australia eas, such as science, math, geography, March 30 Video sent to five remote San Antonie. Texas. history, current events, and other top- locations. ics... providing an ideal environment Joe reported that this project not only to facilitate pwhat is becoming known ESSAY DETAILS accomplished his objectives in studying as "project-enhanced" learning (Ruopp, Physical Geography Essay - Your stu- geography and global cuitures, it also 1993) dents will collect information regarding engaged and motivated his students. your own physical geography, and He also reported an unexpected divi- Joe Quain's geography project was write a descriptive essay not to exceed dend: his student's grammar and successful because his students were 3-4 pages. This description should in- overall writing skills dramatically im- engaged in activities which had rational, clude information pertaining to theproved as they corresponded with meaningful goals that made sense to relief of the country or state. All sig- students who spoke English as a second them.Their research, writing, and nificant land forms (mountains, pla- language and sought to "coach" themcommunicating was directed at a spe- teaus, coastal plains, unusual features) in improving their English. cific audience with a specific purpose and water bodies (important rivers, in mind. This illustrates a simple but lakes, coast lines) should be described NETWORKING AND PROJECT-BASED powerful example of "project-en- (both physically as well as utilization LEARNING hanced" learning. (economic, recreation, tourism)). The The lingua franca of email and compu- longitude and latitude should also be ter conferencing (electronic text) is the According to at least one study, the noted. Some information with how t...2 written word.Although the inputeffect of this kind of approach to physical land has influenced the history device (keyboard) is new, the mode of learning is significant. Cohen and Riel and development of your region should expression (written language) is thou- (1989) concluded that when students also be included. sands of years old. In today's "reachwrite for a distant audience of their out and touch someone" age, millionspeers, CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY - TOPICS of people who would never put pen to They are more fluent OF ESSAY CAN INCLUDE paper to write a letter will spend eve- * They are better organized What is germane and unique about nings writing to dozens of people * Their ideas are more clearly stated your culture? through their online connections. and supported food/preparation, housing, music Electronic mail has given new life and " Their content is more substantive art, schools, religions, political new meaning to a profoundly tradi- and their thesis is better supported system, dress, transportation, tional form of communication. * They consider the limits and needs employment, positions or status of Telecomputing may in fact be the last of their audience children, adults, and senior citizens frontier of written literacy available We also have abundant anecdotal which will incite students to traditional reports from teachers who testify to What are the essential cultural elements literacy skills. the effects of collaborative projects on that give your locale its distinct flavor? student learning: This essay may well be longer than the The process writing movement has had " They enjoy writing more first (3-6 pages). an important impact on the way that Students are more willing to write, writing is taught in schools across the proofread, revise, and edit their Your students can use the models pre- nation.Researchers such as Donald work when they are writing for a pared by my students as a guideline for Graves (1983), Donald Murray (1985), distant audience. the essay which they write. and Lucy Calkins (1986), and such " They are more careful about their spelling, punctuation, grammar, and vocabularies.

16 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

26 This letter we received from a teacher Dear 0000, Russian Jews in those places, and in Rhode Island regarding one of our The children in my class compiled the letter send him the results, so he can FrEdMail projects illustrates this point: above in their own words and typed it to compare the stories from all three Ppath: bonita2Insut herl you on the computer. I think you can hear places in his high school sociology From: nnnnnnecat.cis.brown.edu ) their enthusiasm in their words. What I project. To: fred62bonita.cerf.fred.org wanted to share with you though is, that if Students in New York collect relief Subject: letter of thanks from 3rd graders at you were able to see the enthusiasm, the supplies to send to their online Newport, RI cooperative learning and the growth in friends devastated in the Florida FrEd, these children during the weeks that we hurricane. The following letter was written by used your connection, there would be no 3rd graders at Underwood School in New- question that this type of program should be There is no question that curriculum port, RI....The Geogame provided a GREAT accessable to every classroom. will change as more and more schools example of what types of learning experi- join the net. Students who have the ences exist on the INternet for kids. I have a wonderful group of children that opportunities described here have al- A footnote to the letter was written love school and love learning but I have ready begun to make their own para- by the teacher of this class.I think her never seen the level of motivation in them as digm shifts regarding their place in the closing statement summarizes the feelings I did in the use of this service. world, and how to relate to it. As the of allof us who participated in the Geogame global market economy grows, these Thanks again to you for all of your I can't thank you and the people at Brown, students as adults will have advantages good work !! ;-) enough for your patience in teaching us in their experience and mindset over Forwarded message: how to get "on line" and for allowing us those who were isolated to their own access to such an exciting program. You classrooms and communities. From: mmmmmm helped us to do great things in educating Subject: using computer connection our students.If there is anything that you The only question left, then, is when To: 0000000Brown.Edu can do to continue a program of this nature will you join the Global Village? Date: Fri, 22 May 9215:48:05 EDT in the future, please don't hesitate. If anyone Dear 00000, has a hesitation, just tell them to come to For more information about FrEdMail We are writing to tell you that we really our room and see first hand the positive and SCHLnet,sendemailto enjoyed the computer connection to Brown. learning experience that this has been. [email protected]. We had a great time and couldn't wait to work on it every day. Thank you for everything. You've done End Notes more than you know! We learned so many things like different sincerely, nnnnn gr. 3, Underwood School Calkins, Lucy. The Art of Teaching things about our country and Europe. We Writing. Portsmouth, NH also learned about latitude and stuff like Similar stories about student involve- Heinemann Educational Books, that. We used big maps, road atlases, social ment and achievement percolate 1986. studies books, P .0 .US A program, child yens through the online networks: Cohen, Moshe and Margaret. Riel. 'The atlas', encyclopedias, wall maps and our The Global Grocery List stimulates Effect of Distant Audiences on brains. Roger, who is a sp. ed. student that a discussion with Ja pa nese students Students' Writing,"AERA Ioumal worked with us on Geogame says that it who are surprised that their diet Summer, 1989, pp. 132-159 made him feel like we're the smartest kids in staple, rice, is so much more ex- Graves, Donald H. Writing Teachers the whole world!! pensive than in other parts of the and Children at Work. Port- world. Students in Japan and smouth, NH Heinemann Educa- It was so much more fun than just using America discover principles of pro- tional Books, 1983. our books and maps and it was neat to get tectionist trade policies. Murray, Donald. A Writer Teaches mail from other classes each day. We are Students in Europe and America Writing. 2nd ed. Boston Houghton now in the process of writing to the other find out from children in Israel what Mifflin, 1985. schools across the country and Europe that a SCUD attack is REALLY like. Postman, Neil. Amusing Ourselves To we played Geogame with. We're learning Students in Southern California Death. Penguin, 1985. so much from each other. We got to know learn from children in Santa Cruz, Ruopp, Richard, et.al. LabNet: Toward one class so well that we invited them to our California, what they need to do to a Community of Practice, Hillsdale, school so that we can meet each other and prepare for an earthquake... lessons NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, have lunch together. learned from bitter experience. 1993. A student in Cold Harbor Springs, Toffler, Alvin. Powershi ft: Knowledge. Please let us do this again !lift Thank you so New York interviews Russian Jew- Wealth, and Violence at the Edge of much for letting use the computer connec- ish immigrants in Brooklyn. He re- the 21st Century, New York, Ban- tion! cruits online acquaintances in Mos- From the great third grade at Underwood cow and Jerusalem to interview School! m AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1! Its built for education point and click on the program they want once. And immediately. they start working. At Apple Computer, we work closely with Recently. Choice magazine voted t educators and software developers to Macintosh the best computer against a make sure our computers run education competitive field of MS-DOS computers. software that focuses on what we teach in They said it was "the easiest computer tested schoolthe Australian school curriculum. to get started on especially for novice. Naturally. Macintosh computers also run the full range of business applications. It talks The Macintosh is renowned for its ease of use. To make it even simpler. we now Every Macintosh LC II comes with a micro- have At &se. a new computer interface phone that lets students talk. sing. play music designed especially for schools. Students or make sound effects and record them directly into the Macintosh. This allows them to take advantage of educational software that supports sound. Ng wh example. they can produce animated stories and then record their own voice -Dyers and special effects or learn a foreign language by do schools prefer hearing the actual voice of a Japanese person. and then recording and comparing their own voices. They can also hear the works Mozart or Beethoven and other famous composers Macintosh? complete with annotated musical analysis.

7 klacW*4 It. historical notes and more. Sound is also the gateway to musical composition. Synthesisers can he connected to the Macintosh allowing students to play. compose. record multiple sound tracks, analyse and study music.

You can network it

A network makes financial sense to schools. You'll definitely need to share the school printer around. All Macintosh computers are 'network ready lust plug IDcalTalk cabling into the back of each computer.

You can upgrade it

Times change. Technology changes faster'. To protect your investment. every Macintosh can be easily upgraded. If you want more memory, an extra disk drive or a CD-ROM player. it's as easy as plugging it in.

lion can afford it

A Macintosh LC II now costs under S2,400. so the computer that's built for schools is priced for schools. too. For more infbrmation. contact Chris at 008 02; 35; for the location of your nearest Apple Education Reseller

ligDedicated to learning. NCREASING SELF ESTEEM ANDCREATIVITY OF PEOPLE WITHA DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY THROUGHTHE USE OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY BY GREG ALCHIN N.S.W Department Of Community Services

Previous studies in the area of 'basic drives', a drive without which increasing Self esteem and /or we cannot exist." Lowenfeld1957 pp creativity have had mixed results 112 . mainly due to the process used ,which was mainly stuctured lessons. Nearly 40 years later Lowenfeld's comments still stand as a goal to be Work by Grinder and Lowenfeld reached. highlightedtheneedforan individualised approach based on the Whilst the changes in philosophy and needs of the learner. service provision to people with a developmental disability over this time are laudable, there aresignificant The aim of this single The use of computer Technology in particular computer based drawing deficits in our efforts which need to be case investigation paperis programs such as KID PIX provides an addressed. to examine the effects appropriate environment for the Considerable resources and energy Computer Technology has person with a developmentaldisability to take control. have been devoted to 'the basics' of on increasing theself "It is one of my deepest innermost literacy and numeracy a nd to functional esteem and creativity of convictions that wherever there is a lifeskills.Anexaminationof Department Of School Education people with a spark of human spirit - no matter how dim it may be -it is our sacred curriculum guidelines forstudents with developmental disability. responsibility as humans, teachers, and severe levels of disability and Previous studies in the educators to fan it into whatever it Department of Community Services ISP Self conceivably may develop We as Individual Service Programs) system area of increasing human beings have no right clearly demonstrates where the focus esteem and/or creativity whatsoever to determine where to stop ha s been. Efforts in the area of increasing have had mixed results in our endeavours to use all our power self esteem and creativity in people mainly due to the process to develop the uppermost potential with a developmental disability seem abilities in each individual. We all are pale in comparison. used ,which was mainly by nature more or less endowed with stuctured lessons. intrinsic qualities and no one has the The reasons for this imbalance are unclear, but what is clear is the need for Work by Grinder and right to draw a demarcation line which divides human beings into those who an understanding of the powerof self Lowenfeld highlighted the should receive all possible attention esteem and the role it plays in the way need for an individualised and those who are not worth all our individuals learn by service providers whether they be teachers, carers or approach based on the efforts. One of these intrinsic qualities is that every human being is endowed workshop supervisors. New ways of needs of the learner. with a creative spirit one of the increasing self esteem need to be

19 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 found.The role that computerscan play upon Perception. That is how we people with a developmental disability in redressing this imbalance needs to perceive important others perceive us. have low self esteem and no creative be examined as a possible key breaking potential? Further, what can and is the locks of low self esteem. Yau (1991) states, "One's self image being done to rectify it and what roles serves as the organising filter through do computers play? The power of one's self esteem /concept which one perceives their work and on one's ability to perform skills and others. It colours everything one sees. It There have been numerous studies on interact with the wider community is screensone'sexperiences and the general population which indicate widely documented. Examples of this determines what meaning one takes that creative potential can be enhanced relationship are commonly displayed from them. Self image is not only one's throughsystematicclassroom in the popular press as sporting frame of reference but the cornerstone experiences in creative thinking personalities having a 'slump in form'. of one's personality." pp155 activities. (Britton 1968, Callahan 1973, They have the skills but the confidence Covington & Crutchfield 1965) is lacking. With self confidence comes Yau (1991) identified the relationship However, Stasinos 1981 states that the ability to tackle new challenges, that exists between self esteem and "very few intervention studies in take risks, think and act creatively, contrasts in the mental state and creativity of people with disabilities thus extending one's potential. motivations of behaviour. Furthermore suggest that their creative potential can she identified a high correlationbe improved through systematic This paper will attempt to highlight the between the personality characteristics training involving creative thinking significant relationship that exists of individuals with a high self esteem activities".pp 130 between an individual's self estteem and a creative and productive and their ability to think and/or act personality as can be seen in Appendix This is not to say that creative creatively, further how computer 1 (Charts 1 - 3). This has been reinforced performance cannot be increased for technology may offer people with an by Stasinos (1984) in referring to work Rouse (1965), Stasinos (1981), Ladner intellectual and/or physical disability by Fromm (1959) and Guildford (1950) (1971),Ross andRoss(1973) the opportunity to discover their when he states "Creative individuals demonstratedthatthe use of creative potential and increa se their self tend to display strong self acceptance Brainstorming as a teaching tool, esteem. It is important to note that this and positive self evaluative behaviour." provided a solid base in "learning by is only a preliminary single case pp 117 doing" and that significant increases investigation and that further research were shown in verbal and non verbal is needed in this area. If this is so for the general population, scores. So it would seem people with whatthenofpeoplewith disabilities have a creative potential To ensure that the thrust of this developmental disabilities? that can be developed; the key is using discussion is not lost in Further, if there is agreement that all the right approach. misinterpretations of key terms it is individuals, no matter what their essential that they be defined. intellectual capacity, has a sense of self Grinder (1991) highlights the need to esteem, then what of Lowenfeid's understand the way in which the learner Maslow (1971) as quoted in Yau (1991) comments on creativity? inputs,processes and outputs defined primary and secondary types information. Understanding an of creativity. Primary Creativity was Crutchfield 1966; Maslow 1959, Rogers individual's learning style is an defined as that "which comes out of the 1959 all found that the ability to think important part of the process of unconscious, which is the source of creatively is present, at least potentially providing appropriate experiences to new discovery -of real novelty, whilst in almost all persons including people be discovered. To not take an secondary creativity is defined as the with a developmental disability. individual's learning style into natural, logical productivity displayed These assumptions have been further consideration is setting up that pemon in the behaviour of well adjusted confirmed by research by Getzels and for unnecessary failure. mentally healthy individuals." pp 158. Jackson 1962, Taylor and Holland 1967 Previous work by Raise, Stasinos and The successful integration of both when they found that there is lowLadner whilst acknowledging the primary and secondary creative correlation between intelligence and importance of "brainstorming and processes defines the essence of true creativity. The implication of this work learning by doing" failed to take into creativity. Work by Fran 1955 and is that it reinforces the people with a account the persons mode of learning Rogers 1959 is consistent with this developmental disability to have a and the need to attach meaning and definition. creative potential. purpose to the creativity training.

Self image or self esteem is in essence If it is accepted then, that people with a Matson's (1991) work further provides self evaluation. That is what a person disability have a sense of self and a direction. Matson's work on creativity thinks about themselves. It is important creative potential, then why is there a saw the importance of having a to note that self evaluation is based significant public perception that meaningful project to work with the

20 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 30 validity of failure. Validity is used heretheir relationship to the environment 6. Use of alternative input devices and in the sense of learning from one'sin which they interacted. In being the ability of software programs to be mistakes. He argues that instead ofconstrained to using only traditional individualised allowed persons with a rewarding success, we should bemedia many individuals would due to range of physical and communicative rewarding failure or more to the pointthe nature of their disability have had disabilities the opportunity to interact intelligent failure or risk taking. As their opportunities and boundaries for as equals with their peers be it for Matson states you need failure to define success limited. instructional or recreational purposes. the boundaries of success. The implication of this belief is that there is Now in the final decadeof the Twentieth Well designed computer software in many cases more than one rightcentury, computer technology has which allows for brainstorming and answer to a problem, and that trial and significantly broadened the boundaries experimentation and is presented in a error, exploration and discovery areand opportunities for sucess. The range of modalities ie is multi sensory, just as important phases as masteringprocessing power of current desktop provides the vehicle by which self the skill itself. The process therefore ismachines allows for sophisticated esteem and creativity can be increased. just as important if not more so than theimages to be generated, adapted and One such program is Broderbund's KID product. created simply and quickly. PIX's drawing and communication Further the wide range of alternative package which is available on For people to feel comfortable andinput devices ensures that an MACINTOSH, IBM compatibles and secure in taking risks and dicoveringindividual's level of physical disability ACORNS. their potential there is a need for rapportis no longer a barrier to expression in between 'the learner and the teacher'. the fullest sense. The other key factor is the rapport The key as Lowenfeld states is "the between the educator and the learner establishment of rapport .... this feelingThe power of computers and the choice as discussed earlier. of empathy is one of the most importantof multi-sensory interactive software pre-requisites to success"-pp 115 . provides the opportunity for people The research question, then, is can a with a developmental disability to person with a developmental disability Part of gaining rapport with the personincrease self esteem and creativity in a increase their self esteem and creative is to have not only an understanding of way unavailable in other more ability through successfully mastering the nature and degree of the personstraditional approaches. Graphic focused computer programs disability and how that person reacts to as a means to express oneself. it but of their mode of learning as Piper 1988 identified a range of factors outlined in Grinder's (1991) work onwhich highlighted the value of METHOD Neuro Linguistic Programming. Howcomputers as a tool for teaching the person learns is a variable which functional skills and increasing self SUUBJECT cannot be overlooked or understated. esteem. Some of these were: The subject was a female aged 8 years To not foster it can seriously effect one's (Kelly) who has been assessed with a effort to support a persons chances of 1.Being in control of a sophisticated moderate level of intellectual disability. achieving success. piece of technology which was socially Kelly has no physical disability. valued gave individuals a sense of Lowenfeld's (1957) work in art therapyimportance. SETTING clearly demonstrates the value of art as A Department of Community Services a medium in which to nurture self 2.The non threatening and judgemental office. (It is important to note that Kelly esteem and creativity. Lowenfeldaspects of computer aided learning had visited the setting on previous believed that people with a disabilityassisted in the development of a positive occassions and felt at ease in the "not only gain self confidence through and secure environment in which to surroundings.). their own creative achievement ... and work. ... often derivefrom it a great deal of APPARATUS independence and achievement so3.Motivation, attention and 1.Personal Computer badly needed by them" pp 115. Once concentration spans could be increased rapport has been gained then theusing multi sensory/modality feedback At the time of intervention an Apple educator can aquaint their client withof computer based drill and practice. Macintosh LC with 12" RCB Colour the art medium to be utilised and the Screen with image writer II and colour creative process. 4.Greater control of the learning ribbons was used. As KID PIX is situation could be achieved by the use available on 3 different platforms any Lowenfeld's work in the late 1950'sof well designed software. configuration could be utilised. focused on the use of traditional art media to allow individuals to express 5.Thinking and problem solving skills how they perceived themselves andcould be enhanced.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 2.Computer Software DATA ANALYSIS There wasa dipof perceived personality characteristics on the second attempt a)Games Thechecklistofobservable b)Creativity Program - titled KID PIX characteristics was implementedbefore a gradual rise to mastery. c)Personality characteristic checklist through incidental observation. The Reasons for such a trend is because of higher the scoring of characteristics the the high result at the end of Session 1 which it would seem is due to the PROCEDURE higher the self esteem and creative excitement of additional attention and 1.Develop rapport with the person. potential. This will be implemented at This involves getting to know them the beginning and end of each session having access to the computer. At as a person sharing recreational and on mastery of the program. Kelly's school there is only one activities ie playing computer comp-rter in the classroom, and gaining games. The complexity and type of work access to it at school is 'a reward'. The 2. Undertake baseline of personality developed by Kelly was the other form drop in Session 2 can be explained by frustration at realising the capability of characteristics. of data collection. Changes in style 3. Demonstrate 'KID PIX' program. should occur as mastery grows. This the program but not being fully aware 4. Client experimentation with should provide an appropriate level of of how to utilise it. program. Asks questions/prompt. reliability/validity. What would you like to add now? Finally, as Kelly's proficiency increased her desire to try other programs has 5.Printing or artwork/printing. DISCUSSION increased also. 6Display of artwork/printing. Examination of the results charted in 7. ObservationofpersonalityFig 4 shows a growth and/or Examination of Kelly's artwork characteristics. strengthening of personality (Appendix 2) shows a noticeable 8.Repetition of steps 4-7 until mastery characteristics as Kelly developed is achieved (needs no prompt on proficiency and mastery was finallyincrease in complexity and also using tools). achieved. Concomitantly there isconnection to her envir nment as corresponding development or growth Kelly's skills at using KID PIXincreased.

NB: in the artwork she produced. It is important to note that there is no This growth in complexity and specific time frame given for the As proficiency increased prompts were connection to the local environment is procedure. The reason for this is it is faded out. In fact prompts were noconsistent with that of changes in development as outlined by Lowenfeld. inappropriate to quanti fy a figure. W hat longer necessary after the second is important is the PROCESS. session.

PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS BASELINES1 S2 S3 S4 S5 POST TEST

Greater need to be alone 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 Courage 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Openess to experience 2 3 2 3 4 4 4 Trust of one's intuition 2 3 1 3 4 4 4 Spontaneous ability to be childlike 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 4 4 Unusual task committment 1 2 3 4 Attraction to the unknown and the mysterious 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 Tendency to be flexible and exploring 2 3 2 4 4 4 Self confidence 2 3 2 3 4 4 4 In control of ones life 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 More freedom from inhibitions 2 3 2 3 4 4

SCORING TABLE

4 - PERSONALITY TRAIT WAS ALWAYS OBSERVABLE (> 75% of time)

3 - PERSONALITY TRAIT WAS OFTEN OBSERVABLE (>50- <75%)

2 - PERSONALITY TRAIT WAS SOMETIMES OBSERVABLE (>25- <50%)

1- PERSONALITY TRAIT WAS RARELY OBSERVABLE (0- <25%)

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 22 CONCLUSION What is of concern is the level of routine A computer driven by quality software Whilst these results are only from an and CHOICE and CONTROL we have like KID FIX provide people with an exploratory case study, I believe there over it, compared to that of people with environment that is multi sensory, non is much to be gained from conducting an intellectual disability. (For some judgemental, patient, empowering and wider scale research in this area. there is a fine line between routine and fun? Such an environment, which the boredom). individual has choice and control Many parents, educators and carers provides the breeding ground for hold a perception that people with an As Lowenfeld stated we have to exploration and innovation and thus intellectual disability prefer, even continue to strive to empower the lives growth in creativity and self e',.eem. require, a high level of routine to cope. of people with disabilities. Computer It is important to note that there is Technologyoffers a key to empowering nothing intrinsically wrong with people. It has been widely documented routines; indeed most of the general as a facilitation of learning 'basic skills', populations lives arebased on routines. so why not basic drives and needs; creativity and self esteem?

Appendix 1 CHART 1

Contrasting Motivation of Behaviour in Person with Positive Self Esteem Versus Person with Negative Self Esteem

Positive Self Esteem Negative Self Esteem Behaviour motivated by Behviour motivated by: Mental health Neurosis Rationality Irrationality Self confidence Self doubt Trust Fear Desire to achieve happiness Desire to minimise pain Desire to use one's consciousness Desire to escape one's to the fullest - sees life as a consciousness - sees series of challenges strategies to withdraw from life Challenges Defensive mechanisms Confidence and openness Distrtiono, reression and - coping reaching out and evasion inviting life's challenges Fear that one is inadequate Love of self and existence and unfit for existence

CHART 2 Opposing attitude or Mental State of Persons with Positive Self Esteem Versus Person with Negative Self Esteem

Positive Self Esteem Negative Self Esteem Behaviour an expression of: Behaviour an expression of: Psychological maturity Arrested or stunted devel- independent thinking based on opment passive, uncritical, deliberate thought processes acceptance of others' ideas Personal choices that lead Personal choices that lead to integration of personality to disintegration of and personal health personality and neurosis Perception of reality based on perception of reality based clarity, intelligibility and on confusion, unintelligib- understanding ility and bewilderment A state of control in one's A state of helplessness and life chronic anxiety A life that has direction and A life that lacks direction purpose and specific goals and purpose and productive goals

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 2 CHART 3

Personality Characteristics Shared by High Self Esteem and Productive, Creative Individuals

Ego strength Internal locus of evaluation Greater need to be alone Courage Self acceptance & self awareness Openness to experience Independent thinking Trust of ones intuition Openness to the subconscious Spontaneous ability to be Intrinsic motivation in child-like one's work Unusual task commitment Need for freedom Attraction toward the unknown Attraction for complexities and the mysterious in ideas, relationships Tendency to be flexible and Acceptance of conflicts and exploring ability to resolve opposites into integrated wholes Self confidence Seeking self growth and self- fulfilment In control of one's life Ability to risk-take More freedom from inhibitions Tendency to be excited by life and challenges

REFERENCES Computer Education Unit, (1986) Peterson, C do Foley, B (1990) Arts Stasinos, D Enhancing the Creative Potential Unlimited Technology Program Fills Void for the Potential and Self Esteem of for Students with Special Developmentally Disabled Mentally Handicapped Greek Educational Needs. NSW Dept of Australian Art Education Dec Children Journal of Creative School Education, Sydney 1990 Vol 14 pp 54-55 Behaviour V18 No 2 pp 117 -132 Grinder, M (1991) Righting The Piper, D (1988)The Apple Australia Williams, H (1990) Use of Computers Educational Conveyor Belt. Special Education Resource with Students WhoHave Autism Metamorphous Press Portland Directory Apple Australia Com 3 Journal pp 13 -14 Harvey, (1990) Computers and The Sydney Yau, C (1991) Essentia Jntergration of The Ross, A (1989) Computer Art. Interrelationships Healthy Self Communicatively Disabled Child Creativity and Process Learning Esteem dr Productive Creativity Corn 3 Computer Newsletter Vol 4 No 4 The Journal of Creative Behaviour Lowenfeld, V (1987) Ch 12 Creative Vol 25 No 2 pp 154 -161 and Mental Growth, The American Journal Of Art Therapy .Vol 25 May

24 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 VIRTUALREALITY: EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL BY RAY ARCHEE Lecturer in Communication Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences University of Western Sydney, Nepean

INTRODUCTION A more general definition comes from Barely aweek passes without some Sherman and Judkins (1992) who stress mention in the media of VR. It is news- the immersive nature of VR: worthy for the likes of the news, cur- "VR allows you to explore a computer- rent affairs programs, Beyond 2000, generated world by actually being in computer magazines, film reviews, it... It has three components: it is inclu- newspapers, hi-fi magazines, commer- sive, it is interactive, and it happens in cials for confectionery, and Playboy. real time. That is to say you become (Surprisingly the academic community part of the world, you can change it, has been slow to jump on the VR band- No computer technology and the changes occur as you make wagon). VR was of negligible interest them." Sherman and Judkins (1992: 17) has caught the public's to the media before 1989 with the main eye more in recent times, thrust coming in 1990. VR can be A related term, "Artificial Reality" was thought of as fin de siecle for the nine- coined by Myron Krueger in the 1970's than that of Virtual Reality ties: it is simultaneously fashionable to cover his own Videoplace art tech- (VR). It has been touted as and dangerous. Containing elements nology (2D interactive video images) the technology of the of psychedelia, alternative lifestyles, and the 3D head-mounted viewing future, as the stuff dreams and virtual sex, VR poses a real chal- technologies of Ivan Sutherland. In the lenge to academia, in particular educa- nineties "artificial reality" mainly re- are made of, as permitting tors, who are constrained by hard ware fers only to Krueger's artistic works the visitation of alternate costs, whilst a rapacious corporatewhereby video images are computer sphere concocts its next marketing plan. controlled and projected large so that worlds, in short as revolu- the participants may interact in novel tionising the ontological Krueger (1991: xiii) states that the ac- ways - with each other, and with com- and epistemological tual term "virtual reality" was coined puter-generated objects and creatures. by Jaron Lanier, the managing director However Krueger does not exclude bases of reality itself. But of VPL Research Inc, a company which the use of wearable technologies such what is VR in reality? This up until recently sold high-tech VR as gloves, 3D goggles and reality suits. paper defines the technol- hardware. Lanier used the term VR as a catch-phrase to describe a whole range Yet another term, "Cyberspace" is of- ogy, reviews the recent of "virtual" things, such as "virtual ten confused with VR - Rheingold literature, and presents worlds", "virtual cockpits", "virtual (1991), uses the terms synonymously - some of the educational workstations", "virtual environments", but is in fact a term invented by science possibilities. It concludes and "virtual memory". It is salient that fiction writer, William Gibson in his the term itself was coined by the head novel, Neuromancer (1984) to describe by arguing that what is of the corporation which held the pat- the "consensual hallucination" of the most deficit is hands-on ents on many of the hardware accou-worldwide digital network into which trement of VR research, such as the experience with the hard- the hero directly jacks his nervous sys- Dataglove and the Eyephones. Hence tem. In the novel, the "Matrix" was the ware of VR. Once fulfilled, typically: repository of all the world's data and the imperative becomes "VR refers to three-dimensional reali- bears some resemblance to the Internet, ties implemented with stereo viewing the Unix-based computer network that that of ideas which will goggles and reality gloves" links the majority of the world's terti- enable VR to reach its full Krueger (1991: xiii) ary educational institutions and high- potential. tech organisations.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 25 The popular literature concerning VR signed the world's first graphics pro-traditional telling model should be is small and highly descriptive.gram in 1962, and the first head supplemented by learning by making Rheingold (1991), Sherman and Judkins mounted display in 1%5. Before the and doing, by having children actively (1992), Aukstakalnis a nd Blatner (1992), 1960's computing was seen purely as engage in the dissemination of knowl- Pimentel and Texeira (1993), and the processing of data, computers were edge. Papert argues that computers, Woo ley (1992) have authored books numbercrunchers. Sutherland changed programming (and presumably VR) which usually overview the technol- forever the potential of computing by serve the child admirably as methods ogy, chronicle its development and launching CAD one of the main indus- of active participation and dialogue warn of its misuse. Research articles by trial drivers of VR in the nineties. with both mentors and the actual edu- Lowenstein and Barbee(1990),Schreier cation process itself. (1990), Allen (1991), Lewis (1991), Trot- EPISTEMOLOGY, COMPUTER LITERACY ter (1991), Fritz (1991), Wright (1991) AND PEDAGOGY The use of 3D graphics has been inves- and Peterson (1992) have likewise ap- Whilst the published research on VR tigated by Sachter (1991) who devel- peared under different disciplinary and educational theory is virtually (sic) oped children's spatial knowledge us- guises but havealso mainly highlighted non-existent, Piaget's "constructivism" ing a 3D graphics package. Fifth grade the existence of VR and its potential (1973), Vygotsky's social vision theory children performed both structured and applications. Whilst the military has (1978)andSeymourPapert's play tasks in virtual space. She found been using virtual cockpits for many "constructionism" theory (1980, 1992) that children improved in their ability years, there has been little published have been cited as some of the theoreti- to solve spatial problems both on the primary research to date, on the effect cal underpinnings of contemporarycomputer and in the real world. Im- of VR technologies in the classroom. research in using computers to facili- provements were also recorded for spa- tate children learning mathematics tial concepts seen in the language cho- A BRIEF HISTORY OF VR (Harel, 1991). VR could just as easily be sen to describe space, drawings of 3D Itis highly contentious as to what con- grounded by such theory. space, understanding of Cartesian ge- stitutes the beginning of VR. Accord- ometry, and the ability to coordinate ing to Rheingold (1991) and depending Piaget's cognitive stage theory states objects and view transformations. One on your exact definition, it can be said that the child develops intelligence by of the most interesting findings was the that the origin of VR started in prehis- experience with the world, via sponta- fact that on pretest measures, girls rated toric times when ancient shaman used neous and individual progression. VR lower than boys, however posttests caves and labyrinths to induce altered would presumably enable the creation showed no significant differences with states of consciousness in their disci- of new worlds to experience and navi- respect to gender. ples; when paintings and sculptures gate leading to new varieties of cogni- were created which depicted meta- tive and intellectual development. The value of computer li teracy has been physical beings and supernatural questioned by several educators. forces. Virtual world remnants can be A feature of Vygotsky's model is the Stevenson (1985) highlighted the dual- found at Lascaux and hundreds of effort to show the importance of the ity of "literacy" as both functional othersites across the planet, including active, vigorous learner at every stage knowledge and ascommunication skills Australia. Whether the experiences of of growth of the child. Mastery of the which has fuelled the debate on com- tPalaeolithic neophyte can be likened environment is accomplished by use of puter literacy, and has focussed on what to that of a be-helmetted VR aficianado "auxiliary stimuli" which lead to im- type of knowledge is necessary. is one of considerable conjecture. mediate and challenging situations ne- Stevenson offers as an alternative, the cessitating interactive reactions with a critical paradigm. This views knowl- Other possible beginnings of VR in- range of activities. Language, cultural edge as more subjective, spiritual, and clude: David Brewster who in 1844 in- artifacts, the child's own body and the personal; recognizes the learner as an vented the stereoscope; Duhauron's ingenious use of any resources as play- active participant in the production of anaglyphic photographic process (1891) things are examples of this need. The meaning; and links the possession with whereby red and green images are used interactive and immersive nature of the creation of knowledge. In order to to give the sensation of depth; the first VR is perfectly sympathetic to thisempower students' learning, the only 3D movie aptly called Bwana Devil Vygotskian model. solution compatible with the critical (1952) began a spate of such movies; the paradigm is to treat the computer as a birth of computing, EIVIAC in 1946; Papert's a lterna te epistemology of edu- cultural object for critical reflection. papers by Englebart and Licklider in cation is significant insofa r as his theory Thus the computer has a place in the the fifties which were blueprints for almost guarantees the use of comput- curriculum as an object of inquiry in modern day VR technology; and the ers as more than mere tools. In thethe continual construction of social science fiction writer, Hugo Gernsback Introduction to the book, knowledge. This conclusion has spe- who in 1963 conceptualised future vir- "Constructionism" he delineates the cial reference to VR which also attempts tual realities. And Ivan Sutherland, the difference between instruction and to construct other realities and con- father of computer graphics who de- constructionism, by stressing that the comitant other cultures.

26 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 36 Salomon (1985) investigated the gap learning with computers. The possibil- VR IN EDUCATION between the learning potentials that ity of employing VR systems in the Sherman and Judkins (1992: 88) report computers provide and the actual im- classroom should invoke serious re- on the first use of VR in educational pact of computer use on learning and valuing of these and other issues. curricula: five groups of children, aged development. He argued that the com- 9 to 15 were able to design and create puter's unique potential is derived in Salomon et al (1991) again stress the virtual worlds of their own. Athough part from four basic attributes: infor- interactiveness of the technology, con- technical assistance came from the mation, symbol systems, user activi- cluding that computer technology, in a HITLab (from the University of Wash- ties, and relations with the user. similar manner to older technologies ington) initial predictions were wrong: Salomon concludes that high level such as writing, augments its potential the children took far less time to under- learning depends upon a range of fac- for enriching intellectual performance stand and assimilate the new technol- tors such as volitional mindfulness, when the individual is consciously en- ogy. Working cooperatively and col- which in turn is partly determined by gaged in the mind-machine partner- laboratively the children were highly the materials encountered and by per- ship. They state that some change in motivated; the longest duration of any sonal, perceptual, and attitudinal fac- performance occurs only in interaction group was three days. Whilst complet- tors. Partner-like interaction (vis a vis with the "tool", whilst other change is ing the project the children learned pro- VR) is one way that such mindfulness more global and longer lasting. VR of- gramming, networking and design. rne can be facilitated. fers the potential for the most engross- technology had a short learning curve, ing mind-machine relationship so far. kids could easily retrace their steps. it Pea (1986) considered the possibilities was very successful, for teachers as of using computers not only to enhance, Interestingly the NSW Department of well as children. but to reorganise children's thinking Education Years 11-12 Secondary Syl- and mental functioning. Pea analysed labus in Computing Studies (1988) sees Noteworthy was the finding that girls several examples of software as cogni- computers in terms of "problem-solv- relished the process just as much as tive technologies, outlining the advan- ing tools". This definition is but an boys. Normally it is the boys who tend tages of the reorganiser approach. It is extension of the giant calculator pre- to favour computing and programming argued that since the cognitive tech- 1960 view. The syllabus takes heed of type subjects and tend to perform bet- nologies we invent can serve as instru- "social implications" and points to the ter. But the "Girls loved it... the process, ments of cultural redefinition, educa- "awareness of the interaction of people rather than goal-oriented system ... they tional goals need careful selection in and institetions with computer based were more creative, more whimsical. terms of their inherent values. What is systems" (p.4). But the syllabus does They produced non-violent worlds, no required is an "activist" research para- not consider computers as media, as blowing up of anything!" (Meredith digm for simultaneously creating and tools for creating identities and chang- Bricken, co-ordinator, cited in Sherman studying changes in the processes and ing our world views, nor as doors to and Judkins: 89). outcomes of human learning with new other worlds. "It (computing) is prima- cognitive and educational technologies rily concerned with the representation A school at West Denton, near Newcas- (especially VR.) and manipulation of data." (p.1) tle was the first European school to use VR. A virtual city was created complete Emihovich and Miller (1986) reviewed Many people view computers as alien with shops, streets and consumer how computers are currently being machines, are intimidated and thus goods. Senior high school students were used and studied in the schools. They shun the technology; many people see able to shop in virtual French and Ger- stressed the ways in which computers them as mere tools to either elect to use man streets, order goods in both lan- will be used to enhance learning and or no. Both views miss the point that guages and calculate payment in francs development, and the need for research computers have irrevocably changed or marks. This virtual language labora- on computer learning to consider the so many aspects of our personal and tory was in part developed by students multi-functional uses of computers in social lives: the way we write, the way themselves who, it was discovered, various contexts, instead of seeing it as we work, the way we communicate enjoyed the creation part just as much a medium with a single effect on learn- and travel; indeed the way we think as the interaction. Other projects ining. The authors used Logo with 1st about ourselves. So pervasive are com- clude a virtual factory for Health and grade children as a learning test -bed puters are in our society that we fail to Safety subjects, where false steps result and argue that any research on compu- recognise their substantial effects on all in bricks and mortar falling all around, ter usage needed to employ a multi- our lives. This will not be the case with and a third project which looks at pub- layered approach accounting for: (1) V R however. Media attention, the hard- lic places forexhibiting art works, which value questions concerning learning ware commitment and the very obvi- themselves are redefined by the VR content; (2) the social cor.text in which ous potential of the technology should medium. computers are placed; and (3) theoreti- lead to conspicuous and distinctive ef- cal principles explaining the process of fects. VR will be no mere tool.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 27 The Canadian system, Mandate, uses Krueger suggests that Sesame Street THE HARDWARE OF VR video cameras in order to place an im- characters could come to life and that At this point in time, the hardware age of a person in a 3D computer-gen- words and mathematical symbols be commitment of a VR system is the main erated world. Users view themselves animated so that the young child may obstacle to VR becoming a usable tech- on an ordinary television screen, but interact with the figures and thus rec- nology for the average person. No other the background can be one of several ognise and be at ease with words and potentially beneficial computer appli- pre-fabricated worlds, which include symbols when they are again encoun- cation necessitates such a large number jungles, rooms full of playable drums, tered on paper. Artificial reality could of expensive and dedicated input de- ice hockey fields and soon, or one of the permit aspects of geometry, spatial vices. There are two main ways of im- participant's own creation. "Hotspots" knowledge and probability to be expe- plementing VR: as a immersive on the backgrounds can be pro- rienced first hand without the child environment via head-mounted dis- grammed to trigger variety of periph- having to come to terms with abstract plays and datagloves; or as a desktop erals via Midi signals. The participant concepts. Mathematical concepts such system, using the monitor to view the can, of course interact with the objects as fractions, cartesian geometry and virtual environment, which may also around him or her by just virtually algebra (notoriously difficult concepts) include the use ofgloves, special glasses touching the hotspot. would be amenable to "concretising" or 3D mice. using VR or artificial reality systems. Mandala has already been used in On- Most immersive systems utilise high- tario schools where it has been de- Winn and Bricken (1992) did just that end graphics workstations such as the scribed as "stepping into Sesa me Street: by creating virtual worlds for the learn- ones marketed by Silicon Graphics Inc for elementary classes, and as a "chal- ing of mathematical concepts, especially and costing between $20,000 and lenging, teaching video game" for older "spatial algebra" (as opposed to tex- 5200,000 before the addition of input children. It has been used to teach dance, tual algebra). By assigning x, y and z devices such as the VPL da taglove, cost- music, rhythm, as well as more intellec- values to three-dimensional space chil- ing $9,000. There are also systems be- tual subjects as reading, language teach- dren could interact with symbols in ing developed which use parallel proc- ing, business charting, and economic entirely predictable and naturalistic essors, and exotic platforms well be- data presentation. ways via an immersive VR system. Al- yond the reach of most schools. Of though this preliminary work-in- course there are no standards for this As the basis of modern simulators, VR progress report does not include any pioneering work, all VR companies has the potential to affect all our jobs, pretest/posttest data, Winn and being small businesses competing for especially the dangerous and physical Bricken's concluding six remarks sum- what is a miniscule market at present - ones. Simulators are now used to train marise the potential advantages of VR: there are but 300 estimated fully pilots, train drivers, and fire-fighters. immersivesystemsworldwide Virtual welding, motor vehicle driv- 1.Virtual worlds are totally engaging (Pimentel and Teixeira, 1993). ing, ship na vigation, control desk work, and immersive for the stud ent,both engineering, architecture, plumbing, cognitively and a ffectively. As an alternative, the humble PC is oil-rig work, police riot control, crisis capable of being used as a desktop- management, first aid, and a range of 2. Interaction in the virtual world is based non-immersive platform and is medical, dental and veterinary appli- intuitive, enabling children to thus within the reach of many compu- cations are all being used at this mo- naturally grasp, point and gesture. ter enthusiasts who would like to expe- ment. rience VR first-hand without standing 3.Virtual worlds may be programmed in long queues or visiting Timezone. Krueger (1991:192) proposes that chil- to provide various levels of guid- Software such as Sense8's dren be asked to be scientists on artifi- ance to students. WorldToolKit and Autodesk's 3D Stu- cial reality planets, so that they might dio allow the creation of 3D objects and discover the laws of cause and effect, 4.Virtual objects behave in concrete the "flyaround" via special 3D input and identify the nature of the virtual ways enabling children to use their devices. Although resembling AutoCad flora and fauna. The system would al- previous experience with the real architectural walkthrus, the low children to enter the world one at a world. "flyaround" permits the viewer to in- time, in order to interact with the alien teract with an object from any angle world; then they could be asked to 5.Students may repeatedly access the whatsoever. compare notes by discussing what they samevirtual scene thus building on had seen. Their incongruent observa- previous knowledge and under- Yet another alternative, even more actions would lead to a different notion of standing. cessible is the use of a software package scientific observation, they would be called REND386 and the Mattel/ confused, but eventually comprehend 6. The system can automate some Nintendo Powerglove and Sega shut- just as real scientists do. procedures leaving the studentfree ter glasses, which can be both attached to concentrate on more important to the serial port of an ordinary 386. or activities.

28 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 486-based PC. Originally designed by Emihovich, C. and Miller, G.E. (1986). Roehl, B.,Stampe, D. and Eagan,J.(Jurie VPL for the Nintendo Entertainment Verbal Mediation in Logo Instruc- 1993). Virtual RealityCreations.The System, the Po werglove, in fact a scaled - tion: Learning from a Vygotskian Waite Group: New York. down Dataglove, can be used as an Perspective. Paper presented at the Rheingold, H. (1991). Virtual Reality. input device to control a library of pro- Annual Meeting of the American Mandarin paperbacks: London. grammed worlds and games. The Sega Educational Research Association Sachter, J.E. (1991). Different Styles of glasses, also for games machines, per- (67th, San Francisco, CA, April 16- Exploration and Construction of 3D mit a 3D effect. It is this platform which 20, 1986). Spatial Knowledge in a 3D Com- could serve the basis for a range of Fritz, M. (1991). The World of Virtual puter Graphics Microworld. In I. educational ideas which the VR indus- Reality. Training, 28(2) Feb 1991, Harel and S. Papert eds. (1991) try is currently struggling to imagine. 45-50. Constructionism. Ablex: Norwood, For while the VR industry is good at Harel, I. (1991). Children Designers: New Jersey, 335-364. producing realistic images and fantas- Interdisciplinary constructions for Salomon, G. (1985). Information Tech- tic worlds, there is a dearth of appropri- learning and knowing in a math- nologies: What You See Is Not (Al- ate ideas to best utilise the technology. ematics -richschool.Ablex: ways) What You Get. Revised. An Norwood, New Jersey. earlier version of this paper was Without such personal experience, VR Harel, I. and Papert, S. eds. (1991). presented at the Annual Meeting of is but pie-in-the-sky for most people. Constructionism. Ablex: Norwood, the American Educational Research Media hype and the high cost of high- New Jersey. Association (Chicago, IL, March 31- end VR systems mean that the technol- Krueger, M.S. (1991). Artificial Reality April 4, 1985). ogy will remain mysterious and forbid- II. Addison-Wesley: Reading, Mass. Salomon, G. et at (1991). Partners in ding by society, that is, until a major Lavroff, N. (1992). Virtual Reality Cognition: Extending Human In- manufacturer offers a complete and Playhouse: Exploring Artificial telligence with Intelligent Tech- inexpensive system. But can we as edu- Worlds on Your PC. The Waite nologies. Educational Researcher, cators sit back and wait for this to oc- Group: New York. 20(3), Apr 1991, 2-9. cur? VR is already the site of new theory Lewis, P.H. (1991). The Technology of Schreier, E. M. (1990). The Future of in a whole range of disciplines from Art Tomorrow. Principal, 71(2) Nov Access Technology for Blind and to Zoology. As educators we need to be 1991, 6-7. Visually Impaired People. Journal able to experience this new technology Lorie, P. and Murray-Clark, S. (1989). of Visual Impairment and Blind- firsthand, and so be able to make some Historyof the Future:a Chronology. ness, 84(10), Dec 1990, 520-523. informed judgements as to its value for Doubleday: New York. Shade, D.D. (1987). Microcomputers our classrooms and for our students. Lowenstein, R. and Barbee, D.E. (1990). and Preschoolers: Bandwagon or Some of us may be excited by the pros- The New Technology: Agent of Boon. Paper presented at the An- pect of new worlds and new ways of Transformation. Department of nual Meeting of the National As- teaching. Some of us may even have the Labor, Washington, DC. Office of sociation for the Education of Young skills to develop new VR applications. Strategic Planning and Policy De- Children (Chicago, IL, November I believe that we need to start thinking velopment. 12-15, 1987). about this technology now, before the Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Chil- Sherman, B. and Judkins, P. (1992). entertainment industry proffers VR, dren, Computers and Powerful Glimpses of Heaven and Hell: Vir- replete with its own visions, and its Ideas. Basic Books: New York. tual Reality and Its Implications. own values to our children in the form Pea, R.D. (1986). Beyond Amplifica- Hodder and Stoughton: Kent. of the latest arcade game. No other tion: Using the Computer To Reor- Stevenson, R.B. (1985). Computer Lit- com puter a pplica t ion has such a poten- ganize Mental Functioning. Tech- eracy and Empowered Learning: A tial for both use and misuse. nical Report No. 38. Bank Street Theoretical Perspective. Paper pre- Coll. of Education, New York, NY. sented at the Annual Convention of REFERENCES: Center for Children and Technol- the Association for Educational Aukstakalnis, S. and Blatner, P. (1992). ogy. Communications and Technology Silicon Mirage. Peachpit Press: New Piaget, J. (1973). The Child and Reality: (Ana heim,CA, January 17-23,1985). York. Problems of Genetic Psychology. Tart, C.T. (1990). Multiple personality, Allen, B.S. (1991). Virtualities. Educa- Grossman: New York. altered states and virtual reality: tional Media and Technology Year- Pimentel, K. and Teixeira, K. (1993) The world simulation process ap- book, 7, 47-53. Virtual Reality: Through the New proach. Dissociation Progress in the Benedikt. M. (1991). Cyberspace: First Looking Glass. Windcrest Dooks: Dissociative Disorders, 3(4), Dec Steps. MIT Press: Chicago. New York. 1991, 222-233. Board of Secondary Education NSW Peterson, I. (1992). Looking-Glass Trotter, A. (1991). In the School Game, (1988). Syllabus Years 11-12: Com- Worlds. Science News, 141(1), Jan Your Options Abound. Executive puting Studies 2 Unit Course. NSW 1992, 8-10. Educator, 13(6), Jun 1991, 23. Department of Education, North Sydney. AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 29 Turk le, S. (1983). The Second Self. Winn, W. and Bricken, W. (1992). De- Wooley, B. (1992). Virtual Reality: a Granada: London. signing Virtual Worlds for Use in Journey in Hype and Hyperreality. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Mathematics Education: The Ex- Blackwell Publishers: Oxford. Harvard University Press: Cam- ample of Algebra. Educational Wright, K. (1990). The Road to the Glo- bridge, Mass. Technology, 32(12) Dec 1992,12 -19. bal Village. Scientific American, Winograd, T. and Flores, F. (1987). 262(3), Mar 1990, 83-94. Understanding Computers and Cognition. Addison- Wesley: Read- ing, Mass.

SO AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 40 THEDEVELOPMENT OF A PICTORIAL DATABASE TO TEACH PLANT IDENTIRCATION BY NICHOLAS BAILEY Senior Lecturer in Management & Information Technology. JAMIE PEARSON, Lecturer in Information Technology School of V.C.A.H. Ltd University of Melbourne The subject has been traditionally not those in which we were interested Swan St. Richmond, Victoria.3121. taught by the use of collected speci- in teaching. It was plainly necessary to mens and plant manuals. This method develop the database and images our- has been very successful over the 100 selves. years that horticulture has been taught at Burnley but it does have its limita- WHAT WAS DEVELOPED tions in the expense of collecting the The development process took two di- 'Mr material and the timing of its availabil- rections. The first was to utilise the ex- ity. Specific identification features such isting images on video disc and to make as flowers are obviously only present them more readily accessible to the at certain times of the year. uninformed user. The video disc play which was used was a Sony LDP3600 D. It was decided that an ideal way to This player will play both PAL and The ability to identify overcome these difficulties, and to as- NTSC discs. This was necessary since specific plant species and sist the traditional approach, was to the discs purchased (Table 1) were from have a knowledge of their produce a computerised pictorial data the United States of America and hence base which contained not only the rel- were in NTSC format. Normally this characteristics is very evant data pertaining to each plant but player is controlled using a hand con- important for a horticultur- also a number of images of that plant as trol unit in which the user enters the ist. The teaching of this well. These images were to show major number of the frame they wish to view. plant features for either identification To make access easier a controller pro- aspect is a major part of or use. gram was written for a P.C. using the the horticultural courses d Ba se III+ programming language. This taught at the Burnley EXISTING SYSTEMS was later compiled using Clipper 5.0. A number of plant data bases are avail- Data for each of the 900 plants on the Campus of the Victorian able commercially, there are also a video disk was entered into a data base, College of Agriculture and number of video disks available which this data included Botanical Name, Horticulture Ltd. Depend- hold plant images, but none combined Common Name, and Starting and fin- both data and images. The other prob- ishing frame numbers. This meant that ing upon the course un- lem with the existing systems was that images could be accessed via Botanica' dertaken students have to they were not the range of plants that and Common names or any part them learn to identify over 1,000 were taught and were common in Aus- of. Once having selected a plant the tralia since some of the systems came user is able to scroll forward and back plant varieties. In addition from overseas or interstate. The other wards through the images of that plant to species and common problem was that the characteristics In some cases that may be as many as 1c. names the students must which were stored in theda tabases were images for one variety. also learn over 20 charac- Name Images Video Size Sequences teristics relating to growth, Encyclopedia of Landscape Plants 9000 Y 12" special features, tolerances and taxonomy. Exotic Plants 2000 Y 12" Herbaceous Ornamentals 1200 Table 1. Video Discs purchased. All discs were purchased from Videodiscovery Inc., Seattle, Washington. AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 31

a OUR OWN IMAGES displayed on a P.C. using a ParadiseSuper VHS The second process was to develop our SVGA card which gives 256 colours x video Camera own images and use them in conjunc- 640 x 480 pixels. There is surprisingly with slide tion with the data which was already little loss of quality in the image in itsattachment contained in the plant manuals and reduction from a 24 Bit (16 million col- stored on disk as Microsoft Word 5.0 ours) to an 8 bit (256 colour) image. files. This data was converted into a dBase III+ file by a conversion pro- The pathway for capturing the image is gram which utilised the standard for- set out in figure I. Image captured mat of the Word 5.0 plant data sheets. from the video This allowed an easy conversion in The software which is used to link the camera through much less time than would have been image to the database is Picture Power Media grabber required by retyping the data. 3.1 from Pictureware Inc. and saved in 24 This is a stand alone package that also Bit PICT format The capturing and use of the plant comes with commands that can be uti- images was a far more involved exer- lised in dBase Ill+ and Clipper pro- immommEno cise. It was decided that since the tech- grams. The programs were then writ- nology was improving rapidly in this ten to allow records to be called by area the images should be captured Botanical name, Common name and The image is Family name. These were again writ- and stored in as higher resolution as then resized possible, even if at this stage a down- ten in the dBase III+ programming lan-and Converted graded image was used to present the guage and complied later using Clip- via Photoshop data. This was based upon the reason- per 5.0 with some minor adjustment. into 16 Bit ing that an image would be unlikely to Targa Files be captured twice, once at low resolu-The software is written to allow the tion and later after a change in technol- user to see multiple screens of data on ogy again at a higher resolution. The the chosen plant and also to call up any Transfer from costs (.4 being able to provide multiple images that are attached to the data Mac to MSDOS LapLinlj displays of high level creation were too record (Figures 2 do 3). There is no limit through MAC 111 great for the project, therefore it was to the number of images that may be LapLink Mac III necessary to be able to display the im- attached to each record. The only limi- ages at lower levels of resolution. tation is the size of the hard disk used to store the package. Currently the sys- The system for capturing the images tem holds data on 1,000 plants and 385 comprised: images for 244 of those plants. This Apple Macintosh II ci Microcom- requires puter 63 Mbytes of space on the hard disk. 330Mb H.D., 4Mb RAM, Cannon The data is made available to a number MSDOS 386/25 Erasable Optical Disk of 386 and 486 computers via a network computer 4 MB Ram Rasterops 24STV Graphics Card running under Netware Lite 1.0 SVHS Video camera with 35mm 320 MB H.D. Paradise VGA slide holder FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Mediagrabber 1.0 Software The capturing of images and attaching 1024 Video card Photoshop 1.0 Software them to the plant database is an on going project.The 35mm slides re- The images were taken from 35mm quired need to be of high quality and slides and captured using the concentrate on a specific plant. The Mediagrabber software as 24 Bit im- takin g of these slides continues through- ages which are approximately 1 Mbyte out to year as plants show differentThe image is in size. Photoshop was used to convert characteristics at varying times of the then converted these images to 16 Bit Targa files which year. from 16 Bit reduces their size to about 320 K. Targa Files into 8 Bit SVGA files The development of other pictorial These files are then transferred to the for display in databases is also continuing. Current P.C. system using Lap Link Mac III. Picture Power projects include a database of Victorian Once there they are converted the 8 bit 3.1 Eucalypt species and also a database of Super VGA files of about 156 K. These horticultural pest and diseases. Fig. 1 The pathway from capturing images on th files are now in a format which can be Macintosh to their display on an MSDOS machit

32 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 42 VCAH - Burnley Plant Materials Database

Botanical Name: Iris unguicularis (syn. I. stylosa) Comnon Name: Algerian Iris. Family: Iridaceae Origin:North Africa, Southern Europe to Asia Minor.

Height at 5 years: 300mm x 450mm Height at maturity: 30Catm x 6037m Growth Rate : 75mm per annum. Pests and Disease: Generally trouble free.

Propagation: Rarely seed, division. Availability: Frequently.

Tolerances Light: Sun to shade. Winter Cold: > -lOoC. Wind: High. Salt Spray: High. Drought: High. Water Logging: Average Compaction: Not known. PH: Complete range.

Cultivation Ease: Easy.

Press for next screen to exit - to view the Image

Figure 2.Opening data screen of plant database.

VCAH Burnley Plant Materials Database

Botanical Name: Iris unguicularis (syn. I. stylosa) Comnon Name: Algerian Iris. Family: Iridaceae Image 1 of 1

(+) for NEXT (-) for PREVIOUS (Esc) to eXit

Figure 3.Plant image screen of plant database.

33 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

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I ICTO I ILI en' Ir ATIA11 Ifq11111311TILIn 1111 V 411111 ASPREADSHEET SYSTEM FOR EDUCATIONAL USE BASED ON MICROSOFT EXCEL BY RICHARD BEARE,

Department of Science Education, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K.

Reference is made to the ways in Figure one summarises some of the which spreadsheets can aid the main usesof spreadsheetsin learning of concepts particularly in educational contexts. These categories the context of modelling and are not exclusive but overlap; indeed simulations.This is related to the the boxes in the diagram have been psychological ideas of concept image deliberately grouped to suggest areas and generic organiser. Evidence is of overlap.A spreadsheet that ler given to support a constructivist calculates the trajectories of projectiles, approach to the use of spreadsheets. for example, is an example of a numerical solution being found to a The great educational problem; however it could be used as a potential of spreadsheet EDUCATIONAL POTENTIAL OF simulation, it could be a student programs such as SPREADSHEETS modelling exercise and it could be seen Microsoft Excel is briefly Spreadsheet programs are now as a conceptual teaching tool to help the understanding of the Physics involved available which combine sophisticated described and the in projectile motion.However, two graphics and database ca pabilities with different types of an easy to use mouse-driven usermain areas of overlap may be distinguished in the diagram: the educational application interface and pull down menus. Such spreadsheet programs offer the graphical exploration and analysis of data are outlined. This and mathematical modelling, simulations following benefits: educational potential is and solving problems. they are interactive; i.e. they give taken advantage of in a immediate numerical and graphical There is not space here to develop in system called the feedback to changing data ordetail the various categories of usage, formulae, but discussion of applications in Science Warwick Spreadsheet they enable data, formulae and and Mathematics will be found in Beare System which adds graphical output to be available on (1991, 1992,1993a). Further references additional features to screen at once, and examples will be found in Attwood they can solve complex problems(1992), Beare (1993c), Brosnan (1989, Excel and overcomes a and handle large amount of data 1990), the CBMACP (1992), Davies number of drawbacks without any need for programming. (1992), Elliot (1988), Finnemore (1990), Healy a nd Sutherland (1991), Hewitson with using it as it stands. Because of these characteristics they (1992), Keeling and Whiteman (1990), have the ca pability to facilitates variety Simple examples are NCET (1990) and Osborn (1987). given to illustrate the of different learning styles which can be characterised by such terms as: open- THE WARWICK SPREADSHEET SYSTEM exploration of data and ended, problem-oriented, investigative, In order to realise the full educational mathematical modelling discovery oriented, active and student- centred. Through such learning stylespotential of spreadsheet and graphical using spreadsheets. students having a large measure ofdatabase programs a way of using them control and ownership over theiris needed which is simple and easy to learning. use in the classroom while at the same

35 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Simple Aiding conceptual calculating learning Processing and Equation Database Simulating analysing data solving Exploring data graphically Modelling Testing models against data Figure One: Different educational applications of spreadsheets

time offering as many educationally much of the complexity of many best fit lines and exponentials, useful features as possible.The common Excel operations, selection of data to meet specific Warwick Spreadsheet System (WSS the need for several operations to criteria, was developed to meet these needs produce and label a graph or chart, automatic drawing of frequency (Beare, 1993b). It is based on Microsoft (even with Excel 4's 'chart wizard' charts (not done by Excel itself), Excel and has its own set of pull-down facility), easy-to-use modelling system menus. The menus contains sets of the bewildering range of different capability. commands each of which effectively options and possibilities that Excel Some of these features will become runs a program written to use Excel 's offers, only a few of which are more apparent in the next two sections in-built 'macro language' to carry out a needed in the classroom, whichalsoshow how new particular operation, e.g. plotting a the need to name cells manually spreadsheets are created. given quantity of a graph or making a before using names in formulae fixed copy of a particular plot on a (WSS does this automatically), A VERY SIMPLE SPREADSHEET graph so that comparisons can be make the fact that within Excel quantities CONTAINING NUMERICAL DATA with other plots when the spreadsheet in successive rows of a step by step Figure 2 shows a spreadsheet set up by data is changed. The system makes use calculation cannot easily be referred a thirteen year old for her Geography of as many of Excel's educationally to without cell references. homework.It contains petrol prices powerful featuresaspossible, During the three and a half year and kilometre readings logged on a especially: developmentphase of WSS trip through the Outback from its range of different types of graph spreadsheets were written for Science Adelaide to the Red Centre of Australia and chart, subjects and these are published in 1991. Three charts and graphs are dynamic linking of spreadsheet data separately, (Beare, 1993c, Hewitson, shown. WSS automatically saves three to graphs and charts so that they 1993,Stephen,1993). These Excel 'charts' (some of which might be change whenever the spreadsheet spreadsheets and the Warwick graphs in the usual sense) whenever it changes, Spreadsheet System itself were trialled saves a spreadsheet and these are the ability to refer to cells using extensively by Hewitson and Stephen opened automatically when the names, so that formulae can be with classes at Oundle School. The spreadsheet is opened. The student written in ordinary words or resulting feedback was valuable in has used commands such as Choose as algebraic symbols, (i.e. without suggesting what features to include yl to indicate which columns of data needing cell references such as C3 and the best ways of implementing are to be plotted. Chart titles and axis or $(.43), them. Some of these features are: labels appear automatically and are the ability to exchange data with a up to three charts or graphs linked to appropria te spreadsheet cells. wide range of other applications automatically linked to each The charts and scatter graph with best including other spread sheets, word- spreadsheet, fit line illustra te di fferent ways in which processors and desk-top publishers, superimposing of separate plots for data can be explored graphically to Excel (and WSS ) is available for comparison purposes, find features such as trends and both Apple Macintosh and PC plotting of all or only part of any set relationships. computers. of data, The student expected to find petrol WSS overcomes a number of problems easy formatting commands for prices increasing the farther the fuel in using Excel .It eliminates: spreadsheets, charts and graphs, had to be transported and this clearly

36 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 46 influenced what data she entered onto and trends to look for; sometimes to A SPREADSHEET CONTAINING A SIMPLE the spreadsheet and what was plotted. suggest theories after a relationship MATHEMATICAL MODEL hasbeen discovered. Why, forexample, In this way data interacts with Figures 3 shows a spreadsheet set up is petrol so much more expensive at hypotheses and theories about it, to model hypothetical changes in a King's Canyon than at Alice Springs? sometimes to suggest what correlations population (rabbits perhaps?).

PETROL PRICES IN THE OUTBACK

i Place number Place namePrice in cents/litre Km from Adelaide

X2 X3 X1 Y1 Y3 Y2 n 1.._ 1 Adelaide 63.9 0 2 Port Pine 66.9 226 3 Port Augusta 72.6 319 4 Pimba 79.9 504 5 Glendambo 78.7 623 6 Goober Pedy 86.9 889 7Cadney Homestead 83.9 1055 8 Kulgera 82.9 1328 9 Erldunda 85.9 1406 10 Alice Springs 80.4 1533 11 Curtain Springs 88.1 1575 12 Ayers Rock 86.5 1665 13 Kings Creek 102 1701

Kmfrom Adelaide Price in cents/litre 0 1 000 0 50 100 Adelaide Port PirieINII Port Augusta Pimba Glendambo Coober Pedy 111M=1 Cadney Homestead Kulgera Erldunda Alice SpringsNEI Curtain Springs IMMMENO Ayers Rock Kings Creek 11.1. Price In cents per litre

100- AB,.....-1111111 50- Figure 2: a simple spreadsheet containing 0 numericaldata,(top:the 0 1000 2000 spreadsheet, bottom: two different graphical views of the data) Km from Adelaide

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 37 which the spreadsheet can be Figure 4 is the resulting graph. Figure 5 is an alternative way in viewed. It shows the formulae used.

POPULATION Richard Beare6th June 1991 birth rate Ideath rate starting rate of growth ( %) (%)population (as fraction) descriptive A br dr start rateA labels for B 10.00 2.00 1000 0.08 quantities C year increasepopulation migration for -011F- use in into area formulae X1 Y1 E n inc pop miqE formulae in F 1990 1000 0F row G get copied down G 1991 80 1080 0G to row H by 1992 336 1416 250 Initialise 1993 363 1780 250 command 1994 392 2172 250 1995 174 2346 0 1996 188 2534 0 1997 1203 3736 1 000 1998 299 4035 0 1999 323 4358_ 0 HitVARSIN, 349 4707 0H AUTOMATIC CHART LABELS x-axis and y-axis labels - row C x-y data labels - row D title - row D if using separate charts otherwise the top left hand cell

Figure 3: a spreadsheet showing changes in a population

POPULATION

4000 0 P 3000 - u 2000 a

1000 0 n 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 year

Figure 4: the corresponding graph of population changes

38 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 6th June 1991 POPULATION Richard Beare rate of growth birth rate death rate starting (as fraction) ( %) ( %) population A Abr dr start rate =(br-dr)/100 B B10 2 1000 migration C Cyear increase population into area D

X1 Y1 m E En inc 0 F F1990 =start 0 G G (lastpop*rate)+miq =lastpop+inc .(lastpop*rate)+mig =lastpop+inc 250 =(lasop*rate)+mlq =lastpop+inc 250 .--(lastpop*rate)+mig =lastpop+inc 250 .(lastpop*rate)+mig =lastpop+inc 0 A--(lastpoprate)+mig =lastpop+inc 0 --(lastpop*rate)+mig =lastpop+inc 1000 =(lastpoprate)+miq =lastpop+inc 0 (lastpop*rate)+mig =lastpop+inc +inc H H = last .o .*rate +mi =last.

Figure 5: an alternative view of the population spreadsheet showing formulae rather than values

POPULATION Richard Beare 6th June 1991 birth rate death rate starting rate of growth ( %) ( %) population Jas fraction) A..br dr start rate A B10 2 1000 = br-dr/100B

Cyear increase population migration C D into area X1 Y1 En inc pop miq E F1990 =start 0 F G =(lastpop*rate)+mig =lastpop+inc 0 G 250 250 250 0 0 1000 0 0 0 H

Figure 6: showing the data and formulae that the user needs to enter (the sytem automatically replicates the formulae in row G)

39 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 To create a WSS spreadsheet the is that constant values (e.g. migration) most effectively internalised when numerical data, descriptive labels and do not get copied down (as they would related to their active use by students formulae required are firstentered onto normally with Excel ). The top row in in a variety of situations. Such ideas a blank template.(Having such a the lower section (row F) is not copied were implicit in Piaget's views on template necessarily restricts one's down in order that it can be used for concept development and werebehind freedom a little but it greatly reduces initial values and formulae. As can be active approachestoteaching the thinking and planning time for new seen from figure 6, formulae used in a Mathematics and Science.Practical spreadsheets and makes other's model can contain whole words or just investigations that the pupils carried spreadsheets more readily abbreviations and there is no need to out were intended to act as vehicles understood.)It will be seen that employ cell references in formulae through which students' cognitive different sections on the spreadsheet (although this is occasionally also structures could develop. Much effort are used for different purposes. The convenient). The name lastpop refers to has gone into the idea of mathematical top section (above the shaded area) is the last value of the quantity in the modelling as a means of achieving used for numerical quantities and column named pop, i.e. the value in the conceptual understanding through formulae that are calculated just once row above. making students express their understanding in quantitative terms (e.g. the rate of growth). The lower section These features make WSS effectively a is used for tables of values, both (e.g. Gorny, 1988, Schecker, 1991, modelling system, but with theimportant CBMACP, 1992). A model is just a set calculated ones, (e.g. increase and extra feature that mathematical models population) and those entered as of equations chosen by someone can be combined with numerical data (teacher or student) in order to numerical data, (e.g. migration into area). (as illustrated in simple form by this Rows A and E have a key role to play represent an aspect of reality. When, population spreadsheet). Sometimes however, it is used by someone to because they contain the names that are this ability to combine formulae and used to name automatically the investigate that reality it becomes a data is very important, for example simulation. Simulations allow students quantities immediately underneath so from whenprocessingdata to explore ideas in a practical way so that they can be used in formulae (rows experiments or fieldwork, and when B and F to H respectively). Rows C and helping them to develop their cognitive comparing a theoretical model with structures .They are less powerful D are used to provide (default) titles, real data. An example of the latter axis labels and 'data labels' for graphs than modelling because the student is would be a genetic model thatonly concerned with observable and charts. These appear automatically explained how the numbers of dark when particular columns are chosen as behaviour rather than underlying forms of peppered moths in Nineteenth x and y coordinates. theoretical relationships. Nevertheless Century England increased after the they are very useful because they are To set up the spreadsheet one has only Industrial Revolution while the accessible to a much wider range of to type in the data shown in figure 6. numbers of light forms decreased students and need very limited The Initialise command then replicates (Hewitson 1993). mathematical skills. any formulae in the second row of the SPREADSHEETS TO AID CONCEPTUAL bottom section (row G) soa utomatically Building on the idea of cognitive LEARNING setting up the series of step by step structures Tall (1989) has suggested calculations needed to model the Fundamentalto modern educational the useful idea of software as a generic population changes. A useful feature thinking is the idea that concepts are organiser. This is 'an environment (or

3500 P 3000 o 2500 P birth rate = 15 u 2000 I 43 birth rate = 10 a 1500 birth rate = 5 t1000 r: i o 500 n 0 1990 1995 2000 year

Figure 7: the effect of different birth rates on a population

40 ALSTRAL!AN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 511 microworld) which enables the learner to works. The advantage of specific insight favourable growth conditions exist and manipulate examples and (if possible) non- is that it involves the student in thinking then suddenly crash to a low level for examples of a spt-cific mathematical concept at a deeper level about the ideas a variety of reasons. The second gives or a related system of concepts.The involved. It also helps the synthesis in a growth curve which is initially intention is to help the learner gain the student's mind between different exponential but then levels off to the experiences which will provide a cognitive aspects of a student's understanding of value K. It describes (again crudely) structure on which the learner may reflect a concept, what Tall calls the concept species which are slower growing but to build the more abstract concepts'. The image: 'We shall use the term concept more competitive than others in the idea of generic organiser is very helpful image to describe the total cognitive long run (oak trees for example). The in understanding why simulations are structure that isassociated with the concept, students used a spreadsheet which useful learning tools. WSS provides an which includes all the mental pictures and drew (without their understanding the ideal environment for the construction associated properties and processes As formulae used) the two types of growth of models and their manipulation as the concept image develops it need not be curve.Values of r and K could be simulations. Thepopulation coherent at all times ....' Given the alteredanddifferentgraphs spreadsheet described above, for simplicity with which spreadsheets can superimposedforcomparison example, could be used to explore the be set up using WSS one may go even purposes. concepts of birth rate and growth rate further and suggest that students Figure 8: typicalgrowthcurves for and how they affect the graph of should whenever possible set them up r and K-selectingspecies population growth. This is illustrated for themselves - a process which forces Threegroups of about 20 students each in figure 7 where three growth curves themtoconstructtheir own used the same spreadsheet but were have been superimposed for different understanding. This fits in very well given different printed worksheets. At birth rates, (the death rate having been with constructivist views of learning the top of each worksheet a different fixed at 2 per cent per annum and and with much work that has been set of instructions was given as follows: migration having been made zero). done on modelling as an effective learning activity. Prescriptive' group: Go through A verygreatadvantageof a spreadsheet CONSTRUCTIVIST WAYS OF USING the numbered instructions and system over other ways of modelling questions in order.Record any and creating simulations (e.g. by SPREADSHEET answers required in the spaces programming) is that it is quick and The author recently used a spreadsheet provided, easy to do as the population example approach to aid understanding of two demonstrates.The student can different types of biological growth 'Constructivist' group: Before therefore more easily understand not strategy, known as r-selection and K- carrying out each investigation I just what the computer is doing but selectionafterthesignificant would like you to try and predict how it does it.Tall calls this specific parameters in the equations governing the outcome of it and to give reasons insight as opposed to analogue insight their growth rates: dN/dt = rN and for your prediction. Record these (where only the principles are dN/dt = rN(K-N)/K. The first (see things in the spaces provided. understood) and external insight where figure 8) gives an exponential growth Afterwards record your findings. the computer is acting as what a curve and relates (crudely) to species If they differ in any way from your scientist would call a black box, i.e. its such as greenfly which will rapidly predictions try and modify you behaviour is understood but not how it mushroominnumberswhen explanation to account for the differences,

n 60 In 40 b e 20

r 0 S 0 20 40 60 80 100 time

41 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 51 'Open-ended' group: Before could be opened up.Further Business Studies. (The Economics carrying out each investigation development ofready-to-use Association, 1 Keymer Road, think about how you are going to spreadsheets and further research into Hassocks, West Sussex BN6 8AD, carry it out.In some cases the the best ways of using them will help U.K.) approach might be quite obvious; develop this new approach to learning. Elliot, C. (1988) Spreadsheets in Science in other cases it may require some Teaching. School Science Review. REFERENCES thought.After carrying out the 70, 87-93. investigationgiveashort Attwood, G. (1992) Using Spreadsheets Finnemore, D.J. (1990)More explanation in the spaces provided Effectively. (McGraw Hill Intl) Spreadsheets in Science Teaching. of how you went about the investigation School Science Review, 71, 94-98 Beare, R.A. (1991) A system to exploit and what you expected to find, what Corny, P. (1988) Didactic and Software- the spreadsheet'Excel'for you actually found out and what your Ergonomic Aspects of Dynamic enhancing learning in science. conclusions were. Modelling and Simulation Systems. Research in Science Education. 21, In Lovis, F. and Tagg, E.D., A pre-test and an identical post-test 20-29. (Annual publication of the (eds.),Computers in Education. were given as well as an attitude Australasian Science Education Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., questionnaire. Of those students who Research Association). originally got a given graphical North Holland. Beare, R.A. (1992) Software Tools in Healy, L. and Sutherland, R.(1991) question wrong, about twice as many Science Classrooms.Journal of Exploring Mathematics with subsequently got it right in the Computer Assisted Learning.8, Spreadsheets. (Blackwell) 'constructivist' group as in the other 221-230. Hewitson, J.F.(1993) Warwick two (68% as compared with 30% and Beare, R.A. (1993a) How spreadsheets Spreadsheet System First Biology 37%). The increases on non-graphical can aid a variety of mathematical Pack, (Spreadsheets, worksheets, questions (i.e. those testing biological learning activities from primary to teacher's guide) (Amo Publishing, understanding) were about half as great tertiary level. Paper tobe presented 123 Westmead Road, Sutton, Surrey but in the same relative proportions at theTechnology and Mathematics SM1 4JH, U.K.) between the three groups.The Teaching Conference, Birmingham, Keeling, R. and Whiteman, S. (1990) spreadsheet was intended to help UK. in September 1993. Simply Spreadsheets. (KW students construct and integrate the Beare, R.A.(1993b) Warwick Publications, 42 Compton Drive, various components of a complete Spreadsheet System, (software and Streetly, Sutton Cold field B74 2DB, concept image of r or K-selection. supporting documentation) (Amo U.K.) However it seems that this did not Publishing, 123 Westmead Road, NCET(NationalCouncilfor happen efficiently unless specific steps Sutton, Surrey SM1 4JH, U.K.) Educational Technology) (1990) were taken to cause it to happen - as Beare,R.A. (1993c) Warwick Thinking About Spreadsheets. with the predict with reasons - observe - Spreadsheet System First Physics (NCET, Science Park, University of explain sequence carried out by the and Astronomy Pack, Warwick, Sir William Lyons Road, 'constructivist' group. The other (Spreadsheets, worksheets, Coventry CV4 7EZ, U.K.) groups did not have to reflect on their teacher's guide) (Amo Publishing, Osborn, P.M. (1987) Spreadsheets in own understanding and many probably 123 Westmead Road,Sutton,Surrey Science Teaching. School Science noted down what they observed SM1 4JH, U.K.) Review. 69, 142-143. without thinking about its meaning, Brosnan,T. (1989) TeachingChemistry Schecker, H.P. (in press) The Didactic their motivation being perhaps to get Using Spreadsheets -1: Equilibrium Potential of Computer Aided the right answer rather than to Thermodynamics. School Science Modelling for Physics Education. In understand better themselves. Review. 70, 39-47. Advanced Technologies in the CONCLUSION Brosnan, T. (1990) Using Spreadsheets Teaching of Mathematics and in the Teaching of Chemistry - 2: Science, Ferguson, D.L. (ed.). Nato Graphical database and spreadsheet More Ideas and Some Limitations. Conference, June 1990. Springer- programs like Microsoft Excel have a School Science Review. 71, 53-59. Verla g, Heidlberg. great deal of potential for enhancing Stephen, M J.(1993) Warwick learning by performing a range of CBMACP (Computer Based Modelling Across the Curriculum Project) Spreadsheet System First different functions and facilitating a (1992) The Modelling Pack. (Details Chemistry Pack, (Spreadsheets, range of different learning styles. A from AdvisoryUnit for worksheets, teacher's guide) (Amo system suchastheWarwick Microtechnology in Education, Publishing, 123 Westmead Road, Spreadsheet System harnesses this Hatfield, or Institute of Education, Sutton, Surrey SM1 4JH, U.K.) potential and overcomes many of the Univ. of London). (Resources and TALL, D.(1989)Concept Images, difficulties. As Excel becomes more references for modelling.) Generic Organizers, Computers widely available in schools on both Davies, P. (ed.)(1992) Information and Curriculum Change. For the Macintosh and PC computers a whole Learning of Mathematics, 8, 3 new field of spreadsheet ba sed learning Technology in Economics and (Montreal) 42 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 MULTIMEDIAAND MONSTROSITIES: REINVENTING COMPUTING IN SCHOOLS AGAIN? BY CHRIS BIGUM WITH BILL GREEN, LINDSAY FITZCLARENCE AND JANE KENWAY

Faculty of Education Deakin University Geelong

New, seemingly monstrous multimedia, there is a clear sense of constructions such as that of the cyborg, déjà vu. A simple thought experiment give rise to new, disruptive accounts in which we swap the multimedia which provide more useful means of productfor,say,an8-bit understanding the dilemmas of microcomputer and step back in time schooling in an era of increasingly thirteen years would reveal that little pervasive digital media. The paper has changed in the way t ha t computers describes a particular, new construction and their related technologies are sold in which human and non-human 'actors' literally and rhetoricallyto schools. are not distinguished. Thisapproach, The selling of computers called the 'actor-network' model, has just as in the early 80's and for every been usefully applied to the study of a previous wave of the new information and their related products wide range of technical innovations. In and communication technologies, to schools, in part, requires this paper it is illustrated by analysis of schools have little choice. What choice that the product is a recent multimedia release toschools. there is is like the choice associated with toothpaste, that is, between `reinvented' or constructed THE CURRENT WAVE: MULTIMEDIA brands. For some schools the fact that for educational purposes Under the banner of 'CD-ROM to put they have a choice is much less and, further, that the science in a spin' (McIntosh 1993), The important than that they have to make one. When they first embarked on a categories of schooling Australian reported a recent launch of an IBM-N.S.W Board of Studiesproduct, high technology path the prospect of (students, teachers, a CD-ROM disc for primaryschool never ending purchases of computers classrooms and science. This is only one of a number of and their related products was unimaginable. It has taken some curriculum) are, more or new multimedia productsoffered to schools this year. The momentum is schools a long time to come to grips less, represented as clearly growing: multimedia, it seems, with this prospect. Others have caricatures of schooling is much in vogue for computers in adjusted to the commercial rhythms of schools. An important partof the industry and recyle their computers from the 1950's and 60's. developing momentum fog any new every year or so and in so doing By restricting computer related product is to create effectively become an extension of the constructions or inventions the same sense of need and urgency that distribution network of the computer inschools when market. to new computer products was created microcomputers first became the understandings of the commercially available and then, for Whether a school resists or adapts to new information and each subsequent set of 'high tech' the commercial cycles of the industry, products. When you look closely at the it is useful to ask some questions about communication advertising or press releases or the circumstances that most forms of technologies in education commentary associated with the schooling now find themselves in. are normalised andlimited. reporting of new products likeHow is it that in the early 90's

43 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 iff consumption of this year's product do so in a way that does not draw Extreme caricatures of educational range is now, more or less, taken for attention to the act of invention. Usually institutions and practices characterise representations of schools and learning granted? What is it about the technology the artefact is sufficiently engaging that by advertising agencies. If we were to that makes it "ideally suited" for use in littleeffort is required. It is an interesting schools? It all seems so natural, so problem: to be given a particular high accept these representations of obvious. How do the "educational" technology product and reinvent it, so schooling, it would seem that since the properties of things like CD-ROMs that it can be sold to as wide a range of very earliest days of computing in arise? How is it that multimedia has schools as possible, with one size having schools, schools have been caught in a become a new and likely significant to fit all. It has to be given what appear kind of time warp, around about 1950 component of expenditure for many to be explicit educational attributes, or 1960, desperately in need of transformation and improvement, a schools? offering either to do something that schools cannot do, or improve in some transformation that, as it happens, can beconveniently brought about through REINVENTING COMPUTING IN SCHOOLS: way something they already do. If an consumption of enough of the current OLD CONSTRUCTIONS urgencycanbecreated about acquiring We want to argue that the process by the product, all the better. product range. which technologies likeCD-ROMs,and other multimedia-related products Reinventing a product with which The difficulty is that schools have been acquiring computers now for more than achieve their significance in schooling schools are unfamiliar is a relatively is, as Grint and Woolgar (Grint and simple task. It typically takes on thefifteen years. They have changed in part through their use of computers Woolgar 1992: 377) argue, guise of familiarising schools with the and, as a consequence of being part of a "irredeemably social".Ursula Franklin, technology andits educational in her analysis of the patterns that attributes, tapping what are noi.vdeeply society which has experienced emerge during the introduction of ingrained anxieties about a highly enormous social and economic change, technologies into society, makes a uncertainbutdefinitelyhigh in much of which the new information similar point. She claims that the social technology future. In a real sense, the and communication technologies have acceptance of any technology requires, new information and communication been deeply implicated. It would as a first stage, a period of invention. technologies offer a certainty of being a indeed be remarkable if anything had part of a future in which the only thing stayed the same over this time. .. we seethat in the early stage of a certain is computers and their particular invention, a good deal ofassociated technologies. It can be NEW CONSTRUCTIONS: CYBORGS enthusiasm and imagination is generated. expressed in a kind of equation that So computers and their products There are efforts to explore and explain just says: requireasocialinvention or how wonderful and helpful the new construction in order to be sold to invention will be....Wellsprings of SCHOOLS + COMPUTERS r.LESS society generally and to schools in creativity and freedom from toil seem to be UNCERTAINTY particular, something that we are just around the corner. In this phase It represents a way of managing the witnessing now in the selling of technologies create human bonds and a complexity and uncertainty of 'the multimedia products. But theseare in a sense of excitement in people who feel future'. In such an account it is senseold constructions: they havebeen grateful to be part of such wonderful, important to keep the other variable in associated with the selling of computers to schools from the days of the first progressive times. the equation, schools, as constant as forevery (Franklin 1990: 95-96) possible. If the new information media microcomputer and are to transform schools to a less subsequent wave of computer-related products. An important part of these That is, after material development, the uncertain state, then schools need to be physical artefact, the product has, in a seen in a particular and almost constant constructions is, as has been argued, to sense, to be reinvented socially. If it is state of low, or at least lesser, hold certain other categories constant to survive in education, it has, over a technology.OneoftheTV while the new one is added. Things like relatively short period of time, to advertisements run by Apple last year child, student, school and classroom amain the same, so focus remains with become an educational necessity. This shows a small girl walking through a is what makes multimedia products so d ark,bare, old classroom to a Macintosh the new product. Further, the new interesting at this time. As yet they are on a bench.She receives her product is, typically, gently demonised not regarded as essential and so it is a enlightenment, literally, by turning the so that much effort has to be expended good time to observe the processes, the computer on. The advertisement would in allaying fears about it, running social invention or construction which lose much if the girl had to walk past familiarisation courses, awareness courses and so on. Such courses assume occurs. rows and rows of well-lit computers being used enthusiastically by other an essentially stable, and more or less For those who invent particular children. fixed set of educational givens, i.e. educational meanings for the new students, classrooms and so on. information media, it is important to

44 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Sd A new, gently demonised technology argues,in speed-space, a space in which controls of VCR's to replay a favourite is of course much easier to deal with the speed of the new information section of a cartoon over and over; when we than however-gently demonised technologies distorts "the illusory order see five-year-olds almost merged with the students, classrooms or curriculums. of normal perception" (Virilio 1991: control pad of their Nintendo game; and We are therefore uneasy with talk about 100). Speed blurs the boundaries when we see extremely young children new kinds of humans, new kinds of between human andmachine, explore a Macintosh drawing program in classrooms or new kinds of curriculum. boundaries that once were regarded as ways we never believed possible, our Talk about new kinds of humans, post- fixed. In an age of an increasing range perceptions are constrained and filtered: humans perhaps, is usually relegated of prosthetic machines, just what is us we cling to reassuring categories and to science fiction where new forms and what is machine is increasingly recollections of an age when the world humans abound. A significant member unclear. Katherine Hayles puts it this seemed more predictable, less fragmented, of this new class of humans is the way: and certainly more immediately tangible. cybernetic organism or cyborg. It is a To explain (away) what we 'see', we resort construction1, literally and If corneal implants are part of us, to causal accounts that draw upon metaphorically, that draws attention to why not contact lenses? If contacts, why experiences from a period in which digital the intimate associations we have with not eyeglasses? If eyeglasses, why not an media were far less intrusive. the machines of the late 20th century, automated telescope? If a telescope, why (Green and Bigum 1993) which as Hara way (1991:152) suggests: not the computer interfaced with it? Gibson, in an interview (Greenland 1986), pointed Dator (1989) makes the point more have made thoroughly ambiguous out that a teenager playing an arcade video bluntly, thedifference between natural and artificial, game could be considered a cybernetic unit. mind and body, self-developing and ... By thisreasoning anyone who finds a Since we live within the envelope o f externally designed, and many other word processor indispensable for writing is the dying (or marginalizing) print cultures distinctions that used to apply to organisms already in a cybernetic circuit. The only and the rise of audio-visual ones, those of us and machines. Our machines are distinction between it and the cyborgs in who have been conditioned all our lives 'to disturbingly lively, and we ourselves Neuromancer this SF novel! is how difficult think like a book' usually ignore,disparage, frighteningly inert. it is to detach the various parts from the or simply cannot understand those who circuit. may learn to think and to express their Humans have always had intimate (Hayles 1990: 217) thoughts through moving holographic associations with the devices and images. Being so (literally) brainwashed by technologies they have built, but never These are disturbing images. They are print, we can no more truly understand the before with technologies that operate the things we prefer to ignore. These new cultures that are overwhelming us in the manner and at the speed of the considerations surely don't apply to than we can truly understand 'the savage new information media. Coupling an computer-using educators? After all, mind' of pre-literate societies we distorted organism whose signalling we have found ways to negotiate this or destroyed. mechanisms operates at about three newtechnologicalculture,or (Dator 1989: 363) hundred metres per second with a technoculture (Penley and Ross 1991). technology that operates about a million Some of us grew up at a time when These are scandalous, dangerous, even times faster underlines the difference there was no video or television, and monstrous images. They are not the between contemporary machines, computers were arcane devices used images that vendors would like computers, and those of the industrial by men in white coats, or so film associated with their multimedia revolution. Previously, humans built representations told us. Our ways of products. It is in the vendors' interests devices that were, within an order of seeing the world were developed at a to keep categories simple, obvious, magnitude, of similarspeed to humans. time when the pervasiveness of el:gital uncomplicated. Yet old categories that The speed of these technologies tended media was almost unimaginable. We artificially separate human and to distort geographical scales, but in are more or less certain that our use of machine arguably restrict our ways of such a way that people could readily computers hasn't changed us (much?), thinking and speaking about the new and adequately deal with thedistortion but can we be as certain about the information and communication by mapping it onto previously known students we teach? technologies. In equivalent automobile geographies. Now, however, "with the terms, we limit ourselves to thinking advent of instantaneous Mhen we rend about young people about "horseless carriages". communication (satellite, TV, fibre ( 'kids') attentively watching two films optics, telematics) arrival supplants projected side-by-side on a screen and the The same patterns of category appear departure: everything arrives without adults in the audience getting up and on a larger scale when talking about the necessarily having to depart" (Virilio walking out (Adams 1991); when we are social and the technical. When talking 1987: 19). Instead of distorting the old told by teenagers that 'you don't understand about technical artefacts we position space-time reality, we live, as Virilio MTV, you process d'2; when we watch the social as context, or when speaking three- and four-year-olds use the remote of the social, the technical is context.

45 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 delineation of a scenario. It speaks for in the example being considered, the Board of Studies, primary students, or others but in its own language" (Callon links that currently exist between the educational characteristics of CD- 1986a: 26). How successful translation science teachers and their studeMs will ROM discs? Onea spect of thehistory of is depends upon how well the actor- have to be disrupted. The use of the this actor-network that would be most world redefines thoseactorsorelements term "tool" imagines a particular kind interesting to record is the translation which are likely to challenge their of disassociation, one with which most of the Board of Studies from an redefinition. teachers who use computers will be organisation presumably concerned familiar. with the planning, design and Translation then, is the general term evaluation of school curriculum to an that is applied to the methods that an So, in order to enrol teachers in anorganisation which is a vendor, and actor uses to "enrol" other actors in a actor-network that contains a CD-ROM even an exporter, of CD-ROM discs. network. One such methodis disc, Make the Connection!, the IBM The other interesting translation is of "problematisation",aformof Ultimedia machine, the N.S.W. Board I.B.M. Australia, essentially a hardware translation that posits the of Studies and IBM Australia, at least, it and softwarevendorand manufacturer, . indispensability of one actor's is essential for the "heterogeneous into a 'high tech' curriculum designer 'solutions'foranotheractor's engineer", in this case IBM Australia, and developer4. Other translations (e. 'problems' (conveniently defined by the to be able to speak on behalf of science g. of primary teachers) have yet to occur. first actor). In the case of the CD-ROM teachers and have other actors in the disc, IBM's chief designer for the project network act in predictable and All translations, or at least those that is reported as saying: "For teachers, supportive ways. To do this, IBM has to are effective and lead to stable this product will be a valuable treat each actor as a kind of "black box". configurations of actors, need to be curriculum tool in a subject area ignoring the complexity that each "anchored ... to physical and social regarded by many teachers as represents. Each actor masks a set of displacements" (Callon 1986a: 27). The traditionally difficult to teach". Theother actors which it draws together. actor-world if it is to survive has to problem, the teaching of primary The N.S.W. Board of Studies is more build up materials that make it science is defined as difficult and complex than the single entity described "durable". So presentationsat traditionally so. Primary teachers of in this example. Science teachers may Computer Education conferences, science are being persuaded that 'their' well prove to be difficult to "black box". reports in the computer sections of problems in teaching science can be Even CD-ROM technology may not be newspapers, trials, evaluations and 'solved' with this disc. The curriculum as stable a black box3 as IBM requires. experiments will all contribute to designer with the N.S.W. board of making the network last. Of course, the Studies is quoted as saying: "Our aim is The simplification of entities is a key stage in the history of this actor- to introduce young students gradually necessary part of linking them in an network will be the enrolment of science to a number of sophisticated concepts actor network. Without simplification teachers. The disc will need to be more without intimidating them". Theit would not be possible to do the than an optional extra if investments 'problem' is further defined in terms of redefinitions of role that IBM has are to be recouped. It will be therefore studentfearof"sophisticated embarked on in this example. Some of interesting to see what methods are concepts", something, presumably the black boxes would appear, at first employed to "translate" the primary teachers have trouble teaching. As sight, to be somewhat more stable than teachersofN.S.W.intothe Callon says: ".. to translate is to speak others in the network. We might, for 'technosystem' that is now forming in for, to be indispensable, and to displace. instance, imagine that the pred ictability Australian education, as elsewhere in All translation works to solidify actor- of the Ultimedia machine is much advanced capitalist societies. worlds. Successful translation quickly greater than that of N.S.W. primary makes us forget its history" (Callon teachers. Simplification is also the basis STORY TELUNG 1986a: 28). of the power of any network. Each actor, The story of the current reinvention of which can be represented as a network computing in schools can be told many In the final part of translation, actors of actors, each of which in turn can be ways. There is not the space available have to be "displaced" inthe represented by networks of actors, and to describe the (reassuring ?) stories construction of a network. Itis so on in a kind of hierarchy or fractal derived from technological insufficient to simply use words, to arrangement, derives its strength and determinism (the existence of the disc describe new roles for the various actors credibility from the mass of silent actors will coerce teachers in to using it), social of the actor-world; redefinition only beneath. determinism (adoption or rejection of occurs through action. "Interessement the disc will be a matter of social is the group of actions by which an The construction of this actor network construction by teachers), or accounts entity... attempts to imposeand thus depends upon the resistanceof the of "designer technology" (Grint 1992: stabilize the identity of the other actors various actors that make up the actor - 153-4) (the "political qualities" [Winner it defines through its problematization" world. Is it easier to change primary 19851 of the disc will determine its (Callon 1986b: 208-209). For example, teachers, science curriculu m, the N.S.W. acceptance, use etc.). Accounts like these

46 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 56 This never allows us to consideraccount develops, an actor-world translation that posits the simultaneously the social and the Callon (1986a: 22) emerges, a world indispensability of one actor's technical. In work that is concerned made up of a number of entities (the 'solutions'for another actor's with explaining the development and Board of Studies, the Ultimedia 'problems' (convenientlydefined by the stabilization in societies of different machine, the CD-ROM disc, the lenses, first actor). In the case of the CD-ROM technologies, Law, Latour, Callon and the laser, the grating, the photodiode, disc, IBM's chief designer for the project their associates have developed an primary teachers, primary students, is reported as saying: "For teachers, approach in which theyregard thesocial etc.), each with their repertoires and this product will be a valuable as never purely social but, rather, ashistories redefined by IBM. None of curriculum tool in a subject area technosocial, being comprised of these elements can be placed in aregarded by many teachers as networks of human and non-humans. hierarchy or categorised usefully. The traditionally difficult to teach". The It is to their work that we now turn. laser is as important as the science problem, the teaching of primary teacher. If we took out any one element, science is defined as difficult and ACTORS, NETWORKS AND MULTIMEDIA the whole would collapse. The traditionally so. Primary teachers of The organising premise of what isinterdependence of the elements is science are being persuaded that 'their referred to as 'the actor network model' described by Callon: problems in teaching science can be of Callon (1986a,b), Law (1988) and 'solved' with this disc. The curriculum Latour (1988) is that no distinction is Accordingly, technicalobjects must designer with the N.S.W. board of made between humans and non- be seen as a result of the shaping of many Studies is quoted as saying: "Our aim is humans. Replacing both categories is a associated and heterogeneous elements. to introduce young students gradually single category or "heterogeneous" They will be as durab le as these associations, to a number of sophisticated concepts entity called actor. Actors together can neither more nor less. Therefore, we cannot without intimidating them". The then constitute a network, the whole describe technicalobjectswithoutdescribing 'problem' is further defined in terms of assemblagebeing referred to as an actor - the actor-worlds that shape them in all their studentfearof"sophisticated world. A network then "is composed of diversity and scope. concepts", something, presumably a series of heterogeneous elements, (Callon 1986a: 23) teachers have trouble teaching. As animate and inanimate, that have been Callon says: linked to one another fora certain period The actor-world is the place where a set ".. to translate is to speak for, to be of time" (Callon 1987) :93. The model is of heterogeneous entities have their indispensable, and to displace. All best Illustrated by example and we have roles, how they are related, their translation works to solidify actor-worlds. chosen a small one from the current identity, and even their history Successful translation quickly makes us work concerned with the educational redefined for them. The process of forget its history" (Callon 1986a: 28). reinvention of multimedia products for redefinition is termed "translation". In schools. The data from which this the example under consideration, IBM In the final part of translation, actors analysis is based is taken from a press attributes to the N.S.W. Board of Studies have to be "displaced" in the report which, although limited, offers an identity, a role to play, a course of construction of a network. It is enough information to illustrate the action, and projects to conduct. IBM insufficient to simply use words, to workings of the model. attributes properties to C D-ROM d iscs, describe new roles for the various actors the way they work, how they are to be of the actor-world; redefinition only The newspaper article (McIntosh 1993) used, and soon. The transla tor becomes occurs through action. "Interessement reports the launch of a CD-ROM disc the spokesperson for each element that is the group of actions by which an for primary school science. The disc is is redefined :'Translation is a definition entity ... attempts to impose and the first of a series of discs being jointly of roles, a distribution of roles and the stabilize the identity of the other actors produced by IBM Australia and the delineation of a scenario. It speaks for it defines through its problematization" NSW Board of studies. others but in its own language" (Callon (Callon 1986b: 208-209). For example, 1986a: 26). in the example being considered, the First, IBM, the prime mover in this links that currently exist between account, defines a certain scenario for How successful translation is depends science teachers and their students will the teaching of primary science in upon how well the actor-world have to be disrupted. The use of the schools. Science is described as being redefines those actors or elements term "tool" imagines a particular kind "traditionally difficult to teach". which are likely to challenge their of disassociation, one with which most Teachers are described as welcoming redefinition. teachers who use computers will be of "a valuable curriculum tool" for this familiar. area. The disc offers a "high level of Translation then, is the general term interactivity' to students, as opposed that is applied to the methods that an So, in order to enrol teachers in an to, one presumes, alow level of actor uses to "enrol" other actors in a actor-network that contains a CD-ROM interactivityforstudentsin network. One such methodis disc, Make the Connection!, the IBM "traditional" science classrooms. As the "problematisation",aformof Ultimedia machine, the N.S.W. Board

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 47 humans, are, to say the least, disturbing. of Studies and IBM Australia, at least, it essentially a hardware and software is essential for the "heterogeneous vendor and manufacturer, into a 'high They disrupt the dreams (of reason?) engineer", in this case IBM Australia, tech' curriculum designer andabout this and each new wave of to be able to speak on behalf of science developer4. Other translations (e. g. of information media that is sold to teachers and have other actors in the primary teachers) have yet to occur. schools. Most importantly, at this time network act in predictable and of high interest in multimedia, they supportive ways. To do this, IBM has to All translations, or at least those that disrupt normalising accounts of media treat each actor as a kind of "blackare effective and lead to stable and education, and draw attention to box", ignoring the complexity tha t each configurations of actors, need to be the growing range of new and emergent represents. Each actor masks a set of "anchored ... to physical and social relationships between media (multi or other actors which it draws together. displacements" (Callon 1986a: 27). The otherwise) and education. The N.S.W. Board of Studies is moreactor-world if it is to survive has to complex than thesingleentity described build up materials that make it REFERENCES in this example. Science teachers may "durable". So presentations at Adams, Phillip, (1991)The Video well prove to be difficult to "black box". Computer Education conferences, Vanguard OpensFire,The Even CD-ROM technology may not be reports in the computer sections of Weekend Australian, April 13-14, as stable a black box3 as IBM requires. newspapers, trials, evaluations and Review: p. 13. experiments will all contribute to Callon, Michel, (1986a) The Sociology The simplification of entities is a making the network last. Of course, the of an Actor-Network: The Case of necessary part of linking them in an key stage in the history of this actor- the Electric Vehicle in Michel Callon, actor network. Without simplification network will be theenrolment of science John Law& Arie Rip (eds.) Mapping it would not be possible to do the teachers. The disc will need to be more the Dynamics of Science and redefinitions of role that IBM has than an optional extra if investments Technology, The MacMillan Press: embarked on in this example. Some of are to be recouped. It will be therefore London. the black boxes would appear, at first interesting to see what methods are Callon, Michel, (1986b) Some elements sight, to be somewhat more stable than employed to "translate" the primary of a sociology of translation: others in the network. We might, for teachersofN.S.W.intothe domestication of the scallops and instance, imagine that the predictability 'technosystem' that is now forming in the fishermen of St Brieuc Bay in of the Ultimedia machine is much Australian education, as elsewhere in John Law (ed.) Power, Action & greater than that of N.S.W. primary advanced capitalist societies. Belief. A New Sociology of teachers. Simplification is also the basis Knowledge?, Routledge & Kegan of the po wer of any network. Each actor, STORY TELLING Paul: London. which can be represented as a network The story of the current reinvention of Callon, Michel, (1987) Society in the of actors, each of which in turn can be computing in schools can be told many Making: The Study of Technology represented by networks of actors, and ways. There is not the space available as a Tool for Sociological Analysis so on in a kind of hierarchy or fractal to describe the (reassuring?) stories in Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. arrangement, derives its strength and derived from technological Hughes & Trevor P. Pinch (eds.) credibility from the mass of silent actors determinism (the existence of the disc The SocialConstructionof beneath. will coerce teachers into using it), social Technological Systems, The MIT determinism (adoption or rejection of Press: Cambridge, Ma. The construction of this actor network the disc will be a matter of social Dator, Jim, (1989) What do 'You' do thus depends upon the resistance of construction by teachers), or accounts when your robot bows, as your the various actors that make up the of "designer technology" (Grint 1992: clone enters holographic MTV?, actor-world. Is it easier to change 153-4) (the "political qual ities" (Winner Futures: Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 361-365. primary teachers, science curriculum, 19851 of the disc will determine its Franklin, Ursula, (1990) The Real World the N.S.W. Board of Studies, primary acceptance, use etc.). Accounts like these of Technology, CBC Enterprises: students,ortheeducational are generally not the stuff of Montreal. characteristics of CD-ROM discs? One technological bad dreams. They do not Green, Bill and Chris Bigum, (1993) aspect of the history of this actor- threaten or challenge the taken -for- Aliens in the Classroom, Australian network that would be most interesting granted components of schooling. They Journal of Education: Vol. 37 No. 2, to record is the translation of the Board are all accounts that the vendors of forthcoming. of Studies from an organisation multimedia can, more or less, live with. Greenland, Colin, (1986) A nod to the presumably concerned with the apocalypse: an interview with planning, design and evaluation of On the other hand, stories that call up William Gibson, Foundation: Vol. school curriculum to an organisation monstrous images, of the part-machine, 36, No. Summer, pp. 5-9. which is a vendor, a nd even an exporter, part-human cyborg, or of networks of of CD-ROM discs. The other interesting actors in which no distinction is made translation is of I.B.M. Australia, between the non-human and the

48 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 58 FOOTNOTES Grint, Keith, (1992) Sniffers, Lurkers, Latour, Bruno, (1988) The Prince for Machinesaswellasfor 1 A construction that already enjoys Actor Networkers: Computer considerable scholarly discussion Mediated Communications as a Machinations in Brian Elliott (ed.) Technology and Social Process, and writing to the point that Technical Fix in John Beynon properties and attributes are (eds.) Edinburgh University Press: Hughie Mackay debated seriously. For instance, Technological Literacy and the Edinburgh. Terry Harpold (1993) recently Curriculum, The Falmer Press: Law, John, (1988) The anatomy of a socio-technical struggle in Brian suggested that "a good measure for London. thecyborg [is] someone who doesn't Grint, Keith and Steve Woo 'gar, (1992) Elliott (ed.) Technology and Social worry that the digital sign will fade". Computers, Guns, and Roses: Process, Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh. 2David Smith, Faculty of Education, What's Social about Being Shot?, University of Sydney, personal Science, Technology, & Human McIntosh, Trudi, (1993) CD-ROM to put science in a spin, The Australian, communication, July 1991. Values: Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 366-380. 3 This can be read in terms of the Haraway, Donna J., (1991) Simians, March 2nd, p.18. The Penley, Constance and Andrew Ross technical reliability of current Cyborgs, and Women. technology as well as the possible Reinvention of Nature, Routledge: (ed.)(1991),Technoculture, of shift in CD-ROM technology to a New York. Minneapolis,University Minnesota Press. different assemblage of actors. Harpold, Terry (March 29, 1993). Another instance of the shift from J.Daynard Article. Discussion on Virilio, Paul, (1987) The Overexposed 4 TECHNOCULTURE, City, Zone: vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 15-31. Education per se to the media as the Virilio, Paul, (1991) The Aesthetics of institution determining curriculum, INCOGITVMLBITNET. schooling etc., see (Hinkson 1991). Hayles, N. Katherine, (1990) Designs Disappearance, Semiotext(e): New on the body: Norbert Wiener, York. cybernetics and the play of Winner, Langdon, (1985) Do artifacts metaphor, History of the Human have politics? in Donald Mackenzie Sciences: Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 211-228. & Judy Wajcman (eds.) The Social Hinkson, John, (1991) Postmodernity: Shaping of Technology, Open State and Education,Deakin University Press: Milton Keynes, University: Geelong.

49 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 5Q 8 Computer Networks for Schools CLASSROOM - ADMINISTRATION - UBRARYCLASSROOM - STAFF NETWORKSROOM studentefficiency, education Increased and productivity, satisfaction. and improved Mg; t ongoingseineSdigQldramaticallyNetworking computer reduced.a needs.classroom And iswhOWlibums,:, the answer to cost alone computersOf and-:tnirinelatrent yet the It costs about the is UPGRADE YOUR OASIS,SYS:021° 7,01.804gsOASIS upgrades, supply new Justplotters,becomes In one application classroom,the only solution.software, but across CDROMs the whole and school,Okfiehvorkother resourwhai consider the benefits of sharing print it'<':44WFtern. theFileservers,OASIS performance Workstations, Printers of your and Libraryother devices or Administration to improve .....:JogiiSystoms is the largestnetworks supplier to ofSchools in AustraliaINTEGRATED and SCHOOL accessCDROMsTeleSysterns to ato CDROM providecan netwaiks..,, stiaiS'&by '414gTWORK COROMS networksandIntegratingare Statfroom, so Administration, providing implementing Schools Library, campus with Classroom greater wide recognised as the leaders in wellaccessedtime. CDROM from stacks classrooms In the and Library staffrooms can be as many students at the same Swarms ol PC networks lo Scarab on Contract 885. Excluskm supplierPhone:150 (02) Victoria 819 6322 Road, - Fax DRUMMOYNE (02) 819 7375 2047 Free Call 008 249 714 Ste Lianas Novel Naltnate as NSW Dept Schaal Educalisn and Amtrak wide to the Cathoic Educaiica Cart1106011 end the Naomi Coral of Independent Schad, Meacia TeleSystemsApplied Computer Networks EMPLOYING CONSULTANTS TO RETRAIN BUSINESS STUDIES TEACHERS BY GREG CALVERT Principal Curriculum Officer Work Related Studio, Department of Education and the

Arts, Tasmania

At that time, keyboard, typing and IMPLEMENTATION word processing skills were taught in Tasmanian schools have used the pro- Business Studies courses, conducted in gram for four major purposes: rooms mainly equipped with manual typewriters, some schools had a small 1. Acquisition of hardware, particu- number of electric and electronic type- larly 1BM-compatible and Macin- writers. Arising from this report was tosh microcomputers. the recognition that micro-computers 2. Acquisition of software, particularly could be used to introduce students to Microsoft Works in high schools and a range of skills which were being re- Word for Windows, Word 5 and quested by a number of employers, Excel in the senior secondary col- including many in small businesses. leges. Amongst these requests was the need 3. Provision of training. The sophisti- The Computers for Com- for students to be skilled in the use of cation of the hardware and software mercial Subjects program spreadsheets and data base manage- being purchased and the lack of pre- was designed to replace ment. vious computing experience on the partof manyof the teachers involved the ageing and irrelevant Initial pilot work began in 1988 at highlighted a need for training. typing equipment in Tas- Ogilvie High School.The program 4. Upgrading of the furniture and fit- manian state schools with itself began in 1990 and the original tings in rooms that are being used plan was to complete it in 1993. This for commercial subjects so that they state-of-the-art hardware schedule coincided with the introduc- are ergonomically suitable, and re- and software that will tion of the new Tasmanian Certificate flect modern offices. provide students with the of Education at Year 9, substantial changes in syllabuses having occurred opportunity to use the to reflect the use of micro-computers in The funding principle is that central same equipment that serv- business. funds provide approximately 60 per- ices the needs of business cent of the cost of replacing the typewriters and refurbishing the keyboard- All 68 secondary schools were to ben- and industry. ing rooms, with the school responsible efit from the program. The majority of for the remaining 40 percent. these schools were to receive $36,000 The program was initiated towards the provision of microcom- in the light of a study con- puters.District high schools, beingThe first use of school funds was to smaller, were to receive a pro rata allo- provide furniture, electric wiring and ducted in 1986: Facilities data cabling for printing. Any further cation. for Commercial Subjects in funds were put into additional comput- Tasmanian Secondary ers, software and other support equip- Because of a reduction in the planned ment. Schools and Colleges. amount in 1991 /2, the program has (unpublished). 7 been extended to achieve its objectives.

51 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 62 In 1989-90 all schools were advised to TEACHER TRAINING AND SUPPORT 4.NEWSLETTER select IBM compatible unless they had Itis recognised that training is an es-A newsletter has been provided for the compelling reasons to justify another sential part of any re-equipment pro- first time in 1993. This has been devel- selection. gram. As a result of the limited amount oped to improve communication about of systemic support which was avail- the program to teachers.It incorpo- In 1990-91 the equipment selection was able from within the Department of rates a seminar list with registration increased with the addition of the Mac- Education and the Arts, central fund-form, reviews of software and tips re- intosh Classic range. At the same time ing was made availabl e to provide semi- lating to the use of applications. the BBC Master Compact and the IBM nar leaders from an outside consul- compatible XT (except for the laptop tancy firm. The seminars were organ- THEUSE OF A CONSULTANCY SERVICETO version) were deleted. ised on a district basis for all secondary UNDERTAKE TRAINING teachers indicates that the provision of schools. They are free-of-charge to all The program is managed by a Principal training services from a consultancy teachers of commercial Subjects but Curriculum Officer in the Curriculum outside the Department can be deliv- schools are responsible for travel and Services Branch, Department of Edu- ered with a very high degree of suc- teacher relief. cation and the Arts. The PCO is in- cess. volved in developing policy direction, Separate seminars were held for IBM is the contact point for teachers about The overall equipment selection by compatible and Macintosh computers, training needs, and is responsible for schools for 1990-91 was as follows: ranging from introductory sessions on managing the tendering process for the the equipment, their operating systems provision of training services and for Type of computer NumberPercent and MS Works through to advanced the monitoring of the program. teaching applications. IBM Compatible 218 63.2 One very d istinctive aspect of the project Macintosh 101 29.3 Training and support currently takes has been the use of a computer consul- Archimedes 26 7.5 four forms: tancy service to undertake the training and support aspects of the project. This Total 345 100.0 1. SEMINARS in part coincides with the downsizing The majority of these aim to develop of the Department of Education and This selection reflected the program teachers' application skills. Other semi- the Arts (Tasmania) which reduced its recommendation on choice of comput- nars are school based and address cur- ability to continue to service the needs ers with the overwhelming choice, 92.5 riculum specific issues, for example, of schools and colleges through the percent, being the machines which are the use of spreadsheets for Accounting Elizabeth Computer Centre (now used in the workplace. students. known as the Information Technology Branch). The latter now is concerned SOFTWARE 2.IN-SCHOOL SUPPORT with computer management systems As the intention of the program was to The consultants work with a particular rather than educational computing is- make business studies and keyboard- school to assist it to more efficiently use sues. ing courses relevant to the needs of its laboratory or software. This assist- business, it was necessary to use indus- ance was especially important in set- A tender has been advertised annually try standard software or software cating up a network or resolving printing for each of the past three years. In each pable of teaching industry standard problems. year the tender has been successfully concepts. As a result, there has been a won by The Quill Consultancy in Ho- focus on character, paragraph format- 3.ONGOING TELEPHONE SUPPORT bart. Tenders have had to address spe- ting, styles, mail merge, introductory This service involved trouble shooting, cific criteria in the tender documenta- spreadsheet concepts, and the use ofgiving advice about equipment pur- tion submitted; storing names and addresses in a data- chases, follow up to seminars espe- base. cially relating to application use or cur- 1.Demonstrated ability to provide riculum related matters. courses which are relevant to the Microsoft Works for DOS or Windows, needs of teachers of Commercial and Microsoft Works for the Macin- A telephone hotline service was pro- Subjects.In particular there is a tosh have been widely used in Year 9 vided on specified days after the re- requirement that the courses be and 10. At college level Word for Win- lease of a booklet listing the State Pur- designed to meet the specific cur- dows, Word for the Macintoshand chasing and Sales Contract providers riculum needs of schools. Excel have been used. and giving details of recommended 2.Demonstrated expertise in both the equipment.. use of, and training in, specified software packages. 3.Expertise of those involved in the training.

52 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 63 4.Willingness to run courses in all 7.General expertise in the area ofered with a very high degree of success. parts of the state. computer applications. Tables Ito V indicate that the consult- 5.Quality of training materials. 8.Theavailabilityof backup resources.ants in 1991 and 1992 scored in excess of 6.Demonstrated ability to provide 90% in providing information for an teachers of commercial subjects An examination of feedback forms from appropriate knowledge level. In com- with information about the imple- teachers indicates that the provision ofbining ratings 5 and4for effectiveness, mentation of the concepts they ac- training services from a consultancyrespondents also scored the consult- quire in the training courses. outside the Department can be deliv- ants in excess of 90% for their presentation of the seminars, quality of materi- LVAINATIQN OF SEMINARS als and relevance of the topics to the

TABLE! PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION FOR KNOWLEDGE LEVEL

RATING 1991 1992

Appropiate 91% 90% Too Elementary 6% 10% Too Advanced 1.5%

No Response 1.5%

TABLE H COVERAGE OF TOPICS

RATING 1991 1992 5 (Effective) 43% 60%

4 43% 33%

3 6% 7%

2 3% -

1(Ineffective) 2% - No Response 3%

TABLE HI 1-RESENTATION

RATING 1991 1992 5 (Effective) 61% 68%

4 29% 23%

3 4% 8%

2 - - 1(Ineffective) - - No Response 6% 1%

53 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

IN A TABLE IV MATERIALS DISTRIBUTED AT SEMINARTS

RATING 1991 1992 5 (Very Useful) 75% 68%

4 22% 25% 3 - 5% 2 - - 1(Not Very Useful) - - No Response - 2%

TABLE V RELEVANCE OF TOPICS TO THE CURRICULUM

RATING 1991 1992 5 (Very Relevant) 72% 63%

4 18% 33%

3 4% 2%

2 2% -

1(Not Very Relevant) - - No Response 4% 2%

curriculum. There was an improve- The employment of outside consult-recognised that the successful use of ment in the coverage of topics fromants to undertake training has proved consultants, in this program, can be 1991 to 1992 so that now the combined to be cost effective and an efficient de- directly attributed to an implementa- rating of 5 and 4 for effectiveness ex- livery mechanism in relation to this tion and training strategy which recog- ceeded 90% of respondents. project. As an illustration of this, the nises that the provision of computing current March-Apri11993 training pro- hardware and software itself will not CONCLUSION gram of 12 seminars was planned in ensure change in schools. The use of an outside consultancy to December 1992. The consultants with 6 assist in the training of teachers is pos- trainers (each of whom has developed sibly unique amongst Australian Edu- specialist knowledge) were able to re- Dowling, G. (1993) Buying Profes- cation Departments.Dr Grahame spond to 4 seminars being conducted sional Services - A Client's Perspec- Dowling in a recent paperl has indi- in one week towards the start of the tive. Management No 1. Jan/Feb. cated the increased use of professional school year (an optimum period to ca pi- p 13-14 consultancies in a wide variety of fields. talise on the previous November-De- Usually such services are used to rec- cember training program). The De- tify management mistakes rather than partment through this type of organi- in an ongoing role. The most important sation avoids on-costs and course de- choice criterion (ie. reputation of the velopment costs. consultants in the specific functional area) indicated by Dr Dowling in his Importantly, the use of consultants in paper is also reflected in the selection this program signals a new field of criteria for this program. possible future employment of consultancies as providers of a range of training activities. However, it should be

54 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 65 OPENDISCOURSE TOWARDS ENRICHED COMPUTING HIGHER EDUCATION: BACKGROUND FOR AN INTERPRETIVE ACTION- RESEARCH CASE STUDIES BY MARK CAMPBELL- WILLIAMS

Lecturer, Information Systems, Business Fac- ulty, Edith Cowan University,Westem Australia

This paper is an initial report on an However, I am disturbed by an under- interpretive action-research study lying, almost universal aspect of cur- being conducted in computing higher rent computing education. I perceive education at the School of Manage- that lurking behind the user-friendly ment Information Systems, Business interface may be a hegemonic process Faculty, Edith Cowan University. of indoctrination. Computing education as generally practiced may indoc- Lecturers, tutors and students are beingtrinate students into a narrow technicist encouraged to d isclose their values, goa Ismindset, into an instrumental rational- There is growing evidence and worldview beliefs (relevant to in-ity that would view the natural and formation systems). This is based on ansocial world as consisting of obiects to that computing education application of Yurgen Habermas' theorybe dominated and controlled through as generally practiced of communicative action(1984, 1987)technology for the desires and interests tends to propagate a which stresses open discourse. The re-of autonomous human concerns. To search questions are: to what extent cancoin a phrase from Bowers (1992), it can narrow technicist mindset, values, beliefs and goals be disclosed inbe argued that this situation is morally a type of instrumental information systems studies and doespoor, perhaps even morally poverty rationality that springs this disclosure enrich the teaching/ stricken. learning process? from a positivist liberal Even with the 'explosion' of multi-me- ideology. This can create INTRODUCTION dia and the widespread use of power- a 'poor' teaching/learning For more than fifteen years in Australiaful educational hardware and compe- and overseas I have been involved intent educational software across the environment - an example industry, then secondary, then TAFE,curriculum, I would still tend to agree of what C. A. Bowers then computing consultancy and nowwith Weizenbaum that: (1992) refers to as "moral university computing education. My work in education has been immeasur-"The computer is a powerful new meta- poverty of the information ably enriched by the advent of micro-phor for helping us to understand many age". Other, perhaps computers and I have seen many stu-aspects of the world, but ... it enslaves richer values and dents, especially the handicapped andthe mind that has no other metaphors those who do not score well in tests,and few other resources to call on." worldviews are rarely enabled to achieve sometimes remark-(quoted in Fleit,1987). given opportunity to influ- able results and to display uncharacter- ence computing educa- istic enthusiasm about educationAnd possibly even more controversial through using this technology. (the emphasis must be on "the funda- tion. mental questions in education"):

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 55 Computers drain resources, and what Bowers is addressing a second "fundamental rationality. For example, in my information systems lectures 1 find it is worse, they make people think prob- mental question" in computing educa- lems are being solved when they are tion - the extent to which computers difficult (surrounded by a technicist not. I don't think computers will be any divorce students from the reality of worldview) not to give the impression better for answering the fundamental their natural and social environments. that our 'information age' is superior questions in education than were tel- He contrasts technicism (expressed in and more generally advanced than evision or audiovisual equipment. what he sees as the moral poverty of other 'ages' - the text books and the videos are usually peons of praise for (1977, p.76). [my emphasis) computing education) with other worldviews that understand humans technological progress. I find it difficult I would say that one of these "funda- as interdependent members of a larger to express the idea that the information mental questions" in computing edu- biotic community. He ends the article age is seen by many philosophers to be cation is whether education is an in- with a passionate plea that "the real morally and spiritually inferior doctrination into a dominant ideology crisis is not the lack of data or computer (Macintyre, 1985). Surrounded by an or whether education allows for theliteracy, but in the lack of a form of instrumentally rational millieu, I find it understanding and exploration of the moral and spiritual development that difficult to legitimately express the id ea dominant and other ideologies. The takes account of the interconnectedness that the only way instrumental ration- crucial point is that every person and of life." (1992, p.21) ality can think of solving ecological community has a dominant ideology problems is by technological control (springing from a dominant worldview For instance, in a computer simulation and domination of people or things - with associated values) that is reflected of cleaning an oil spill, students are not that there are other ways of thinking in the education process. Bowers only vicariously divorced from expe- that promise more hope. presents a compelling case in his bookriencing reality but they are left with The Cultural Dimensions of Educa- the impression that in a similar way, WIDER THEORETICAL BACKGROUND tional Computing: Understanding the using information technology, scientists Since the 1930's, critical theory has con- Non-Neutrality of Educational Com- and engineers can deal with real eco-tended, from a moral position led by suchas puting (1987) that education computing logical disasters. Here there is a vicari- socialphilosophers is not value neutral but endorses and ous knowing without really knowing Horkheimer, Marcuse, Heidegger and indoctrinates into a dominant ideology or experiencing; of being twice divorced Adorno, that the values associated with - in our education system thisideology from reality: of solving chimerical instrumental rationality (including is associated with a whole host of 'isms' problems while the technology gives technicism) have increasingly and de- such as technicism, positivism, ration- the impression of being able to cope s tructively d omi nated business, industry, government and education in mo- alism,naturalism,materialism, with the real problem. dernity (Agger, 1991; Held, 1980). scientism, and liberalism. This ideology, for which I will use the term technicism I have used some terms which may be Referring to the current environmental (because of our focus on information unusual to computer educationalists. predicament, Dryzek (1990), from an technology), tends to "view all aspects 'Worldview' is generally understood ecological perspective, states that, for of human experience in terms of prob- to be "a set of presuppositions (or as- persons under the grip of instrumental lems that require technical solutions" sumptions) which we hold (consciously rationality the human mind and its desires are absolute and all important - (Bowers, 1988, p.8). or unconsciously) about the basic ma keup of o u r world" (Sire, 1976, p.17). the natural world and other people are In his recent article Ideology, Educa- The term lifeworld' will be discussed viewed as mere objects for manipula- tional Computing, and the Moral Pov- as synonomous with worldviews in tion, to be dominated. With this fun- erty of the Information Age (1992) communal situations. I will use the term damental intention to dominate, he Bowers relates his earlier work to the 'ideology' to allude to economic or contends that there develops an overly goal-oriented approach, a tunnel vi sion ecological crisis: political overtones which, although I have already argued that the important, will not be explored in this which is blinding to alternative ap- epistemology embedded in computers, paper. Thus, the technicist worldview proaches, an individualistic, competitive manner of forcing results at what- in spite of the tech nology's ca pacifies to of a society may be referred to as a collect and process vast amounts of technicist ideology in relation to, for ever cost to the surrounding natural data relating to changes in the earth's example, educational indoctrination. and cultural and social ecology. In- ecosystems, contributes to deepening The term 'rationality' (as in 'instru- strumental ra tionality abstracts persons the ecological crisis. Thus I want to mental rationality' or 'communicative from the world and from others, blocks focus here more specifically on how the rationality') is used as to refer to a them from truly experiencing life to the educational uses of computers reinforce person's or a community's way of extent to which it is a dopted. In business the nihilistic tendencies in liberalism - thinking and acting which results in a for example, the best way of returning which must also be understood as habitual 'mind-set' . Thus the technicist a profit is thus viewed as individuals having devastating consequences for worldview may be seen to outwork "making a killing" rather than the communal and ecological perspective of the rest of the biotic community. (1992, itself in a technicist mind-set, an instru- p.20). 56 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COIPUTING, JULY 1903 67 sustainable viability in the long term nant positivistic technicist values by INSIGHTS FROM CONSTRUCTIVISM with profit sharing and worker partici- discussing values, goals and under- The context to be explored is that of computing education in which recent pation. standing of information technology that spring from other worldview beliefs? works (Bowers, 1988; Young, 1989) The leading thinker in contemporary Does this open discourse lead to an have shown a more mature under- critical theory, Jurgen Habermas (1929- enriched teaching/learning process? standing of Habermas' communicative ) provides a fruitful theoretical posi- theory compared with earlier inter- tion. A unity of perspective has charac- Habermas asserts that humans have a pretations such as Grundy (1987). There terised all Habermas' work, basically "lifeworld", "an implicit knowledge has been insightful work to relate how to understand modernity, in par- that can not berepresented in an infinite technicism back to personally held in- ticular the capitalist modernisation of number of propositions; itis a dividual world-views and belief sys- society, but also a distinction between holistically structured knowledge, the tems which can be disputed in educa- 'work' and 'interaction' and a close, basic elements of which intrinsically tional discourse (Sires, 1976, 1988). reciprocal collaboration between phi- define one another; and it is a knowl- Somewhat similar understandings are losophy and the social sciences. edge that does not stand at our dispo- incorporated in a recent development Habermas refers to his recent work as sition, inasmuch as we can not make it in educational theory known as 'radi- fallible and open to change -a platform conscious and place it in doubt as we calconstructivism'or'social for research rather than a static phi- please." (Habermas, 1984, p. 34). Fur- constructionism' (Tobin, 1991; Taylor losophy of reality (White, 1988, p14). thermore: and Fraser, 1991; Taylor, 1990) and in Since around the 1970's some of the Subjects acting communica- feminist pedagogy (Davis, Steiger and distinctive core themes have been tively always come to an understand- Tennenhouse, 1989). Tobin's communicative action or communica- ing in the horizon of a lifeworld. Their understandings of negotiation in the tive rationality (White, 1988, p. 1), and lifeworld is formed from more or less learning process sound akin to social evolution in terms of social sys- diffuse, always problematic, back- Habermas's communicative action: tems as distinct from the lifeworld (that ground convictions. This lifeworld The heart of the curriculum is is, viewed on one hand from a position background serves as a source of situa- negotiation of meaning.... The process "outside" of the community; and on tion definitions that are presupposed involves discussion and attentive lis- the other hand, from a sociological and by participants as unproblematic. (p. tening, making sense of the points of psychological perspective from "in- 70) views of others, and comparing per- side") (Dews, 1986, p. 14). sonal meanings to those embedded I ta ke this lifeworld to be pre-theoretical within the theories of peers.... Justify- Communicative action will be taken to understandings and beliefs and thus ing one position over another and se- refer to any human discourse oriented can be taken as synonomous with lecting those theories that are viable to achieving exchange of ideas, nego- worldviews in communal situations. I can lead to consensuses that are under- tiation, consensus, understanding or am exploring the extent to which stood by those within a peer group." problem solving. I will use the term worldview based values and beliefs (1991, p. 32) 'open discourse' to refer to that dis- can be explored through open discourse which addresses values, goals course. Can values and beliefs associ- Haberniasian understandings of or worldview beliefs. Such discourse ated with the dominant technicist ide- lifeworld, ideology and critical con- can be initially encouraged by detailed ology be disclosed and compared with sciousness and reflection are used by introductions and simple name re- other values and beliefs from other Taylor (1991): membering games at the first meeting. world views? It is important that teachers be- Similar activities can be used to allow come critically aware of the nature of the teachers and students to progres- Habermas is also concerned by what he the prevailing ideology that shapes sively disclose their personal values, terms the "colonisation" of lifeworlds - their pedagogicalbeliefs and practices, goals and worldview beliefs with rel- "like colonial masters coming into a and of their social roles in propagating evance to the discipline being studied. tribal society" - when instrumental ra- the ideology amongst colleagues and tionality forces itself into lifeworld students. A critical focus on the meta- As exemplified by A Theory of Com- understandings via the 'steering' media phors, images and myths embedded in municative Action (1984, 1987), of bureaucracy or institutional fund- the discourse between teachers and Habermas argues that communicative ing. In computing education I am inter- students is likely to reveal the socio- action can balance instrumental ra- ested to see if the dominant ideology of cultural underpinnings of established tionality (White, 1988). I am exploring positivistic technicism does indeed teachinga nd learning practices.... From this possibility Can educational dis- colonise the lifeworlds of teaching/ the perspective of critical curriculum course in the lecture theatre and com- learning groups through the steering theory, an alternative vision would fo- puting laboratory be used to balance medium of computing education. cus on the development of both teach- technicism? Can students and teachers ers and students as autonomous intel- alike explore and question the domi- lectuals who are capable of both criti-

57 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Ps? cal reflection and socially responsible that of an aeroplane instructor.She However, in the lecture theatre, the action in relation to the democratisa- extended that to see herself as a parent tutorial, the laboratory, or the class- tion of their lifeworlds. (p. 20) bird teaching another bird to fly or room there are many opportunities to something like that. A flying instructor gently allow disclosure of teacher and Viewing computer tutorials as scenes at one time will pass on the skills to the student values and beliefs with rel- for teaching/learning cultures com- student and then the student takes off evance to the intellectual discipline of plete with images, metaphors and as it were, and in the process of taking information systems. Strategies in- myths has been a fertile tool. In the off they learn skills themselves as they cluded an interactive lecturing ap- following quote from Tobin (1991), go along. First we help getting them proach and encouraging tutors and 'tutor' or lecturer' could be read for over the hum p a nd then they start soar- students to engage in rich discourse in 'teacher' and 'computer lab' or 'lecture ing, being powered, as a metaphor. I tutorials through the use of detailed theatre' for 'classroom': thought about that a bit and it's a good introductions, the writing of learning Myths are usually negotiated metaphor in some ways for empower- journals (which the tutors have to check within the culture and are accepted by ment but it's an unfortunate metaphor regularly), group work, work partners those who belong to the culture .... The because it's just one to one, it's just the ('buddies') and the encouraging of some teacher as controller of students is individual students themselves. There form of disclosure of ideologies to do myth that pervades classrooms. Al- is no idea of the community, of a tribe, with information systems. The follow- though it does not seem appropriate of a group, being empowered." ing quote from a unit outline describes for students to be emancipated in every the learning journal format: sense, there is a strong rationale for JANE: "I see myself as more as a foot- "The student general learning teachers to emphasize emancipatory ball coach. A lot of people coming in journals may include some or all of the interests with respect to learning. From with a lot of different skills and so following headings: a constructivist perspective students they're working towards a common must have control over their own goal, which is to win. But they all have a. A significant personal learn- learning. Referring thoughts and ac- different jobs to do and they all have ing experience - a powerful learning tions to the myth of teacher as controller different skills." highlight (what you learnt, and how of students has led to the highly con- you learnt it) that was personally rel- trolled learning environments that MARK: "And you're the team work- evant to either your life and/or work. characterize traditional classrooms. ing together." This would not usually be a formal or Changing the myth might lead to inter- conceptual insight but rather an exis- esting changes in classroom environ- JANE: "I do, but I see it as a coaching tential experience to do with your per- ments. (p. 33) role that you have to understand that as sonal journey of discovery in this area. a coach that they are all very different You should also include insights or It is interesting to think that perhaps and they are all in there for different experiences made during the week ei- tutors could see themselves as 'social purposes." ther at work or at home. We would be directors' for learning rather than as especially interested in any insight you 'individual student helpers' and as MARK: "Perhaps then an analogy you may have regarding the way in which 'learning facilitators' rather than as might be able to think about yourself as this unit may be part of your overall 'expert knowledge givers' or as 'movie coaching an athletic squad." intellectual and moral development and directors with a scri pt and actors' rather also in comments on the affective area than as 'business consultants'. The OPEN DISCOURSE (feelings or emotions). metaphors suggest certain In my experience it is rare for values Habermasian understandings of cog- and worldviews other than positivist b.Reflective examination cf nitive interests and ideas of communi- technicism to be given a hearing (let your own performance and contribu- cative action and, indeed, may give alone weighty consideration) in con- tions in lectures and tutorials, and your glimpses into lifeworlds. ferences, especially in information participation in the unit. A record of systems. Even though every major your comments or questions made in The following edited extract (names tenant of positivism has been shown as lectures or tutorials should be noted as changed) from a recorded interview problematic (Macintyre, 1985), most should, perhaps more importantly, any (17 August 1992) with one of the tutors academics still talk and write and give relevant informal discussions or inter- from the pilot research may serve as an conference papers based on this posi- actions either with the learning group example of the rich ideas generated by tion. Given the dominance of positiv- or outside. You could also comment on this approach: ism with its belief that science and tech- your perceptions of the personal and nology are value free (note the glaring communal group dynamics in the tuto- MARK: "When I was talking to her inconsistency) it is very difficult to rials (e.g. who is doing what and why; before, Peta said that she considered credibly state other values, goals, and if and how the learning group is help- that the metaphor or image she saw worldview beliefs in computing con- ful to the learning process, formal and herself to be as a computing tutor was ferences. informal leaders, co-operation, etc.)

58 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 69 question and answer; a lack of time for c.Ever/ second week you assignment process to be used in this should include newspaper and journal unit. I must confess that the experience reflection on the deeper meaning or article clippings that have contributed of describing one's feelings and emo- purpose or socio-eco-cultural impact of computing; a lack of a group identity to your learning experience. tions,orof providing information about In an introduction to the journal how a university unit may contribute to the tutorials; an absence of humour, you should list your beginning compe- to your overall moral and/or spiritual or art or games or other human aspi- tency level and previous experience development, is new and something of rations or relaxations; and an overly (approx. one page) and your expecta- a surprise." (student journal, Dec.1992) serious and stressful attitude towards tions for the course (approx. one page). the teaching /learning situation. The A reflective summary (approx. one "Initially, I felt somewhat odd tutors seemed to find that the workbook simplified their roles in the tuto- page) and an account of your own val- about the comments on the moral ues and goals with relevance to infor- bankruptcy of information technology, rials and they thought that the tutorials mation technology (approx. one page) however some of your later question were proceeding successfully. Students should conclude the journal." sheets helped to put things in perspec- were usuallya pprehensiveabout more tive. Although I must confess that I had general educational tasks, comment- The learning journal is a way of for difficulty understanding some of those ing on early attempts to incorporate students to clarify their values, goals philosophical questions, I can see now group activities that these were and beliefs relevant to information that there are two sides to the issue and "wasting time" and "being distracted" systems. J. Sires (1976) classifies nine that information technology can have from the technical aspects of thecourse. major world-views (in Western socie- both positive and negative effects. ties) as rationalism (ie technicism, (student journal, Jan.1993)" The process of rigorously interpreting scientism, positivism), existentialism, results will take a long time as the nihilism, rationalist deism, existential DISCUSSION research continues. However, early re- deism, mainline Christianity, eastern Prior to the pilot research interventions, sults do tend to suggest that significant inroads can be made in enriching the mysticism, 'new age' and, problemati- the tutorials were conducted in the teaching/learning process in comput- cally, an ecologically oriented 'Gaia' usual manner - on an individualised, world-view. This classification can be one person per computer basis with the ing higher education by using open helpful for description and classifica- students working keystroke by key- discourse. Initial subjective feedback tion but it is rather threatening to dis- stroke from a detailed technical work from students is tentatively encourag- close values or worldviews explicitly, book. The tutors occasionally gave ing as the following representative as indicated by the following student whole-group assistance technical tech- comments may suggest: learning journal comments from the niques, but usually provided individual have found this unit first pilot study 1992: assistance where necessary. There was MOM. 1: far more enjoyable, than other units I "One only comment not favour- minimal discussion and group interac- able of the unit, was the subjective tion. Students were usually assessed have completed. The whole unit was a content - that is emotions etc. Learning on a practical test, a wordprocessed learning experience, well presented & journals are a good way of gettingacademically referenced essay or a a pleasure. feedback, however, I could not see thesoftware integration assignment, and point of expressing emotions, feeling an end of semester theory examination STUDENT 2: I have found this unit ex- this subject is one of science and ob- (all competitive, stressful and not open tremely interesting, and enjoyable. To jective dr logic, unless used purely for to negotiation either in assessment the extent that I have decided to take graphical self indulgence." weightings or methods). The highly Information Systems as a major. The structured workbook seemed to im- lectures and tutorials have been in- In the second pilot study in 1992I found pose a rigid technicist agenda on the formative & entertaining. it less threatening for students to firstly tutorials. Students were given no op- clarify and discuss goals and strategies portunity for reflection or discussion, STUDENT 3: (Semester 1 was prior to the to use information systems. Then it was being forced by the schedule to cover research interventions easy to discuss the underlying values the maximum amount of the material and worldview foundations. The ac- in the shortest possible time without The School of Management Informa- tual process can begin with extensive interuption. tion Systems at Edith Cowan Univer- introductions at the first tutorial to al- sity now uses the learning journals as a low interaction and communicative All the elements of technicism seemed significant pedagogical approach in its action to build a community of trust to be present: a goal-oriented and task - major core unit on all 3 campuses and and mutual respect. The following oriented method to 'cover' the mate- in other units in post-graduate and journal entries demonstrate this proc- rial; a competitive, individualised ap- office automation studies. There is sig- nificantinterestand enthusiasm,as well ess: proach; a lack of team or group work; a "I have not been previously ex- lack of discourse - even the lack of as significant hesitation, demonstra ted by lecturers, tutors and students alike. posed to the Learning/General Journal superficial discussion or whole group

59 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 70 Semester 1 (only did 6 weeks) Semester 2

-boring better -better videos and props used in class -very parrot form straight from the is of in terest book lecturer and tutor very Non approachable lesturer and approachable and keen to "help tutors you along the way" students just did their work not more class interaction was really interacting with one another good (the buddy system worked quite well)

It would be fair to say that the research Davis, F.; Steiger, A.; Tennenhouse, K. Macintyre, A. (1985). After virtue: a interventions have had significant im- (1989). A Practical assessment of study in moral theory. London: pact in many teaching/learning situa- feminist pedagogy. A research re- Gerald Duckworth. tions and have created some consider- port. (Available from Anne Davis, Sires, J. (1976). The universe next door. able ferment as people discuss and ex- Canada). Downers Grove, USA: Intervarsity amine personal, communal and societal Dryzek, J. S. (1990). Green Reason: Press values, worldviews and ideologies in Communicative Ethics for the Bio- Sires, J. (1988) How to read slowly. computing education. This in itself is sphere. Environmental Ethics . 12 Harold Shaw: Wheaton, Illinois. an indicator that a moral poverty is (3), 195-211. Taylor, P. C.S. (1990). Collaborating to being addressed and teaching /learning Fleit, L H. (1987). Computing Ameri- reconstruct teaching: The influence is thus being enriched. can campuses. in Electronic Learn- of researcher beliefs. Paper pre- ing. March pp 16-34 sented at the Annual Meeting of the REFERENCES Ellul, J. (1990). The technological bluff. American Educational Research Agger, B. (1991). A critical theory of Mich. U.S.A.: Eerdmans. Association, Boston, MA, USA. public life: Knowledge, discourse Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative meth- Tobin, K. (1991). Social constructivist and politics in an age of decline. ods in research on teaching. in perspectives on the reform of sci- London: Palmer Press. M.C.Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of ence education. The Australian Sci- Bowers, C. A. (1988). The cultural di- research on teaching (3rd ed.), (pp. ence Teachers Journal, 36(4), 29-35 mensions of educational comput- 119-161). New York: MacMillan. Young, R.E. (1989). A critical theory of ing: Understanding the non-neu- Fraser, B.J. (1986). Annotated bibliog- education: Habermas and our chil- trality of Technology. New York: raphy of curriculum evaluation lit- dren's future. Harvester Teachers College Press. erature. Perth, WA: Curtin Univer- Wheatsheaf: Hertfordshire, U.K. Bowers, C. A. (1992). Ideology, educa- sity of Technology. Weizenbaum, J. (1977) Computer tional computing, and the moral Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: prod- power and human learning. San poverty of the information age. uct or praxis? U.K.: Palmer Press. Fransisco: W.H. Freedman and Co.. Australian EducationalComputing, Habermas, J. (1971).Towardsa rational White, S.K. (1988). The recent work of 7(1),14 -21. society. London: Heinemann Jurg.,:n Habermas: reason, justice Campbell-Williams, M. (1992, a). Net- Habennas, J. (1972). Knowledge and and modernity. Cambridge: Cam- working, discourse and empower- humaninterests. London: bridge University Press. ment: A Habermasian perspective Heinemann Williams, M. (1987). Education for a on computer tutorials in business Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of corn- balanced attitude towards compu- higher education. Conference Pro- mun ica five action: Vol. 2. Lifeworld ter technology. Engineers Croup ceedings of the Forum for Teaching and system critique of functionalist Newsletter (U.K.), Autumn 1987, and Learning in Higher Education, reason.. Boston: Beacon Press. pp.35-41. Curtin University of Technology, Habermas, J. (1987). The theory of Perth, Western Australia. communicative action: Vol. 1. Rea- Campbell-Williams, M. (1992, b). Group son and the rationalization of soci- decision support systems and em- ety. Boston: Beacon Press. powerment: a Habermasian critical Habermas, J. (1987). The philosophical theory perspective. Proceedings of discourseof modernity.Cambridge, the Third Australian Conference on Mass.: MIT Press. Information Systems, Department Held, D. (1980) Introduction to critical of Business Systems, University of theory. Cambridge: Polity Press Woolongong, N.S.W.

60 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 71 STUDENTS/TEACHERS AND ELECTRONIC MAIL A VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY INTO A NEW WAVE OF EDUCATIONAL ISSUES PAUL CHANDLER, Deakin University JEFFREY CLEMENT, Deakin University ROLAND GESTHUIZEN, Glen Wavedey Secondary College (Syndal Campus) AILEEN HALL, Glenda! Primary School and soft ware designed to help an under- regularly browse their mail. In this standing of how students use electronic way, inter-school and inter-cultural mail and computer conferencing has communication can be established, been written. which may develop into more formal- ized co-ooperative projects (eg. "Quick! Look! I've got a letter from telesesations, and cohen et al). America", shouts Nicky Cook, a year 4 student at Glendal Primary School. Ex- In times to come, each computer in a citedly, her classmates gather around school will have full internet connec- Thispaper describes the her computer. This no ordinary letter. It tivity (Carlitz, 1992). In reality, there wasn't sent through the mail, but rather area multiplicity of resourcing issues impact of an initiative arrived electronically via an electronic at the local, regional and national lev- which has brought elec- mail system (Hall, 1993). els which need to be addressed before tronic mail to the class- this becomes a reality. It is sufficient This is just one of many stories of excite- to note that such connectivity is not room in terms of research ment that an electronic mail system, just around the corner. We see the and development activities which was reported on at the 1992 Aus- mail point concept as a cost-effective which have grown from tralian Corn puting in Education Confer- way of bringing something of that ence, can bring to a student. This is an ubiquitous access to the classroom. the original endeavor. inexpensive system that makes it poten- Thus, having largely broken through The research and tially possible for every computer in a the barrier of access, we are able to developement activities school to be available)s a communica- look into what might be the next layer tions tool, in the same way as they might of issues for students, individual teach- described include: a proc- be word-processing or database tools ers and schools as a whole. ess of interactive and (Chandler, Gesthuizen and Clement, participatory design has 1992). A number of research and development activities have grown around been followed to develop The innovation, which works on a stand- the use of mail points, which have an easy to use set of alone computer or in a local area net- come about in response to this "next menus and commands to work environment, allows students and layerof issues". A numberof theseare teachers to use a local-only FidoNet bul- discussed below. access the system; some letin board (referred to as a mail point) practical guidelines on the to communicate with other students and ESTABLISHING A SCHOOL BASED MAIL use of electronic mail with teachers all over the world by electronic POINT mail and computer conferences. In modern bulletin board systems primary and secondary (such as the Ezycom package), almost school students has been By posting a message into a conference, every aspect of the function of the developed; a peer-support it will be distributed to many hundreds system can be customised to the taste of similar computer systems around the of the system operator. System opera- structure for teachers world for others to read. This means tors often put a lot of time and energy involved with electronic that your letter or reply has the potential to make their systems interesting, en- mail has been set up; to be read by thousands of people who tertaining and functional.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 61 72 For someone who wants to establish a Our group of users covered a range of spent. The problems we encountered functional mail system quickly, this is primary and secondary school students are not uncommon amongst other not an appropriate approach. It is daunt- aged from 7 to 16 years old. We have onlineservices. Insights we havegained i ng fora new system operator or teacherendeavoured to practice interactive and might give others guidance how they to design and write their own screens participatory design at all stages can set up a school based electronic and menus. We set out to design a set (Schneiderman, 1987, 390-394). mail system. of default or common menus and screens that could be used by other We needed to blend our knowledge of MENU STRUCTURE similar educational mail point systems technical feasibility with the aesthetic As noted above, the number of interna- in Victoria. sense of what will be attractive to stu- tional conferences would not all fit into dents and teachers who will use the one menu, so they needed tthe grouped To help those who may want to estab- mail point. By using a combination ofaccording to a scheme which the stu- lish a mail point, an easy-install utility computer-managed user question- dents would find easy to use. was also developed. naires, feedback from the students by talking with them and watching them For example, all Kl2Net conferences MENU STRUCTURE AND INTERFACE DE- use the mail point, we gained valuable were grouped together then they were SIGN understanding and information about grouped again into their discussion One anonymous observer has noted task performance and usage by all us- types of "chat", "subjects" and that, "in contrast to many on-line sys- ers. "projects". Further grouping accord- tems, bulletin boards are ing to "breadth of audience" (eg. local, people-orientated services which set So far we do not we feel that this proc- national or international conferences) the standard for the interface". ess of development and change is fin- helped the users have some idea of ished, although students are proud of those who would be reading their con- The challenge facing many bulletin their contribution. Time spent analys- tribution in any particular conference board operators is how to provide a ing user needs before launching into a (Figure 1). structure that can be effectively navi- large scale project is indeed time well gated by an intending group of users and yet provide access to hundreds of different conferences.

STUDENT MESSAGE AREAS

A) Message to Sysop Local B) Student Chat Aus L) Student Chat C) Important Notices

Points D) Student Chat M)KIDS Responses World N)KIDS Cafe E) Student Chat 0)KIDS Action Vic F) VCE Student Support P) KIDS G)Maths Students Q)Physics 1 H)Info Tech Students R) Physics 2 I)Science Students S) Physics 3 J) English Students T) Chemistry K) Environment U) Tertiary Student Chat V) Tertiary Education

Other Areas: 1) K12-Net Message Areas 2) Direct Private Mail

-) Previous Menu *) Main Menu ?) Help

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 62 73 Students do not need to be aware ofing boxes around each grouping ofusers what echomail is, we used the teacher-only conferences, nor do teach- conferences. The new menu structure audience of the conferences for identi- ers need to be aware of student-only is now much smaller and both students fying the conference types. conferences. We used a feature in the and teachers find it easier to browse bulletin board. software that allowed through to find a desired conference. One of the more demanding concepts us to display menus appropriate to the (Figure 3) to learn, use and understand on the user depending on the his or her secu- Main Menu mail point is the Direct Private Mail rity level. _ Student Message Areas conference (technically known as the Direct Private Mail netmail). This conference serves two The menu structure resembled a tree K12-Net message Areas purposes; to send messages directly to type structure with many levels (Fig- K12-Net Project & other Fidonet systems, or to send mes- ure 2). Channels sages to the Internet gateway. Main Menu Teacher Message Areas Message Areas Direct Private Mail We found the best approach was to _ Local Message Areas K12-Net message Areas break up the problem into the two ar- Messages to the Sysop K12-Net Project & eas; FidoNet Netmail and Internet Mail. Local Student Chat Channels We made a small sub menu that would Local Teacher Chat Other Message Areas be displayed to the user after selecting _ Regional Message Areas K12-Net Message Areas the option to enter a message in the Regional Student Chat K12-Net Project Sr Direct Private Mail conference. The Regional Teacher Chat Channels sub menu asked the user to select from Australian Message Areas _ Direct Private Mail the two types of messages, and then it Australian Student Chat Figure 3 : Current Menu Structure would give an example of how to write Australian Education the type of message chosen and would International Message Areas AWARENESS OF AUDIENCE automatically key in data for them _ K12-Net Message Areas We wanted to be quite helpful in guid- where applicable. Students and teach- K12 News & ing students to use a ppropriate confer- ers found this a much more effective Information ences. For instance, it is inappropriate way to write either of these sorts of K12 Chat Message to mix subjects and, say, discuss health messages. Areas education in a physics conference, or (another level) initiate general chat in a subject-spe- CONSISTENCY K12 Language Message cific conference. Often new users are W2 decided early on that a desirable Area confused about this and may receive interface for our mail point should not (another level) some unsavoury mail from more expe- confuse the new user, require the K12 Subject Message rienced users. memory of many varied and obscure Areas codes or functions (Schneiderman, 69- (another level) With the increasing cost of forwarding 71). We made each screen look similar K12 Project Message messages between systems it is impor- by using the same coloured boxes and Areas tant that discussion between users is text and used consistent keystrokes. _ (another level) restricted to conferences that are only Other Message Areas carried for the intended audience. For Adopting a successful pattern used by (another level) example, a discussion of a Victorian various applications and on-line bulletin boards, we used a consistent set of Fidonet Netmail training course would only interest and menu options that would work from Figure 2 : Original Menu Structure concern readers in the state of Victoria. It would it be wasteful and distracting any menu. For example; As more educational conferences were to send this message in an Australian added to the mail point, the menu or international conference. Key Description structure grew even bigger, and it was Returns to the main noticeable that users were having MINIMISING JARGON problems finding conferences that were To help the users understand what is menu Returns to the previous of interest to them and that they were being displayed, weattempted to mini- menu getting lost in a maze of menus. As the mise the jargon displayed to the user as interative design process proceeded, a much as possible by using other words Gives the user some new set of menus was developed towhich students and teachers would helpful information LogOifand Exit the Mail address these concerns.In later de- understand. For example, conferences signs, we have attempted to allow as that are distributed among several com- Point many conferences as possible to be dis- puter systems are called echomail on played on the one menu, and then plac- FidoNet systems.Instead of telling

63 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 74 To help the user memorise keystrokes, Parents are great helpers initially we made the first letter of each menu when the children lack confidence option description the keystroke to ex- and need close supervision. Par- From: Bob Shayler ecute the menu option where possible. ents can also ensure the success of a To : All For example, after a user selects a con- mail point bytheirhelpand support. Subject : KlZ_SR_CHAT Guidelines ference, they could press R to read messages in the conference. The keystrokes As each message is posted by a K12SRSHAT Access Guidelines to execute each menu option are also student, they are printed (by highlighted to emphasise the key to pressing "print screen") so that they 1. NON-ABUSIVE LANGUAGE press. have a permanent record of what ONLY: they have sent. This also gave them Use friendly and non-abusive lan- USING THE MAIL POINT something to show their parents at guage when typing messages. home. Posting a message which includes TEACHINGSTRATEGIES DEVELOP ED WITH any racist or slanderous language YOUNGER STUDENTS The mail point provides a good way is not allowed. Posting a message An interesting challengeand one of our to get the students to practise their which is slanderous or libelous to- objectives was to improve and design writing, spelling, punctuation and ward either an individual person or access for primary school students aged readings skills without realising it. a group of people is not allowed from 7 to 12 years working in pairs on Thereader of your messages cannot the computers. To ensure that all students would see you as you "speak," so the usual have mail to read next time they log visual clues and your tone of voice It became evident that a different ap- on, the teacher would write each can't be used by the reader to dis- proach was needed and some observa- student a message. It is disa ppoint- tinguish a joke from an abusive tions and strategies that worked well ing for students when they don't statement. are; receive a ny messages, but they find it exciting when they do receive2. NO FLAMING OR PICKING The students learn the procedures messages. FIGHTS: to log on to the mail point by writ- Flaming (picking or participating ing down the procedure each time. Students have to be watched care- in a verbal fight) and profanitydon't Although this may seem only a fully to ensure that they post their belong here.Calling a person a simple procedure containing a ft w messages in the appropriate con- n. rne or attempting to intimidate a keystrokes, it can be daunting for ferences. person is not allowed. This con- the younger students to be able to ference is here to encourage people spell their name and password For the mail point to be a success, to meet each otherand make friend s, correctly and then navigate them- teachers have to be dedicated and not to support verbal brawls. selves through the menus. enjoy using the mail point.If the teachers enjoy it, so will the stu- 3. NO CUTE FORMATS AND AB- Before each lesson the students dents. The students need as much BREVIATIONS: write the message they are going to enthusiasm and encouragement Using cute keyboard symbols like write on paper first. This way the which the teacher can offer. "&$#" doesn't hide the meaning messages can be checked by the of words which are inappropriate teacher for spelling and punctua- NETWORK BEHAVIOUR ANDETIQUETTE here. Creating blank screens or in- tion mistakes before they are sent. Teachers need to promote good concluding control characters in mes- It also ensures that the students have structive network behaviour or eti- sages to create "cute" screen dis- something to write during the time quette.Language used by students plays are in fact irritating to most they have to use the mail point. must not get out of hand and they must readers and can even cause software honour the published rules for activi- problems. Write messages format- When the students are using the ties and discussion conferences. ted in a normal fashion with usual mail point, they work in pairs. One spelling of words. student can log on to the mail point Teachers do not need to read every and read and reply to messages, message in all the conferences sup- 3.DISCUSSIONS ABOUT SEX RE- whilst the other student acts as a ported as each conference has a person STRICTED: proof reader and offers suggestions called a moderator whose role it is to Certain subjects, no matter how im- to their partner. Once the first stu- regulate topic discussions, enforce the portant or common in everyday dent has finished, the students swap conference rules and answer any ques- private conversations, can become places and the process is repeated. tions. For example, for the Senior Chat inappropriate in this open confer- conference on Kl2Net, the rules are: ence medium depending upon the

64 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 75 sensitivity of the message. Messages that system (known as local confer- was developed that could scan all the which include specific discussions ences). In order to moderate students' conferences. This again took full ad- of sexual practices and techniques writing in these conferences, two older vantage of the relevant file formats beare not permitted here. and responsible students were made ing available. local conference moderators. They 4. NO PERSONAL ADDRESSES OR regularly read all the local mail and The obscene language scanner scanned PHONE NUMBERS: report any problems to the system op-conferences for any message entered Unfortunately, there are people erator. that contains words or phrases desig- with modems who may send you nated as obscene by the system opera- stuff you won't like if you post your LOCAL MODERATOR RULES tor. If an offending message is found by home address and phone number. the scanner, it is deleted and forwarded If you want to exchange regular A local moderator is a appointed by the to the system operator for review. This (written on paper) mail, use your system operator to monitor an allo- program has been extremely useful and school address for at least the firstcated conference. The moderator is has prevented many potentially unsa- mail. responsible for the messages which are voury incidents occurring. written in his/her conference. Conference rules, local conference mod- 5. NO PRIVATE MESSAGES: ALL messages (mail) you write to A local moderator should: erators and mail scanner s help to en- people in this conference are read courage positive network behaviour by EVERYBODY not just the person 1. Read all new messages in the con- amongst all student users. you are writing to. Writing to Jane ference which he/she is responsi- about her ex-boyfriend John may ble for. PROFESSIONAL ANDTECHNICALSUPPORT have been intended as a PRIVATE Many educators have expressed inter- message but guess again. Every- 2.Be seen as just one of the users who est in the mail point idea, but few have one can read it! is trying to help all participants get dialled up or used an online service of along with each other. any sort. The mail point makes it easy If you want to write to someone for the user, but the system operator PRIVATELY, then you must write 3.Respect a user's privacy if the user needs to have a grasp of some sophisti- a message in a PRIVATE MAIL has written a private message tocated functions. In order for users to conference or NETMAIL. It is up to another user. grow in competence from a novice user the sysop of your local Kl2net BBS to the relative sophistication of a mail whether private messages and/or 4.Patrol the conference he/she is in point operator, a focus and structure netmail are available to you, so charge of for abuse. For example, would need to be provided. contact your local sysop: pout these obsceneand inappropriatelanguage possibilities. or users who are personally at- This has been conceptualised in the form tacking other users. of STEM (Students, Teachers and Elec- tronic Mail): a loosely organised group 6.IF YOU DON'T LIKE THESE GUIDELINES: 5.Forward any messages considered of primary and secondary teachers, If you don't like these "guidelines," inappropriate to the system opera- university lecturers and tertiary stu- write me a polite and reasoned tor so that the system operator can dents who have a common commit- message (netmail if you can). These deal with the user(s) involved. ment to promoting the use of electronic "guidelines" have and will evolve mail and computer conferencing for over time and with experience. But 6. Do not abuse your privileges. teachers and students in both primary do not violate these guidelines, else and secondary schools. STEM is associ- you may lose your access to K1 2net! 7. .If in doubt about anything, discuss ated with the Bennettswood Technol- it with the system operator. ogy for Learning Centre of Deakin Uni- versity, which providrs an organisa- -Bob Shayler- Enjoy Moderating! tional base for the provision of profes- Figure 4 : 1(12 Senior Chat Rules sional development programs, short Figure 5 : Local Moderator Rules courses, consultancy services, teaching resource development, and study and If any conference rules are breached, a moderator can directly write to the of- A principle concern held by many research opportunities. fending person and the system opera- teachers when allowing students to use tor. Continuous re-offenders can be electronic mail is that the la nguage used ANALYSING TRENDS IN THE USE OF COM- denied access. by students might get out of hand. To PUTER MESSAGING help overcome this fear and save the Previously, we reported unsubstanti- Mail points will invariably support system operator from manually check- ated survey evidence that there might conferences available only to users of ing all the messages posted, a program difference between boys' and girls' use 65 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 data was sought. As is typical of bulle- technical operation of the system, the abridged from as Hall, A., "Elec- tin board software, the system we are desire to improve teaching and class- tronic Penpals", Eastside Story (Of- using (Ezycom) maintains extensive room practice and to more fully under- ficial Communication of the East- files on user statistics and activity, and stand the implications computer com- ern Metropolitan Region, Directo- all manner of information on the mes- munications will have on the lives of rate of School Education), 1(17), p. sages available on the bulletin board. young people, their teacher and their 17,1992 (December). This information tends to be stored in schools as we move towards the 21st Schneiderman, (1987). Designing the package-specific formats. Taking full century. user Interface: Strategies for Effec- advantage of these file formats being tive Human-Computer Interaction. available, software has been developed REFERENCES Addison-Wesley to archive periodically the system ac- Benton, J., bt Sosinsky, B. (July 13,1990). tivity into a more common and more BulletinBoardSoftware- The authors of this paper and others easily manipulated format: that of a set TeleFinder 2.0, Mac User Magazine. associated with STEM would like to of DBASE files. This format allows for Carlitz, R.(1992, March).Internet acknowledgment the valuable contri- an initial investigation and later it may Connectivity for the K-12 Commu- bution made by Monash Primary prove useful to generate data for analy- nity: Stages of Implementation, re- School, Glendal Primary School, Syndal sis programs such as SPSSx or NUD- port to the Internet Engineering campus of Glen Waverley Secondary IST. Task Force Working Group on College and Post graduate students at School Networking. Rusden campus of Deakin University. Using such information sampled sev- Chandler, P.D., Gesthuizen, R.J., eral times over an extended period, Clement, J.D. (1992). Raising the Information about the Authors: gender differences in the use of this Level of Access to Computer Com- electronic messaging system will be munications in Schools, Comput- Paul Chandler is an Associate Lecturer investigated.Important differences ing the Clever Country? - Proceed- in the Technology Managment Centre between other groups of users could ings of the 1992 Australian Com- of Deakin University, and is leader of also be investigated, such as younger puters in Education Conference, pp the STEM initiative. users compared with older users. 197-209 Eisenberg, M.B. (1992, December). Jeff Clement is a student in the Faculty CONCLUSION Networking: K-12, ERIC Digest of Management at Deakin University, The mail point concept has, for the EDO-IR-92-10, ERIC Clearinghouse and is a technical assistant at Glen people involved, strengthened the links on Information Resources, Syracuse Waverley Secondary College (Syndal between primary, seconda ry a nd terti- University, Syracuse, New York. Campus). ary education. It has also empowered Available as Machine Readable Roland Gesthuizen is computer man- teachers to see themselves as research- Data File "NETWORKING K -12" ager at Glen Waverley Secondary Col- ers. The most profound effect of the anonymous FTP, ericic.syr.edu lege (Syndal Campus). mail point initiative has been the Hall, A., "No Ordinary Letters: The endeavor by all concerned to embark Syndal K12 Mail Project", Primary Aileen Hall is Vice Principal at Clendal on a program of systematic improve- Education 24(1), pp. 38-39, 1993 Primary School. ment. The impact has been felt on the (February).Also published in

66 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 77 SONOW WE HAVE A NATIONAL K-12 CURRICULUM: WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? BY GEORGE E. DUCKETT School of Education University of Tasmania at Launceston

In addition to 'putting the cat amongst the guise of a 'Forum'. fo +rum: a the pigeons' this paper presents a de- meeting or assembly for the open dis- velopmental model of a definition for cussion of public interest. computer literacy and lays the groundwork for the inclusion of a model CIE It could be argued by some the presen- curriculum into the National K-12 Cur- tation was anything but a 'Forum', as riculum. This developmental model is no time was allowed for discussion or offered as a starting point to focus dis- questions from those attending. To add cussion and perhaps the formation of a to the frustration of not having the op- The announcement of the body of experts to expedite the means portunity to ask questions, at the time development of a National to put into place a workable, agreed- of the announcement, the Interim State- upon curriculum that will assist all edu- ment was "in press" and no copies K-12 Curriculum, "Technol- cators in Sharing the Vision of quality were available for perusal by those at- ogy for Australian Schools education in Australia. tending the 'Foru-m'. Subsequent release of the document still leaves many Interim statement" in 1992 questions to be answered. is the motivating force In 1988 an enquiry was conducted by behind this paper. The the Standing Committee on Employ- Foremost is the question, What implications has the K-12 Curriculum on concept of a National ment, Education and Training (SCEET). The enquiry recognized that advances current pre-service teacher education Curriculum has profound have been made in the use of educa- curriculum? The teaching of Technol- implications on the Teach- tional technology, but noted that such ogy requires vast resources if it is to extend beyond the theoretical. In the ing Profession in general use is however fragmented and without an overall direction. The evidence current economic climate, Where are and Pre-Service Teacher presented highlighted the lack of expe- the resources coming from? Funding Education in particular. rienced practitioners at all levels of edu- at all levels of education has been cut. This paper is intended to cation and noted that there are very K-12 Schools are being told they must few people who have the expertise and take on the responsibility of supple- play the part of the devil's the experience to implement pro- menting funding by securing sponsor- advocate by asking ques- grammes and conduct research in the ship. Higher institutesoflearning must tions such as: What or area of Educational Technology. supplement their income by securing (SCEET 1989 pp. 76-77) research projects as well as sponsor- whom is behind the cur- ship. riculum? and Where are The results of the enquiry motivated Where are the resources to finance the the resources to imple- the Australian Government to commission a study into the development of a establishment of the K-12 curriculum ment it coming from? By National Curriculum for K-12, high- to come from? Is the Department of introducing controversy, lighting technology in the school cur- Employment Education and Training (DEET) going to supply them or are its aims are to stimulate riculum. At the ACE '92 Conference in July of 1992, Technology for Austral- they going to come from benevolent discussion and action by ian Schools' (AEC 1992), an Interim benefactors that will surely secure their teacher educators. statement was publicly announced in pound of flesh in return?

67 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

Q Certainly if the Technology Curricu- dents to cope with the accelerated de- Rosenberg, in a 1989 study, found evi- lum is to be taught at the K-12 level, to velopments in technology. The Na- dence of the involvement of the "com- be effective, the delivery system must tional Curriculum for K-12 appears to mercial world" in the promotion of first be developed at the highest level.be addressing Hall's observation by computer literacy. They could be the Two areas of study have been targeted putting into place strategies to over- most significant beneficiary of the com- to establish the Technology Curricu- come the shortfalls in the present edu- puter literacy movement: lum. Home Economics and Design and cational outcomes. The absence, how- Technology are being forged together ever, of a clearly-stated relationship to The single theme encountered most to become the centre of Technology the overall curriculum, brings about often in my discussions with teachers Education;a large task for a small concerns as to the dominance of tech- about computers is their strong sense group of educators. nology over the total curriculum. of being pressured to use computers in In a 1985 paper Ash stressed the need class. The pressure comes from several Where do the rest of the educational for strategies in the development of a sources that interact with each other to disciplines fit into the scheme of things? Computers In Education (CIE) curricu- form a complex web of social forces. The extent of influence technology will lum and to be more critical of fads and ...the developers, manufacturers and have on the overall curriculum is indi- trends. Seven years after his presenta- retailers of computer-literacy materi- cated by the goals set out in the docu- tion, his words echo: als ...have an economic incentive to ment. The AEC considers them to be encourage the ed ucation establishment the "Common and Agreed National ...Teachers and administrators, parents to buy into computer-literacy educa- Goals for Schools in Australia". (AEC and school boards, all need something tion. "We're looking at an infinite mar- 1992) to go on to make the decisions they ket," said the chairman of one compu- have to make about goals and curricu- ter-manufacturing firm.(Rosenberg Although the document clearly sets out lum. And if no one else does it, the 1989) its goals and objectives for technology, taxpaying public may soon demand an it is not clear as to what its relationship accounting. Let us start planning be- There is no doubt that computer lit- is to the overall curriculum. It raises fore it is too late. (Ash, 1985, p. 39) eracy is important and the "commer- questions and concerns as to how it fits cial world" has a part to play in it but into the basics of education - reading, It may well be too late to take control of that role must be brought under con- writing and mathematics. the Technology curriculum to ensure trol by education. that as Hall commented in 1984: Hopefully, the final statement by the With the bandwagon metaphor firmly AEC will place the National Curricu- ...There is a need for more teacher edu- in mind let us view the role technology lum into perspective and put to rest the cators to become actively involved in has to play in education. Undoubtedly concerns and answer the question: helping present and future teachers to the role technology has to play in edu- understand the benefits and dangers cation is an important and necessary Will technology dominate the cur- associated with technological develop- one. However, if technology is applied riculum or be a core that runs ments, both in the educational context without controls, the learner's educa- through it strengthening all disci- and in society in general. There is a real tional experiences could easily become plines? possibility that if we do not take up this technology dominated and "the tech- challenge some learner's educational nological band wagon" may crush edu- The question, "Will technology domi- experiences may become computer cation as we know it. nate the curriculum?" is not a new con- dominated; dominated by the wiles of cem. Hall made an observation: the commercial world, assisted by short Today, the core of technology is un- sighted bureaucratic expediency and doubtedly the computer. The compu- We are preparing teachers today for a pseudo-efficiency, and permitted to ter plays a major role in the develop- future where technology may be ram- take place by a teaching profession ill- ment of virtually all new advancements pant; our education studies need to prepared to counter the technological in technology. This is emphasized in take this situation into account. ...In bandwagon. (Hall, 1984 p. 23) the 'Interim Statement' by the amount developingteachingstrategies of computer associated content pro- preservice students will be required to It would appear the bandwagon in the posed in the K-12 Curriculum. The know how to effectively use this new form of the National Curriculum has document outlines four strands of learn- technology to enhance the educational started to roll. The question is, Who is ing in technology: experiences of their charges. (Hal11984 driving the band wagon? Is it the "com- p. 21) mercial world, assisted by short sighted The four strands of learning in technol- bureaucratic expediency and pseudo-ogy set out in this statement are inter- To this point in time little has been efficiency", or is it going to be a well dependent. accomplished in the development of informed, well trained, teaching pro- teaching strategies for preservice stu- fession?

68 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 79 They are: 1.Knowledge and skill in operating a the ability to read and write computer designing, making and appraising; computer using a library of generic programming languages, while the materials; programs as determined by each disci- other sees it in broader terms of under- information; and pline's requirements. standing and functional ability; another systems(AEC 1992 p. 5) 2.Knowledge of various ethical and will see it in narrow technological terms social issues, in general, and in greater while others see it in a broader combi- With a large percentage of the curricu- depth issues determined by each disci- nation of technical and social issues. lum devoted to "The techniques of gath- pline, relating to computer use. Then lastly there is the debate that eve- ering, sorting, storing, retrieving and 3.Knowledge and skills in computer ryone should be Computer Literate, communicating information..." (AEC programming using a high level lan- not only a select group. 1992 p. 7), the information strand em- guage as deemed appropriate or not by phasizes the role CIE is to play in the each discipline's requirements. In global terms, to be Computer Liter- curriculum as a substantial one. 4.A functional level of knowledge for ate a person would: the use of computers as an aid to prob- So now we have A National K-12 Cur- lem solving, and roles of computers as have comprehensive skills, riculum for Australia, Where do we go a source of problems as deemed appro- knowledge and understanding of com- from here? Hopefully the AEC, DEET priatebyeach d iscipline students study puters and their use as they relate to and the Federal Government will come in school. technical ,ethical,socialandeducational to the party and answer the questions (Duckett 1992) issues of the day, as deemed appropri- asked above. In the meantime we must ate to the skills, knowledge and under- gather the few who have the desire and To further test Moursund's concept, standing required. expertise in CIE, develop a suitable Duckett describes in a subsequent pa- curriculum for pre-service teachers and per the steps he used to further refine As each discipline of study has special- mount the bandwagon before it's mov- the computer literacy definition. The ized requirements, a global definition ing too fast to get on board. following are segments from that pa- can extend no further than stated above. Per- It is therefore the responsibility of each It is imperative CIE educators move discipline to define: swiftly to develop a suitable means to A short discourse was assembled and address the needs of pre-serviceeduca- sent out to a number of discussion lists the extent of skills, the level of tors who must fulfil the requirements on the BITNET listserve. Twenty re- knowledge and understanding of the of the National K-12 Curriculum. As sponses were received... The respond- use of computers, to be determined by definitions and standards play an im- ents were lecturers and Graduate Stu- each discipline, within its sphere of portant role in the advancement of a dents - not a very large sampling but a influence. solid and workable curriculum it's time rewarding one. thought was given to establishing an With this as a definition, a move to national agreed-upondefinitionofcom- Moursund's concept of computer lit- clarify the requirements fora pre-serv- puter literacy to assist in the develop- eracy stood up very well to criticism in ice teacher to become computer literate ment of a sound National Technology all but one area... Item 3 of Moursund's was undertaken. Curriculum. definition however is a different matter.There is a strong divergence of Four key subject areas have been iden- With the development and establish- opinion that hinges on the term 'Lit- tified. ment of sound curriculum in mind the eracy'. Computer Educators emphati- 1. Technical following is offered as a starting point cally hang on to the concept that to be 2.Ethical and Social to focus discussion and perhaps the computer literate a person must be able 3. Educational formation of a body of experts to expe- to read and write one or more high4. Specialised Developmental or dite the means to put into place a work- level computer languages. The 'rest of Computing able, agreed-upon curriculum that will us' however feel that the ability to be a assist all educators in Sharing the Vi- competent, computer user is sufficient The key subject areas relate directly to sion of quality education in Australia. to be computer literate. what is seen to be required at this point in time by a person entering the teach- In a paper outlining the problems of Attempts to define computer literacy ing profession. developing a Computer Literacy Cur- in global terms have met with little riculum, Duckett (1992) presented success due o the diversity of require- Items 1-3 represent the core units for all Moursund's definition of computer lit- ments by each discipline with a vested pm-service teachers. Item 4 is basic for eracy (Moursund 1983) in a modified interest in the subject. It would appear the study by pre-service teachers to version. See also (Moursund 1992) The the heart of the controversy rests on the whom the knowledge of computer modified version of Moursund's defi- interruption of the word 'literacy'. One programming is part of the discipline's nition: faction looks at literacy in literal terms, requirement.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 69 80 1. TECHNICAL ISSUES: 4. SPECIALIZED DEVELOPMENTAL nology into the educational process. Knowledge and skill in operating a OR COMPUTINGISSUES: Your presence at this conference is an computer using a library of generic Knowledge and skills in computer pro- indication of your concern of the need programmes. gramming using a high level language. to do so. a. the computer, its system, networka. programme languages in relation to and peripherals as to what they are, use in the development of software Technologyand Communications is the how they work and how they can be relevant to requirements. instrument that will enable education used as a teaching or learning tool. b. methods used in problem-solving as to flourish in the coming century. If b. use of an integrated software pack- they relate to programme languages. education is to reach the heights neces- age appropriate to the platform /s, c. use of specialised authoring, multi- sary to fulfil the demands placed on it taught or used, to include word process- media or statistical software packages. by society, we must play a role in seeing, graphics, database, spreadsheet (Duckett "in press") ing that Technology and Communica- and communications. tions takes its place in the curriculum. c. the knowledge and ability to monitor The above not only suggests a defini- the rapid changes in technology ena- tion of computer literacy for teacher To answer the question, Where do we bling educated decisions to be made education but lays the groundwork for go from here? , obviously, some action when required. the development of a model CIE cur- must be taken. Each and every one of ricula. you that is aware of the importance the 2. ETHICAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES: role technology plays in education must Knowledge of various ethical and so- Once again we must ask the question, become active in promoting and en- cial issues relating to computer use. Where do we go from here? couraging it. The professional bodies, a. the legal and ethical aspects of copy- of which we are members, must take right law and what constitutes compu- From one point of view: If higher edu- up the challenge and establish commit- ter crime. cation is going to meet the needs of tees or working parties to address the b. the social and ethical issues of the Australian social and economic needs problems that face the introduction of impact of computers on society as ap- in the next century we must address Technology and Communications into plied to the gathering of personal data, the ways and means to accomplish the curriculum. This means you must impact on employment, education and them. The use of technology and com- take an active part in establishing these many other issues that exist and will munications are one of the most impor- committees or working parties. Surely manifest themselves with the expan- tant means available to accomplish the if we don't take an active role in the sion of technology. task ahead of us. Serious thought must development and establishment of the c. the knowledge and ability to monitor be given to developing the expertise of Technology and Communication, you the changes in social issues related to our teachers, using the technology cur- can be assured sooner or la ter someone changes in technology. rently available to us, by arming them else will, and it may not be to your with enough knowledge and ability to liking! 3. EDUCATIONAL ISSUES: cope with thechallengeexpanding tech- A functional level of knowledge for the nology is putting on the shoulders of If you wish to take part in "Sharing The use of computers as an aid to problem- educators. Vision" of establishing a comprehen- solving, and the role computers play as sive Technology and Communications a source of problems. Some hard decisions need to be made curriculum, write to your Professional a. when a computer is a tool and when as to how technology is going to be Organization and make your contribu- it's a problem. fitted into an already overloaded cur- tion. b. computer anxiety and the means to riculum. Decisions must be made am'. overcome it or present alternatives to they must be made soon. We are faced If you don't belong to a Professional using the computer. with two alternatives. One, find a way Organization and you have a desire to c. evaluate and determine what educa- to fit technology into the existing edu- add your comments or ideas to the tional or other software is best suited to cational undergraduate curriculum and subjects covered in this paper, please the task at hand. give each graduating teacher at least do so by sending your remarks to: d. knowledge and skills in instructional the basic knowledge needed to deal systems design as well as the ability to with technology. Two, establish a new By Post: George Duckett prescribe the integration of computers undergraduate, specialized, ed uca- School of Education at into a study discipline. tional discipline for Technology and Launceston e. methods used in problem-solving as Communications. The latter should The University of Tasmania they relate to the educational use ofnot be confused with the new K-12 PO Box 1214 computers in the curriculum. Technology Curriculum. Launceston, Tasmania 7250 f. ability to monitor the changes in edu- Australia cational issues related to changes in This enlightened body of Educators is technology. aware of the need to incorporate tech-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 70 81 By E-mail: Duckett, G. "in press", A National K-12 Moursund, D. 1992, 'Restructuring [email protected] Curriculum for Australia: Is it the Education Part 6: A New Definition Or thin edge of the wedge?, in Connec- of Computer Literacy', The Com- [email protected] tions - The Journal for Technology puting Teacher, Mar, 1992, p. 4. Coordinators, International Society Rosenberg, R.L. 1989, Computer Lit- REFERENCES for Technology in Education, eracy Education, Technical Report (AEC) Curriculum and Assessment Eugene, OR. USA MIT/ LCS/TR-433, MIT Laboratory Committee 1992, Technology for Hall, N. 1984, 'Computers in Under- for Computer Science, 545 Tech- Australian schools: Interim state- graduate Teacher Education Pro- nology Square Cambridge, MA ment, Annells J. (ed.), CURASS grams', Australian Journal of 02139, USA, S14.00, 160 p. Secretariat, Hobart, Tas. Australia. Teacher Education, v9, n2, pp. 18- Rosenberg, R.L. 1991, Debunking Ash, C. 1985, 'Beyond 1984: suggested 23. Computer Literacy, Technology strategies for our National Compu- Moursund, D.1983, 'Computerliteracy: Review, Jan, 1991, pp. 58-65. ter Education Programme' in The the fourth "basic" of education' in (SLEET) Standing Committee on Em- Information Edge: The future for Could You Use A Computer, Salvas, ployment, Education and Training educational computing, A.D. (ed), Computer Education 1989, An Apple for the Teacher? Rasmussen, B. (ed.), Computer Group of Victoria, Niddre, Vic., Choice and Technology in Learn- Education Group of Queensiand, P5-7. ing, AGPS, Canberra. Brisbane, pp. 39-45. Duckett, G. 1992, 'Basic Problems in the Development of a Computer Lit- eracy Curriculum' , in ACEC '92 Computing the Clever Country?, Computer Education Group of Vic- toria, Richmond North, Vic. 3121, 283-318.

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understanding through various meth- the subject domain, and has at his/her ods. Such systems have been devised disposal a variety of teaching strategies in a number of domains, examples of to be employed depending upon the ITS in mathematics and computer sci- student's responses and the nature of enceare detailed. Approaches to model the information to be presented. The tracing tutoring include plan recogni- tutor works with a student model, a tion and feature-based modelling, teaching model containing strategies which are structures to determine stu- for effective teaching, and an under- dent understanding and provide ap- standing of the lesson content includ- This paper discusses the propriateassistance. Desirable features ing the relationships between the com- importance of cognitive and fundamental principles ofa model ponent parts in the knowledge domain, modelling as a means of tracing ITS are suggested. and is able to make adjustments to the flow of the tutorial by responding to personalising stifdent- INTRODUCTON: THE LIMITATIONS OF the student. By contrast, tutorial soft - computer dialogue in intel- COMPUTER-BASED TUTORIAL INTERAC- ware is often inflexible, using a simplis- ligent computer-based 110N tic learning paradigm which offers too Since microcomputers were intro- few possibilities forbranching depend- tutoring. Computer as- duced into schools in the early 1980's ing on student responses. sisted instruction (CAI) and oneof their important uses has been as the limitations of traditional a teaching tool through the use of edu- Certainly the potential of courseware cational software. Some of the tutorial to interact with the student has im- programming and software, or courseware, over the past proved over the years, largely because authoring in accounting for decade has been little more than a designers of such software can write the knowledge state and screen by screen presentation of con- for more powerful computers. Most tent with questions which, when cor- schools now have computers which can acquisition of skill have led rectly answered, progress the student provide excellent graphics, mass hard- researchers to look for new to the next screen of information. A disk storage, several megabytes of methods in programmed common complaint has been an in-memory, and sound capabilities. De- ability to adapt to the particular learn- velopments in peripheral devices such instruction. Intelligent ing needs of the student user. An expe- as CD ROM provide scope for devel- tutoring systems (ITS) are rienced teacher would know from the opers of educational software to encode introduced and compared individual responses of the student more complex routines using this more which aspect of the work requires rep- interactive media. Multimedia has en- with traditional CAL The etition, how explanations can be re- hanced the cognitive flexibility of student modeller compo- stated and what questions to put to the computer based learning through its nent of an ITS is based on student before additional material can ability to restructure knowledge pres- be given. The teacher can be consid- entations to meet changing situations. a theory of cognition and ered to have developed a cognitive These new features of microcomputers attempts to trace student model of the student, that is, a concept have become available in a very short of the learner's current knowledge in time, and affordable hardware contin-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 73 r.r. ues to develop at startling rate. There isdaunting. Also, while designers of cial intelligence has also been added to therefore good reason to think that theeducational courseware have found this microworlds. A number of intelligent capabilities of tutorial software written flexibility an exciting challenge, it can discovery environments have been for the next generation of school com-also be too liberating and unstructured. created and the distinction has been puters will far exceed today's stand-Certainly it is easy to createa Hypertext made between AI for teaching where the ards, and provide a platform for a far 'spaghetti using Hypercard, where the system has to partially model student- more natural discourse between the stu- links between the screens, buttons and teacher interaction and Al tools to assist dent user and the computer. However, user responses can quickly become learning where the learn er's cognitive the success of the media to teach effec-quitecomplex. Because of the complex- activity is extended and enhanced tively relies as much on its ability toity of the student-computer dialogue (Bergon & Paquette, 1990). Student- parallel the cognitive processes of thedifferent techniques in programming centered learning microworlds such as learner through tracing the student'sbecome necessary. Logo may be classified as a tool to acquisition of knowledge as it does on assist learning. its ability to present the lessons in aOne approach to student centered stimulating and interactive way. Thecomputer assisted instruction has been INTELLIGENT TUTORING AND CAI improvements in computer hardware, the creation of microworlds, of which For a tutoring program to be classified interface design and multimedia pres-Logo is perhaps the most well known as "intelligent" it must adjust the con- entation have not addressed the prob-example. Here the computer provides tent and delivery of the lesson to the lem of providing the computer with an a friendly language for the student to needs of the student by analysing re- understanding of the student user. carry out investigations, and the com- sponses. It can do this by tracing the puter responds to commands in a pre- path of the student's understanding One of the problems in making compu-cise and predictable way. To an extent, through the subject matter. Intelligent ter software more individually interac-the problems of accounting for an enor- Tutoring Systems (ITS) developed from tive and the stud en t-computer d iscourse mous variety of student responses are Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) more natural is that as more branching overcome, as the language is rigid and along with the advent of Expert Sys- capabilities are required to meet thepredictable, providing only a enquiry tems. An ITS is usually implemented enormous number of possibilities in stu- shell for the student to investigate rela- through an expert systems shell (Val- dent responses, it becomes slow and tionships and test theories. The result- ley, 1989; Major & Reichgelt, 1989). Put limited. A great deal of coding is re- ing dialogue is initiated by the student, simply, an Expert System consists of quired at each stage to account for an and the computer has no record of the the knowledge area itself, in much the enormous variety of possible responses student's progress or understanding. same way as a database contains infor- from the student, and as a resultSuch environments provide the stu- mation; a list of rules and principles; courseware written using traditional dent with the basic tools for interaction particular exclusions; general infer- programming techniques becomes but the computer does not gather infor- ences; and special cases and categories. cumbersome. Authoring software hasmation about the student from the dia- Useful knowledge is, after all, more provided educators with experience inlogue, that is, it does not trace the stu- than a collection of facts as found in a the design of courseware. Programsdent's learning. The computer is pas- database, but also a set of relation- such as Hypercard and Authorzvare Pro- sive, and learning takes place at the ships, restrictions, interpretations and fessional are a purpose-built user inter-student's initiative. Swan (1989), has inferences between the elements of the face specifically intended for the design suggested that students do not auto- information. Generally an ITS consists of educational material, and enable thematically develop problem solving of four abstract components: A Reasoner designer to encodecomplexdisplaya nd skills through learning to program with or problem solving mechanism such as branching on student responses. While Logo, but can develop such skills an expert system; a User Modeller which these packages require a special exper- through programmed instruction on traces the students responses and as- tise to be used effectively, such soft- Logo. He thus argues that..."Explicit sesses t'ie student's current level of ware has given educators rather than instruction and mediated programming understanding; an Interaction Manager programmers a major part to play in the practice..." (Swan, 1989, p.281) is the which controls communications be- development of educational software. only means of supporting the develop- tween the student and the computer; Hypertext, the underlying language of ment of problem solving strategies, and and a Tutor which contains the instruc- the program Hypercard, has demon- the distinction in terms of instructional tional strategies used in the actual teach- strated the power of an associative in- modelling is t he d ifference between dis- ing. Each of these components may be formation structure as a realistic alter- covery learning and a model of explicit a separate expert system, linked to cre- native to a sequential or hierarchicalinstruction. ate the impression of a highly adaptive traversal of the subject matter. While it software program. In an effective ITS, is said to more closely model the criss- While this paper primarily discusses each of the component structures will crossing of information often found in intelligent tutoring that provides struc- be based upon sound educational learning, the programming required totured, individual tutorial interaction, theory: the User Modeller's means of allow high levels of flexibility remainsit is interesting to note that some artifi- re-ordering rules on student responses,

74 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 86 the Interaction Manager's ability to lions required to apply the steps. The believes that there is considerable represent the material in an interesting productions are not applied in any spe- search in cognitive psychology which way, as well as the Tutor's instruc- cific order, but after each step in the can be used as a guide to the develop- tional strategies. While a number of ITS problem solution, the program finds ment of ITS. He states that the success have been developed on mainframe possible routes to the solution and of an ITS can depend on its ability to computers, and writings on Intelligent identifies the rule which adds most to achieve 'task decomposition', a proc- Computer Assisted Instruction (ICAI) the situation. The teaching model takes ess of simplifying learning, and the will often contain extracts from actual care of the flow of the material and monitoring of student's belief by gen- dialogues with such systems, they are remediation, and varies instructional erating production rules (task analy- not commonly implemented on micro- strategies, while also maintaining a clear sis) fora restricted knowledge domain. computers that are used in schools. picture of the student's knowledge state Until recently, such systems had largely or current understanding. Mistakes are COGNITIVE YODELLING ITS remained the domain of the computer identified when the student makes an The key to the power of an ITS to scientist, writing specialist software for explicit error or persues a path that will individualise instruction in tutorial research. not lead to a correct solution, and courseware lies in the way it models remediation may follow. the cognitive processes of the learner One of the most important features of a through model tracing. To do this, it is CAI program is its interactivity, and Brown (1990) and other writers necessary todevelopa cognitivemodel the computer is seen as the vehicle (Anderson, 1992; Corbett & Anderson, of how the student should solve prob- through which certain teaching tech- 1990; Swan, 1989) have explained how lems and use it as a guide through the niques may be used and enhanced. ITS current theories and architectures in coursework. Then, supplement the programs are knowledge centered as ITS have impacted upon learning theo- model with errors that the students theyare based on a well-defined model, ries, and vice-versa. Brown makes the are known to make. Comparing the and ITS developers are interested in a distinction between explicit cognition student's steps to that of the student set of instructional principles general (practice) and implicit cognition (theo- model is known as model tracing. enough to apply to a variety of teaching ries), and draws parallels between the When errors are made, feedback is domains. Thus ITSs have developed ways that students learn outside school provided. This is a step-by-step model from instructional theories, and re- (by experience, demonstration, prob- tracing methodology and interpreta- search in this field helps understand lem solving in practical situations), and tion of behaviour in terms of cognitive the relationship be'ten the learner, in school (through formal reasoning rules, and monitoring the students the content and the instructional strat- and abstraction). The analogy is ex- acquisition of rules and provides the egies. By comparison, CAI programs tended further tc,Teryday cognition basis for tailoring the tutorial interac- are usually not based on a single in- (typically those types of processes in tion to the individual needs of the structional model, but are often a colla- which one would engage in the course student. The approaches of a number tion of techniques which attempt to of ordinary living) and expert cognition of ITS to student modelling are ex- engage the learner in the tutorial inter- (the ability to abstract problems in or- plained in the following pages. action. Many CAI programs reflect the der to solve them). The implications for attitudes and ideas of the developer the design of ITS are set out in a series MATHPERT about the manner in which the material of necessary features of the learning Beeson (1989) hasdetailed should be presented, and these in turn tools which support this new episte- MATHPERT (MATH exPERT), an ex- are often derived from aspects of the mology. These are briefly: To model pert system in mathematics with ex- nature of the medium itself rather than the way people react with their envi- tensive capabilities, supporting learn- on a principle of teaching and learning. ronment; to reflect the environ ment a nd ing in algebra, trigonometry and in- allow problem solving; support shared troductory calculus. It provides step- INSTRUCTIONAL PRINCIPLES AND ITS conversations and investigations; al- by-step solutions, tailoring teaching DESIGN low issues and problems to emerge methods and step size to individual An ITS generally performs its teaching from the investigative activities; allow users through student modelling. It in accordance with a well-defined in- the reflective process of human mental provides an illustration of tool trans- structional model which is capable of modelling in problem solving ( Bruwn, parency in an ITS, as it differs from solving the problem as an expert would. 1990, p. 278-279). The goal of the learn- other computer tutors in mathematics This is often known as a performance ing tool is to create a glass box which not in that it is a cognitively faithful and model, and is capable of keeping track only connects users to the world but glass box system. This means it solves of the student's progress through the allows transparency of the domain and problems as students would, with the maintenance of student knowledge the tool itself. routines being transparent to the stu- tracing. The performance model in the dent. MATHPERT works by the trans- ITS consists of a set of rules called pro- Brown's assertion that theories of lation of the subject material into sev- dudions, which are essentially steps in learning and ITS design are related is eral hundred operators. In one mode the problem solution and the condi-supported by Anderson (1990), who the user chooses the next operator, r- AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1923 75 G7 and in automatic mode the system takes, as well as altering questions that to have a catalogue of possible solu- chooses it, generating parts of the solu- follow and evaluating student per- tions, it is difficult to explain the steps tion by itself. The system will apply formance. This is yet to satisfactorily be to students in terms of the problem operators well-known to the student implemented in a working ITS in a solving procedure, or in terms of un- straight away, and the system learns to non-trivial domain. The problem has derlying goals. That is, how the step identify which of the operators are been that programming these miscon- relates to the other steps and the solu- familiar to the learner. The operators ceptions has been more difficult than tion of the overall problem. LISPITS themselves are chosen so as to corre- merely identifying a mistake. These has a set of rules for problem solution spond to familiar concepts, making problems have led Self (1990) to declare and a specification for each exercise, the system cognitively faithful.Opera- that it is not yet possible to build into a rather than a solution for each exercise. tors such as "collect powers" for exa m- working ITS all the modelling features The tutor is thus able to simulate the ple to correspond to x2. xS = x7 The that designers suggest, but perhaps the actions that a expert would take at each student model is first initialised by a most important considerations are to step in the problem. The tutor com- program called DIAGNOSER which build a modeller in an ITS that provides pares the student's response to the set creates the model from the first ses- natural, reliable and simple interactions; of possible responses and known er- sion, generating problems interac- link the models with outcomes in the rors, and so can tell if the student is on tively, depending upon the student's tutorial process; use the model not a path to the answer. The complete set responses. The model is continually solely as a error-handling feature of the of rules for solving problems is called updated by a program called EVALU- ITS; use the model as a set of beliefs and the ideal student model and represent ATOR which decides when the status allow the tutor to modify the set in a explicitly the instructional objectives. of an operator should be upgraded helping way to improve student un- The student model also contains a cata- from learning to known. derstanding; make the model transpar- logue of errors and misconceptions also MATHPERT does not allow an incor- ent to the student; and to create model- called the bug catalogue or student model rect step, thus it may be said to be ler's which work collaboratively. buggy rules. LISPITS uses the finest founded upon the Montessori princi- grainsize (Greer, 1992) as it analyses ple of "control of error" where the LISPITS individual characters students enter. It student is immediately informed of Corbett and Anderson's (1992) descrip- works from top-to-bottom and left-to- mistakes. This is opposed to the "buggy ti of the LISP Intelligent Tutoring right, and provides immediate feed- model of learning" in which the corn- System, namely LISPITS, which in- back after errors are made. The tutor's puter dia gnoses the student's mistakes structs students in the programming behaviour is linked to the student model and based on the errors initiates a tuto- language of LISP, is based on theoreti- which consists of over 1200 rules. The rial to correct the misconceptions. The cal principles derived from a theory of model tracing is implemented by model underlying principle here is that if stu- cognition proposed by Anderson compilation where the model is run prior dents are not permitted to make mis- known as ACT (Anderson, 1983). ACT to the execution of the program, and takes, the whole process of diagnosing theory proposes that human. problem this saves on computing power which bugs is unnecessary. Self (1990) pro- solving is enabled by a set of produc- is limited given the extent of the pat- posed an ITS without a student model- tion rules, and can be turned into a tern matching required to determine ler as a means of "bypassing the intrac- formal set of well-ordered rules about possible paths at each subgoal in the table problem of student modelling"(p. instruction. Briefly, this is that behav- problem solution. The student model is 108). It has been argued that in good iour is goal-driven; that there is a dis- run ahead of time, allowing the compu- teaching, misconceptions are avoided tinction between declarative and pro- ter to generate all paths Ciat lead to the and mistakes are immediately cor- cedural knowledge; that the acquisi- correct answer and save them. This is rected, and this negates the require- tion of procedural knowledge occurs an alternative solution to the problem ment for a student or user-modeller, through a sequence of productions of a of encoding a student modeller compo- which can be difficult to construct and declarative nature, which through rep- nent of an ITS which is less drastic than expensive in terms of computing time etition and practice are collated into eliminating the modeller from the de- to build into a system and maintain. larger productions; and finally that in sign altogether (Corbett and Anderson, Self (1990) argues that the role of stu- the early stages of learning a working 1990). A benefit is the ease with which dent modeller is essentially to analyse memory is needed before productions the tutor's behaviour can be modified 'student errors and misconceptions. are built. without altering the production rules. From a catalogue of possibleallowable The student modeller in LISPITS is This is allowing the development of a responses to a question, the modeller needed to meet the design criteria es- student-controlled version of LISPITS attempts to create a list of associated tablished by the principles above, and with variable granularity and feedback, misconceptions. The user-modeller is essentially a pattern against which which have been the major sources of may be given the important role of the student's behaviour can be meas- student complaints. Subsequent em- analysing student performance in ured, allowing the tutor to determine if pirical studies with the modified ver- terms of the conceptual mistakes being each step in the student's input is on a sion where students have control of made rather than just identifying mis- path to the solution. While it is possible feedback time have seen a 50% increase

76 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 88 in exercise completion times. The fact AN ALGEBRA WORD PROBLEM ITS mean that the student understands the that the tutorial aspect has shown little Singley a nd fellow researchers describe hypothesis of the question. The proof impact suggests that the immediate an intelligent tutor built to help stu- tutor uses a static domain model, a notification and correction of errors is dents in a first year algebra course solve dynamic student model and a dynamic the greatest strength of LISPITS even a difficult part of algebra, namely "word pedagogical model to detect errors and though it is also the source of most problems" (Singley et al, 1989). In these explain their source, to specify student student complaints. questions the algebraic information to progress and the student's plan of the be manipulated is found in sentence proof, and to intervene and explain as Model tracing is particularly useful in form. A simple example is: If 5 apples required. The student model is updated determining why a student has per- cost $2.75, find the cost of 7 apples. The as the tutor and the student interact, formed a particular step with regard to tutor uses model tracing and is initially and significantly, the system contains the overall pattern of the problem, the constructed by performing a taskanaly- data about the student's meta-knowl- underlying reasons, and thus providesis of algebra word problem solving, edge (the strategies and heuristics the assistance or comment as required. The which consists of two steps, the repre- student uses). The goal of plan recogni- student model is not only a means of sentation of the problem and the search tion is to infer the student's intention generating explanations but a repre- for a solution. The trouble is that these from the parts of the proof he/she has sentation of student knowledge acqui- two phases are almost independent and given. The method is to label each of sition. Knowledge tracingis the term used mistakes in the representation may lead these component parts of the proof and in this system for the process of track- to an incorrect solution. Singley's ra- to compare the student's progress with ing student knowledge and providing tionale for cognitive modelling is put a tree diagram of all possible routes to remediation, and is the implementa- succinctly and simply, the solution. This system has been im- tion of a mastery based system of learn- plemented in Prolog on a SUN work ing. The tutor tests the student's knowl- The model tracing paradigm is based station. (see Py, 1989). edge on a particular rule through direct primarily on two premises: 1) the ma- questions and inferences from situa- jority of learning that takes place in the EMMA tions where the rule is used in I ..e solu- acquisition of cognitive skill occurs dur- Another mathematics ITS is EMMA, tion of a problem, and if the student is ing the solving of problems and not in described by Quigley (1989). EMMA is correct 95% of the time, the student is the perusal of textbooks, and 2) one a program designed to teach linear said to have mastered the rule. needs to have an accurate cognitive equations and implemented on com- process model of the student solvingputers found in schools. It consists of Evaluation studies have shown LISPITS problems if one wants to tutor the stu- four linked expert systems: A math- to be effective: Students completed ex- dent effectively. The strength of the ematical reasoner, an intelligent diag- ercises 30% faster with 43% better scores model tracing paradigm is that, when nostic pretest, a student model and a on testing (Corbett and Anderson, 1992, the student makes a mistake, the tutor component which controls the tutoring p.83). As students use the tutor, it cre- can 'ocalize the problem to a single strategies. Quigley notes that most ITS's ates a file of student responses and the primitive action, which can be inter- have been constructed on the basis of rule which governs the response, to- preted as a piece of a larger plan. scale learning theory, but argues that gether with the time, in a three variable (Singley et al, 1989, pp. 270-271) educationalists have been unable to pos- coding of Belief, Rules and Time. The tulate fundamental constructs in learn- tutor predicts the steps that the student MENTONIEZH ing in general and of a mathematical might take in solving the problem, and MENTONIEZHis an ITS in geometry concept in particular which can satis- with a known set of misconceptions it which coaches and corrects during fig- factorily be interpreted into ITS design. models student errors at each step. As ure drawing and proof building. The The design criteria of EMMA is there- long as the tutor can recognise the er- method of proof-tracking (Py, 1989) used fore primarily its usefulness as a com- rors, it allows the student to progress, in student modelling is one of recognis- puter tutor. An interesting point made otherwise it provides an answer to that ing the student's intentions, which is by Quigley is that in order for the ITS to stage in the problem. At any time the an important step in personalising tu- maintain an accurate representation of student may also ask for hints or ask tor/student interactions. Recognising the student's current knowledge state, what to do next. One of the essential the student's intentions in a proof in- and to be able to identify student errors assumptions in the model is that prob- volves plan recognition and provides and provide assistance, it is necessary lem-solving is hierarchical, with the the system with a criteria for deciding for the system to know how the student goal being the final point at which all what assistance should be given, or if understands mathematical concepts. possible routes to the answer coalesce. the system should intervene as the stu- That is, the system needs to be One important tutoring principle is that dent attempts a futile or erroneou s rou te cognitively faithful. Students often see the goal structure is explicit in the to the solution. The first part of the mathematics as a series of algorithms model, each branch which the student system involves the student creating to be applied in different situations, takes which may lead to the goal satis- the diagram from the information sup- and frequently mistakes are the result fies a unique subgoal. plied. A correct diagram is taken to of the use of the incorrect routine rather

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 77

RS) than incorrectly applying the correctcertain type of incorrect answer at a 1. The fact that much knowledge is algorithm. Students also invent their given instance feature, there will be an procedural means an effective tu- own "rules", chunking knowledge into erroneous association between the in- tor will need model-tracing to check procedures which may not be concep- stance feature and the student's re- that the student is on a correct path tually faithful to mathematics but which sponse, or action feature. A feature is to the solution, as well as checking reliably produce the correct answer. mastered when a student correctly iden- input at the finest granularity. This tifies both content and action features. may be achieved by plan recogni- FEATURE-BASED MODELLING FBM builds a model of the student as a tion which infers student intentions. Yet another variation of student mod- set of relationships between task fea- 2.That cognitive modelling enhances elling is attributed to Webb (1989) and tures and action features. Each associa- the ability of a computer tutor to is called feature-based modelling. Fea- tion implies that when each of the task personalise the dialogue by ture-based modelling (FBM) attempts features are found in the task, the stu- overcomingproblems associated to model student cognitive processes dent will act in a manner described by withtheenormousnumber by "mapping contexts to actions". It is a singleaction feature. The associations ofbranches required through more beyond the scope of this paper to pro- maybe erroneous (student misconcep- traditional programming and vide a full account of FBM, but briefly it tions) or ideal (student mastery). Stu- authoring techniques, and thus it involves pre-testing to determine thedent misconceptions are dealt with increases student-computer student's knowledge of the elements in through a cognitive modeller which interactivity. the domain and is not domain specific. explains student behaviour by examin- 3. That the design of en ITS is based It does not require error diagnosis, and i ng student actions. Simultaneous mul- upon a general theory of cognition is flexible in the presentation of the tiple errors are handled through sepa- implies a degree of domain inde- material. It is robust, and the student rate erroneous associations. As the stu- pendence, but some domain spe- models are runnable. FBM is different dent gains new knowledge through cific features and procedures are from most other student modelling in interacting with the tutor, the student equally desirable as long as the ITS that it does not produce a pre-deter- model is no longer a true representa- ultimately does a good job of mined and explicit model of the stu- tion of the student's current knowl- teaching. dent's cognitive processes. Instead, edge state. This is called concept migra- 4. A diagnostic pretest is desirable to FBMbuilds the model from inputs from tion. The system uses a technique of determine the student's current the student and theoutputs it produces. data ageingby u si ng a time variable and knowledge in the subject domain, It takes into account the knowledgean aging factor (for example: and to begin tracking the student's domain, the student responses and the data41.9*data) so that newer data is acquisition ofrules a t anappropriate examples and instances the student has given a higher priority than older data. level. examined in the course of the tutorial. FBM has been implemented through 5. The student model must be dynamic The knowledge domain is represented DABIS (Domain-Analysis Based In- and continually updated through by a feature network which contains the struction System), a system which in- knowledge tracing, using tech- elements of knowledge (or features) cludes a lesson on English word classes niques such as data ageing, and it and the relationships between them. In in use at LaTrobe University. FBM has should be more than a catalogue of a feature network there is a criteria for subsequently been evaluated by bugs and misconceptions, but also accepting or rejecting a hypothesis Kuzmycz and Webb, (1992). They de- contain information about student about the knowledge state of the stu- scribe FBM, giving details of its ability belief. dent, which circumvents the problem to handle noise and multiple errors, 6. That student misconceptions or er- of constructing a cognitive model us- and evaluate FBM used in single-digit roneous associations may be cor- ing only information the tutor gains subtraction. Their evaluation showed rected through remedial tutoring from the student's performance. In the that about 50% of student errors were where the system employs a absence of confusion caused by the user accurately predicted by the system, in number of teaching strategies ap- interface, or what is termed cognitive contrast to a value of about 6% for propriate to the natureof thecontent noise, a FBM system could adopt the random guessing. and the student's current knowl- method of most ITS and accept a stu- edge. dent model if all of the student's behav- CONCLUSION 7. The design of the student-compu- iour was consistent with the model. In Each of the ITS described in this paper ter interface should be one which a FBM a student model is accepted have a different approach to cognitive minimises cognitive noise and be where the student satisfies a set per- modelling with some commonality that cognitively faithful, that is, solve formance rate (usually 80%). rhe prin- could be extrapolated to a set of 'best' the problems as the student natu- cipal form of analysis in FBM is errone- or 'desirable' features of a model-trac- rally would. Particularly in the case ous association. Here, instance features ing intelligent tutoring system, as well of intelligent discovery tools these to which the student responds incor- as establishing some important princi- processes will id eally betra nspa rent rectly are tagged erroneous. For examples of cognitive modelling. These are: to the student user. ple, if the student always provides a et 78 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 90 While it is generally accepted that one- Frasson and Gilles Gauthier (Eds.) Py, D. (1989). MENTONIEZH: an intel- to-one teaching can significantly im- Intelligent Tutoring Systems. New ligent tutoring system in geometry. prove a student's performance in a sub- Jersey: Alex Publishing Corp. In D. Bierman, J. Breuker and J. ject through individual instruction, the Brown, J. S. (1990). Toward a new epis- Sandberg (Eds). Artificial intelli- promise of computer-based tutors is temology for learning. In Claude gence in education: Proceedings of the that they will one day supply all the Frasson and Gilles Gauthier (Eds.) 4th international conference on AI in benefits of "personal" tutoring at a rea- Intelligent Tutoring Systems. New education, 24-26 May 1989, Amster- sonable cost. That this is becoming pos- Jersey: Alex Publishing Corp. dam, Netherlands. Amsterdam: IOS. sible in certain well-ordered and lim- Corbett, A. T., Anderson, J.R.,Patterson, Quigley, M. Computer tutoring of lin- ited domains is clear. Anderson (1992) and Eric, G. (1990). Student mod- earequations. (1989). In D. Bierman, states that all of high school calculus elling and tutoring flexibility in the J. Breuker and J. Sandberg (Eds). can be taught using current tutoring lisp intelligent tutoring system. In Artificial intelligence in education: systems. However, the development Claude Frasson and Gilles Gauthier Proceedings of the 4th international times suggested are in the order of one (Eds.) Intelligent Tutoring Systems. conference on AI in education, 24-26 hundred hours for one hour of good New Jersey: Alex Publishing Corp. May 1989, Amsterdam, Netherlands. ICAI. It may well be that the simplest Corbett, A. T. and Anderson,J.R.(1992). Amsterdam: 10S. task in the development cycle of stu- LISP Intelligent tutoring system: Self, J. A. (1990). Bypassing theintracta- dent-modelling intelligent tutors will Research in skill aquisition. In ble problem of student modelling. be evaluating their effectiveness. For Larkin, J. H. and Chabay, R. W. In Claude Frasson and Gilles some researchers, (Corbett & Anderson, Computer-assisted instruction and Gauthier (Eds.) Intelligent Tutoring 1990) the criteriais simple enough: intelligent tutoring systems. Law- Systems. New Jersey: Alex Publish- time to complete the lessons and score rence Erlbaum Associates, New ing Corp. in the final quiz. Jersey. Self, J.A. (1988). The use of belief systems Dugale, S. (1992). The design of compu- for student modelling. Technical Re- REFERENCES ter-based mathematics instruction. pert, Centre for Research on Com- Anders-on, J. R. (1983). The architecture of In Larkin, J. H. and Chabay, R. W. puters and Learning, University of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Computer-assisted instruction and Lancaster. University Press. intelligent tutoringsystems. Lawrence Singley, M. K., Anderson, J. R., Gevins, Anderson, J. R. (1989). Psychology and Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey. J. S., Hoffman, D. (1989). The alge- intelligent tutoring. In D. Bierman, Greer, J. E (1992). Granularity and con- bra word problem tutor. In D. J. Breuker and J. Sandberg (Eds). text in learning. In C. Frasson, G. Bierman, J. Breuker and J. Sandberg Artificial intelligence in education: Gauthier, G.I. Mc.Calla (Eds). Intel- (Eds). Artificial intelligence in educa- Proceedings of the 4th international ligent tutoring systems: Second inter- tion: Proceedings of the 4th interna- conference on Al in education, 24-26 national conference, ITS '92 Montreal, tional conference on Al in education, May 1989, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Canada, June 1992 proceedings. Ber- 24-26 May 1989, Amsterdam, Neth- Amsterdam: LOS. lin Heidelburg: Springer-Verlag. erlands. Amsterdam: IOS. Anderson, J. R. (1992) Intelligent tutor-Kuzmycz, M. & Webb, G. I. (1992) Swan, K. (1989). The teaching and ing and high school mathematics. Evaluation of feature based mod- learningof problem solving through In C. Frasson, G. Gauthier, G.I. elling in subtraction. In C. Frasson, LOGO programming. InD. McCalla (Eds). Intelligent tutoring G. Gauthier, GI McCalla (Eds). Bierman, J. Breuker and J. Sandberg systems: Second international confer- Intelligent tutoring systems: Second (Eds). Artificial intelligence in educa- ence, ITS '92 Montreal, Canada, June international conference, ITS '92 tion: Proceedings of the 4th interna- 1992 proceedings. Berlin Heidelburg: Montreal, Canada, June 1992 proceed- tional conference on AI in education, Springer-Verlag. ings. Berlin Heidelburg: Springer- 24-26 May 1989, Amsterdam, Nether- Beeson, M. J. The user model in Verlag. lands. Amsterdam: IOS. MATHPERT: An expert system forMajor, N. and Reichgelt, H. (1989). Valley, K. (1989). Realising the poten- learning mathematics. (1989). In D. COCA: A shell for intelligent tu- tial of expert system shells in edu- Bierman, J. Breuker and J. Sandberg toring systems. In D. Bierman, J. cation. In D. Bierman, J. Breuker (Eds). Artificial intelligence in educa- Breuker and J. Sandberg (Eds). Ar- and J. Sandberg (Eds). Artificial in- tion: Proceedings of the 4th interna- tificial intelligence in education: Pro- telligence in education: Proceedings of tional conference on .41 in education, ceedings of the 4th international con- the 4th international conference on AI 24-26 May 1989, Amsterdam, Nether- ference on AI in education, 24-26 May in education, 24-26 May 1989, Am- lands. Amsterdam: ICS. 1989, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Am- sterdam, Netherlands. Amsterdam: Bergeron, A. and Paquette, C. (1990). sterdam: IOS. /OS. Discovery' environments and intel- Montessori, M. (1917). Spontaneous ac- Webb, G. I. (1989). Feature-based cogni- ligent learning tools. In Claude tivity in education. New York: re- tive diagnosis. Technical report 14, printed by Schocken (1965). 1989 of the Excalibur project. De- partment of Computing and Math- ematics, Deakin University. 79 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 91 Hypec Technology Group S

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AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY1903 80 92 ENHANCING THINKING SKILLS IN COMPUTER SUPPORTED CONTEXTS BY ALISON ELLIOT Family of Education. The University of Western Sydney rvePean

TOOLS FOR THINKING ple the deBono lateral thinking" pro- Traditionally, the technological tools gram), a more viable approach is one to support thinking and problem solv- that considers thinking within specific ing have been handed from one gen- problems embedded in existing cur- eration to the next. Until the introduc- riculum areas. According to this "infu- tion of computers, these tools have sion" approach, as thinking occurs been items such as the abacus, pencils within specific content areas or disci- and paper, calculators, and slide rules. plines (Ennis, 1989) it should be taught With the widespread introduction of in context. Unlike the packaged think- computers, new materials such as ing skills approach, an infusion ap- word processing programs, data bases proach cannot simply be tacked on to One of the most impor- and spreadsheets joined the those tra- the curriculum (Jones & Idol, 1990). It ditionally used to provide cognitive needs to bean integral part of the teach- tant challenges facing supports for thinking and problem- ing-learning process throughout key educators in the 1990s is solving. More recently, newer multi- learning areas. Essentially, this ap- how best enhance chil- media technologies allowing sophis- proach requires explicit attention to thinking skills that apply within the dren's thinking skills. ticated visual and audio representations have enabled manipulation of subject area. It also calls for strategic Growing largely from environments and events to afford training for teachers in thinking skills concerns that many stu- multiple perspectives on complex development and an emphasis on their role as mediator, strategist, and col- dents function poorly phenomena not readily availa ble elsewhere. Spiro and Jehng (1990) believe laborator in learning. when it comes to applying that such representations may the complex thinking across building of flexible knov -iedge assem- Notions that teachers should be facilitators of learning, rather than giv- the curriculum the need bly and construction processes in complex domains. ers of knowledge, are not new and we for teaching thinking is can look back to curricula of the mid high on the policy agenda The reality is, however, that sophisti- 20th century for similar suggestions about teachers' role in enhancing chil- for Australian schools. cated multimedia technologies do not yet exist in most classrooms. More dren's thinking and learning. Mote re- commonly, there exists a range of stand cently, though, we have gained new alone or networked computers of insights into the importance of mediat- modest capability. The question to be ing and scaffolding learning (Rogoff, addressed then, is how best to harness 1990; Wertsch, 1991). Indeed, the social this available technology to encour- and cultural context of cognitive activ- age the development of thinking and ity is now regarded as being central to problem-solving skills that will serve intellectual development. It is gener- children most effectively, both now ally accepted that learning occurs as and in the future? children interact with adults and peers, and with m.lterials. This interactivity TEACHING ABOUT THINKING both enables and reflects the coordina- While some of the most visible ap- tion of thinking and action related to proaches to developing, thinking skills the definition and resolution of prob- are those that "teach thinking" in iso- lems. lation via a special program (for exam-

81 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 93 According to this view, the process of quality of education. In such a context that are successful in affording a range interaction and mediation of learning educational technology can be consid- of cognitive supports designed to fa- experiences provides ongoing stimu- ered as enriching the relationship be- cilitate students' thinking. lation and motivation, opportunities to tween teacher and student and facili- negotiate and resolve cognitive con- tating the delivery of quality educa- THE WRITING PARTNER PROJECT flicts, as well as support of a more tion for all students" (p.260). In the first project we've used an "intel- metacognitive (or self-regulatory) na- ligent-like" tutoring system, the Writ- ture. Initially, the interactive process Essentially then, it is the teacher who ing Partner, to provide on-going facilitates social regulation and com- must plan to scaffold children's think- metacognitive support to children dur- munication. Gradually, it develops into ing and learning through experiences ing story writing (Elliott, 1992; Hicks, a cognitive function for self-regulation aad environments that require higher 1992; Salomon, 1992; Zellermayer, 1992; and thinking, and for the representa- order thinking- that is thinking that is Zellermayer et al., 1991). Specifically, tion of knowledge. Engagement in these conceptually rich, coherently organ- the Writing Partnerguides learners cognitive processes, which are gener- ised, and persistently exploratory through planning, monitoring, and ally manifested at an external level, (Lipman, 1991). The mere application evaluating story writing through a con- results in the gradual internalisation of of a particular combination of infor- tinuous prompting, guiding, modelling thinking skills for use in novel con- mation technologies, no matter how and cueing of higher order processes texts. For young children, the use of sophisticated, will not improve stu- involved in text construction. language enables external processes to dents' thinking and problem-solving be displayed, shared, and practised skills. The major contribution of this compu- (Vygotsky, 1978). ter-generated support is twofold: first With careful planning though, compu- it has the capacity to provide guidance IMPUCATIONS FOR TEACHING ter-based learning environments even through the entire writing process on This perspective on intellectual devel- without sophisticated multimedia tech- an individual basis, a situation quite opment suggests a number of issues nologies, can afford the interactivity difficult, if not impossible, in a regular about relationships between social ex- that generates cognitive supports or teaching environment; secondly, the periences, cognitive abilities and edu- scaffolds to foster thinking skills. The task and content specific nature of the cational outcomes. In particular, it sug- individualised and interdependent scaffolding act to generate an "intellec- gests thatsocial context, especially nature of these supports, especially in tual partnership" enabling a learner to participants' interactivity within the relation to the monitoring and regtea- function at a level transcending the limi- classroom, will act to mediate learners' t ion of cognitive activity, seem instru- ta tions of what could be accomplished cognitions as well as their perceptions nental in facilitating children's think- alone (Pea, 1987; Salomon, 1990; of the goals and directions of intellec- ing and learning. Salomon, Perkins dr Globerson, 1991). tual activity. Equally important, is the In this sense the computer, or more way in which learners' cognitive and Within this "interactionist" framework correctly the Writing Partner, acts as the social experiences and perceptions in- the computer becomes both a vehicle more "collaborator" or "partner", by fl uence in tera ctio nal patterns with each for accessing and controlling informa- sharing and distributing the cognitive other and with classroom tasks. tion, and a tool to provide experiences workload. which support and complement con- Creating environments in which to ex- temporary goals about the importance An on-going program of research us- tend children's thinking, doesn't, there- of thinking skills. In this sense, the ing the Writing Partner (Elliott, 1992; fore, require a complete overhaul of technology can become the pivot for a Hicks, 1992; Salomon,1992; curricula. Rather, it involves processes new type of interactive exchange be- Zellermayer, 1992) has shown that chil- of adapting existing resources a nd prac- tween learners and their environment dren's awareness of processes involved tices. And, it is by no means certain (Pea, 1987). In some cases, the in good story writing, plus their actual what works best in this respect. What is interactivity will be initiated by one story writing skills, can be improved clear, though, is that teacher knowl- child and the cognitive supports af- through experiences with the tool. For edge, support, skill, and commitment forded within a computer program. In example, in one study of low achieving are central to planning environments others, the interaction will be between year 7 writers there was substantial that facilitate higher order thinking more that one child, and perhaps a inwrovement in terms of overall story (LaFrenz St Friedman, 1989). Indeed, teacher or other adult, together with quality, plot, characterisation, mood, as the Report of the Committee of Review the computer generated activity. setting, dialogue, expression and me- of New South Wales Schools (1989) em- chanics. With more expert writers, I've phasised, relationships between the stu- EXAMPLES FROM TWO CLASSROOM noted improvements in use of linguis- dents and the teachers must be at the CONTEXTS tic features, such as lexical and gram- centre of the learning process and the Two projects with which I've recently matical intricacy, that contribute to plot quality of performance by teachers is been involved provide examples of organisation and overall narrative style the fundamental determinant c ` the interactive computer environments (Elliott, 1992).

82 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1283 94 Importantly, there is evidence to sug- In the mathematics context, self-regu- Results from the preschool investiga- gest that Writing Partner experiences latory mechanisms involved checking tions have shown that teacher medi- contribute to internalisation of strate- outcomesof problem-solving tasks, for- ated computer environments better gies central to good story writing. For ward planning, revising strategies, and assist children develop specific math- example, poor writers change their view developing and testing new strategies. ematics understandings than do more of narrative composition as something As with the story writing, the purpose traditional mathematics experiences or that just 'happens', with little sense of of scaffolded activities was to help chil- those involving non-mediated compu- intentionality, planning or audience, to dren plan, monitor and evaluate their ter activities. Importantly, they seem a cognisance of the need for planning, activity, but this time in a mathematics to encouragethe beginnings of planful monitoring, reworking and revising,context. Mathematics software used in behaviours, such as goal setting, goal and the interdependent nature of these the study was popular commercial monitoring, self-monitoring and self- evaluating. Gradually, we would ex- processes. material concerned with comparisons of shape, size and volume, ordering of pect children to internalise the use of Most encouraging in this study, wasevents and objects, counting, one-to- these self-regulatory strategies to en- evidence of students' ability to think one correspondence activities, repre- hance performance independent of the more coherently about orchestration of sentations of single sets, reproduction/ computer context. writing processes within a narrative comparison of sets, elementary arith- framework. They became increasingly metical operations with sets, and a range CONCLUSIONS aware of the need to manipulate con- of classification and sorting activities. Teaching students so that they become tent, plot, characters and causal struc- better thinkers is going to be a major tures, and of the metacognitive strate- The mathematics environmentrequired educational goal for the remainder of gies necessary to effect interaction be- children to work in pairs, with a teacher. this decade. Yet, as thinking inherently tween story components. Here, the teacher took a much more draws upon multiple knowledgebases active role as a mediator, collaborator across a range of curriculum domains Future developments for tools like the and partner in the learning process than there is no easy recipe for its teaching. Writing Partner might include the mesh- was the case in the writing context. ing of text and graphic based Now, the teacher's role was to promote What is apparent though is that com- metacognitive prompts with video im- an awareness of the cognitive demands puter-supported learning environ- ages to create environments in which of the tasks and to guide activity within ments offer a range of individualised ideas can be accentuated to drive plot a purposeful and goal directed frame-yet interactive opportunities not pre- development. Imagine the power of a work provided by the software. Rather viously available in classrooms. To be context affording ready access to a range than having to focus on the manage- sure, such opportunities may be ex- of real life and real time audiovisuals, ment and organisation of the learning pensive to develop and implement, together with the scaffolds currently experience itself, as is the case in more but they have cost benefit advantages provided by the Writing Partner ? traditional mathematics environments, if effective on a wide scale. Moreover, the teacher could focus on, for example, especially in the areas of mathematics THE EARLY CHILDHOOD MATHS overall task orientation, and planning, and science, video and computer tech- PROJECT monitoring and evaluating of cognitive nologies enable the dynamic depiction In the second project a range of com- activity. Sharing the "workload" with of events and information noWiormally monly available commercial software prestructured and sequenced compu- possible in the classroom. has been used as the basis for creating ter-generated activities meant the interactive experiences that supportteacher could concentrate children's Research with the Writing Partner and children's mathematical learning. As thinking about their problem-solving- in computer-based, teacher mediated in the Writing Partner project, it was such as, clarifying and focusing on the mathematical activities with anticipated that the cognitive supports topic, elaborating ideas, and reflecting preschoolers has suggested that cogni- generated by the interactivity would on and evaluating decisions and re- tive and metacognitive supports gen- act, in the Vygotskian sense, to mediate sponses. Additionally, complementary erated by interactivity within these children's thinking in the cognitive peer interaction, as well as the indi- environments do indeed scaffold the space between what can be accom- vidual's own structuring of the activ- development of thinking skills that plished alone and in collaboration with ity, contributed to generation of the manifest as improved outcomes in more capable others. It was intended cognitive and metacognitive dialogues problem-solving situations. 1+- at this mediation process would pro- that supported and mirrored knowl- vide ongoing stimulation and motiva- edge and thinking.In this sense the Clearly, facilitating thinking does not tion for learning, as well as support of interrelatedness of the contextual sup- necessarily require computer-sup- a more metacognitive, and particularly, ports lent themselves to framing as- ported environments that employ the self-regulatory nature. pects of self-regulated learning. most sophisticated technology. As seen from the examples cited above it is largely the cognitive supports inher-

83 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 11113 ent in the interactive nature of the con- Hicks, S.J. (1992, April). Selected ex- Salomon, G., Perkins, D. & Globerson, texts that create powerfui learning en- perimental findings: A novel meth- T. (1991). Partners in cognition: Ex- vironments. Regardless of the sophisti- odology to study changes. In E. de tending human intelligence with cation or otherwise of the technology, if Corte (Chair), The Writing Partner: intelligent technologies. Educational we are to enhance children's repertoire Instructional and research considera- Researcher, 20(2), 2-9. of thinking strategies and skills, the tions in a three country study. Sym- 3piro, R. & Jehng,(1990). Cognitive teaching of thinking needs to be in- posium conducted at the Annual flexibility and hypertext: Theory fused across the curriculum in ways Meeting of the AERA. San Fran- and technology for the nonlinear that are planned, meaningful and au- cisco, CA. and multidimensional traversal of thentic. Lipman, M. (1991). Thinking in educa- complex subject matter. In D. Nix tion. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge and R. Spiro (Eds)., Cognition, edu- REFERENCES University Press. cation and meutimedia. Exploring ideas Elliott, A. (1992, April). A micro-analy- LaFrenz, D. & Friedman, J. (1989). in high technology (pp. 163-205). sis of learners' responses to proce- Computers don't changeeducation. Hillsdale, NJ: LEA. dural facilitations provided by the Teachers do! Harvard Educational Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society. Writing Partner.In E. de Corte Review, 59(2), 222-226. The development of higher psychologi- (Chair), The Writing Partner: Instruc- Pea, R. (1987). Integrating human and cal processes. Cambridge, MA: tional and research considerations in a computer intelligence. In R.D. Pea Harvard University Press. three country study. Symposium and K. Sheingold (Eds), Mirrors ofWertsch, J.V. (1991). Voices of the mind. conducted at the Annual Meeting of the mind. Patternsof experience in A sociocultural approach to mediated the AERA. San Francisco, CA. educational computing (pp. 128-146). action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Elliott, A. (1991). The role of contextual Norwood, NJ. Ablex. University Press. supports in computer-based math- Report of the Committee of Review of New Zellermayer, M. (1992). Retelling sto- ematical learning experiences. In South Wales Schools (1989). j. Carrick, ries with EFL with the Writing Crossing Boundaries: Present realities (Chair), Sydney: New South Wales Partner. In E. deCorte (Chair), The and futurepossibilities. Proceedings of Government Writing Partner: instructional and re- the 15th National Australian Asso- Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeships in search considerations in a three coun- c ation for Special Education Con- thinking. Cognitive development in a try study. Symposium conducted at ference, University of Queensland, social context. NY: Oxford Univer- the Annual Meeting of the Ameri- 107-112. sity Press. can Educational Research Associa- Elliott, A. & Hall, N. (1990). Computer- Salomon. G. (1990). Cognitive effects tion. San Francisco, CA. based mathematical experiences in with and of computer technology. Zellermayer, M., Salomon, G., an early intervention program. Communication Research, 17, 26-44. Globerson, T. & Givon, H. (1991). Australian Journal of Early Childhood, Salomon, G. (1992, April). The psycho- Enhancing writing-related 15(3), 37-45. logic of designing a pedagogical tool. metacognitions through a compu- Ennis, R.H. (1989). Critical thinking and In E. deCorte (Chair), The Writing terized writing-partner. American subject specificity: Clarification and Partner: Instructional and research Educational Research Journal, 27, 373- needed research. Educational Re- considerations in a three country study. 391. searcher. 18(3), 4-10. Symposium conducted at the An- Fly Jones, B.F. & Idol, L. (1990) in B.F. nual Meeting of the AERA. San Jones and L. Idol. (Eds.). Dimensions Francisco, CA. of thinking and cognitive instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

84 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

CI 0 TWELVEISSUES TO CONSIDER FOR MANAGING AND SUPPORTING FUTURE TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVES IN SCHOOLS: WHAT DID WE LEARN FROM THE QUEENSLAND SUNRISE CENTRE? BY GLENN FINGER Deputy Principal, Coombabah State School, South Coast Region, Department of Education Queensland andGREG GRIMMETT Project Officer 1990-91, Queensland Sunrise Centre,CoombabahStateSchool; Educational Adviser, Metropolitan West Region, Depart- ment of Education Queensland It is concluded that taking up the units, scanners, modems, Keylink, challenges presented by the new and printers, and a range of software pro- emerging technologies is not an easy grams with Logo as a central feature. At task. However, we believe that the thecommencement of the project, it educational rewards are potentially was indicated that "Education will have 1Pr great for all who make conscious deci- much to learn from this innovative sions to take up those challenges. project" (Department of Education, Queensland, 1990). Three years later, This paper provides suggestions and we need to address the question -what This paper focuses on implications derived from the writers' have we learned from the QSC Project experiences gained through their in- which might assist others involved in issues and implications planning and implementing techno- volvement in the Queensland Sunrise logical initiatives in schools? for managing and sup- Centre (QSC) Project during its opera- porting technology initia- tion. In addition, the issues raised emerged throughout the conduct of The following discussion addresses that tives in schools. The question. Suggestions are made which an evaluation of the QSC (Finger, 1992). central question ad- might provide the basis for more informed decision making by those in- dressed is - what have we The QSC Project was envisaged to be a major technological 'lighthouse' ini- volved in managing and supporting learned from the Queens- technology initiatives in their schools. tiative to assist in "charting directions land Sunrise Centre for the use of information technology Most importantly, however, we sug- (QSC) Project which in education" (Department of Educa- gest that the following discussion can assist in the search for solutions through might assist others in- tion, Queensland,1990). The QSC provided a technologically-rich environ- the realisation that the context within volved in technology ment for the students and teachers which technology initiatives take place initiatives in schools? involved. Each of the students had the is a dynamic and human, educational setting. Indeed, this discussion is The twelve issues which use of a personal computer for use at school and at home. Similarly, the couched within a framework which "incorporates both the human and techni- emerged throughout a teachers were given the use of power- major evaluation study of ful laptop computers for their own cal sides of technology" (Sachs, Russell, and Chataway, 1990, p.50). In this way, the project are presented. use. The classrooms of the QSC provided students with access to more the debate involves educators utilising a perspective within which the techni- powerful colour com puters, CD -ROM cal and human sides of technology can

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 85 97 be synthesised to lead to the explorationemerge, and informed speculation enough if we are to ensure that 'the of the connections between the new andabout priorities and directions for the warnings are heeded' and that emerging technologies and education. future to be made." knowledge gained does not become knowledge lost. The documentation THE NEED FOR REFLECTION More recently, Russell (1992), in pre, undertaken here needs to be com- Although computers in classrooms haveviding a review of predictions for plemented by the second implication been a relatively recent phenomenon,computers in education throughout that dissemination needs to be en- there has been increasing interest, em-the 1980's and indicating some of the hanced. We believe dist.tination phasiszand exploration of the use of issues emerging throughout the 1990's, will provide an enriched platform of compliters in schools. Policies have beenobserved that schools have been more knowledge upon which further developed throughout the Australianconcerned with "the acquisition of planning, implementation, and States, conferences are regularly held,hardware and software than how it evaluation of learning technology journals and texts specifically address- was to be used" (Russell, 1992, p. 154). initiatives can be built. ing educational computing have flour-He suggests that the accompanying ished, and school systems and their WHAT DID WE LEARN FROM THE schools have been busily expending"lack of sustained discussion on the QUEENSLAND SUNRISE CENTRE? time, effort, and money to mount initia-role of computers in thinking and In responding to this question, the tives. Following this initial period oflearning meant that there was some- implications and issues are pre- acquiring computers and exploring theirtimes uncritical enthusiasm for com- sented in a form which can be easily potential, we strongly suggest that thereputers in education" (Russell, 1992, p. understood by the audiences it is is a need to step back and critically 154). designed to inform - system, regional examine those early initiatives in order and school administrators, educa- to learn from them. In this way, we can He warns that: tional advisers, computer co- build on the successful strategies and"Predicting the future based on the ordinators, teachers, and personnel avoid repeating the often very costlyhistory of the past is a bold undertak- concerned with the pre-service and mistakes experienced by others. Foring. ...In computer education, the in-service education of teachers. example, as early as in the mid-1980's hopes of the 1980s' often appear to Higginson (1986, p. 21) suggested that:have turned into disappointments. We have utilised the approach used Some of the problems that beset us by Mo*owski (1985, pp. 18-21) in "In the early part of this decade, educa-today were accurately predicted in the journal article "10 ESSENTIAL tional institutions found themselves inthe 1980s', but the warnings were TRUTHS TO HELP YOU PLAN an exciting but unfamiliar position; thelargely unheeded." (Russell, 1992, p. FOR TECHNOLOGY USE" to at- vanguard of social change. ... many 159) tempt to present the implications educators were surprised to be thrown and issues in a clear, straight forward into wide-ranging and often heated dis-Two implications emerge. Firstly, there style. Mopcowski, who spent several cussions about the applications of in-is the implication that it is important years at the Merrimack Education formation technology to their field. Inthat we reflect upon our QSC experi- Center (MEC) in Chelmsford, Mas- the intervening years enough dust hasences and document what we have sachusetts, worked with thousands settled... to permit a fairly clear view oflearned. However, that, by itself, is not of teachers and administrators ad- the significant issues from the past to

TWELVE ISSUES TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNINGAND111APC.GING TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVES

Twelve Issues To Consider 1.Recognise the importance of people . 2.Develop an eductionalrationale for the use of the new technology. 3.Build ownership of that rationale with the key participants. 4.Technology initiatives must be evaluated. 5.Introducing new technology into schools requires risk-taking . 6.Teachers require both training and professional development in the use of the new technology. 7.Examine carefully the budget ary considerations for the acquisition,repairs, and upgrading ot equipment. 8.Establish appropriate access to technical, curriculum, funding and professional support. 9. New technology can assist in rethinking education. 10. New technology has implications for classroom organisation and management. 11.Computers are inherently subversive. 12.Slow travel ensures the quickest journey. Table 1

86 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 00 dressing the challenges of new tech- has been someevidence that some hold Project teachers in referring to their nology. As a result of those experi- the view that the injection of comput- administrators as sources of sup- ences, he formulated ten essential ers into classrooms equates with suc- port: 'truths' which he insisted must be cess for all students. There has also "Interest and enthusiasm in all as- addressed if we are to realise the been evidence that others argue that pects of the project. Participated in potential of educational technology. computers in classrooms make life workshops and ran inservice where The ten essential 'truths' to which he 'easier' for teachers. Our response is possible. Fought for all initiatives referred were that computers are tools, that these positions indicate a naive and supported teachers at all stages. new technology is a catalyst for cur- analysis of whzt happens in class- Met with Project Officer on weekly riculum revitalisation, teachers and rooms. The commitment, dedication, basis in 1991 to plan strategically. administraZors need more and better skills, and knowledge of the teacher Also worked to familiarise parents training, microcomputers have their are ultimately more important than with the project at all times." (QSC limitations, our definitions of compu- the mere provision of resources Teacher, May, 1992) ter literacy need clarity, computer whether those resources are reading education programs must be evalu- materials, art materials, or computers. 'Professional and moral support." ated, most software is inadequate, The teachersinvolved in the QSC (QSC Teacher,May, 1992) technology is a catalyst for increased Project worked long hours, were ex- planning for school systems, technol- posed to criticism, took risks, and made "Helped with parent meetings and ogy will alter the organisation of huge personal commitments to the most workshops. Maintained strong schools, and computers are inherently project. As one of the teachers indi- ultimateschool responsibility for the subversive. cated in response to being asked what project. Represented the project at have been worthwhile outcomes re- Regional Office and Central Office Following a reflective process of exam- sulting from involvement in the QSC meetings." (QSC Teacher, May, ining these issues proposed by Project: 1992) Molltowski together with discussions and analyses of our individual and col- 'Personally - HUGE grow'ch in 'tech- We need to value people. We must lectiveexperiences gained through our nological' knowledge - interest in pro- break the cycle, referred to by Doyle involvement in the QSC Project, we gramming, rethinking teaching style, and Ponder (1978, p.1) which reacts suggest twelve issues to consider. Webuzz' at being a player in an 'interna- to discrepancies between promise believe that by considering these issuestional' level of competition, willing to and achievement by a "redoubled in terms of their own school and class- have a go at almost anything, much search for procedural solutions". room contexts, others can maximise greater perseverance and raised frus- Rather, we need to base more effec- the effective planning and implement-tration level, ability to see the positive tive change strategies on "a more ing of technology initiatives in theiroutcomes of any situations - I don't thorough understanding of the natu- schools. Based upon our QSC Project regard ANYTHING I have done in the rally existing mechanisms which experiences, we propose the followingproject, no matter how frustrating or operate in school environments" as shown in Table 1 on the previoustime intensive, as a waste of time." (Doyle and Ponder, 1978, p.1). page. (Year 8 QSC Teacher, May,1992) 2. DEVELOP AN EDUCATIONAL 1. RECOGNISE THE IMPORTANCE OF "No good deed goes unpunished" was RATIONALE FOR THE USE OF THE PEOPLE. a statement made by the Project Of- NEWTECHNOLOGY. This has been placed first to emphasise ficer to the teachers involved in the This has been placed second on this the importance of education being seen projezt in 1990 and has often been re- list due to its importance in drawing as a human endeavour. Teachers, stu- called by the teachers when they felt attention to the educational ques- dents, parents, and administrators are that things had become difficult. The tions which should provide a start- people. This might seem obvious but atsaying highlights the observation that ing point for integrating learning the hart of any plans, there needs to bedespite efforts having good intentions, technology into schools. In many a recognition of the importance of thethere will often be someone ready to situations, it appears that the hard- people involved and the contributions be critical. Undertakingsignificant ware and software is purchased be- they can make. Central to the projectinitiatives can inviteunwarranted fore the educational rationale has were the students and their educational criticism. Some evidence of that been developed which we believe is growth. The success or failure of at-emerged. Teachers indicated the im- a tz.:hnocentric approach rather than tempts at integrating learning technol- portance of support from administra- an educational approach. ogy in schools relies heavily upon the tors and their peers. Fortunately, that people involved in that process. The was provided through their operation The search for an educational ra- roles played by the students and their within a very professional, supportive tionale for a technology, which has teachers are vitally important.school setting. This was evident in been spawned by the space race, Throughout the last three years, therecomments submitted by several QSC nurtured by the international muni-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 87 99 tions industry, and utilised by thecombination of these. The QSC Project As change can only enter classrooms business industry to cut both costs andhas demonstrated that there exists through teachers, it is imperative that jobs, has been long and tedious. In thestrong potential for computers to be teachers be provided with the oppor- last ten years, education has moved used by students as intellectual tools. tunity to vary their professional be- from being on the brink of a majorFurthermore, we suggest that it offers haviour in such a way that they can revolution in the ways of learning "basedan approach through which we can facilitate the adoption of changes in upon the technology of the digitalpromote 'effectiveteachingand educational practice afforded through computer" (Bork, 1981) to an apprecia-learning to be undertaken with levels the use of technology for learning and tion that to be of value to education theof resourcing that are less than con- required by the rationale developed by computer must be seen as a tool, akin to,tinual saturation, thus it has immediate the school. but far more interactively 'intelligent'utility within present classrooms" than the pencil, the microscope and the(Grimmett, 1992, p.6). Any rationale must be owned and re- book which are well integrated into daily flected in the actions of all participants learning activities (Salmon,1990). Three 3.BUILD OWNERSHIP OF THAT RATIONALEif the rationale is to lead to altered rationales for using computers within WITH THE KEY PARTICIPANTS. professional behaviours which allow the education have been tentativelyIndependent of the rationale that un- new activities to be infused into the posited by Grimmett (1992):- derpins the introduction of computers classroom experience of students. as a personal amplifier to enhanceinto the school, it is most important Teachers, through their professional the productivity of the learner; that the rationale is embraced by those activities, create a classroom climate as an educational actualiser to ex-directly involved in its implementa- which to a large extent defines accept- tend and enrich the school based tion. In examining successful learning able student behaviours. In short, it is experience of learners; and collectivities in relation to teacher de- the teachers who first must adopt a as an intellectual tool to empowervelopment programs, Logan and Sachs new rationale if changes in classroom the learner. (1991, p.307) reported the following culture are to occur. features to be characteristics of colle- Of these three rationales the most in- gial groups: participants believed in This, to a large extent, was achieved tractable but possibly the most power- the importance of the task they were within the QSC through including ful has been that of using technology asworking on, members had sufficient teachers in the process of developing an intellectual tool.It was intractable time to get to know each other and to the project itself.It was the project for many reasons not the least beingbuild trust and respect, leadership was teaching team which after reading, re- that until the Queensland Sunrisesensitive and authoritative, groups view, and reflection produced a work- Project was initiated, few educational were small, involvement gave some ing philosophy for the project which:- environments existed with sufficient immediate rewards and benefits, and a established convictions regarding computers to allow the viability of the spirit of inquiry and assistance pre- directions and initiatives being un- intellectual model to be explored. vailed (Logan and Sachs, 1987). These dertaken by the project. That is, it Through the establishment and sus- aspects were largely evident in the QSC redefined the rationale in opera- tained operation of t he QSC, this ration- approach and experience. tional terms for the teachers; ale has been explored and found to be provided a means of checking con- viable. Students and teachers in the QSC Within the QSC a number of strategies sistency of actions and policies; Project have used computers as intel- were used to ensure that major provided a framework against lectual tools by allowing fc.r the devel-stakeholders had ownership of the in- which evaluation could be con- opment of knowledge through interac- novation and its rationale. These strat- structed; and tion with the media and the customis-egies included:- aided communication with other ing of the manner in which the media educators so that they could under- functions so that it better facilitates the Project teachers were involved in stand the underlying concepts of construction of knowledge. Given that the negotiation, development and the QSC Project. learning episodes using computers as writing of project policy docu- intellectual tools can be continued at a ments; This teacher developed philosophy later date does not require continual Regular meetings of project, school provided a basis upon which an un- access to the media to enable continued and regional personnel who have derstanding of the project rationale functionality for the learner. responsibility for the innovation; could be developed with other signifi- Preparation (by project stake hold- cant partners in the enterprise. The development of an educational ra- ers) of papers, presentations and tionale is important and that rationale workshops; for on-site delivery or 4. TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVES MUST BE might be developed by examining the incorporation in state or national EVALUATED planned educational purpose of the tech- conferences; and There has been a lack of comprehen- nology in terms of being an amplifier, Cooperative budget planning. sive evaluation studies of technology intellectual tool, or an actualiser or some

88 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 inn initiatives in schools. Evaluation needs vidual or combination of Forms ac- The teachers and administrators in- to be planned as an integral part of the cording to the program's orientation, volved in the QSC Project worked program planning and management. state, focus, and timing. This helps in within a high risk, innovative investi- Teachers, students, and administrators establishing links between the educa- gation. One of the outcomes of the QSC need to be able to evaluate how effec- tional rationale for the learning tech- experience has been that the process of tive programs have been in order to nology initiative and the evaluation of introducing technology into classrooms enhance further program decisions. For that initiative. Moreover, the model requires teachers and others to take example, did the program contribute used to guide the evaluation drew upon risks. In such a high risk environment, to more effective learning and teach-the evaluation literature and, in par- higher than normal levels of support ing? Were there detrimental effects? ticular, fourth generation evaluation were necessary. This included an extra Could the program have been man- models which emphasise the need to teacher assigned to the QSC classes aged more efficiently and effectively? identify, negotiate with and involve and the appointment of a Project Of- In essence, evaluation should be un- the key people in the evaluation proc- ficer. The Project Officer was engaged dertaken to provide information about ess. Collaborative School Reviews provide in a wide range of management duties what we have learned in order to in- a tangible opr 3rtunity for this ap- and played a vital role in maintaining form our planning through the revi- proach. interest and effort among the teachers sion of our current programs. We sug- involved. gest that schools could strategically 5. INTRODUCING NEW TECHNOLOGY INTO address this through making links be- SCHOOLS REQUIRES RISK-TAKING. 6. TEACHERS REQUIRE BOTH TRAINING tween school computer policies and pro- Schoolsare exceedingly complex AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN grams, school development plans, and col- organisations within which the educa- THE USE OF THE NEW TECHNOLOGY. laborative school reviews. tive process is underta ken using a great Teacher competence in operating the variety of strategies, resources, per- computer is a necessary but insufficient We have witnessed the formulation of sonnel and special skills. The introduc- precondition for the computer to be- plans for technology initiatives, which tion of technology for learning into the come a viable resource within the have been followed by implementa- school culture requires more than sim- classroom. The provision of both pro- tion in schools, and then new initia- ply purchasing technological resources fessional development and training is tives are mounted before there have and expecting that teachers will use essential if a rationale based upon the been any comprehensive evaluation of them in some meaningful way in their use of technology as an educational the previous initiatives. The QSC devi- classroom activities. This strategy has resource is to be actualised. Through ated from that process as the planning been tried in the past with other tech- the operation of the QSC, it became included a research model. After three nologies and met with failure. obvious that it is necessary to separate years of operation, the QSC Project has out the training (required to make t each- been the site of three significant re- "All the language laboratories and ers competent users of the technology) search reports (Ryan,1991; Finger, 1992; teaching machines are gone. Not one and professional development which is and Rowe, 1993). of them can be found anywhere in the necessary for teachers to successfully United States right now." incorporate the technology into the The evaluation study (Finger, 1992) (Snyder, 1988) classroom experience of their pupils. reported the insights, impact, and is- This was done because training and sues which can be gleaned from a ma- To enable technology for learning to professional development are two sepa- jor 'lighthouse' initiative. In addition, become a valuable and integral part of rate functions which need to be consid- it formulated a model for guiding the a school's iearning resources requires ered separately if each is to be success- study which might be used as a basis some restructuring of the school mi- fully undertaken. for evaluatingfurthertechnology lieu. It requires teachers, administra- initiatives in schools. The model devel- tors, students and parents to take risks An additional reason for separating out oped utilised an adaptation of the Stake- and reject proven strategies and at- training and professional development Batchler Model (Thorne, 1990) and tempt untried methods which utilise is that they should not be undertaken drew upon Owen's (1992) evaluation computers as indispensable learning together initially. Teachers need time Forms. Owen suggested that it is an tools. In spite of the natural and re- to meet all of the problems involved in important first step to identify the de- sponsible conservatism which exists the use of technological tools (e.g. copy- sign of the evaluation which is appro- within schools, teachers and adminis- ing files, adding graphics, crashing priate for the program being evalu- trators are willing to take risks pro- disks, losing files, controlling printers ated. Five evaluation Forms were provided that they are informed about the etc.) prior to facing the avalanche of posed by Owen: -evaluation for develop- goals of the innovation, the benefits to problems which can result from intro- ment, design evaluation, process evalua- themselves and other members of the ducing a number of computers into a tion, monitoring evaluation, and impact school community, and the risks inher- classroom of students. Traditionally, evaluation. An appropriate evaluation ent in the innovation. professional development has often approach can be chosen from any indi- been treated as a formal course (e.g.

89 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 ni E.L.I.C., F.L.I.P.) within a strict time Digital technology is acknowledged ices, adequate fundi ng, a nd resoturing frame. However, professional develop-within Australian Taxation Law as learning technology can rapidly be- ment can be undertaken gradually us- having a very short useful life. Alter- come just another imposition on teaching informal collegial networks. natives to outright purchase exist for ers or a subject to teach rather than a Through this technique, costs are re- schools wishing to provide their stu- catalyst for improving the teacking- duced and teacher readiness can bedents with access to information tech- learning process. monitored, thus reducing wasteful ef- nology. These include lease and buy- fort. back agreements. The cost effective- 9. NEW TECHNOLOGY CAN ASSIST IN ness of these alternatives is yet to be RETHINKING EDUCATION. The advantages of deferring profes- determined as is the efficiency of pur- Itis now becoming obvious that infor- sional development until teachers have chasing extended warranties or main- mation technology which includes become comfortable with using com- tenance contracts. personal computers, modems, CD- puters are threefold; viz. ROM disk drives, digital scanners and cost is reduced; In 1991, the QSC budget allocation for a vast range of software can potentially the natural enthusiasm whiCh accom- repair represented 15% of thetotal assist in the restructuring of schools panies computer competence can be hardware budget and this wasin- and the educative process itself. There used to power the introduction of creased in absolute terms in1992 to is evidence of economic, pedagogic and computers into the classroom; and 20% as none of the machines in use in sociological factors (Cerych, 1985, p.225) the professionaldevelopment program the project were coveredby the operating for the introduction of tech- rapidly becomes self-generating. manufacturer's warranty. nology into schools. The primary ma tive for the establishment of the QSC

7. EXAMINE CAREFULLY THE BUDGET- 8. ESTABLISH APPROPRIATE ACCESS was from a pedagogic orientation. ARY CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE TO TECHNICAL, CURRICULUM, FUNDING However, many students and parents ACQUISITION, REPAIRS, AND UPGRAD- AND PROFESSIONAL SUPPORT. were found to assess the utility of in- ING OF EQUIPMENT. At the commencement of the QSC it volvement in the project from the The cost of maintaining the QSC equip- was thought that providing the tech- perspective ofeconomic advantage ment over the life of the project has nology and allowing teachers and stu- through improved career and employ- brought into stark contrast the need to dents to learn about it together would ment prospects. Sociologicalpressure for plan effectively for all of the costs (in- prove to be an effective strategy for using technology within classroomshas cluding maintenance a ad replacement) introducing technology into the class- emerged both in the QSC and in the associated with the provision of classroom. After a very short period of time wider educational scene. Parents of room technology. Ideally, this would early in the QSC Project, it became students in the QSC Project were found be a five year plan developed prior to obvious that teachers needed access to to have a largely deterministic view in the commitment of school funds. The a range of support services for the tech- which they saw a 'technological fu- QSC experience has been that at least nology was, of itself, not an educa- ture' as being inevitable. Evidence of twenty percent of machines will re- tional resource. sociological pressure in the wider edu- quire repair during a school year and "Children do not learn from good hard- cational setting can be gauged by the that each repair will cost approximately ware, software or courseware; they number of parents who are enrolling $400 - $500. Indeed, at the end of the learn from goal-directed intellectual their children in schools where every first year of the QSC Project in 1990, activities that good software affords student is required to own her or his approximately fifty out of sixty laptop and invites and that good teachers en- own personal computer and the al- computers required keyboards to be courage." (Sheingold, 1987) most exponential growth of the number either repaired or replaced. When ques- of schools which are responding to tioned whether or not this level of As a group, while teachers are gradu- those forces. repairs was the result of problems with ally becoming more interested in the the product, Toshiba representatives new technologies, they have shown an Sachs, Russell, and Chataway (1990, p. indicated that the failure rates of laptops enduring interest in providing the very 53) identify three main perspectives of at sites other than the QSC was ap- best learning experiences for their stu- technology. Firstly, there is the per- proximately 1-5% of machines. They dents. Thus, it is desirable that teach- spective that technology is linear and suggested that there was a need to stress ers see technology as a way of enhanc- deterministic in that society must adapt. care of the machines by the children. ing the quality of education. The pro- The second perspective assumes that While the effective life of classroom vision of support services facilitates technology is dependent on society. computers might be extended by con- this process and allows teachers to be- The third perspective rejects both the stant maintenance, care and repair, re-gin integrating learning technology first and second perspectives and it alistically five years seems to represent into the classroom culture without hav- accommodates: their economic life. ing to develop a deep understanding "the process of evolution and continual of the technology past the user level. selection from a spectrum of techno- Without the existence of support serv- logical alternatives; the selecting cre-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 90 1 An ates tension and leads to opportunities Students were selected to become ther students progressed, the more they for exploring and experimenting with class experts for a particular piece required skilled teachers. In addition, institutional and organising forms and of software or hardware. These it was observed that the students need actions."(Sachs,Russell,and children were accessed by other teachers to 'teach' them in different Chataway, 1990, p. 53) students as and when required. ways. Shared technology resources We suggest an ongoing examination of (scanners, modem, printers etc.) The QSC has reflycted the need to be the issues which technology presents were placed where they were vis- aware of the e4tence of the hidden for rethinking education will most ap- ible from most points in the class- curriculum and i.-tTucture it. Students propriately be addressed from within room.This ensured that those working independently upon self se- this third 'technochoice' perspective waiting to use a resource could lected tasks and projects need the (Sachs, Russell, and Chataway, 1990, p. continue with another task while teacher to actively facilitate the learn- 53) in which a 'middle-ground' is as- they waited for 'their turn'. ing process through providing them sumed between the first two perspec- A system of booking time to use with:- tives. For example, experience gained the CD-Rom and Scanner was ini- knowledge of resources and how from the QSC indicates that working tiated to ensure equitable access. they can be accessed, within technology-rich classroom en- Copying files from disk to disk was a range of pmblem solving vironments, teachers have investigated undertaken cooperativelyby stu- strategies, and not only how the technology might dents rather than by the teacher. ways of developing prerequisite facilitate more effective teaching and Students were responsible for skills. learning within the context of the managing their own disks and present curriculum, but also they have making backups of their data files. No longer is the teacher seen as the begun to explore the implications for Significant blocks of time were al- definitive authority, the purveyor of changing the curriculum. That is, located to group work. This en- knowledge and the evaluator who de- choices have been made by teachers sured that the students could work termines the worth of each pupil's ef- from within a framework of possible uninterrupted on individual tasks forts and yet this is the usual role de- technological and educational options. for significant periods of time. manded of the teacher by the hidden Pedagogic changes have occurred in curriculum within schools. The QSC the form of more collaborative, coop- 11. COMPUTERS ARE INHERENTLY SUB has indicated the subversiveness of erative learning. There has been evi- VERSIVE. technology for through this project it dence of shifts in the control of power Within the QSC it was not uncommon has become obvious that technology and the distribution of knowledge from for the teacher to have a technological can enable changes in the relationship the teachers as the sole authority and problem or process explained to her/ between teachers and students to take controller of the selection and pacing of him by an eleven or twelve year old place. knowledge to a more shared, investi- student. This could certainly be seen gative teaching and learning environ- as a subversive role reversal and gives 12. SLOW TRAVEL ENSURES THE QUICK ment in which thecomputers have been a new meaning to the adage "By his EST JOURNEY used as intellectual tools. pupils he is taught". As students inter- The process of bringing computers into act with a personal intellectual techno- the educational landscape and chang- 10. NEW TECHNOLOGY HAS IMPLICA- logical tool, they repeatedly set their ing the landscape co enable computers TIONS FOR CLASSROOM ORGANISATION own tasks, develop curricula which to positively affect the quality of education will be slow. B.)rk (1981) indi- AND MANAGEMENT. they hope will enable them to success- A single computer in a classroom can fully complete their task, evaluate their cated that he believed it would take be the cause of a great deal of disrup- progress towards their goal and re- twenty-five years and at present we tion to the smooth functioning of class- structure their work program. This have possibly another fifteen years room activities through printer noise, process is at the heart of the subver- before we can expect widespread, fun- and teacher or student distraction. The siveness of technology. At the com- damental changes to be achieved. challenges associated with organising mencement of the QSC Project, consid- Change at the system and school level classrooms so that technology can be erable discussion among teachers and need to occur but, more importantly, effectively managed can be expected as those involved in steering the project the familiarity of teachers with the technology becomes more common in considered the possibility that, as stu- technology needs to be developed. classrooms. dents might be able to undertake and Changes in classroom practice within complete their work more efficiently the QSC occurred after the teachers A number of successful strategies have and more independently through ac- themselves became competent users been utilised within the QSC and these cess to personal computers, it would of the technology and this might pos- are included as starting points rather be possible to remove teachers from sibly be the first step in the journey of than definitive solutions. education altogether. However, the the technology from the space race to QSC experience has been that the fur- the classroom. Once teachers have

91 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 started using computers as personal The program of acquisition of hard- Higginson, W. (1986). A Question of tools to assist them outside the class- ware and software should follow and Survival? Issues, Principles and room, a great deal will have been complement rather than precede the Questions about the Educational achieved and the classroom/educa- development of the educational ra- Computing Wave. In A.D. Salvas and C. Dowling (Eds) (1986), Com- tional issues discussed in this paper tionale. Funding represents an ongoing puters in Education: On the Crest of a can then be considered by practition- and expensive concern and schools are Wave? Acacia Press: Blackburn. ers who have more realistic expecta- urged to consider carefully thebudget- Logan, L. and Sachs, J. (1987). School tions. To attempt wholesale change in ary considerations for the acquisition, Based Inservice Education. Depart- education today is to court disaster for repairs, and upgrading of equipment. ment of Education, University of the QSC represented an important but It was identified that teachers require Queensland: St Lucia, Aug. small step in developing an apprecia- access to technical, curris-ulum, and Logan, L. and Sachs, J. ,(1991). Which tion of the contribution: that comput- professional support. Further 'truths' Teacher Development Project? In School Organisation, Vol. 11, No. 3, ers can play in education. related to the proposition that new pp. 303-311. technology can assist in rethinking Mojkowski, C. (1985). Ten Essential CONCLUSION education, has implications for class- Truths to Help You Plan for Tech- From our experiences through being room organisation and management, nology Use. Techtrends, (Oct., involved in theQSC, we firmly believe and that computers are inherently 1985),Vol. 30, No 7, 18-22. that benefits are to be had through the subversive. Finally, we suggested that Owen, J.M. (1992). A Theoretical Framework to Gui'de Evaluation use of the new and emerging technolo- perhaps slow travel might ensure the Training and Practice: Evaluation gies for promoting effective learning quickest journey for schools in their Forms. In Evaluation Making It Work, and teaching in schools. For teachers, efforts to integrate learning technol- Australasian Evaluation Society: computers can be used to enhance their ogy. Melbourne. lesson planning, assessment, prepara- Rowe, H.A.H. (1993). Learning with Per- tion of documents, as well as enhanc- What is clear isthat taking up the sonal Computers. The Australian ing students' learning experiences. The challenges presented by the new and Council for Educational Research: Hawthorn, Victoria. new technologies are revolutionising emerging technologies is not an easy Russell, G. (1992). Hopes and Disap- the management of the vast amount of task. However, we believe that the pointments: What Computer Edu- information which can be collected, educational rewards are potentially cators Can Learn from the Lessons accessed, disseminated, and acted great for all who make conscious per- of the 1980s'. In ACEC '92 Comput- upon. In this paper, teachers and ad- sonal and professional decisions to take ing the Clever Country? Proceedings ministrators have been provided with up those challenges. of 10th Annual Australian Computing cautions and suggestions to assist them inEducationConference. Mel- bourne, July, 92. C E G V: Victoria. in managing and supporting learning REFERENCES Ryan, M. (1991). The Queensland Sunrise technology initiatives in their schools Bork, A. (1981). Learning with Comput- ers. Digital Equipment Corpora- Centre A REPORT OF THE FIRST through the presentation of twelve es- YEAR. The Australian Council for sential 'truths'. tion: Mass. Educational Research: Hawthorn, Cerych, L. (1985). Problems arising Victoria. from the use of the new technolo- We have argued that it is not merely Sachs,J., Russell, N., and Chataway, G. gies in education. European Journal (1990). Technology and Education: technological issues which must be of Education, 20. addressed. It is important that all who Forging Links with Business and Department of Education, Queensland. Industry. In M. Dupe (Ed.) (1990), (1990). Queensland Sunrise Centre. are involved in technology initiatives Making the Links Technology and Sci- need to recognise the importance of Brochure produced by Learning ence, Industry and Education. Aus- people and the vital roles played by Technology Services, Department tralian Government Publishing individuals. Furthermore, we sug- of Education,Queensland. Service: Canberra. Doyle, W. and Ponder, G.A. (:978). gested that the early development of Salmon, G. (1990). The computer Lab: A The Practicality Ethic in Teacher Bad Idea now sanctified. In Educa- an educational rationale for the use of Decision-Making. In Interchange, the new technology is critical early, tional Technology, Vol. 30, No. 10. Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 1-11. Sheingold, K. (1987). The Microcom- and that it should occur through a Finger, G. (1992). Integrating Learning puter as a symbolic medium. In R. process which promotes ownership Technology in Queensland State Kurtland and K. Sheingold(Eds), of that rationale by the key partici- Schools: A Program Evaluation of the Mirrors of Mind: Patterns of Experi- Queensland Sunrise Centre. A Re- pants. Moreover, planning needs to ence in Educational Computing, Ablex, port of the Department of Educa- USA. include evaluation as an integral part tion, Qld: South Coast Region and Snyder, T. (1988). Tools for Teachers. In of the initiative. The introduction of Griffith University Gold Coast. new technology into schools requires The Computing Teacher, Vol 16, No 1. Grimmett, G. (1992). Instructional Thorne, (1990). A Utilization Based risk-taking, and teachers require both Models for Multi Computer Class- Model to Evaluate the Parent Segment rooms. A paper presented at the training and professional development in Early Special Education Programs. Queensland Society of Technology in the use of the new technology. Unpub Ph.D. Thesis, Uni of Tasma- in Education Conference.Kelvin Grove Campus, QUT. nia.

92 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 10 4 USINGMULTIMEDIA IN LAW LECTURES BY JAY FORDER & MAL SHINN, School of Law, Bond University

INTRODUCTION USING TEXT Most University lecturers can use an overhead projector. Some are begin-Most lecturers these days have their ning to use computer software to gen-lecture notes prepared in word erate and present overhead slide shows.processable form (machine readable). Will lecturers soon be expected to goThe first and most obvious point to be one step further and use multimediamade here is that it is very quick and presentations in lectures?It will beeasy to copy this text into a presenta- suggested that this expectation is nottion program. A little massaging the only unavoidable, but highly desirable.text into shape will enable very effec- This demonstration will tive slide shows. The advantages of explore the use of multi- The focus of this demonstration/paperthis form of presentation compared media as an enhancement will be on how easy it is to create awith overhead projector transparen- multimedia presentation, and how thecies are as follows: to law lectures at Univer- skills needed can be learnt gradually it is easy to add bright colours and sity level. Computer- over a period of time. The skills will be bring vibrancy to your audio-visual assisted presentations can taken in four steps: using (1) text, aids (2) simple line art and animation, the text can be changed quickly be divided into four cat- (3) sound,and (4) photographsand vid- and easily egories - those which eos. Taken in the order mentioned, it it is no longer necessary to hide the make use of: (1) text; will be shown how each of these cat- transparency and then uncover egories build on the skills already each point as the presentation de- (2) line art and animation; learned in using the media in the previ- velops -you can add to a composite (3) sound; and (4) photo- ous category. This means that there is slide as you begin talking about a graphs and videos. It will a natural progression or path through new point the maze of skills needed. it is easy to use a different text be suggested that each of colour to highlight or emphasise these media types have Although the examples will show how any particular point their place; and that mas- a multimedia presentation can supple- A few tips might also be appropriate. teringthem forms a natural ment lectures in law at a University level, the skills, techniques and ideasYou will need to check that the equip- progression so that they demonstrated'will be equally useful inment works properly. There is noth- can be learnt and used any environment in which a presenta-ing worse than the embarrassment caused when equipment fails - and it incrementally. tion is to be given to a number of listeners. has a habit of failing frequently ur less The demonstration will the most scrupulous checks are done. include examples typifying It will be assumed that there is no needApart from checking that the text is large encmgn ;^) be seen from the back, how each can be used in to investigate a definition of "multimedia" - media in this sense merely meansyou will also need to confirm that the teaching law, as well as an agency of communication. Although colours you use can be seen clearly in brief explanations of how they might not be the ideal method ofthe delivery venue. Colours have a horrible habit of appearing differently the examples were created instruction, it will also be assumed that formal lectures at University level will in different venues! using Microsoft be a necessary part of teaching for many PowerPoint, MacroMind years to come. It is therefore necessaryUsing a graphics presentation program to make lectures as enjoyable and asis very easy. We will demonstrate how Director, Adobe effective as possible. Using multime-one can create a typical text slide like Photoshop, Adobe Pre- dia is merely one response to this need the one below (but in colour) within a miere, and SoundEdit Pro - although it ought not to be the onlyfewminutesusingMicrosoft PowerPoint. on a Macintosh. response.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 93

1 USING SIMPLE GRAPHICS AND ANIMATION Until recently, no graphics presenta- It can handle two separate sound tracks, (a) Simple graphics tion program (that we were aware of) as well as several video clips, and is Simplegraphics or line artcanbedrawn was able to produce animation. We rich with features for transitions and or imported.If imported it is often understand that there are now some animation. We will demonstrate a known as clip art, although this term software prograns capable of doing simple level the way in which Studio includes other graphics such as scanned this. Unfortunately we have not been can be used to create an animated pres- photographs. able to try any of them yet. We turned entation. Drawing your own simple line art is to MacroMind Director (which has al- easy enough using a graphics presen- ways been regarded as more than just a USING SOUND tation program. For example when graphics presentation program). It is a It is amazing what a difference a sound discussing a legal case or a hypotheti- very powerful piece of software - capa- track makes. The use of sound really cal example where someone has (1:nie bleof much more than animation. Many brings a presentation alive. One obvi- something, one can depict the persons sophisticated interactive presentations ous tip - you need a library of sound graphically, even if it is only a stick including video and sound have been effects on which no royalties are pay- person. Your presentation software created with this program. At this stage able! will usually have simple drawing tools, of our learning curve, we have only such as squares, rectangles, ovals, and scratched the surface. We will demonstrate the difference circles. You can depict movement or between a presentation without and the passage of time with lines or ar- MacroMind Director has two facilities one with a soundtrack. We will also rows. - Overview and Studio. At a very basic show how easy it is to edit and add level, both enable you to take items sound to a presentation using a pro- Importing clip art is equally easy, once such as text or graphics which you gram like SoundEdit Pro. you are set up to do it. You need a have created with other programs, and source of clip art first. You will also set up a sequence for them to be dis- USINGPHOTOGRAPHS AND VIDEO need time to browse through it (or an played on the screen. Overview is the The last part of the demonstration will efficient indexing system) so you know simpler facility. It has no drawing tools show how easy it is to include photo- what is available when you are looking or features for editing images which graphs and video clips in a presenta- for something. With most programs you have chosen to use. It does have tion. We will briefly show how one can operating in a graphical environment, the ability to animate text (eg scroll use tools like Adobe Photosho? to cap- (such as Macintosh and Windows), you onto the screen), and use different tran- ture and touch up photographs; like- should be able to copy the item you sitions (such as wipes and fades) from wise the use of Adobe Premiere to edit want and paste it where you want. one screen to the next. We will demon- video clips; and how both types of im- strate a few of the more useful features. age can be incorporated into a (b) Animation MacroMind Director presentation. So far we have built screen presenta- Studio on the other hand is far more tions with text and simple graphics. complex.It has greater control over These are relatively easy to create. But each frame including the ability to being static, they can be a little boring. manipulate each one of several items It would be nice to have some move- on the"stage" during a particular frame. ment.

94 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 HYPERMEDIA TECHNOLOGY AS A CROSS CURRICULUM TEACHER TOOL

BY NEVILLE FRASER TeacherEducation Program Macquarie University, Sydney

This paper looks briefly at the history (Rheingold, 1991). Aircraft simu,lators, of hypermedia tools, some of the re- for example, tried to present the user search into their effectiveness, and ex- with a visual/ kinetic/sound version amines one model in detail, demon- of what was happening, while realistic strating examples of its use across a controls caused real-time effects on the number of curriculum areas. simulation. It was quite clear to these 11r occupational trainers that reality based The paper also opens discussion on the training was more effective than other need to develop a style of presentation forms which isolated the student from of hypermedia planning, as traditional the activity, or which limited the sen- So-called "authoring" flowcharting techniques used by con- sory impact of the session. systems have existed for ventional programmers fall short of the many years, supposedly potential of hypermedia planning. One early attempt to produce an interface between the author and the com- to allow teachers to pro- THE HISTORY puter was PILOT, which worked on 8- duce meaningful software Hypermedia as a concept can be traced bit machines and appeared on various to support their teaching back in fiction to the pulp science fic- platforms. Although specifically in- tion magazines of the 1940-1950 dec- tended to take the drudgery out of pro- program, without actually ades. It was common for the protago- gramming the weakness of PILOT was having to become pro- nists to use hand held sound/vision/ that the user still had to learn a large grammers. Until the ad- text/ retrieval devices, often ones which range of code-specific instructions, for doubled as a communications device. example, prefacing with a code letter vent of the "hypermedia" The important point to consider here is and colon- G: FirstPicture; S: this is a group of programs such that this period was mostly BEFORE statement; and so on. authoring tools saw little the advent of the computer, and definitely before the professional world With the advent of powerful micro- popularity. considered the computer to be a tool for computer technology the ability to both Today the classroom the masses (Aldis, 1964) simplify the interface and increase the teacher has access to a response rate of the equipmen t meant Essentially, the human concept of what that singular use of a keyboard or other wide range of hypermedia a computer could be asked to do, in delayed reaction interface was not nec- authoring tools which terms of how it presented information, essary. Users could respond almost as require no programming was years ahead of the computer mas- quickly as the thought was formed, ters ideas, and decades ahead of the and the computer could do likewise. skills beyond the use of technology itself. Mice, tracker-balls, touch-screens and the computer itself. How light-pens added a new meaning to the do these programs work, By the 1960s some computer users, such term "user interface". as Sutherland (1965) were beginning to and are they as truly ver- think that the computer could be more Around 1985 Apple started bundling a satile as potential users interactive, while developers outside program called "Hypercard" with their may be led to believe? the computer sphere were looking to- Macintosh cor iputer. Hypercard was a wards multimedia tools for training new concept in user controlled soft-

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 95 107 ware, because it allowed the user to Also in 1991 McBride & Wilson pro- THEWORKINGS OF HYPERMEDIA create "stacks", or individual screens, duced a monograph on the Multime- It is not intended here to go into a deep of information which could be linked dia Technology Seminar held intraining session on how to use a in a variety of ways defined by the user. Wahington that year. Papers presented hypermedia program. At this point all A Hypercard stack was very easy to dealt with, among other items, the role that is necessary is to examine the gen- create, with so few instructions neces- of learning theory in the development eral concepts involved in the creation sary that pre-school and infants chil- and application of multimedia tech- and working of a "stack" or "binder". dren could quickly master the ability nologies in special education. Indeed, (Chopping, 1989). throughout 1991 Special Education Hypermedia have these features: seems to have been a focus of activity in 1. An authoring tool creates a stand Hypercard opened the way for a huge hypermedia design in the U.S. alone runfile. amount of material tr, be quickly cre- 2. The runfile, often called a "stack" ated by educators who hae ',een frus- James Spector (1992) with others pre- or "binder", is a series of screens trated by either their own limitations as sented a paper innocently entitled "In- which can be linked flexibly. programmers, or the lack of true edu- telligent Frameworks for Instructional 3. User definable "buttons" can be cational value in material prepared by Design" to the Annual Conference of placed onto each screen to allow 'real' programmers. the American Educational Research free movement from one to the other Association in April, 1992. It will be with a click, press, or an automatic Since the original release of Hypercard interesting, to say the least, to see what event. many things have happened, in par- comes of this work, as it deals with the 4. A screen can contain any number of ticular the adoption of the style to other use of Artificial Intelligence to assist "frames" which contain informa- computer platforms, notably MS-DOS designers who lack expertise in the area tion in one form or another. and RISCOS, as well as a reversal of the of instructional design, with the image 5. A frame maybe any combination of earlier Apple policy of supplying of the computer helping and guiding text, graphic, sound, music, or Hypercard free. Apple now appears to teachers to design their resources, learn- video. Often selected contents of a have a policy of supplying only a lim- ing as it goes the styles of particular frame may be removed from the ited version of Hypercard, a nd of cha rg- teachers and modifying its designs ac- stack and used separately. ing for it. This has implications for the cordingly! 6. Frames may be hidden on the dissemination of hypermedia materi- screen, only to be revealed on a als on all platforms. Finally, Fitgerald (1992), and others button press/mouse click, or con- have worked on the development of a versely, be visible and then hidden Effectiveness of Hypermedia Systems seven-step systematic instructional de- on a button press/mouse click. There is very little research in this area sign and development model involv- 7. Programming skills are not neces- to draw from. ing preplanning, designing, authoring, sary, but there is often a "scripting testing, and revising the courseware. language" which can be accessed if Blackstock & Miller (1992) examined The aim of the article was to provide desired. how children' symbol manipulation classroom practitioners with the basic was affected using hypermedia as well information to use hypermedia to de- as other edge technologies, compared velop CAI programs with a cross-cur- with traditional systems. In 1991 the ricula flavour. Council for Exceptional Children (Washington) produced the Trainer's Resource Guide, which included a section for teachers on the design and evavuation of authoring courses, DTP, hypermedia, and interactive videodisc. This was actually a comprehensive work which is unfortunately hard to come by.

Figure 1 attempts to display a hypermedia stack diagrammatically. The main components of a screen are shown, as are Pita from :Wald" the links between that screen and others in the Figure 1. stack.

96 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1903 108 It is the feature of linking, and the ease riculum areas and how hypermedia, 2. Creating Annotated Books with which it can be carried out, that and Magpie in particular, may be ap- A selected work by an author is makes hypermedia a versatile tool for plied: written onto the screen. Key words the teacher. are then indicated in some way, ENGLISH and either hidden text blocks or If, for example, a teacher wants to cre- 1.Creating multiple path stories with page links are attached to them. ate an individual learning module on complex path possibilities. This provides detailed support for the parts of a butterfly, it could be done Students can set up any number of the reader, to be used only if the in just five simple steps: alternatives on each screen, selected need arises (Figure 3). by clicking on the box (Figure 2) 1. Create the initial bourder simply by It is also easy to append a quick quiz on naming it and saving the "blank", any aspects of the work. or empty. (From now on as each new screen is created the program will automatically save the previous one. 2. Import any graphics, which may be You are outside the door of an old, abandoned shack. drawn, painted, or digitized in The door is shut and the windows are boarded up. (Most hypermedia systems have There is a chimney andagrate for dropping coal built in drawing tools). down into the cellar. 3.Write, or import, the appropriate text. 4.Decide on what links this screen Would you like to try to enter the shack? will have with others- for example, Open the door clicking on the head may change Lift the grate screens to a greater detail view of the head, or clicking on a picture of Go through a window an egg, or the word s "LIFE CYCLE", Go away from the house may move to a series of screens Climb down the chimney] dealing with that subject. 5.Place the appropriate "buttons" in place, setting them to the correct locations, and setting them as either Figure 2. visible or invisible. Add hidden frames and key them to the area to be clicked to reveal or hide them.

Thus a single screen can be created How MacDougal Topped The Score with very little training. It has been the experience of the author that trainee A peaceful spot is Pipers Flat, teachers of English, most with no prior The folks that live around, use of the computer at all, can be enthu- They keep themselves by keepi P.en siastically creating simple linked pages ilARK0 And digging up the ground. to keep weeds aHaV after a single group "walkthrough" of They dig and sow and harrow, the above procedure in less than thirty Then sit back and pray for rain- minutes. And then it comes and floods them out The hypermedia program "Magpie", And they have to start again! But the folk are now rejoicing by Longman Logotron, is designed for As they ne'er rejoiced before use on the Acorn Archimedes series of .VE'ER computers. It is strongly representa- means"never"'For they played Molonglo cricket- tive of the genre, and is actually in- And MacDougal topped the score! tended for use specifically by school students. Experience has shown, however, that many teachers are confident Figure 3. enough to use the program to create their own support materials. What follows is a brief look at some of the cur-

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 109 SCIENCE HISTORY /GEOGRAPHY /HUMAN Figure 7 shows a screen from a mari- 1.Active Diagrams SOCIETY time dataoase set up as a time line The correct setting up procedure I. Interactive Maps (Figure 6) which can be randomly accessed or for different apparatus can be Maps which give extra detail at the searched on a keyword free text basis. shown, with a "What's Missing?" touch of a button, or which scroll choice to be made. The screen might through events as a carousel. It is possible to go on with more and explain, verbally, what is right or more examples of the easy application wrong about the choice made by Maps which pronounce place names. of hypermedia to various curriculum the student (Figure 4). areas. The role of the medium in LOTE, Maps which guide the user from place ESL and the various technology class- This could equally be the point of a to place through time and space. rooms (Food Science, Industrial Arts, safety quiz for equipment usage. etc) has not been considered here, for Visual/Audio databases which include example. 2.Simulations of chemical experi- sound samples of people talking- local We have an unidentified liquid in the teat tube. ments can be set up, allowing the history, social ch ange, c ustoms, a ccents. It appear slightly oily. student to make choices rather than Which powder could we add to it aefirst attempt to Ideality the liquid? follow through by rote. In this Thesedatabases can be set up in a highly fashion, students can learn from visual way, helping to increase motiva- their mistakes and live to try again. tion on he part of the student. The provision of activities of this kind is an easy way to ensure that students really know what their choices are before the necessity of dealing with potentially hazardous chemicals (Figure 5).

Adding Pb to the liquid causes much bubbling and a cigar, Which equipment needs to be used to boil odourless gas to be given off.

the water in the test tube? What would you like to do to the gas?

i) Ignite it

Litmus Test it

Igniting the gas caused a small, sharp explosion!

- r

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

'we

Which of these maps shows Australia during an Interglacial Epoch? Figure 6.

98 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Press t'Irl-S to search any part of the time line =-

Pr 1 Figure 7.

The author has in fact now designed An important advantage of specifically Structured English is the language style several applications with page num- designed hypermedia applications is of expressing what is to happen in a bers into the hundreds, and has had that they can be tailored not just to given piece of program. A flowchart is time to dwell on the problems of deal- different learning areas, but also to dif- the more contrived method of bridging ing with such sizes. There is little doubt ferent learning styles- the needs of Non the gap between pseudocode and the that some sort of clear progression, ex- English Speaking Background, Abo- actual program code. The problem isting outside the designers head, is riginal education ( a very iconic and shared by both is that, having at their necessary if the practises of good in- graphic area), girls and Special Educa- back some of the older methods of cod- structional design are to be followed. tion students can be dealt with on an ing, derived mostly from the 1960's With this in mind it is necessary to almost individual basis, once the target and 1970's, they are very LINEAR in consider any comprenensive stack or group is identified, and assuming that nature, a problem they share with the most effective strategies for the storyboarding. binder in the following manner: group are understood in terms of com- 1. Map out the broad areas to be dealt puter support. Hypermedia is however decidedly non- linear, allowi ng jumping around in vir- with in the stack. Do this in as visual a manner as necessary, on as large a TOWARDS A HYPERMEDIA CHARTING tually anyorder, which means the above piece of paper as necessary. Allow SYSTEM systems can become hopelessly crowded and entangled as a result. plenty of elbow room- use the floor! There exist a variety of forward plan- 2. Examine specific areas of your ning or charting systems which allow "map" in more detail. Thes may us to design systems for various con- While it could be argued that as form the nucleus of modular sec- tingencies. STORYBOARDING is a Hypermedia are more intuitive than traditional programming languages it tions of the final application. term used in the video and graphic Note down the type and style of media to indicate plot development,is not really necessary to "chart" 3. each screen in a section- will it have potential "shoots", etc. In computing, progress at all, it quickly becomes ap- sound, video or graphics? "Plot" the triumvirate of STRUCTURED parent that any attempt to design an these on the map. ENGLISH, FLOWCHARTING and application of more than a dozen or so 4. Get a notepad, about AS in size, and PSEUDOCODE define the nature of a screens is asking for hopelessconfu- sion. think of each page as a screen from program. your proposed application. Either in reality, or informally, divideeach page up something like this:

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 111 melt PAM IViii IRI The circles down the sides of the card indicate screens that this card I' ks TO. It is GRAPHICS TEXT possible to place numbers to indicate links FROM by L L putting such numbers in brackets. Anarrowfrom a N N circle into one of the boxes K K can indicate that that link is S S a button over that particular item. Below is a card filled out to give an indication of SOUND VIDEO how the system might work:

TEXT GRAPHICS (16) To the west you can telescope 4 The layout is fairly self ex- (38) see something floating planatory. Note that two It appears to be a boat go back different graphics link to the (40) Will you inv te? north same page (40), that one (37) It might south button is actually over the east word "Makassan" in the wes Natives of Timor text, ready to show up the rea who fish for 39 hidden text in the box if sea slug called for, and that there are links back to several other storm stormy waves screens- some in fact are resea gull (8 secs) ciprocal links as can be seen from the numbers (eg there is a button on 16 which will bring you to 39, and there is SOUND VIDEO Figure 8. Once aseries of screens have been set CONCLUSION up in map or "story board" fashion, It is apparent that many educators are Now is the time to make sure that this you can begin to get some idea of beginning to see the potential for happens. The tool, hypermedia, exists whether t he concept is coming together hypermedia as a design tool for class- and is easy to control. What is still to be or not. Several problems which often room applications in a way which has defined is the mtehod by which this surface in large works are: hitherto failed. If these teachers and tool can be effectively used. History students are to design educationally has shown us that classroom teachers Pages with no links at all. valid material that is any better than want to share in the design process, Redundant buttons / finks some of the original poorly planned and that the software industry is not Links to the wrong pages. software which it has taken years to necessarily the best palce for concept Duplicate pages. weed out of our classrooms, we need to development and design to take place. consider carefully just how to design By "mapping" out the ideas first in this hypermedia applications. Only by be- No doubt there are many who can look fashion much searching and redesign ing able to carefully examine the struc- at this mapping concept and find prob- ca n be avoided later. Once some screens ture of these applications can we look lems with it, and that is fine. The point have been made in the program it is at the educational imperatives, rather of the exercise has been to try to over- often possible to print them out indi- than be dazzled by the sound do light come the limitations of more traditional vidually, and these screen dumps can show of an apparently polished, but planning methods which just fail to then replace the story-cards on your educationally unsound, final product. meet the needs of hypermedia systems. map.

100 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 If the above approach can be refined or Trainer's Resource Guide: Program Wilson, J. & McBride, K., Multimedia improved upon, or even thrown out for Planning Ideas land I Trainer's Re- Technology Seminar: Proceedings something better, so be it. The impor- source Guide: Training Materials (Washington, D.C., May 20- tant point to remember is that it maybe Design Guidelines. Special Educa- 21,1991), Council for Exceptional onlya matterof timebefore hypermedia tion Programs (ED/OSERS), Children, Reston, VA. Center for displace more conventional program- Washington, DC. Special Education Technology, ming languages as the tool of choice for Fitzgerald, G., et al, Authoring CAI Special Education Programs (ED/ both teachers and students, and if this Lessons: Teachers as Developers in OSERS), Washington, DC. does occur than the ability to work with Teaching Exceptional Children; v24 students, or colleagues, in the rational n2 p15-21 Win 1992 (linespace lOpt} About the Author and efficient design of materials will Chopping, E. Being Young & Adven- Neville Fraser has for five years man- only be made harder if no common turous with Hypercard in Proceed- aged the Instructional Technology ground for planning can be put into ings of the NSW CEG, 1989 Centre for the Teacher Education Pro- place. Rheingold, H., Virtual Reality, London, gram at Macquarie University, Syd- 1991 ney, where he lectures on the applica- BIBUOGRAPHY Sutherland, I., The Ultimate Display, in tion and role of various technologies in Amis, K., New Maps of Hell, London, Proceedings of the IFTP Conference, the classroom. He came to this position 1964 1968, pp506-508 after ten years of primary teaching and Blackstock, J. & Miller, L, The Impact of Spector, J, et al, Intelligent Frameworks consultation. New Information Technology on for Instructional Design, Paper pre- Young Children's Symbol Weaving sented at the Annual Conference of Efforts in Computers and Educa- the American Educational Research tion; v18 n1-3 p209-21 Jan-Apr 1992 Association (San Francisco, CA, Council for Exceptional Children April 20-24, 1992).

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AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 101 113 Mathematica 2.2 in Education

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102 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

1II THEEXECUTION AND ANIMATION OF DATAFLOW DIAGRAMS AS A COMPUTERAID TO LEARNINGPROCESS MODELLING BY STUART GARNER Lecturer in Information Systems at Edith Cowan University, Perth

INTRODUCTION Systems Analysis is taught as a dis- This paper will describe some research crete unit within many Information work which is being carried out as part Systems courses within educationalof a doctorate programme at the Uni- institutions. At Edith Cowan Univer- versity of Western Australia (UWA). A sity (ECU) the analysis phases of a software system is being produced to conventional systems development attempt to overcome the problems lifecycle are taught together with theabove by allowing the process models various techniques used by systems produced by students to be executed analysts toachieve the final product ofand animated, the models during such This paper outlines some analysis: a requirements specification. execution then being dynamic models Such a specification includes models, of information systems. It is envisaged research which is being that the ability to be able to "trace undertaken by the author both process and data, of the new system required by its users. through" a process model and inspect into a computer system to its behaviour will enhance student un- execute and animate proc- As part of the unit, students at ECUderstanding of both the technique of ess models of information develop models for given problemsprocess modelling and the ways in systems. It briefly de- making use of CASE (computer as- which information systems operate. scribes what the term sisted software engineering) tools to document their models. These models WHAT IS PROCESS MODELLING? "process modelling" means are then checked by tutors in order to Process modelling is the modelling of in the context of informa- assess their degree of correctness. An the main functions of an information tion systems and outlines system by the production of a set of exa mple of part of such a process model dataflow diagrams (DFDs) together some of the difficulties for the Sales and Accounting system with information stored within a data students have with the of "Delicious Dishes", an organiza- dictionary. current approach to learn- tion which produces pre-packaged ing this systems analysis food dishes, is shown later in figures A DFD is madeupof four basiccompo- and 2. nents: technique. An architecture for the new computer sys- The main problem for tutors is that the External entities or agents (also tem is described together models are static and difficult to check, Known as data sources or sinks). Processes or transforma tions which CASE tools performing only a limited with details of a new com- transform inputs into outputs. amount of consistency checking of the puter language for specify- Datastores which are repositories models. Also, of course, the static na- ing the behaviour of low ture of the models does not aid stu- of data. Dataflows which are pipes joining level processes. The way in dent understanding of whether the the aboveobjects a nd which indicate which it is envisaged that a models would behave correctly if the flow of data ',eZween objects. student would interact with plemented on a computer system. the system is also outlined. 103 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 115 An example of a DFD for the Sales and hierarchical set of DFDs eventuates. STRUCTURE OF THE SYSTEM Accounting system of "Delicious Figure 2 shows the explosion of the In order to execute and animate a proc- Dishes" is shown in figure 1. Sales and Accounts process of figure 1. ess model, a model needs to be defined The diagram in figure 1 is obviously at The processes of the lowest level DFDs more rigourously than would usually a high level of abstraction. Such a proc- are described in the data dictionary in be the case with a conventional CASE ess can be exploded in a lower level natural language, structured English tool. Research has been carried out into diagram to reveal more detail, the or sometimes by decision tablesor trees. executable DFDs, examples being processes in the lower level diagram They are known as primitive processes (Pacini and Turini, 1987), (Docker, then being further exploded. Hence a or mini specifications. 1988), (Fuggetta et al, 1988), (Lea and

Figure 1

Datastore .., .., Customer ii Customer Sales & Accounts / Data Payment

Credit LOrder -0 1 2' Order Sales - Statement- -Acknowledgement-.Sales Order Processing Accounting Rejected Order - Invoice

Reports Delivery EDetails Management Kitchen Dish Details Returned Dis Details

Figure 2

104 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 e I . " Chung, 1990). The researchers' inter- It was decided not to utilise either of the The process model to be executed is ests have not been in using executable above in the new teaching system as it created by the user (tutor or student) as DFDs as a teaching vehicle, but of at- was thought more appropriate to try to shown in figure 3. tempting to execute specifications di- reflect as closely is possible the prac- rectly. This has involved introducing tice used within the commercial IS As can be seen, the diagrams are pro- more formality into the specification world. It has therefore been necessary duced using a graphics editor which process by increasing the set of objects to define a language suitable for speci- will be similar to those used within used in diagrams to allow the specifi- fying the primitive processes in a CASE tools, primitive processes are cation of control of the processing (i.e. straight forward manner and it is en- defined via a structured text editor, so it can be determined just when proc- visaged that the control of the execu- and further :retails of the model are esses can execute) and the specification tion of the processes of a model will be stored in a set of Oracle tables via an of primitive processes in more detail, under user control, thereby allowing Oracle RDBMS (relational database generally with functional languages. the user to "explore" the model so as to management system). aid his or her understanding.

Executable Dynamic Model Graphics Editor Diagrams

Structured Text Data Dictionary Editor Primitive processes in Structured language Oracle RDBMS Rest of Data Dictionary

Figure 3

IOrdered Dish

v 2.23p Management Throughput Generate F Order Header Report 0 Throughput Report -1 A

11-Delivery Header

Figure 4

105 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 117 In order to allow execution of the proc- and from the individual processes are The data dictionary entries are as fol- ess model, the primitive process speci- provided via the dataflows. It should lows: fications need to be compiled into ex- be noted that the structure of all Each data element or structure in the ecutable code, a runtime system then dataflowsand datastores will have been above would also be defined in the executing and animating this code. defined in the data dictionary and hence data dictionary so its data type would the attributes (fields) will be "known" be known to the process to be defined. THE LANGUAGE FOR DEFINING PROC- during the compilation of a process. Process 2.2.3pin the diagram is a primi- ESSES The best way to gain an understanding tive and is described below. Note that A language has been defined for speci- of some of the language features is by line numbers have been used to help in fying the primitive processes, the ease way of an example. A fragment of a the explanation and are not used in the of use of the language by students below level DFD from the "Delicious real system. ing of paramount importance in its Dishes" process model is shown in fig- design. The input and output data to ure4and will be considered.

order_header ordered dish delivery_header throughput _report

order_number & order_number & delivery number &date & customer_number &dish reference & delivery_date & average_time date_of_order dish_description & customer_number & quantity ordered &customer _address & ordered_dish_status(delivery address) & delivery_number & invoice number & (contract _number)

For an order closure, all the ordered dishes on the order must have been delivered. The last ordered dish delivered for an order will indicate the order closure date. This is date is stored in the delivery header. To determine the average time for the processing of orders: I

1 set TOTAL_TIME to 0 2 set NUMBER_OF_ORDERS to 0 3 join order_header table, ordered dish table giving FULL ORDER _LINE table 4 for each tuple in FULL_ORDER_LIN'i. table do 5 on first FULL_ORDER_LINE tuple for this order_number do 6 set ORDER_CLOSr_D to TRUE 7 end on 8 if ordered _dish status <> "delivered" then 9 set ORDER _CLOSED to FALSE 10 end if 11 on last FULL_ORDER_LINE tuple for this order_number do 12 if ORDER CLOSED then 13 read delivery_header table 14 sTOTAL TIME to TOTAL TIME + 15 (delivery _date - date_of_order) 16 set NUMBER OF ORDERS to NUMBER_OF_ORDERS + 1 17 end if 18 end on 19 end for 20 set average_time to TOTAL_TIME / NUMBER _OF _ORDERS 21 send throu h ut rert dataflow

106 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Points to note about the above include:

Details of the data structures in the dataflows are all stored in theOracle data dictionary and hence the names of attributes are available in the body of the process. An example ofsuch an attribute is "ordered_dish_status" (line 8) which belongs to the "ordered dish" table or datastore. Variables are not explicitly declared as in many languages. Local identifiers are in upper case and their types are determinedwhen they are first referenced (for example 'TOTAL TIME " in line 1). Dataflow and table identifiers are in lower case (for example "order_header"in line 1). Assignment takes place via "set" statements (see line 20 for an example). it is assumed that the underlying data model is relational and thereforecommands such as "join" are available. The "join" command combines two or more tables into a view and in the caseof this language, a temporary table is created for further manipulation during the processing. Efficiency is not amajor consideration here as the main concern is that of enhancing student understanding.The join takes place over table attributes with a common name and similar structures (order_number in this example in line 3) in thetables to be joined and hence is not made explicit. The "for" statement allows each tuple (row) in a table to be manipulated(see line4). The "on" statement is used to simplify control break processing (see line5 for an example). The "send" statement is used to release an instance of a dataflow. In this casethe flow is "throughput report" and its attributes have been set during process execution (see line21).

There are many other features to the language, the above simply indicatessomething of its flavour.

HOW THE SYSTEM WILL BE USED IN It is normal at ECU to require studonts The expected form of model execution will be discussed with respect to figure TEACHING to produce such logical models, ha wing One of the aims of structured systems been given various informations sys- 5. Initially execution cannot take place analysis is to produce a logical model tems scenarios. An example of a sce- until an occurrence of DF1 (dataflow of an information system required by a nario is a description of an existh:g 1), for example an order, coming from user. This model is devoid of all physi- flight booking system together with all EE1 (external entity 1), for example a cal attributes such as the the input / the problems and requirements of the customer, is instigated. (Note that ex- output media and the media in which current users. It is envisaged that part ecution of other processes within P1 data will be stored. The data is fully of the required logical model, which is might in fact be able to take place if normalised, each entity type such as the solution, would have already been their execution is independent of any customer, employee, being stored in a produced by the lecturer or tutor de- input data). A student enters somedata datastore. There are no redundant data pending on which aspect of process in order to instigate DF1, this data en- in such a model and processes such as modelling was being emphasised. For try being through a Hypercard inter- the routing of data are removed as they example, part of the data dictionary, face to Oracle. DF1 is then "seen to are unnecessary. Such a logical model data flow diagrams, primitive proc- flow" to process P1 which flashes indi- is sometimes termed the "essence" of esses and test data may have been pro- cating that a process within it can ex- the system. Models of this type will be duced. Students would then complete ecute. executed and animated by the new the modelling proces s and execute their system. models at various points to check their specifications.

P1 DFI EEI DF2-10 EE2

DF3

Figure 5

107 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 119 The student then "opens tip" PI to It is hoped that the ability to animate a The underlying model of data storage reveal the lower level DFD of figure 6. process model in this way will enhance is relational being based on Oracle and student understanding of the informa- to this end the system should also help Process P1 .1 p is now able to execute tion system which is being specified. student understanding of relational due to the presence of DF1. This is a database concepts. primitive process (indicated by the CURRENT PROGRESS lowercase "p") and hence is described The compiler is currently being writ - REFERENCES in the new structured language. Open- ten, target hardware being the Macin- Docker, T. W. G. SAME - A Structured ing up P1.1p will reveal the description tosh computer range. Students will be Analysis Tool and its Implementa- of the process in this language and it using the new language in the Systems tion in Prolog. In: Logic Program- will now execute, the student being Analysis unit this semester (semester ming: Fifth International Confer- able to step through the process and 1, 1993) but will only be able to carry ence; USA. ; 1988; 1: 82-95. inspect the data within the system at out syntax checking on the processes Fuggetta, A.; Ghezzi, C. land others]. any point. As can be seen, at some which they develop. VLP: A Visual Language for point there may be be access to DS1 prototyping. In:IEEE Workshop o n (datastore 1). This will already have CONCLUSION Languages for Automation, Sym- been populated with some test data by The learning of process modelling by biotic and Intelligent Robotics. NY, the tutor or student and is in practice students is currently carried out by USA: IEEE; 1988: 134-148. an Oracle table. An instanceof DF4 will students attempting to model many Lea, R. J.; Chung, C. G. On Construct- eventually be produced enabling P1.2p typical information system scenarios ing Executable Prototypes from to execute. The student would have a and then obtaining feedback on those Structured Analysis. In: Ninth An- nual International Conference on choice now, whether to instigate an- attempts from tutors. The static nature Computers and Communications; other transaction by providing another of the models makes it difficult for both 1990; USA. USA: IEEE Comp. Soc. instance of DF1 and re-executing PI .1p, students and tutors to determine if Press; 1990: 461-8. or whether to follow through the first models produced accurately reflect the Pacini, G.; Turini, F. Animation of transaction by investigating the real world situations. This paper has SoftwareRequirements.In: processing of P1.2p. outlined research which is currently Mitchell, R. J., Editor. Industrial being undertaken to provide a compu- Software Technology. London: There can of course be many processes ter system which will execute and ani- Peregrinus; 1987. available to a student to execute and mate such models so as to increase the choice can be his or hers or left to student understanding of particular the runtime system. Some processes information systems and to help in the wi ll be able to execute without a n input determination of the "correctness" of a dataflow from another process. An ex- solution. ample would be the production of an invoice or invoices triggered by some point in time.

P1.lp

DFI 4 DS 1 EE1

DF4

DF3 P1.2p

DF2 EE2 I DS2 4 DF5

Figure 6

108 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 12n GEOLOGICALAND GEOPHYSICAL MODELLING IN THE CLASSROOM BY A.A.GEIRO, M.W.JESSELL, R.K.VALENTA, G.JUNG & J.P.CULL

Victorian Institute of Earth and Planetary Sciences Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3168, Australia

The accuracy of this history can be THE DESCRIPTION OF THE THREE gauged by comparing the model DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE predictions with the dual constraints EARTH provided by the measured structural One of the major stumbling blocks in and geophysical data. This approach the interpretation of regional geophysi- points to a new methodology for the cal data sets seems to be the descriptive reconstruction of the earth's crust, language of most modelling packages. and has potential as a tool for both Seismic studies by their very nature training and research. emphasise the layering in rocks, however the typical approach to gravity We introduce a new com- INTRODUCTION and magnetic modelling has been to model the isolated anomalies associ- puter package - "Noddy"- Airborne magnetic and gravity surveys havebecome increa singly impor- ated with regular geometric solids, such which is particularly useful tant contributors to the development as a buried sphere or a dipping prism for the education of tertiary of structural models in poorly exposed (Telford et al. 1990). The difficulty of or complex te2rains (Isles et al 1988,constructing realistic geometric mod- students studying struc- Leaman 1991, Whiting 1986). In explo- els in three dimensions restricts the rel- tural geology and geophys- ration and much of global geophysics, evance to structural geologists of the ics. Its use in the upper as in structural mapping, the primary geophysical modelling that follows. The goal is the determination of the three language of structural geologists recog- years of secondary school dimensional geometryof the earth. In- nises the inherent layering found has the potential for inter- ferences with respect to kinematics and through much of the earth's crust, and esting a whole new genera- dynamics can then be made, howeveroften describes the observed structures it is the geometry which we must first in terms of the geometry of deforma- tion of students in careers correctly establish. Given the ever im- tion which effects this layering (Tipper in the Earth Sciences. proving spatial resolution of gravity 1992), such as fold geometries. It is clear We present a technique for and magnetic surveys, which can nowthat gravity and magnetic data should resolve quite narrow lithologica I units,be of interest to the structural geologist, the integrated forward it is perhaps surprising how few tools since structural data is normally lim- modelling of the structure are available to interpret the observed ited to surface observations and in many and geophysical response structural and geophysical data in regions the outcrop is sparse, whereas integrated fashion. the geophysicist measures anomalies of multiply deformed ter- which are the response of a solid vol- rains. This technique allows The purpose of this paper is to outlineume of rock, and thus can potentially information collected by the principles of an integrated system recover information about this volume. for the reconciliation of gravity, mag- field geologists and geo- netic and structural data sets, and to We believe that by using a structural physicist to be reconciled give examples as to how a n implemen- geologist's descriptive language to im- by the development of a tation of this system based on struc- plement a geophysical forward model- lingscheme ("structural geophysics "?), simplified structural history tural and geophysical forward modelling can be used in the classroom. we can develop a system whereby the of the area. constraints on the three dimensional

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 109 [21 structure naturally incorporate boththese events in terms of a set of dis- THE NODDY PACKAGE FLOW. structural and geophysical data, and placement equations, as developed in The general flow of Noddy consists of: thus should be of interest to anyoneJessell 1981. Similar approaches have 1. The definition of a layer cake whose primary goal is an understand-also been used by Meissen 1980, Perrin stratigraphy. ing of the geometry of the earth's crust. et al 1992. in the program "Geostudies" 2. The interactive development of a A major strength of Noddy is the simi- structural history. THE INTEGRATED MODELUNG OF larity between the types of data col- 3. The use of 2D and 3D visualisation STRUCTURE AND GEOPHYSICS lected in the field and the predictions tools such as block diagrams, line In order to demonstrate the potential ofwhich result from the combination of maps, sections, toposurfaces, using integrated structural and geo-these displacement equations. Thus geometries of a single stratigraphic physical constraints to reconstruct the predictions are made as to the outcrop layer (Fig.1). three dimensional geometry of the earth patterns and bedding, cleavage and 4.The calculation of 1D and 2D gravity we havedeveloped the Noddy forward lineation orientation data, either for a and magnetic images. modelling computer package that al- flat land surface, or fora specific topog- 5. The editing of the existing structural lows the user to define the structure in raphy provided by the geologist. In history and recalculating of the terms of a simplified geologic?' his-addition, what would normally be in- anomalies to improve the match tory. This history can be based on any a terpretative figures such as block dia- between real and calculated struc- priori information available to the ge- grams, sections and bedding surfaces ture and geophysical response. ologist, and is likely to include struc-can be easily calculated. tural information, such as outcrop pat- Since this program is completely inter- terns, and the orientation of bedding, The calculation of the gravity and mag- active, apart from the initial definition and geophysical information such as netic anomalies is based on an imple- of a base stratigraphy at step 1, the the measured magnetic susceptibilitymentation of Hjelt's dipping prism so- steps may be enacted in any order. of rocks in the area, and the observed lution (Hjelt 1972,1974). The geological Noddy is completely menu driven. The gravity and magnetic anoma ly patterns. volume of interest in divided up into computer's pull-down menus allow the Once the history has been specified the small cubes ("roxels"?), and the geol- user to make a visual slice through a software allows the geologist to verify ogy of each cube is assumed to be the block with any orientation and view it the accuracy of the history by compar- geology of the central point in the cube. from any point . At any stage the user ing the resulting structural and geo- The surface response at a given loca- can ask Noddy to generate a map of the pt with the measured tion is then calculated by combining surface features. The map can be inter- data. the responses of each cube in turn, rogated by clicking at a chosen point within a threshold distance of that loo- with the mouse. Noddy shows the di- The starting point for modelling is a tion. The first constraint on the plausi- rection and degree of any dip of the layer cake stratigraphy, for which the bility of a given geological history is its bedding or foliation at that point. heights of the stratigraphic contacts are ability to account for the outcrop pat. The program can read irra file repre- defined, together with the densities and terns, orientation data, and age rela- senting the topography of the area al- magnetic susceptibilities of each unit. tionships seen in the field. However lowing the user to see how the topogra- The structural history is then devel- these represent an essentially two di- phy interacts with the geology. Geo- oped from a set of "events", namely mensional data set. The additional con- physical information can be mapped as folding, faulting, unconformities, shear straint of the gravity and /or magnetic monochrome images. The program al- zones, dykes, igneous plugs, tilts, ho- data allows fora significantly improved lows the users to save the front window mogeneous strains, penetrative cleav- testing of any proposed model . If the to file, print the front window to a ages and penetrative lineations. Each geological model appears accurate, but printer or read an existing picture from of these events can be defined in terms fails to account for a significant part of file into a new window. This can be four classes of properties: their shape,the geophysical anomaly, then clearly used to import sections, geological position, orientation and scale. These a further reconciliation of the data needs maps and geophysical images for com- are definitions in a form that any struc- to be performed. parison with the model results. Today tural geologist would understand. Al- Noddy runs on any Macintosh with a though individual structural events can One of the major advantages of the math co-processor or a Sun work be extremely simple it is a salutary les- system presented here is that the modi- stationt. son in itself to observe the complexity fication of the history may be as simple of the geometries that quickly develop as changing the throw on a fault, and APPLICATIONS OF THE TECHNIQUE as two or three events are superim- that final representation of the model is We have investigated two main uses posed on one another. not just a set of volume defining poly- for this integrated modelling package: hedra, but a series of structural events as a training tool in the teaching of The numerical basis for the calculation with geological significance. structural geology and geophysics, and of the interaction of these structures as a method of testing specific interpre- relies on the Eulerian description of tations of natural structures.

110 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 122 The teaching of structural geology at DISCUSSION teaching, because to our knowledge it the university level is clearly a growthIn this paper we have demonstrated is the only package that combines struc- industry. ^th over 15 general or spe-the principle of the reconciliation of tural geology and geophysics, interac- cialised English language structuralcombined gravity, magnetic and structive 2D and 3D computer graphics in geology textbooks published sincetural data sets, using a forward model- one affordable product available now. Ramsay (1967). One of the difficultiesling approach. The structures which in teaching structural geology has al-may be modelled are in themselves ways been the leap of imagination re-based on very simplistic displacement ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS quired to go from the description ofequations, however their combination We would like to thank Vic Wall from individual structures to the interactionallows complex relationships to be in- Mt Isa Mines and Peter Williams from of these structures in three dimensions.vestigated. The incorporation of more Western Mining Corporation for their The structural forward modelling dem- complex structural modelling events is encouragement and financial support onstrated in this paper was originallyclearly feasible, however it will not of this project. developed with this goal in mind, andchange the fundamental utility of the on its own it still provides a usefulprogram. REFERENCES teaching aid. Hjelt, S.E. 1972. Magnetostatic anoma- We believe that by forcing the con- lies of dipping prisms. From the teaching point of view you straints on geophysical modelling to be Geoexploration v. 10, p. 239-246. can produce a bare topographic mapgeological, rather than merely geomet- Hjelt S.E.1974. The gravity anomaly of and then get the student to interrogateric, we can provide a way forward for a dipping prism. Geoexploration v. Noddy on the geology at any point.the integration of not only gravity, 12, p. 29-39. The package has the potential of beingmagnetic and structural data sets, but Jessell, M.W. 1981 Noddy- an interac- a simulation where the student is givenother geophysical properties as well, tive map creation package. Unpub- access only to a limited subset of theand that this approach provides a path- lished MSc Thesis, University of geology approximating the limited re-way for the reconstruction of the three London. sources available to the real-world ge-dimensional geology of the earths crust Isles, D.J., Harman, P.G. and Cuneen, ologist. using all available data sets. J.P. 1988. Aeromagnetics as part of Noddy has been successfully used for the Archaean gold exploration in short courses to geologists working in We have described the Noddy struc- the Kalgorrlie region, Western industry and undergraduate andtural geology package. Noddy is Australia. Economic Geology Gold graduate level academic courses. Theparticulary well adapted to the task of '88 special volume. extension to geophysical modelling al-educating nascent structural geologist Leaman, D.E. 1991. Geophysical con- lows the structural geologist to makeand geophysicists.One great difficulty straints on structure and alteration useful predictions as to the expectedthat constantly confronts earth science of the Eastern Creek Volcanics, Mt appearance of idealised structures ineducators is how to cultivate in their Isa,Queensland. Australian Journal gravity and magnetic data sets. Simi-students the ability of turning a textual of Earth Science, v. 38, p. 457-472. larly the introduction of geological con-or 2D visual description of a geological Perrin, M., Cheaito, M. and Bonijoly, straints into the teaching of geophysi- structure into a useful understanding D.1992 Visualising multifolded and cal interpretation ensures the studentof the 3D geometry of the structures multifaulted terrain geometry using never loses sight of the geological na-and their interactions. Noddy confronts computer graphics. 29th Interna- ture of the data. this problem directly and by allowing tional Geological Congress, Kyoto, the student to interactively generate Japan, Abstracts Volume III. 957. The development of three dimensionaland manipulate a three-dimensional Ramsay, J.G. 1967 Folding and fractur- structural models to account for ob-representation of a structural geologi- ing of rocks. McGraw-Hill, New served surface structures is always dif-cal model - overcomes it. York. ficult, since even if the surface outcropThe package also makes manifest the Meissen, R.L. and Means, W.D. 1980. is relatively unambiguous, the down-relationshipbetween structureand geo- Classification of fold interference ward continuity of structures at depthphysics. A student may generate any patterns: a re-examination. Journal can only be guessed at. The added con- number of idealised geological struc- of Structural Geology, v. 2, p. 311- straints provided by gravity and mag-tures and Noddy will calculate the geo- 316. netic data sets can at worst confirm this physical data consistent with them. Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P. and Sher- continuity, and will often suggest oth- What's more, the Noddy package will iff, R.E. 1990. Applied Geophysics. erwise. We believe that the integratedrun now on two popular computer 2nd edition. Cambridge University modelling approach we have taken herearchitectures - Sun Workstations and Press, Cambridge. will become an increasingly important Apple Macintoshes - thus opening the tool in the interpretation of structuresway for its use in teaching laboratories. on the scale of 1-10 km (Valenta et al In conclusion. Noddy is useful in geo- 1992). logical and geophysical research and

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 111 123 Tipper, J.C. 1992. Reconstructing three- Valenta, R.K., Jessell, M.W., Jung, G. Whiting, T.H. 1986. Aeromagnetics as dimensional geological processes. and Bartlett, J. 1992, Geophysical a guide to geological mapping- a 29th International Geological Con- interpretation and modelling of case history from the Aurunta Inner, gress, Kyoto, Japan, Abstracts Vol- three dimensional structure in the Northern Territory. Australian ume III. 959. Duchess area, Mount Isa, Australia. Journal of Earth Science, v.33, p. 34- in press, Exploration Geophysics. 41.

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Figure 1 An example of a Noddy session with different 2D and 3D graphics windows A. Main menu B. Block diagram C. Section D. Map E. 3D surface of a layer F. Stratigraphy column G. Magnetic profile H. 2D Magnetic anomaly image

112 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 124 ANINTRODUCTION TO CBL AUTHORING WITH AUTHO RWARE PROFESSIONAL BY JOHN HARVEY (School of Educational Psychology, Measure- ment & Technology, Facuky of Education, Uni- versity of Sydney)

One of the earliest attempts to meet much effort as learning BASIC, the al- this problem was the development of ternative for most Apple II users the program PILOT (Planned Instruc- (Berthold, 1986). Thus for many intro- tion Learning Or Teaching). PILOT duced to SuperPILOT via a course as- was designed and written by Profes- signment it was generally a one-time sor John Starkweather at the Univer- association and although it had attrac- sity of California in 1969-70 and sub- tive features (eg., graphics and sound yr sequently modified to run on a variety editors, animation) it does not seem to of machines N(eg., CoPILOT on the have been widelyemployed. Attempts HP2000F in 1973, and SuperPILOT on to reduce some of SuperPILOT's cod- Authoring tools the Apple H in 1980). Many teachers ing rules (eg., AUSPILOT, Keepes & Teachers and others who have done Computer Education Wignall, 1984) suffered much the same interested in developing diplomas will recall being introduced fate. toSuperPILOT (Apple, 1980). computer-based learning SuperPilot is an example of an More recent instances designed for PC (CBL) programs for authoring language. This is a form of systems however, have gained more education and training programming language with specific popularity, as they offer considerable in T-built routines designed to meet power and flexibility, for example, have always been inter- typical requirements of CBL such as TenCORE. (Computer Teaching Cor- ested in ways of increas- interactions. ,Thus inSuperPILOT poration, 1985). Nonetheless they still ing productivity and the sequence, require a sound knowledge of program- t: What is 2 + 2? ming techniques and technical skill in decreasing the need to a: the particular authoring language. spend time gaining m:4! four! FOUR! expertise in general ty: Yes, that's correct. In an effort to ameliorate this problem, tn: No, the answer is 4. authoring systems have emerged. programming languages. sets up (types) a question on the screen Authoring systems attempt to reduce , accepts input from the keyboard, the need to writecode-like instructions. matches a variety of answers, and One approach has been to provide a provides feedback depending on menu of common CBL formats, for ex- whether the Nstudent's response was ample, multiple choice, true/ false, correct or not. The commands illus- branching, and through a series of trate how authoring tools provide the prompts (eg., how many distractors?; user with single command structures how many attempts?) the design is de- that could otherwise take several lines veloped. The program generates the of code in a more general purpose necessary underlying levels of code. language.While that sequence in An early example developed for the SuperPILOT is straightforward Apple II and used locally for school enough, if variables were involved programs was the Zenith Education then code such as System (Anderson, 1983). An example a: #n $S$ #q2 for MS-DOS machines is Author( Kokot would be needed. This is not so intui- & Ellis, 1988). tive and led users often to remark that learning SuperPILOT involved just as

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 113

-.1i .7:: 1 125 There are now many authoring sys- (1991, p.343) comment: "As the Authorware Professional is such an tems available and Alessi & Trollip manufactuers of code-oriented systems icon-oriented system and is the subject (1991) suggest that it is useful to recog- try to increase their ease of use, they of the workshop. nise a continuum covering code-ori- add more and better display editors. ented systems (eg., PC/Pilot, As the manufacturers of frame-oriented It is not unreasonable to say that icon- TenCORE, Unison),frame-oriented systems try to increase the power of oriented systems are a significant ad- systems (e.g., PCClass), and 0 gmore their systems, they add the abilty to vance towards the aim of having an recently,icon-oriented approaches "drop down" to the code level and authoring tool in which technical pro- (e.g., Course Builder,Authorware write code for simulations and other gramming issues are minimised and Professional, Icon Author) methodologies". Students of Hyper- which allows the person creating the Card become very conscious of the dis- program to devote more effort to con- Frame-oriented programs allow de- tinction between fra me-orienta tion and siderations of the instructional design. signers to work more directly with th,1 code-orientation when they begin to At the same time it needs to be said that screen display as it will be seen by the work with HyperTalk scripting. there is still an effort involved in learn- user, using a pointing device such as a ing the 'programming' aspects of the mouse - as against the older procedure Icon-oriented systems also encourage present icon-based programs and if a of specifying layout indirectly by typ- working directly with the screens that design calls for elaborate graphics and ing programming commands. A will be seen by the user, but more criti- sounds, other programs will be in- 'frame' as defined by Burke (1982, p.68) cally, provide additional tools which volved and the technical side is then far is "a conventional term that has come allow the author to develop on screen a from simple. The aim of the workshop to mean the amount of information top-down, self-documenting flowchart is to allow participants to gain an ap- that is presented on the microcomputer of theentire lesson. This feature greatly preciation of how Authorware Profes- display screen at anyone time. A frame helps to overcome the problem of keep- ,:ional 'works' by creating simple inter- may contain straight narrative text or it ing close track, and control, of the over- action episodes, and by discussing the may contain a question, or a combina- all design - a well known headache for processes involved in authoring more tion or both". Frame-oriented systems HyperCard authors. elaborate program:. recognise this key element and attempt to provide authors with tools which The tools are provided as a palette of AUTHORWAREPROFESSIONAL simplify the processes of screen design. icons representing basic design ele- Authorware Professional is a now a They come with extensive gra phics and ments - for example, displays, pauses, product of Macromedia and was first text editors which encourage experi- erasings, animations, decisions, inter- released in 1989 by Authorware, Inc. It mentation with screen layouts, and actions, calculations. The author con- is based on two earlier authoring sys- provide means for efficiently building trols the shape and flow of the program tems,Course of Action and Best Course programs with many screens which by selecting the appropriate icon. Icons of Action and there was an Authorware have the same layout (eg., by setting can be grouped to indicate the high Academic which also has now been permanent background elements). level structure of the program - the discontinued. There are versions for HyperCard, although generally es- term "map" is aptly given this icon in the Macintosh and for Windows with chewing the term 'frame', can be seen Authorware. Thus an episode might only slight apparent differences for the as a sophisticated and powewrful frame call for some information to be dis- user between the t wo implementations. orientated system - "the program is played until the user decides to move largely a metaphor for collections of on, a question involving an animation, An important feature is that a file cre- information stored on cards, much like user input, feedback, and a contingent ated on a Macintosh can be opened Ind a card catalog at a library" (Goodman, branch. Icons representing these ac- further edited or run under Windows. 1987, p.19). tions are first placed on a design line, (It does not convert the other way, how- named, and then in turn 'opened' and ever - a program created using To increase further the power and flex- provided with the required detail, ie., Authorware for Windows cannot run ibility of the program, contemporary data and instructions.These might on a Macintosh.) The finished product frame-oriented systems are being fur- then be grouped using a map icon and can be set up as a standalone disk, that nished with a programming language given an appropriate unit title. is, users do not need to have, or know (eg., HyperCard's HyperTalk and anything about Authorware to run an Macromind Director'sLingo) and are The design of icon-oriented systems Authorware program. also designed to allow branching to generally permits complex programs modules incorporating other languages to be developed without need to resort (eg., 'XCMD's and 'XFCN's - external to detailed scripting, however if more commands and functions) and to allow flexibility is needed then external files externally created Sound and graphics can be imported as with HyperCard files to be imported. As Allesi St Trollip

114 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 0e Authorware Professional is built dialogue boxes) the flowline is auto- REFERENCES around 11 icons: matically amended appropriately (eg., Alessi, S.M., SE' Trollip, S.R. (1991) Display icons place graphics and text -exit an interaction, continue, or try Computer-based instruction. 2nd on the screen. again). edit., Prentice Hall: Englewood Animations icons move the object(s) Cliffs, N.J. in a preceding display(s) In developing this strategy, the origi- Anderson, P.(1983) The Z.E.S. Erase icons erase objects from the screen natorof Authorware, DrMichael Allen, authoring system. In A.D.Salvas Wait icons control transitions from was impressed by the observation that (ed.), Could you use a computer? screen to screen.' designers, from a range of disciplines, CEGV: Melbourne. Decision icons control branching and created their work through successive Apple. (1982)SuperPILOT.Apple selection sequences. approximations or iterations. He thus Computer Inc.: Cupertino. Interactions icons are used to program set out to create an authoring tool that Berthold, P. (1986)Can authoring a variety of user inputs (eg., alpha- would allow the same technique to be packages help teachers?In B. numeric entry, select anoption from readily applied in creating CBL pro- Frederick (ed.), What to do with a pull-down menu, move an object, grams (Macromedia, n.d). what you've got. NSWCEG: Syd- click on a 'hot spot', click on a ney. button', accept a single keypress, In their discussion of what authoring Burke, R.L. (1982) CAI sourcebook. accept only two tries, allow only 10 tool to use, Alessi & Trollip (1991) ar- Prentice -Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ. secs to respond, gue that just ease of use should not Computer Teaching Corporation. Calculation icons are used to calculate necessarily be a primary consideration (1985)TenCORE, Computer and evaluate expressions, execute - "it is of no benefit that a tool is easy to Teaching Corporation: Savoy, Ill in-built functions or custom code, use if it does not do what you want" Goodman, D. (1987) The complete jump to other files and applications (p.346). The emphasis in debates over HyperCard handbook.Bantum Map icons are used to hold sets of other the relative merits of one system against Books: Toronto. icons and so encourage designs to another should focus on the capabili- Keepes, B. & Wignall, J.(1984) be modularised and given clear top- ties of a given system to to allow au- AUSPILOT. Wakefield /EHC: Ad- down structures. thors to concentrate on refining the in- elaide. Movie icons are used to present rapid structional design - the outcome as de- Kokot, S. & Ellis, H.D. (1988) A useful, frame animations and QuickTime livered to the student is what matters. working CBE chemistry program movies or DVI files Texts are beginning to a ppear (eg., Sims based on the Microcraft Author Sound icons play digitised sounds - (in press)) which concentrate not so system. In K. Fielden, F.Hicks & music, speech, special effects. much on how to use a particular pack- N.Scott (eds), ASCILITE 88 Com- Video icons allow the program to bring age or use a particular language, as on puters in Learning in Tertiary in video sequences and individual design-oriented procedures for devel- Education. Proceedings of the 6th frames from video players. oping effective interactional/instruc- Annual Conference, Canberra. tional models, which can given effect Macromedia. (n..i) Reviewer's Guide. The authoring process gets underway with any one of the more sophisticated Authorware Professional for Mac- with icons being placed on a design or authoring tools currently available. intosh Version 2.0. mineograph. 'flowline'. The icons can be taken from 31pp. Macromedia: San Francisco. the palette or pasted from a library ofTo assist in appreciating the possibili- Sims, R. (in press). Authorware - with previously established routines or ties of icon-oriented programs it may style! Knowledgdecraft: Sydney. 'models'. The file can then be 'run' and be of interest to note that the distribu- (Due for publication, April, 1993.) execution will proceed until an 'empty' tors of Authorware Professional and Smithson, M.(1991)Developing icon is encountered. For example, in Icon Author have each made available courseare with Course Builder. the case of a display icon, it is consid- a "Working Model" of their systems. ered 'empty' if it has no text or graphic These are 'training' versions of the full content. A small graphics palette is programs. They have restrictions (eg., provided and the screen for that icon on the number of icons allowed per file) can be created, or a previously devel- but otherwise permit exploration of the oped graphic can be imported as the critical @ Qdesign elements available content of that display icon. Special in the full package. Teachers who cur- effects (eg., fade in/fade out) can be rently use HyperCard as an authoring added and execution can proceed until tool in secondary computing studies the next empty icon. Execution can be and who may wish to take student- interrupted at any time to allow an authoring further may find good value icon's content to be edited. As icons in using a Working Model. are provided with instructions (via

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116 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 jar 128 CONSTRUCTING KNOWLEDGE AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION BY MICHAEL JAY Manager of Secondary Education for Apple Computer and past Education Technology Manager for the Apple Classroom of Tomorrow (ACOT). and MARGE CAPPO President of Learning in Motion TEACHERS AND STUDENTS AS knowledge. Although learning is LEARNERS what schools are designed to foster, Theideal learning environment is one classroom research indicates that in which the teacher and the student knowledge and learning are not are both learners. The classroom and usually the focus of the classroom. .1Pr thecurriculumareshared Learning is onlyaby-product. This responsibilities. Each should undergo indirect approach to knowledge can continuous discussion and workreasonablywell,butitis poorly modification. The teacher should suited to the emerging information "WhenComputer As- provide an environment that promotes age, in which people are expected to sisted Instruction emerged interpersonal interaction, between work directly with knowledge." between students as well as between in the 1960's not enough teacher and student. Young students have a natural curiosity. research had been done to They seek knowledge and they want to allow the design of pro- In order for this to happen, students understand 'why'. Sean Fahee is an should be prepared to be learners and example of such a child. Here is what gram that would help stu- be responsible for their own learning. Sean has to say: dents learn how to learn, Environments which encourage the "My name is Sean Fahee. And I like learn how to set cognitive development of independent and dinosaurs. I am writing a report cooperative skills for students at all about dinosaurs on my computer at goals or to apply effective grade levels and across all subject areas home. I really like dinosaurs so I strategies for comprehen- should be encouraged. It is up to the thought...well...maybe if I run out sion, self-monitoring or teacher to create and support this kind of information I can use my own of environment; it is up to the student information like the old theories on organization of knowledge. to develop within that environment. new theories. Some of the new Although learning is what theories are: that the brontosaurus schools are designed to Technology can help create that does not like swamps and dinosaurs environment. But the environment- were warm blooded. I don't know foster, classroom research not the technology-is the important why scientist think that but they do indicates that knowledge factor. think it. And also I thought maybe and learning are not usu- some day I'd start writing this book THE TOOL-BASED ENVIRONMENT about space." ally the focus of the class- A quote from researchers at the room. Learning is only a Ontario Institute for Studies in What characteristics do you see in Sean? by-product. This indirect Education sums up the problem: What happens to Sean has he grows "When ComputerAssisted up? What happens to the question- approach to knowledge Instruction emerged in the 1960's asking, hypothesizing, consulting can work reasonably well, not enough research had been done reference sources, explaini ng, criticizing but it is poorly suited to to allow the design of program and such? Why is it that children Sean's that would help students learn age, when asked "How does a light the emerging information how to learn, learn how to set bulb work?" all raise their hands, even age, in which people are cognitive goals or toapply effective though they may have no clue as to the expected to work directly strategies for comprehension, self- correct scientific answer; yet when you monitoring or organization ofask high school students the same with knowledge."

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 117 129 question, they do not raise their hands and tools. Many of you have used awithout having to relearn new because they are worried about finding word processor. This isa perfect exampleinterfaces. Many applications have the the answer the teacher is looking for? of a tool. A word processor allows you-ability to understand documents What does our education system do to the user-to input, create, and organizecreated by a number of different Sean's natural curiosity and search for your thoughts. It is only a tool; you mustapplications. This puts the emphasis knowledge? provide ideas. on the knowledge contained in the document not on the application that A combination of content and A Fieldtrip to the Rainforest, a programcreated it. Thus, the interconnection organization of knowledgecan provide described below, uses the concept of anbetween content and process is the a basis for a new approach to the engine. Rainforest can be thought of asfocus; the technology is thereto support classroom activities. Technology cana visual database which is available tothe evolution of those connections. help organize that knowledge and the student. Other visual data bases can provide content. During the 80's, the be 'run' on the same engine. Once anThere are technology features that will application was the important part ofenvironment is learned, it carriesallowapplications to 'talk' to each other the technology. In the 90's and thethrough as a standard environment,and share information. When an future, we seecontent and organization which then becomes a tool for theapplication such as a word processor being theimportant factors to consider. students. supportsthese communication features, the functions the student has Many of the technology solutions today Once we standardize an environment,already learned are accessible in other and more in the future, rely or. engines we can utilize it over and over againapplications. There is no longer a need to learn a new environment to work Rainforest ,,,,, with a word processor when one has '4;qit riCZIalready been learned. The student can focus on the content being written and

,Y1' 42' not have to go through the process of # ' :': - '7P, .. -Arri' .,,... f or ":-:- itlearning a new tool. - i ...,7,` '.;j1.1.7..' ,,' .5 V. 'Al* i i.1' Ineill GRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT TO SUPPORT \ Vi ;Iii ttll likZ,.:14.1 EXPLORATION `.:,... ^ / . ", A powerful approach to education is to .. f. kw .4.\ A allow the student to step into an ,,a ,i exploratory environment. As an 1 i ii:1 example of this, we will use two r '.-444-4:,,..:1-5,4*Isc programs to illustrate the construction miyar=rm."".1;rx,'Ill.11%;.M.',.1,n3:".--"'"`-. ,,.;., 7:ZZof knowledge and then construction Click on a place in the picture Cis and organization systems to support .Itti, t that knowledge. Technology can Fieldtrip allows the user to explore an environment by clicking support this approach through a on sections of the Rainforest andgathering information. graphic based environment which supports explorationand discovery. For : Rainforest ''::::"::;";:77':-7-77:::'";;";777""f,": the following example, two different pieces of software were utilized. The first is A Fieldtrip to the Rainforest. In this program, students explore a rainforest environment and discover the relationships between plants, animals and their surrounding environment.

With the next program, SemNet, students create their own semantic networks to organize and discover relationships in their findings. Even though these are two completely Fig -- its seeds are spread in bird i;;11 separate applications, we will be using ir droppings them in tandem. We can use both What can the students infer from this picture? The student can programs simultaneously thereby using either program at any time. link to other animals that also eat figs.

118 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 :P 130 The other tool we're working with, SemNet, allows students to enter concepts and to discover relationships between those concepts - students can organize knowledge. This tool should be used in conjunction with other tools, engines or classroom work.Like a word processor or other tools, it is not a stand alone program. It needs to fit into the whole picture of learning environments and applications.

Students can work in pairs - but they could also work alone. The network Ma/area Oaq Tilrgent illustrated below, allows them to make Figs -- a favorite of monkeys explicit the relationships between organisms. The current representation shown is built around the central What can students say about a spider monkey and a toucan? concept "bear." The power here is that Student can also explore more information on Spider Monkeys: students are constructing their own learning environments and organizing Rainforest their knowledge. Students have preconceptions of most anything they are working on. We tend to gloss over these in our teaching. Instead we just hand students facts and expect them to absorb them and place them within defined learning structures

Clickinthepictureaboveorthe tabs below.

bit' mouse use turtle fruit' set' pwcupilte skew' INTROIRIMEIFOODIENEtlY FRIEFF dery frees andtoads' insect' insect (preyine

Fieldtrip allows the user to explore an environment by clicking on sections of the Rainforest and gathering information.

Fled MI: 0 linintolo not on: 0 IRO 0 nohibloss Grubman O Unchain lOoriniono 0 Sion 0 OINIIIVOrn Insects SCO111101.11f11 0 favortoliroln °WWI/ at Doy 0 Miamal* 0 nee at POW 0 MINIPloclos 0 Pinitlin 0 Vortolwatoo Canal 3 villa

feeml AllinALS Strad by rum MIXT, WIN 114 wEiGHT W warms WEIGHT

Or explore a database which contains information on all the animals and plantsin the Rainforest.

119 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 ' 121 1111MAIM i s as If you double click on one of the concepts in the network-the rabbit- that becomes the central concept. K. 411 Relationships between concepts are of particular interest. We know the relationships that we want students to comprehend, but weneedtoallowroom for discovery by the student. This process is critical and it takes time. It is important to allow enough time for the exploration of the relationships.

fthawk awl bobcat' Fig -- its seeds are spread in bird droppings

Students can create a semantic network with their knowledge of the Toucan, T the Fig, and the Spider Monkey. bark grass' kerb' These diagrams show how such a fruit' representation of the semantic network buds sad twigs' might loo

Of course the power of this tool lies in allowing students to create their own knowledge. We can combine Fieldtrip to the Rainforest and SemNet to create an environment where students can use one tool to organize the content explored and the knowledge gained in the other.

Students should be allowed to build and construct, not simply given the structure. The teacher is the guiding hand for the student to student interaction and asks pertinent questions to help the kids to further think of relationships in the semantic network.

The best learning occurs in children when they learn from discrepant events. Fig 'Why is that happening? How can that be true?' When they begin to see discrepant events emerging, they can question the events. 'How can that be true if this is true?' Often the character of our conversations with students focuses on the low-level correction of content mistakes, therefore losing the opportunity for students to participate in the process of self-reflection on the strucane of their knowledge.

'410. 120 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 1 9 Scientists discover and question and Our challenge: How ca n we, as teacher, ABOUT THE AUTHORS: organize information. A typical keep that curiosity, that question- Michael Jay has an MA in Education example of this scientific questioning asking, that hypothesizing, that from the University of California, and organization is illustrated in the consulting reference sources, that Berkeley. He is presently the Manager interaction between Watson and explaining, and that criticizing in Sean of Secondary Education for Apple Crick in the discovery of DNA, as Fahee as he grows up? Computer and was the Education portrayed in the movie The Race for Technology Manager for the Apple the Double Helix. REFERENCES: Classroom of Tomorrow (ACOT). Michael has taught high school Why DNA? OISE. Marlene Scardarmalia and Carl chemistry, physics, and general science Bereiter, Centre for Applied and has been active in educational Because it's there - doing nothing Cognitive Science, Ontario Institute computing for many years. Michael in every single living cell. for Studies in Education, Toronto, recently received the National Science While so far the gene is an entirely Ontario. Supervisors Association Award for imaginary entity - a function service to science education and science without substance. A Fieldtrip to the Rainforest,developed supervision. His published papers DNA is a substance without byinView,published by WINGS far include Computers in a Community of function, a matrix. Ok; what's it learning, 1600 Green Hills Road, Learners (Campione, Brown and Jay, made of? We know that it has Scotts Valley, CA 95067. 1992). phosphates and four bases. But what shape isit in all SemNet, Kathleen M. Fisher, SemNet Marge Cappo has an MA in Education probability a helix. Research Group, 1043 University from the University of Minnesota. She I buy helix. Avenue, Suite 215, San Diego, CA is President of Learning in Motion and If a helix, how many chains. 92103-3392. has held positions of president of There has to be more than 1; the WINGS for learning, Vice President of density measure tells us that. Sunburst Communications; and Yeah, but two, three....four? Director of Development for the How do the pieces fit together - Minnesota Educational Computing phosphates on the inside? bases Consortium. Marge has been a on the inside? classroom math teacher and teacher What does it do? Why doesn't it trainer, and has designed and fall apart? developed over 100 pieces of exemplary educational software.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 121

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So why spend months learning a computer system? With an Apple Macintosh, you won't have to. We designed it with productive professionals in mind. Our computers are so easy to use. ti you can start work straight away using the Macintosh for what you do best - your job. Your Macintosh will make lesson preparation easy and enjoyable. And you'll be saving time with the many teacher productivity programs available- programs that let you produce standard program formats each term, maintain reports on your students and weight and scale marks automatically. Suddenly. preparing the school newsletter, notices and take-home notes for parents is half the chore it used to be. The Macintosh has many simple publishing programs to make your work easier and the end results will look great. Toyou, So if you're the kind of teacher who loves teaching, but doesn't want to know about computing, the friendly Macintosh teaching is is the computer you've been looking for. For more information, contact Chris at 008 025 355 for the location of your secondnature. nearest Apple Education Reseller. (Computing probably isn't) icawdto learning

122 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 !Id PREPARINGPRIMARY TEACHERS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY BY ANTHONY J. JONES School of Education La Trobe University Bundoora Vic. 3083

This paper identifies computer appli- mathematics. One specific example is cations and associated skills, for both the then Bendigo Teachers' College, teachers and learners, as contained in where those students who elected to the various Frameworks curriculum take a second or third year of math- documents published by the Victorian ematics were introduced to program- Ministry of Education, and briefly ming in BASIC thrOugh a range of nu- considers the implications that arise merical applications. It should be for providers of preservice primary noted that the stated aim of the second teacher education.Finally, a model and third year mathematics subjects that integrates selected educational was to broaden the mathematical back- theory with appropriate hand-on ac- ground of participants, and so it was The curriculum docu- tivities is proposed. not considered necessary for this computing to have any relevance to what ments of most Australian INTRODUCTION might occur in primary schools. states now include refer- Selected aspects of educational com- ences to a variety of class- puting have been taught as part of Computing in the school curriculum some Australian preservice teacher Since the advent of microcomputers in room applications for com- education courses for almost twentyVictorian schools ten or twelve years puters. In addition almost years. For example at the First Na- ago, teachers and students have dis- every primary school has tional Computer Education Confer- covered hundreds of potentially useful ence (held at La Trobe University in educational applications. Rather than acquired one or more com- May 1979) there was a "Forum on attempt to generalise about current uses puters for classroom use. teacher education" in which threeof computers in our schools I have However there are still teacher educators described the objec- elected to briefly mention where com- tives and content of the courses of- puting occurs in the Frameworks docu- problems with the provision fered at their respective institutions. ments. By taking this approach I will of adequate computer re- In each case the courses described had deliberately ignore the only subject in lated skills to both the been running for some years. Since Victoria specifically designed to teach then papers relating to computers in about computing and computers - the existing teacher work force teacher education havebeen delivered VCE(years 11 and 12) Information Tech- and to those undertaking at all state, national and international nology field of study. initial teacher preparation educational computing conferences held in Australia. Frameworks covers nine content areas courses. Both research and and offers content, sequencing and anecdotal evidence have As was also the case in schools, only teaching suggestions for the years Prep revealed the ineffectiveness specially selected groups of partici- (first year of school, age 5) to 10 (fourth pants were involved in these early year of secondary school, last year that of short, one-off introduc- forays into educational computing for some areas are compulsory.)The tory educational computing teachers.Invariably the content of Frameworks areas that explicitly men- courses at each of inservice such courses was based around pro- tion computers are Technology Stud- gramming, which reflected both the ies, Commerce, Mathematics, Lan- and preservice levels. paucity of available software and the guage, Social Education and Science. educational expectations of comput- In the section that follows the relation- ing.Almost as invariable was the ship between computing and each of locating of this computing as part of these content areas is briefly described.

123 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 115 TECHNOLOGY STUDIES integrating computer use into their keyboarding ... establishes technology studies as a new teaching, and the scope and sequence computers components area of learning through reorientation and chart for content does not mention operation reorganisation of existing technical sub- computers (although Logo is named control technology jects, the addition of new knowledge, and once.) word processing intreaseslemphasis on the processes of tech- information management nological development in society. (The LANGUAGE social issues Technology Studies Framework 1988: The use of word-processing equipment is software use 7) leading to a radical transformation in the word processor way people approach writing tasks. data base While discussing the development of spreadsheet syllabi for technology studies, comput- (The English Language Framework Logo ers and computing is included as one of 1988: 15) simulation four areas of study. The three sug- problem solving gested orientations for computing are Word-processing equipment should be information technology (which incor- available to enable students to revise and Computing in preservice education porates word processing,data handling redraft their writing easily and to facilitate Presovice education for teachers must and simulation), control technology, collaborative writing and group work. be seen as an initial preparation for the and components of the computer. first year or two of classroom teaching. (The English Language Framework Because of the extra-ordinarily diverse COMMERCE 1988: 31) range of situations teachers can be ap- At primary school commerce issues are part pointed to, it is impossible to provide of the total curriculum and students learn SOCIAL EDUCATION the experiences, simulations, or even about financial issues in mathematics, key- Communication and media, together knowledge to enable beginning teach- boarding and information processing in with technology, are among the con- ers to be fully prepared for what ever language; and legal, economic and content themes suggested for primary circumstance they find themselves in. sumer issues in social or general studies. school use. In general the approach in (The Commerce Framework 1987:78) social education does not involve stu- This is equally true in the area of educa- dents in hands-on operations with com- tional computing. Even though state- A major recommendation for primary puter ha rdwa re a nd software, although wide curriculum definitions such as the schools is that computer keyboarding there are applications in word process- Frameworks documents exist, there is should be taught in an organised form ing and simulations. no guarantee that schoolA willap- beginning in year three. Noting that proach a particular topic in similar or keyboarding in primary schools is of- SCIENCE compatible ways to school B. Of greater ten taught as part of English language While computers are mentioned as part concern to many teacher education stu- studies, the following skills are listed: of an overview of content at various dents and lecturers are the tremendous levels, the major reference to them is in dissimilarities in computer hardware operating an alphanumeric keypad the area of resources. Here computers between various schools.Such con- keyboarding techniques are categorised as being a: cerns reflect the increasing tendency to basic text editing and formatting tool for students train student teachers in the use indi- storage nd filing word processing vidual pieces of software rather than to disks data collection educate them in the concepts and appli- hard copy data processing cations of a software genre. As an ex- basic ergonomic principles teaching aid ample consider word processing. The computer simulate temptation for many teacher educators, hardware provide and manipulate data bases and consequently the practice in too software enable students to solve problems many preservice courses, is to train stu- basic operations tool for teachers dents to become competent users of one word processing package. MATHEMATICS sharing information between Computers have a great potential for im- schools At one level, a quite low level from a proving the teaching of mathematics. (The records and data bases cognitive point of view, the aim of Mathematics Framework 1988:38) teacher education students becoming One chapter, approximately ten pages, (The Science Framework 1988: 74) competent personal users of a word is devoted to applications of calcula- processing program is justifiable. How- tors and computers in the mathematics Collating the information from the ever prospective teachers need to go curriculum. However there are no real various frameworks documents pro- considerably further than this; they must guidelines for teachers on how to start vides a list that includes: analyse and evaluate what they have

,1"".3.10 124 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 136 learned and then synthesise the vari-built into the preservice course (con- Within the overall structure that willbe ous components of word processing current courses) or is a prerequisite described in the following components into learning experiences suitable for (end-on courses). Once students have of the paradigm, the teacher is guided the classroom. To only train teachers to sufficient subject knowledge then teach- by the principles of the constructivist use word processing for personal use is ing methods, curriculum design and theory of learning. In particular the metaphorically similar to concentrat- other appropriate classroom skills can concept of learners being active partici- ing solely on grade three during a be -Ir.veloped. Educational computing pants in the learning process, rather preservicecourse. Thelatteridea would should be treated in exactly the same than passive recipients, is presented not be countenanced because we pre- way. However, as has been suggested overtly through a variety of means. pare teachers to teach at all levels over previously, the majority of teacher edu- These include modelling by the teacher, a six or seven year range. Why then cation courses appear to cater only for reflection by participants on how and should preservice teachers be taught the development of personal skills. what they have learned, and group dis- only to use computers for personal use? cussions of the teacher's modelling and A paradigm for preservice computing individual reflections. Historically the use of computers in This proposal is put forward as a para- preservice teacher education courses digm rather than as a curriculum or an Anotherimportantaspectof has tended to mirror what has occurred example because it is more appropriate constructivist theory is the belief that in schools. Ten years ago secondary to consider it as a multi-faceted struc-learners construct new knowledge by school computing courses emphasised ture that has greater explicitness than building on to existing knowledge. It programming. Those primary either a metaphor or analogy but less becomes necessary then for the teacher preservice teacher education courses prescription than a model or exem- to be acutely aware of the current state that offered competing units also con- plary case study. The purpose of the of each learner's knowledge. Given centrated on programming. There are structure is to provide support for that a formal pre-test would not be two criticisms that should be made of teacher education students to undergo considered appropriate in a Logo-like this strategy. The first is that it was a cognitive, affective and pedagogic ex- learning environment, other methods form of "catch up" education; it was periences, to make conjectures and to such as teacher observation of students reactive rather than proactive. Surely reflect on personal and peer learning at work, examination of work produced, teacher education courses should pre- developments. and discussion between learner and pare teachers for the future and not just teacher must be employed. for the present. The second criticism In the description and discussion that relates to the almost universal practice follow there are several references to The Logo-like learning environment of concentrating solely on the develop- computer applications in preservice This element of the paradigm pays spe- ment of personal proficiency in the mathematics education. This is inevi- cial attention to the aggregate of all operation of hardware and software. table because the initial experiments in surroundings and influences that sup- This meant that issues of classroom developing the paradigm took place in port the learning process. Teachers of- management, curriculum change and preservice mathematics education ten learn Logo in physical surround- teaching strategies were neglected. courses. However the paradigm has ings, through pedagogic approaches application in many content areas and and in cognitive contexts that are vastly Skills, concepts and experiences for with a wide range of software. different to those suggested and im- preservice teacher education course. plied by Papert in Mindstorms. Re- First it must be recognised that there The constituent elements of the para- searchers from the Israeli Logo Centre are two aspects to computer education digm are : -a constructivist approach to comment: in the preservice teacher education area. learning;aLogo-like learning ... teaching Logo properly is a non-trivial Initially there is the acquisition of per- environment;a problem-based curricu- task,requiring carefulpreparation. In many sonal skills and proficiency in the op- lum model; clear links made between cases we have observed, teachers were in- eration of ha rd ware a nd the use of soft- content, software, and the world; ex- troduced to Logo by the local computer ware. The second, and major, aspect is plicit use of software for content and expert .... [These] teachers tended to have an to build upon these personal skills to pedagogy; implicit use for philosophy. impoverished view of Logo.They often enable classroom teachers to provide Due to a lack of time and space not all taught Logo merely as a programming lan- appropriate learning experiences for of these elements will be described in guage for kids, neglecting the broader edu- students. In several ways this is con- detail in this paper. cational spirit of Logo and the deeper ideas siderably more difficult in a preservice behind the programming activity. In the course than is the acquisition of per- CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING more extreme cases, syntax reigned and the sonal computing skills. Knowledge cannot start from nothing - fun and creativity were all but gone. (Leron from a tabula rasa - nor yet from observa- and Krumholtz 1986: 226) In the subjects that teacher education tion. The advance of knowledge consists, students will be expected to teach (lan- mainly, in the modification of earlier knowl- Designers of inservice educational corn guage, mathematics, etc) this is either edge. (Popper 1974: 28) puling courses then are faced with the

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 125 137 dilemma resulting from teachers want- motion; because students make project The teachers are astonished by the sense ing to learn in one manner and teach to choices, variety rather than uniformity is behind a stue.:at's mistake.... the prac- their students in a quite different man- the norm; rewards are intrinsic; differences titioner allows himself to experience sur- ner. Teachers at inservice courses tend in working style are valued. There is a sense prise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situa- to want to be given factual information of shared learning -students may hear their tion which he finds uncertain or unique. and activities that are ready for class- teachers respond, "rm not sure how to He reflects on the phenomena before him, room use rather than to expend time make the computer do that. I'll work on it and on prior understandings which have and effort exploring Logo for them- at home tonight." (Riordon 1982:48) been implicit in his behavior. selves. The establishing of an appro- (Schon 1983:68) priate learning environment for an A range of features that are noticeably inservice course is often regarded as not present in Logo environments are Schon believes that many professional unnecessary and even an impediment then discussed. Included among the practitioners, including teachers,locked to what teachers really need. absent features are projects set by the into a view of themselves as technical teacher for the whole class to attempt, experts, find nothing in the world of In a seminal article Riordon (1982) de- and formal evaluation of student learn- practice to occasion reflection. (Schon fines a Logo environment as: ing. 1983: 69) He summarises differences ... the entire context, made possible and between experts and reflective practi- managed by the teacher, in which students In discussing reasons for setting up a tioners in the following way: work with Logo. It is more than a computer Logo learning environment, Riordon (Schon 1983: 300) learning station. It includes psychological refers the reader back to the fundamen- as well as physical space -how students feel, tal concepts of Logo that Papert ex- For teachers and teacher education stu- how shidents and adults interact . (Riordon pounded in Mindstorm s, especially the dents the lessons to be learned from 1982: 46) belief that children can learn much with- Schon's work include the necessity to out having formal instruction imposed listen to and heed what learners have to He then describes a Logo classroom on the learning process. say, the importance of teachers being over a teaching day, reporting major part of the learning process by becom- characteristics. One feature is the pro- Providing opportunities and encour- ing learners as well as teachers, and for vision of opportunities for students to agement for learners to reflect on what the continuing need to reflect on class- demonstrate procedures they have been they have done, how they have thought room incidents and the behavior of all working on, and a following discus- about the problem they are working the participants.All of these factors sion based around four questions: on, and what they perceive they have complement Riordon's (1982) descrip- 1) Do any class members have ques- learned is an inherent feature of Logo tion of a Logo learning environment. tions about the procedure we'velearning environments.Papert has watched? made many references to childrenIn relation to the role of computers 2) What do you plan to do with your thinking about their thinking and notes Schon comments that, [a] reflective procedure now? that Piaget has emphasized the impor- teacher needs a kind of educational technol- 3) Do you have some ideas to try out tance for intellectual growth of chil- ogy which does more than extend her capac- or do you need some hints about dren's ability to reflect on their own ity to administer drill and practice. Most how to do it? thinking. (Papert 1980: 169) interesting to her is an educational technol- 4) What are some things that could be ogy which helps students to become aware done to change this program? Reflection is also important for teacher of their own intuitive understandings, to (Riordon 1982:47) education students as they juxtapose fall into cognitive confusions and explore the conflicting roles of learner and new directions of understanding and ac- At the end of this section Riordon con- teacher. One researcher who has stud- tion. (Schon 1983: 333) cludes that the teacher is responsive to ied the role and practice of reflection the level of student frustration, has in among professional people, including THE CURRICULUM MODEL mind a sequence of Logo programming teachers, is Donald Schon. Schon (1983, The preferred curriculum model em- concepts and a large repertoire of Logo 1987) argues for a new epistemology of phasises the role of the teacher. How- project ideas, and encourages students professional practice that starts from ever this does not mean that the cur- to discover solutions to problems by the competence and artistry already a riculum is completely teacher directed reflecting and conjecturing about what part of the skills of a proficient practi- or centred. The teacher is at the centre they are doing. tioner. In particular Schon focuses on of this model because of the belief that reflection-in-action (thinking about effective learning is a consequence of A Logo environment has many of the at- what they are doing while they are the teacher providing both appropriate tributes of a democratic classroom. Au- doing it.) Schon 1987: xi) For the teacher activities and a suitable learning envi- thority is distributed; sharing and coopera- this means first taking note of what ronment. In this paradigm the milieu tion are promoted; students look to their students say and ask, and then reflect- for learning is the previously described classmates as legitimate sources of infor- ing on these statements and questions. Logo-like environment.

126 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Schematically the curriculum repre- Teachers must facilitate the process of REFERENCES sentation consists of four concentric engaging all learners in an activity that Loon, U. & Krumholtz, N. (1986) Notes circles or layers and is an adaption of they are willing to "own" on a personal on the preparation of Logo teachers. thea design suggested by Taylor (1980). level. While ownership of a problem is Proceedings of the Second Interna- The kernel or innermost layer is the important, it is also crucial that the tional Conference for Logo and teacher. It is the teacher's duty to pre- sharing and publication of work done Mathematics Education. London. pp pare a range of problems for the learn- bean integral part of the learning proc- 226-232. ers. These problems, which constitute ess. Sharing involves more than justMinistry of Education, Victoria. The the second layer, are carefully selected displaying an end product. Ideally there Frameworks documents. according to their content, context and should be peer discussion and interac- Papert, S. (1980) Mindstorms: children, appropriateness for the learners. The tion throughout a project. Even at the computers and powerful ideas. teacher uses personal knowledge of beginning of a project, while the it is Harvester Press: Brighton, Sussex. the learners and the content material to still largely in the conceptual stage, Popper, K. (1974) Conjectures and refu- determine how focused the statement learners can be encouraged to discuss tations. 5th edition. Routledge and of the problem will be. At times it will theirideasandexpectationsopenlywith Kegan Paul: London. be appropriate to present a theme with peers and teacher. Riordan, T. (1982)Creating a Logo the expectation that learners will de- environment. The Computing velop their own projects and pose their CONCLUSION Teacher, 10(3) 46-50. own questions within this thematic Every year the number of computers in Schon, D. (1983) The reflective practi- framework.In many classes some schools increases. At the same time the tioner: how professionals think in learners will require a more specific number and scope of computer appli- action. Basic Books: New York. statement of the problem. For some cations within the primary curriculum Schon, D. (1987) Educating the reflec- learners this still might not be suitable, is enlarged. Computer education has tive practitioner toward a new de- and so the teacher could find it neces- been part of most primary inservice sign for teaching and learning in the sary to provide even more direction. teacher education courses for several professions. Jossey-Bass: San Fran- This could be accomplished through years. However there is a significant cisco. the use of a microworid for the learner difference between training teacher Taylor, P. (1980) On Virgil: my opening to explore or through the learner com- education students to use particular lecture to Mathematics 120. For the mencing a project in conjunction with pieces of software and preparing them Learning of Mathematics, 1(1),49-52 the teacher or a peer. to make effective use of computers in a Tony Jones has been a lecturer in info! classroom context. oration technology education at La Trob Problems provided by the teacher University since 1984. Prior to that h specify the content of the curriculum This paper has proposed first that had taught in both primary and second and in the course of their solution will preservicecomputer application should ary schools in country Victoria. introduce learners to a range of ideas. be stronglyaligned with primary school It is much more difficult to define in subject areas and not be taught in isola- advance the ideas that learners will tion, and second that a paradigm en- meet as they attempt to solve prob- compassing constructivist learning, an lems. These ideas constitute the third exploratory learning environment layer in Taylor's curriculum model. It founded on a curriculum that engages is quite possible that many of these learners in realistic problem solving ideas will remain implicit while learn- activities and establishes links beyond ers work on the problems. the classroom is an appropriate and effective model. Use of this paradigm The outermost layer of this model con- has enabled preservice teacher educa- tains techniques. While the techniques tion students in the areas of humani- arise from ideas generated in solving ties, mathematics and primary to de- problems, the techniques enable the velop understandings and skills that ideas to be concentrated, formalised increase their utilisation of computer and generalised to the solution of other hardware and software in the class- problems. Because they are more gen- room. eral than either ideas or problems, the techniques can help establish links between the problem being solved and the rest of the world.

12 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

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128 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

-41 1An rtrni nnntt it I. 11r r- ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION IN SUPPORT OF TEACHERS BY ROS KEEP Publicity Officer for the Educational Computing Association of Western Australia, Account Man- ager of the ECAWA NEXUS account and joint co-ordinator of the Healthlinea project. She currently works as Educational Consultant at the Apf4eCentre in Perth.

The 'Information Revolution' has weekend camps and even the annual "q done little to improve the teachers' conference may cause problems for lot: there is ever more information those who live in the far reaches of the available, but little opportunity to State. Due to the particular problems of peruse it. And yet they need further WA with respect to the size of the state information. A recent study in the and the distance between schools, the UK (Marshall & Keep, 1991) has feelings of isolation described above shown the range of information re- are even more prevalent here and many quired by teachers and the difficul-teachers may even feel abandoned, ties of getting the information to those particularly in their first years of Many teachers the world that need it. This was particularly teaching. over feel isolated in their worrying with the recent 'educational revolution' in which the National In looking at ways in which ECAWA classrooms. This may be Curriculum was implemented and could better serve its membership, one due to geographical loca- schools became more concerned with suggestion was the use of electronic tion, through teaching in their own management. Electronic communication. The very nature of the communication was offered as a pos- ECAWA membership ensures that all specialised subject areas; sible solution. members have an interest in using com- even in large urban puters, the majority have easy access to schools where teachers This paper describes an initiative tak- them and some level of expertise in this ing place in Western Australia which area. A number of committee members rarely have the chance to aims to reduce teacher isolation and also had some experience of using tel- come together and share encourage and enable them to work ecommunications. It was therefore de- experiences and views. together. cided to trial the use of an electronic communications service as a means of A feeling of isolation may INTRODUCTION disseminating information to the mem- also come from being out TheEducationalComputing bership and encouraging communica- of touch with current edu- Association of Western Australia has tion between members and committee a membership of around 240 members. After looking briefly at the cational initiatives and individuals and schools. Like other services available, NEXUS was deemed trends. Many teachers feel teacher associations, it aims to provide the most appropriate for the task. 'tied' to their classrooms information for its members to support them in their role as NEXUS is an electronic communica- and cannot attend as many educators. This is done primarilyby a tions service established and developed professional development regular magazine, Login, but also in South Australia especially for edu- sessions as they would through courses, conferences and cation. It offers electronic mail, where camps. However, as more than 70% individuals can send messages to oth- like. Furthermore, they of the teaching population is in the ers individually or through distribu- have little time to read metropolitan area, most of the events tion lists; bulletin boards, where users educational journals or organised by the association takecan add messages for a wider audi- place in Perth. Country members have ence; and databases, either those pro- wade through research no opportunity to attend evening vided by others for reading and search- findings even where they workshops and presentations, find it ing or developing databases where are accessible. difficult - and expensive - to attend readers can add their own information.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1943 129 141 Databases and bulletin boards can be was provided with a subscription to and different usage parameters if public or restricted to particular sub- NEXUS in their own name, in the case required, but with the same mailbox scribers to the system. Its major advan- of individual members, in the name of access. This means that no matter tage over other services, however, is the specified contact person for institu- which account is being used, all mall is the method of payment. Unlike most tional members or in the name of the accessible. other systems, there is no joining fee: school. Members' accounts were given subscribers simply pay for what they 'ECAWA' status, and this does not At the end of January 1993, the use. This has enabled the ECAWA change if members take their own per- ECAWA account contained 241 sub- committee to provide a specific fund sonal or school subscriptions. In this accounts. Around 45 of these have for each member which can be used way, they continue to have access to used their NEXUS subscriptions. This entirely to cover the on-line costs of ECAWA information even when no represents less than 20% of the participants. The costs include both longer using the ECAWA account. membership. Of these, twenty one Austpac and Nexus' own charge. The Two bulletin boards were immediately have have subscribed in their own user pays only the cost of the local set up: the first was for ECAWA mem- right. (timed) telephone call. bers to log their own details and inter- Another key feature of the system is ests so that others could see who was Bulletin boards: Members have the ease of account management. An active on the system and perhaps fmd shown varied interest in the bulletin account manager can restrict access to people with similar interests. The sec- boards. The Members database has particular portions of the system (such ond board was for general 'Chat', a only 19 entries, but statistics show that as the ECAWA databases); specify the forum in which members could dis- it has been read by 29 users with over times and days of access; tailor the cuss issues, make comments and ask 130 accesses. It is clearly of interest to main menu to include only those op- questions of others. Both these boards the membership, so why have so few tions which will be most useful to us- were set up for access by ECAWA mem- people entered their details? This may ers; and most importantly, to monitor bers only. be fear of 'going public'; or it may be the usage of the system by individuals. In September 1992, a third board was because the user is not actually an It was decided that each member would added. This was an 'Events' board, ECAWA member and therefore feels be given twenty dollars free use of the which aimed to provide information to something of a fraud! system. This would provide enough anyone, ECAWA members or not, on access time to events in WA which included at least The Chat board has been read by 26 get a flavour fur the service and see an element of computer-related infor- members, but less than half have what it offers with a view to taking mation. The board can have informa- contributed. The phenomena of their own subscription; tion added by any person. With thegurkers' - those that read but don't show other teachers its potential fields specified, it should be possible write-has been documented for their curriculum area; and for teachers to search the board for elsewhere (Keep, 1991; Mason, 1989) allow members to collect any in- events which use a particular hard- and is of no surprise. formation which ECAWA dissemi- ware platform, or are aimed at a spe- nated via this method, even if the cific age range or curriculum area. The Events database has been less school or individual did not decide Late in November the first 'online Pro- successful to date with only the to take their own subscription fessional Development' session was Account Manager having entered implemented. The chosen topic was details and only 13 readers. It seems IMPLEMENTATION the Technology Statement, as the inthat individuals -even other committee The majority of members were already terim document had recently been re- members - are not inclined to enter at least aware of the existence of elec- leased. This board was for ECAWA information. It may be that one person tronic communication systems, and, members only. needs to be designated to keep this with presentations at earlier confer- board 'live'. ences, some had considered the poten- EARLY EXPERIENCES tial both for their own use and within (Figures given here are to the end of The Technology Statement board was the curriculum. At ECAWA's state January 1993) probably set up at exactly the wrong conference in June 1992, the member- time of year - late November. Most ship as a whole were further intro- Usage: Around 35 schools in WA were teachers were in the throes of writing duced to the idea of electronic commu- already subscribers to the NEXUS reports, involved in end of term nication through a keynote address by system, but where these were also activities, consolidating their records Ralph Leonard, the manager of the ECAWA members, they were simply or preparing to change schools. NEXUS system. The presentation went given a new account which wa s deemed Nevertheless, a few people have into some detail on how to use the for ECA WA use. One o f the most useful contributed to the board and 12 system and showed many of its fea- facilities of NEXUS is the ability to set different users have accessed it. It was tures. up more than one account for a suggested that, because we could In July1992, every member of ECAWA subscriber, each with different funds guarantee more 'listeners' than

130 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 142 'speakers', members of the committee moved to another school which does The lack -of immediate use may be could help by asking questions or have the equipment, and so it is attributed to a lack of focus for making comments which they felt important to keep the concept of communication. This has been found would be useful to others. NEXUS to the fore. to be essential in the successful implementationof studentlinks (Keep, EMail: The use of electronic mail is Problems: Although it is too early as 1991).TheHealthLines project, funded harder to gauge as no statistics are yet to send out questionnaires to by Healthway, is the first curriculum- available.However, withthe memberstogatherdefinite based project to be run in WA with a availability of distribution lists, it is a information, it is likely that the one of view to showing the potential of email simple matter to send a message to all the main obstacles to use is the lack of for curriculum and student use, and it ECAWA members simultaneosly. A either the modem or the telephone is hoped that this project will number of such communications have line. In the UK, where a government encourage more teachers to use the been made: this method was used, for initiative put modems into all schools system. example, to inform the membership of who requested one, this was closely new bulletin boards, email projects followed by funds to put in a new The enthusiasm of the organisers has which were taking place around telephonelineforonlinework.Without been found to play an important part Australia and to remind people of the a similar project here, it is unlikely that in developing and maintaining an forthcoming ECAWA AGM.The main we shall see all schools having equal 'online community' (Mason, 1989; drawbackof such messageson NEXUS access to electronic systems. The Suzuki, 1991). The Account Manager is that those which are not read by the problem is particularly true in primary should maintain a high profile on the recipient are 'returned to sender' - schools: it is noted that of the 45 NEXUS system, offering assistance and which is very useful so the sender users, only a couple are in primary support to users in a friendly non- knows who hasn't received a message, schools. technical way. However, as with most but something of a chore when there committee members of such an are almost 200 returned messages! Although NEXUS itself is easy to use, organisation, theAccountManager has there have been many problems with limited time. The Account Manager Committee usage has not been as high actually gaining access to the system. goes online most weekday evenings as it might have been. The use of Schools use such a divergent range of to answer mail messages and devotes NEXUSbetween Committee meetings equipment and software,itis some time to the collection of usage could bea useful method of keeping in impossible to write guidelines to help statistics for committee meetings, but touch, 'tabling' papers which are to be first time users. Problems have arisen always more time could be spent in discussed at a future meeting, at every step: some have had problems maintaining and developing the preparing the agenda of meetings and with their telephone system; others bulletinboardsorindirect circulating minutes. Not only will it with the hardware; and others still communication with members. save time by making information with thetheir choice of arailablealmost immediately, but also communications software. Luckily, FUTURE PLANS will save moneyon postage, stationery few users have had more than one There is, unfortunately, little that can and the time taken to photocopy, problem to overcome! be done for those members who cannot collate and post out information to access NEXUS because they do not other members. What's more, it Onceintothesystem, problems become have the facilities - modem and provides a simple method of keeping fewer. However, the one which recurs telephone line in particular. There is the membership informed of the most frequently comes from more however, one state-wide initiative discussion and decisions of the 'advanced' users who try to send text which may help, and that is the committee. As ECAWA's secretary did files. Some communications software automation of libraries. A number of not have access to a modem through seems to handle this badly and this schools are currently involved in the 1992, this aspect has not yet been had led to some frustration. process, and some of these have explored. already opted to include a modem for Earlier research (Bull et al, 1989) has online a ccess to central records. Where Login articles: In an effort to keep non- shown the need for a certain 'critical there is a modem, there will be a NEXUS using members abreast of mass' of users on a network who use dedicated telephone line. This developments on the system, a regular the system on a regular basis. ECAWA initiative may well be responsible in articleissubmittedintothe tried to achieve this by implementing the future for boosting members' association's magazine. It is recognised this project and giving all members access. Another possible approach that when the project was initiated, access from the same date. However, might be for ECAWA to obtain a many members did not have access to because few people were immediately number of modems which can be a modem or telephone line; however, active-and vociferous! -it is debateable loaned out to members on request, some schools may now have acquired whether this critical mass has yet been even for use at home. If members can the facilities or perhaps members have achieved. then show their colleagues the

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 131 1d1 potentialof electronic communication, CONCLUSION NEXUS is a service which allows this it may become a higher priority within Although the project has not been kind of experiment. If successful, such the school. overwhelmingly successful in terms of systems may be employed more numbers, this was not totally unex- widely as a cost-effective method of There are a number of possible strate- pected. Previous studies have shown disseminating information; to enrich, gies for increasing the value of the that even where users are provided expand and sometimes to enable the system amongst those who have ac- with free mailboxes and already have professional development of teachers; cess. The following are likely to be all the equipment necessary for com- and as a new vehicle for teacher-sup- trialled in the short term: munication, there are many who either port networks which may build the more committee business to be never use the system, use it infre- confidence of teachers and improve conducted online quently, oronlyat thestartof the project teaching and learning experiences in the posting of the minutes of com- (Mason, 1989). However, the main schools. mittee meetings into the 'Chat' objective is to improve the service board for general discussion ECAWA offers to its membership, a 'revitalisation' of the Events particularly those in country areas and REFERENCES board, probably by designating if only one quarter of the membership Bull, G., Harris, J, Lloyd, J. and Short, J. another committee member to its uses the facility, it is likely that those (1989). The electronic academical management members will feel a closer involve- village.Journalof Teacher further curriculum projects like ment in their association, have im- Education. 40, (4), 27-31 Keep, R. (1991). On-line: HealthLines: this is likely to include proved links with others and have ex- Communications in the a 'Newspaper Day' where students tended their available information Curriuclum. NCET: Coventry collect and write stories for a sources. Marshall, A. dr Keep, R. (1991). The newspaper which are assembled We clearly haven't solved the problem information needs of teachers. using a desk top publishing proof teacher isolation yet, but this project Unpublished study for the Paul gram all in one day and then sub- could have far-reaching consequences, Hamlyn Foundation, London. mitted in a competition not only here in WA but across the Mason, R. dc Kaye, A. (1989) (Eds). further 'online professional devel- country and even around the world. Mind weave:communication, opment' sessions - perhaps even The idea of providing 'electronic sup- computers and distance education. Pergamon Press: London: something on how to run a News- port' for teachers has been discussed in Sunal, D. W. (1991). Use of LAN paper Day in a school! different countries by teachers, re- technology to enhance the quality searchers and information providers, of field based teacher education but in many cases the services avail- programs. Paper given at the able are too costly, too unfriendly or Annual Meeting of the American not designed for educational use. Educational Research Association. Chicago.

132 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1293 144 CURRENTPRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION: HANDICAPPING THE COMPUTER, THE TEACHER AND THE STUDENT! BY IAIN KELLY Lecturer, Department of Applied Computing and Mathematics University of Tasmania of Launceston and GEORGE E. DUCKETT PhD Candidate Department of Education University of Tasmania at Launceston Current research reflects in general the This paper suggests that current devel- prevailing lack of emphases in existing opments in educational software have educational computing curriculum in reached the stage where Pre-service contrast to what is felt to be advisable Teacher Education (PM) ought to in- by those teaching the subject. To fur- clude at least, a basic introduction in ther complicate the issue the National the use of HyperCard as both a K-12 Curriculum indicates the grow- hypertext educational package and as ing necessity for educators to gain more an authoring tool for educational expertise in technology that has yet to courseware production or adaptation. Ever increasing demands be addressed. If adopted this would produce graduates reaching a level of expertise usu- by in-service teachers for This pa per argues that the introduction ally expected only in post-graduate stu- computing subjects high- of Hypermedia into the curriculum will dents who have completed further lights the need for Schools enhance education by responding to study. The level of computer literacy market forces. The market in this in- achiEved would approximate with Spe- of Education to focus on stance is the body of educators in pre- cialised Developmental or Computing the development of a more service training, practising pre-tertiary Issues as described by Duckett to a in-depth Computers in educators and in many cases, tertiary Level 4 competency: educators themselves. This market is Education Curriculum. clearly stating that they are dissatis ied "...requires the ability to use a library of This paper makes an hypo- with the level of competency resulting software of at least three applications at thetical comparison of the from existing teacher training courses a level that requires no outside help. in technology. should have the: old to the new, by using an knowledge and ability to use a com- analogy of the introduction INTRODUCTION puter network and E-mail, of (new technology for the Current Pre-service Teacher Education ability to use an authoring software rarely produces teachers that are ad- package or other [specialised] off times) chalk-n-talk as a equately prepared to make full use of the shelf software. [e.g. statistical comparison to computers the computer as an educational tool. or high level programming] in education using Generally, the level of computer exper- has a well developed understand- tise reaches a level described by Duckett ing of: Hypertext and Authoring as"...the ability to set up equipment, the influence of computers on software as the modern load the system and application soft- everyday life counterpart. By using a ware used and demonstrate the ability the legal implications of soft- to use at least one application at a level ware copyright little imagination one could that requires no outside help." (Duckett the use of computers and soft- replace the use of chalk-n- 1992 p. 92) ware in the curriculum. talk with the use of com- (Duckett 1992 pp. 92-93) puters.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 133 145 For arguments sake let's make a com- The number of panels in use at any one Fictional as this scenario might be, a parison using an old technology anal- time would be three, allowing pupils to comparable situation appears in many ogy of chalk-and-talk. copy from the previous two while the of the tertiary institutions now, prepar- third was being prepared or erased, ing teachers with regard to the use of Imagine the scene in a teacher training ready to use for new material. computers. Pre-service Teachers are institution when the use of blackboard taught how to use computers in what and chalk were new technology. Of Such was the level of skill required forcould be described as a limited fashion course, those teaching the future teach- effective useof the blackboard and chalk only. That indicates, the computer as ers would have become intimate with there may have been some controversy well as the prospective teacher is effec- blackboard and chalk technology and over whether or nota beginning teacher tively handicapped. Therefore the full the skills essential to use it successfully might best make useof approved texts, potential of the computer or the educa- - skills ensuring that theboard was containing all the blackboard layouts tors use of it is not taken advantage of. positioned in such a way that all could necessary for any conceivable lesson, In general, teacher's computer prepar- see and textual material was large rather than make some sort of amateur- edness, at best, consists of learning how enough so that those seated at the fur- ish attempt of their own. (Enterprising to use the computer thermost point could view it dearly scholars would have published excel- 1. as a tool to improve their own without straining. lent books containing brilliant black- productivity, i.e. as a word proces- board layouts, complete with traceable sor to prepare notes, tests, etc., as a Graphics (pictures, diagrams etc.) diagrams for everything from Greek spreadsheet to keep trackof student would be traced carefully from spe- grammar to Euclidean geometry.) assessment or department budgets daily prepared originals madeby qua li- or even attendance records or a da- fied artists (being deemed that the un- There would undoubtedly have been tabase manager to keep track of trained would not be capable of pro- murmurings of discontent from sev- student and staff details such as ducing material of sufficient quality eral practitioners about the lack of flex- timetable information. since it would take too much time). ibility in these pre-prepared collections. 2. as an instrument for the delivery of Restraint would be used in the use ofIncreasing numbers of practitioners learning material in the form of fancy features such as excessive use of would have been openly advocating educational software to students. colour chalk and inappropriate use of that teachers should be given greater 3.as a means to motivate students to variation of writing styles (e.g. printing freedom to develop their own material improve their productivity in much versus hand-writing). and some, even attempting it. the same way they have, them- The number of panels in use a t any one selves, improved their own pro- time and the speed of delivery of new However, mainstream opinion held ductivity. (e.g. Word-processing, material, before erasure of the old, that this blackboard technology was spreadsheets and databases) would be subject to strict guidelines. educationally valuable, here to stay, Duckett's yet to be published research, Acolytes would learn, the ratio of the and therefore ought to be taught to all taken from a 1992 survey of 21 Schools size of the writing to the size of the potential teachers. Those skills deemed of Education in Australia, reflects in available space must fit within pre- too advanced for undergraduates (such the table on the following page, an scribed parameters. as preparing blackboard illustrations) average of the current trend of empha- were conveniently labelled the domain sis, as applied to the pre-service teach- of other professions, such as that of er's computer preparedness of the artists, and left to optional post-gradu- aforementioned subjects discussed ate studies. above.

The information contained in the table is derived, based on item three ofthe Issues, as described by Duckett, in the Focus Of The Study in Appendix A.

The key for the table is: 1= No emphasis 2 = A little emphasis 3 = Moderate emphasis4 = Strong emphasis % Current % Preferred Emphases Emphases 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Word-processing, Database, Spreadsheet (productivity tools) 6 25 38 31 0 0 50 50 Computers as an administrative tool. 31 50 13 6 6 25 56 13 Use of authoring software. 56 25 19 0 13 31 44 13 High level computer programming languages. 19 25 38 19 0 31 50 19 The use of Computer Assisted Instruction. 44 25 19 13 13 44 19 25 The use of Computer Managed Instruction. 50 50 0 0 13 50 39 0

134 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 146 Duckett's research focuses on the de-than restrict the computer's use to those Is it not already the case that teachers velopment of a model curriculum foreducational tasks already defined by intending to become Mathematics CIE. The curriculum is to be designed someone else? teachers must spend great amounts of so that it reflects a good balance betime learning about Mathematics, Sci- tween the theoretical and practical ap-Does this mean that the teaching of ence teachers about Science, Humani- proaches to the teaching of CIE. software production will change the ties teachers about the Humanities and focus from the use of the computer as so on?It is not perceived that this The above table reflects how the sub-an educational tool to one of program- causes any great harm to the student, jects are currently taught as opposed toming techniques? rather thatit broadens theirknowledge how lecturers would prefer to see them. and gives them greater depthon which The precise mix of these varies depend- Is the amount of time required to pro- to draw when teaching. Since the useof ing on location to a greeter or lessergram the computer too long for any computers is seen as a cross curriculum extent. Research indicates computers teacher to seriously consider using it to issue should not every student teacher are generally taught in a very limitedcreate their own educational software? learn how to make best use of the com- fashion. puter within their own discipline? Is available software and supporting The computer's most valuable virtue is hardware too limited at the moment to This argument is supported by its ability to be used in a variety of ways make the teaching of software produc- Duckett's (1992) modified version of as no other tool invented ever has. It is tion worthwhile? Moursund's definition of Computer precisely this potential for flexibility Literacy. that is being withheld from pre-service Each of these questions should be con- teachers,effectivelyhandicappingthernsidered. 1. Knowledge and skill in operating a in their role as educators! computer using a library of generic Should teacher training institutions in- programs as determined by each In a few institutions, undergraduateclude Software Production as part of discipline's requirements. students are given an introduction totheir training? 2. Knowledge of various ethical and the use of authoring languages (soft- social issues, in general, and in ware designed to allow users to create If it can be shown that, indeed, some greater depth issues determined by software without requiring them to tasks are best learned using the compu- each discipline, relating to compu- perform actual programming) but very ter as opposed to other means, the an- ter use. few, if any, go so far as to recommend swer must be 'yes' - perhaps with some 3. Knowledge and skills in computer that teachers should seriously considerqualifications. One of those qualifica- programming using a high-level using the computer to produce theirtions may be: Only if the training of languageas deemed a ppropriateor own educational material. teachersin software production ensures not by each discipline's require- that the educational software they pro- ments. This is not dissimilar to telling students duce is of sufficient quality to maintain 4. A functional level of knowledge for that they may only use the blackboard those perceived advantages given by the use of computers as an aid to and pre-prepared blackboard materialusing the computer in the first place. problem-solving, and roles of com- to teach but they may not develop their The response to this qualification must puters as a source of problems as own. It is hazardous to carry the anal-be to ensure that the material taugl-i deemed appropriate by each disci- ogy too far however; it would appear includes information on guidelines fo pline students study in school. that student teachers find themselves quality software production. By ensur- generally unprepared to make full use ing that known education principles In a subsequent article Duckett (1993) of computers. (Wilson 1990, p. 162) areadapted to this new medium, teach- further refined Moursund's definition: ers are as likely to produce quality edu- The implications for teacher trainingcational material as they currently are, In global terms, to be Computer Liter- institutions are important and someusing any of the existing traditional ate a person would: questions arise as to what response these media. institutions ought to make to this sug- have comprehensive skills, knowledge gested lack in teacher training. Will teaching Software Productionand understanding of computers and change the focus away from education? their use as they relate to technical, Should teacher training institutions in- ethical, social and educational issues of clude, as well as the areas mentionedThe concern is that a student teacher the day, as deemed appropriate to the previously, (using a productivity tool will have to learn vast amounts from an skills, knowledge and understanding as a means for delivery of educationalentirely different discipline if they are required. material etc.) some means of program-to become effective educational soft- ming the computer to perform the edu- ware producers as well as effective cational tasks the teacher defines rather educators.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 135 I 4 7 As each discipline of study has special- ...trained teachers can approximate an copyrighting their educational soft- ised requirements, a global definition 'hour for hour' development ratio, i.e. ware!) As time passes teachers will can extend no further than stated above. the development of one courseware- build a library of educational software It is therefore the responsibility of each based teaching hour requires approxi- which they are truly capable of adapt- discipline to define: mately one hour development time. ing and adjusting to meet changing circumstances, just as they presently the extent of skills, the level of knowl- This one-for-one ratio of development do, with paper-based units of work. edge and understanding of the use of time-to-teaching time is accepted by Entire libraries of educational software computers, to be determined by each most educators as required for a well- can be built up in schools paralleling discipline, within its sphere of influ- prepared, traditional chalk-and-talk the educational material which already ence. lesson. Even if the one-for-one ratio is accumulates in a more traditional form. an optimistic assessment of the time Some of it will be of poorer quality than The next question: Is not the length of required to prepare computer-based is ideal and some of it very high quality. time required to create educational soft- courseware, it is a very good invest- Is this not true of the material currently ware too long for it to be of serious ment in time, since whatever is pro- prepared by educators? The possible consideration to most practising iii.-ch- duced is an infinitely reproducibleadvantages far outweigh any disad- ers? Is the one which is most worthy of product capable of being shared be:vantages. stopping the proposition dead in its tween colleagues, re-used and modi- tracks. fied without the repeat time invest- In the Macintosh world the availability ment of initial setting up. of HyperCard is significant in terms of Up until a few years ago the answer the opportunities it opens for educa- would surely have been 'Yes'. How- Just to emphasise a point; the amount tors. It is certainly worthwhile using it ever, with the introduction of software of time required to produce a corre- as a platform for instruction of student like HyperCard this is no longer the sponding software package by a well- teachers. case. Certainly, attempting to produce trained programmer, using HyperCard educationally sound, user-friendly soft- as opposed to Pascal, would give a HyperCard has been chosen as the ware fora microcomputer with a third ratio of approximately one to six. course presentation and developmen- generation language like Pascal, C or HyperCard and similar packages are tal tool in a number of institutions be- BASIC would have been prohibitivelybeing used to prototype larger, more cause of its '...recognised short learning long and complicated for non-profes- complex programs by software pro- curve and potential for immediate ben- sional programmers. ducers to give clients the feel of the efits.' (Tucker et al 1990) Two other product before it goes into production. factors add to this point of view. However, using HyperTalk (Hyper- Card's programming /scripting lan- Of course, it is worthwhile remember- The first is that there are products avail- guage) and its accompanying tools, the ing that not every learning task is best able for the I.B.M. platform which per- amount of time required to produce suited to the use of the computer or any form similar tasks to Macintosh's effective, simple, educational software single conventional teaching method. HyperCard. Presently thereisan I.B.M. is not prohibitively long. Many learning tasks are better suited to package ToolBook and indeed there is the type of interaction resulting from an I.B.M. compatible version of Hyper- The factor determining the amount of group learning or in one-to-one situa- Card planned for the future. There is time necessary is the complexity of the tions with a peer or a teacher. The use currently software that will translate task to be performed.Therefore, a ofa computer is not the ultima te method Macintosh HyperCard stacks into teacher attempting to develop software for learning in every situation. In those Asymetrix'sI.B.M.compatible for a relatively simple task would re- situations where the use of a computer ToolBook format. quire only fundamental programming / is deemed ideal there are always alter- scripting knowledge. Only when the natives. A teacher need not believe that The second is the recent merging of teacher's level of knowledge and ex- theymust produce computer Macintosh and I.B.M. to produce mi- pertisehad increased would morecom- courseware for every situation, only crocomputer technology which is ca- plicated tasks be undertaken. When for those situations where they want to, pableof supporting software from both educators realise that using HyperCard where they have time and where they stables. While it would be foolish to to produce courseware does not neces- judge it appropriate. predict that HyperCard will remain sitate the high, developmental costs in virtually unchanged and not be re- time normally associated with tradi- Just as happens now with prepared placed by some other software which tional development methods there ma y units of work, teachers would be able significantly improves on it, it would well be an explosion of activity in this to share what they have produced, sig- be just as foolish as the attitude held by area. Friedler and Shabo (1991, pp 136- nificantly reducing the amount of work some, that HyperCard can't be any good 137) report that when using Hyper- for other individuals. (Assuming that because it comes free when you buy a Card: there is not an outbreak of teachers Macintosh. (This is sadly, no longer the

136 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

1 case.) These are not sufficient reasons REFLECTIONS ON THE USE OF HYPER- Within a very short space of time stu- on their own to hold off making as CARD AS AN AUTHORING TOOL dents were submitting first draft ideas much use of HyperCard as possible, BY A GROUP OF IN-SERVICE TEACHERS. for consideration and comment. Gen- NOW. The participants came from disparate erally the initial suggestions were too teaching backgrounds which ranged complicated and had to be scaled down It is the familiar dilemma facing the from infant teaching to technical and due to time considerations. Eventually potential purchaser of any high tech- trade teaching. None of the partici- each student decided on a viable topic nology equipment such as a stereo. pants were trained in the use of com- to develop and refine during the re- Does one buy now or does one wait just puters although all had some sort of mainder of the year. a little longer for the new 'bells and contact with their use. In some cases whistles' version rumoured for immi- this varied from the playing of com- Near the conclusion of the year another nent release? puter-based games, word processing whole day was set aside for presenta- or using a computer operated lathe. In tion of the assignments where the stu- It is not sensible to hold off realising the all cases the students felt some lack of dent audience was asked to complete benefits of existing technology indefi- confidence in the use of computers and criticism sheets for each piece of pre- nitely in the vague promise that greater felt that they ought to make better use sented software. These criticisms were benefits will be available sometime in of available technology for the benefit then used as the basis for a final refine- the future. While one waits, one misses of their students. ment of the learning package before out on the benefits already available. being submitted for lecturer assess- Such a situation exists with currently Many worked in classrooms that had a ment. available software in HyperCard and computer where students worked to ultimately it is not only teachers that word process their written material and The final quality of the learning pack- are missing out on the benefits, but occasionally play games. Some had ages produced by those using Hyper- their students also. made use of commercially available Card was very high. In every case the educational software as part of a devel- combination of educational expertise Teacher trainees could ideally have as oped theme of work. and basic software creation skills part of their course a unit whose con- proved to be exciting and potent be- tent would consist in the main of the As is often the case with people new to cause of educational considerations skills and knowledge required to pro- computers it beca me appa rent that most such as: duce educational software. Such skills wished to learn more about the Macin- might include: tosh computer, due to its availability in 1)readability of on-screen instructions schools and its user-friendliness. As 2) density of such instructions the ability to determine the kind of part of the assessment for the unit it 3) flavour and consistency of the user learning task best suited to the use was decided to include a requirement interface and many other regular of a computer in preference to other that each student create a software features of educational software, means of learning. learning package. often poor in commercial software, programmed learning techniques were carefully taken into account already used in other areas of edu- The majority chose to use HyperCard. and incorporated cation and their application to com- Others negotiated the use of an 4) exciting, because each and every puters. authoring tool for I.B.M. called piece of software produced was guidelines for the design of effec- "AuthorWare". The assessment re- going to fulfil an educational need tive user interfaces. (e.g. using a quirements of the package was open- identified by that teacher in their metaphor with which the user is ended in that students had to choose a working environment. already familiar) simple learning activity which, in their the ability to make valid measure- opinion, was suited to using the com- The attitude of those participating was ment of the effectiveness of educa- puter as a medium for learning. They exciting. The level of enthusiasm dis- tional software. then had to produce software that im- played by the participants was infec- how to transfer an educational ob- plemented the learning task. Assess- tious. Small networks of students grew jective from a paper idea to a soft- ment was not subject to the complexity to fill the role of assisting other mem- ware learning package. of the task, in fact, it was suggested that bers of the class with a problem in the less complicated the task, in this which they were experiencing diffi- This list is by no means intended to be instance, the better. Some background culty; a daunting task alone but solv- exhaustive, but merely an attempt to in software-development methodology able with the help of another member indicate the general areas which might wasincluded as part of the lecturetime- of the group. be covered by such a course at tertiary table and a one-day workshop 'Intro- teacher training institutions. duction to HyperCard' was sufficient It was difficult not to mentally extrapo- to enthuse even the most sceptical stu- late the possibility of this group dy- dent. namic into the work place where one

137 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 144 could imagine a statewide network of happening.Anecdotal evidence2. How do these theories/models HyperCard users; a network sharing aboundsof HyperCard enthusiasts who compare with one another in terms home-grown software and assisting use their own courseware in the class- of their applicability to the teaching less-experienced users to surmount room. The trouble is, that in all likeli- of CIE for pre-service teachers? problems encountered. The diversity hood, they have received no formal (or 3. What are the current trends/ap- and breadth of such a potential pool of informal) training in the production of proaches to the teaching of CIE for supply of educational software is very quality educational software. pre-service teachers? exciting. There exists an instructional (a) in Australia softwarelibrarycalled the It is a market niche that will be filled. (b) abroad (US, Britain, etc.) "Hyper Media and Instructional The question is not whether it will be 4. How do these trends/approaches Stackware Clearinghouse" where edu- filled but who will fill it? compare with one another in terms cators can submit created stacks for of their effectiveness in teaching evaluation and acquire stacks already "For more information write to, Heizer CIE for pre-service teachers? created (Tucker 1989, p. 32). Software, 1941 Oak Park Blvd., Suite 5. Based on the above findings, what 30, PO Box 232019, Pleasant Hill, CA elements should be present in a On many occasions participants in the 94523, and ask for information about 'model' CIE curriculum? course made enquires on behalf of their Convertlt. and other HyperCard and teaching colleagues as to whether or ToolBook productivity software. In- REFERENCES not this unit was to be offered in the formation about ToolBook is available Bull, G. & Cochran, P. 1991, 'Learner- following year. It appeared that other in Australia from: Software Sanctuary, Based Tools', The Computing teachers had observed participants of PO Box 542, Ashmore City, Qld. 4214 Teacher, April, pp 341- 346. the course, working on their learning Phone (075) 972002. Duckett, G. E. 1992, 'Basic Problems in packages or had witnessed participants the Development of a Computer demonstrating their work. They had APPENDIX A Literacy Curriculum' in ACEC '92 been sufficiently impressed to make Computing the Clever Country? enquires. FOCUS OF THE STUDY COMPUTER Salvas, A.D. (ed.), Computer Edu- TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION: cation Group of Victoria, Richmond CONCLUSION Towards a Model Curriculum for North, Vic. 3121, pp. 88-94. To borrow the jargon from another dis- Pre-service Teachers in Computer Lit- Duckett, G. E. 1993 "In Press" 'A Na- cipline ...we are not responding to mar- eracy tional K-12 Curriculum for Aus- ket forces. The market may be consid- tralia: Is it the thin edge of the ered the body of educators in pre-serv- OBJECTIVES wedge?', in Connections: The ice training, practising pre-tertiary edu- The study has four specific objectives: Journal For Technology Coordina- cators and in many cases, tertiary edu- tors , ISTE. cators themselves. This market is clearly 1.Analyse major curriculum theories Friedler, Y. & Shabo, A. 1991, 'An ap- stating that they are dissatisfied with and models in terms of their appli- proach to cost-effective courseware the level of competency resulting from cability to the teaching of CIE. development', British Journal of existing teacher training courses. 2.Analyse current approaches to the Education Technology, vol 22, no 2, teaching of CIE. pp. 129-138. This paper proposes a response to this 3.Based on the analysis of (1) and (2), Taylor, R.P. (ed.), 1980, The Computer perceived market demand; namely, that identify the key elements, charac- intheClassroom:Tutor,Tool,Tutee, the use of HyperCard or similar teristics, etc. that must be present in Teachers College Press, NY. authoring tools be incorporated into a 'model' CIE curriculum. Tucker, S. A. 1989, 'Welcome to the PTE. This would fulfil the suggested, 4.Develop a model CIE curriculum HyperCard corner', Tech Trends, defined requirements for Computer on the basis of the criteria identified vol 34, no 2, Mar-Apr, pp. 30- 34. Literacy appropriate to this particular in (3). Tucker, S. A. et.al. 1990, 'Training uni- discipline. versityfacultytointegrate ISSUES hyperniedia into the teacher train- With any change to the status quo there To meet the objectives, the following ing curriculum', Int. Conf. on Tech. are likely to be some problems encoun- issues must be addressed: & Ed uc, Belgium, (Unpub. conf. pa- tered. Those best situated to ensure as 1. What are the leading curriculum per). smooth an implementation as possible theories/models which are perti- Wilson, B. 1990, The preparedness of are tertiary educators already working nent to teaching pre-service teach- teacher trainees for computer utili- in the area of PTE. However, if for ers? sation : The Australian and British some reason, this lead is not taken it is (a) general experiences', Journal of Education possible that market forces may force (b) CIE for Teaching, vol 16, no 2, pp. 161- the change in an ad hoc manner. The 171. beginning signs are already there; it is

138 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1M -1 150 THEPERSONAL COMPUTER AS A BUSINESS LAW TEACHING TOOL BY RICHARD G. KUNKEL,J.D. Visiting Teaching Fellow, School of Business Law, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia. Using computer networks teachers Using presentation software to produce can send messages worldwide and lecture visual aids with full color and can conduct research by accessing graphics, the computer can improve information in libraries around the instructional materials, increase atten- Nr. country from their desktops. tion and recall of course material, and Teachers use computers to be more improve student performance. 11V productive at virtually everything The personal computer has great po- they do as teachersexcept for tential as an effective classroom in- teaching itself. structional tool.This article will first describe how this project was con- The power of the per- Using personal computers and pres- ducted.Second, it will describe the sonal computer enables entation software can improve class- author's observations and reactions to teachers to be more pro- room teaching and enhance the inter- use of this method. Lastly it will sum- action between the teacher and stu- marize results of surveys used to meas- ductive in a variety of dent. Use of computers in education ure student reaction to the method. ways. For example, with often focuses on computer assisted word processing software learning modules. These efforts tend PROJECT DESCRIPTION to de-emphasize classroom interac- In this project, nearly all lecture visual computers can be used to tion between the student and the aids were prepared on an Apple Mac- write and edit research teacher and replace it with separate intosh computer using Aldus Persua- papers, to prepare exams events where the teacher interacts with sion presentation software. The visual the computer by programming the aids used color and graphics and were and class materials and to learning module and where the stu- presented on large screen television draft correspondence. dent interacts with the computer by monitors. In previous classes lectures Spreadsheet programs working through the teacher designed were supported with basic visual aids program. Computer power is used to overhead transparencies and the can be used to calculate provide an alternative way of learn- blackboard. The overheads were black grade3 and maintain ing rather than improving classroom and white transparencies prepared on instruction. a personal computer. The blackboard grade records. Communi- was used for handwritten notes and cation programs allow This article describes an experiment hand-drawn diagrams. In this project access to E-mail systems using the Apple Macintosh® 1 and the computer generated visual aids and permit connection to Aldus Persuasion ®2 presentation presented on the TV monitors were software to improve classroom teach- used to replace the overhead transpar- mainframe computers. ing in Business Law. The project's encies and the blackboard, which were goal was to apply the power of the used sparingly. personal computer to effectively or- This method was used to teach three ganize and present information in the half-courses of Advanced Business classroom just as it is used outside of Law, a course designed to teach legal class.The computer is used to in- topics tested on the CPA examination. crease teaching efficiency by making Two half-courses were taught four lecture material easier to produce, hours per week for eight weeks. The improve and present. Computer use other course was taught two hours per can also improve student learning. week for fourteen weeks. The material

139 AUSTRALIANEDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1e1 covered included commercial paper grounds using a myriad of colors, pat- visibility of the other aspects of the and secured transactions (Article 3 and terns, drawing tools and effects. New lecture.Only the brightest primary Article 9 of the Uniform Commercial master slides can be made by specially colors project vividly. If you need to Code), and agency. designing the fonts and sizes for the use a display panel with an overhead, text. In this project, nearly all of the consider using black and white visuals A1162 students were seniors. Over 90% master slides were adjusted to provide instead. These will be more visible and were accounting majors. Nearly 25% larger fonts and greater visibili ty. Cop- will allow you to keep classroom light- were members of Delta Epsilon Sigma, ies of the Persuasion outline were dis- ing at a more acceptable level. the National Scholastic Honor Society tributed to the students to assist them on our campus. As a whole, the stu- in following the presentation. DONT OVER-DESIGN dents were brighter and more highly Adhering to this simple rule will help motivated than students in the Busi- The slides were presented on the TV you avoid the mistake most commonly ness Law course required of all busi- monitors by running a "slide show" in made by new users of technology: over - ness majors. which Persuasion advances from onedesigning your presentation to dem- slide to the next with a simple click of onstrate all of the bells and whistles of Our university has only one classroom ter to make the desired presentation.your wondrous computer and its in- in which the Macintosh is connected This does not require that you know all credible software5. This temptation is directly to large screen TV monitors facets of your computer's operating difficult to resist because you can im- a 228-seat science lecture hall.This system or each feature of your software press your students as a computer whiz! setting was hardly ideal for classes with program. You need not be a "hacker" During the first two half-courses, the only 29, 18 and 15 students, respec- to teach effectively with the computer. author regrettably fell victim to this tively!Four 27-inch RGB television But you must understand fully those common beginner's mistake by de- monitors are mounted throughout the particular functions essential to making signing 13 master slides and 10 back- room. The students tended to sit near your presentation run flawlessly ingrounds for use in eight commercial the front of the room, but even the class. paper lectures! nearest students were 12feet away from the TV monitor. You need to experiment with your soft - Unfortunately this approach contrib- ware and learn its capabilities and limi- utes nothing to your desired goals of The computer hardware was a Apple tations. The Aldus Persuasion program greater efficiency, improved interac- Macintosh IIsi with a 40 megabyte hard was extremely intuitive and easy to tion and better learning.Designing drive and 5 megabytes of RAM.In learn through trial and error and oc- new backgrounds was time consum- addition to the classroom hardware, casional reference to the program ing, especially at first. Merely selecting access to another computer on a regu- manuals. Other presentation software an AutoTemplate could have saved lar basis is needed to prepare and edit programs include MORE3 and hours of work, so it certainly was not the presentations. To make effective PowerPoint4, which offer similar fea- efficient. This time would have been use of color capability, a color monitor tures and functionality.Regardless more effectively spent improving the for this second computer is almost a which presentation software you use, outline, or reviewing cases and prob- necessity. The second computer did take time to learn its essential features lems for class. Second, it is doubtful not require as much power or RAM as thoroughly. that the new designs were any more is desirable for smooth operation in effective. than an AutoTemplate. Un- class. KNOW YOUR "OUTPUT DEVICE" less you are a graphic designer who Computer generated visual aids can understands the effective use of color The presentation software used was only assist learning if they can be easily and graphics to produce a good visual Aldus Persuasion, Version 2.0 and and clearly viewed by the students. In aid, your self-designed backgrounds Version 2.1. Using Aldus Persuasion this project the computer visuals were will probably be less effective than the one can create classroom presentations displayed on large screen TV monitors. professionally designed slides. Third, from an outline format either by using The colors were clear, vivid and could overdoing fonts, colors, effects, etc., will pre-formatted slides or by crea ting new be seen in a well-lighted classroom. If distract the student from the content of backgrounds and master slides. Per- you use a large-image video projector, the message a result totally opposite suasion includes several be sure your visuals will be projected from your goal. Thus, for the third half- "AutoTemplates" which pm-format the brightly enough to be seen clearly. You course the presentations were con- master slide and background accord- may need to dim the lighting in the verted to the standard Persuasion Auto- ing to graphic design principles. Thus, classroom to make them more visible. Templates. preparation of a class presentation can Using a color display panel that rests be as simple as selecting the desired a top an overhead projector is somewhat MAKE IT EASILY READABLE AutoTemplate and typing in the out- risky. Often the colors can not be seen In this regard it is essential to modify line's content. For more customized adequately unless the room is very dark. Persuasion's master slides to suit your applications, one can design new back- This will have a negative impact on particular classroom's needs. Nearly

140 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 152 all visual aids used in the project con- DISTRIBUTE HANDOUTS TO THE STU- interacting with the TV monitors can tained text only, which must be read- DENTS present unique problems. With tradi- able to be effective. A TV monitor's Using the blackboard allows time for tional visual aids like overheads and image is much smaller than that of an students to take notes as you write on the blackboard you'll see the content of overhead projector. Before using your theboard. Theblackboard information the visual aid before the students. You presentation in the classroom, check to can stay visible while you write on have a moment as you write on the be sure that all font sizes are largeother areas of the board.With the board or change transparencies to col- enough to be clearly seen. Readability computer, however, new content is lect your thoughts and then segue into may be a lesser concern if you projectdisplayed instantaneously and disap- the topic. With the computer, you see the computer output with a larger im- pears just as quickly when the new the slide at the same time as your stu- age using either an overhead projector slide is presented. Students have less dents and it can be more difficult to using panel display or a with a video time to perceive and process the infor- instantly match your comments to the projector. However, merely projecting mation. This can produce severalvisual aid.It is awkward, and even a larger image does not increase the negativeeffects. First, students become embarrassing, to introduce a topic and effectiveness of the visual aid.6 frenzied note-takers, not listeners or then find that your next slide discusses discussion participants. Second, stu- a different concept. The safest and A related issue is the amount of text on dents simply miss some of the informa- easiest reaction is to read aloud from each slide. Selecting a large font that is tion because they can't take notes fast the monitor while you collect your easily visible will be self-limiting. enough. Likewise, they can't listen and thoughts on the subject--a colossal bore However, even where additional room respond and still take notes, or they for students. is available, do not overcrowd the slide suffer lapses of attention and when with text. Limiting slides to no more they recover, the slide content has al- Avoiding monitor reading requires than four bullet items of six words each ready been lost to the new slide. This is good class preparation and good lecture underneath the main title is a good especially true if you have difficulty notes.Monitor reading is a much guideline. It is not always possible to teaching at a slower pace. greater problem on days when class conform technical UCC rules to this preparation is less than ideal. When guideline, but limiting the content of You can help the students to process first using this new method, you must each slide is worthwhile. the information more efficiently by review the slides, their content and or- distributing handouts. They can der of presentation. You should know SLOW DOWN. MORE IS NOT ALWAYS listen, pay attention and participate what will appear next on the slide even if you can't see it. Good lecture notes BETTER. better when they are not in a note- The efficiency of presenting a new taking frenzy. Slide content is not irre- will prepare you for upcoming slides. visual aid with a simple mouse click trievably lost when a new slide is dis- Persuasion allows you to prepare lec- allows you to present material muchplayed since it is in the handout for ture notes in a variety of formats. Find- faster than by using overheads or the them to review later. ing the right lecture note format is a blackboard. This method allowed you matter of personal preference and may to present much more material in the Using handouts creates other problems require some experimentation.It is same time. Unfortunately, the students you should consider. For some stu-essential to be comfortable with the are not always able to absorb and dents, note-ta king is the primary reason format you choose. process theextra material.7 Because the for coming class. They may become slides contain less content than over- bored if they feel they need not pay AVOID EXCESSIVE "LAYERING" heads, they must be changed more fre- attention to the lecture because they Users of overhead transparencies are quently than overhead changes. If you "already have the notes". Admonish undoubtedly familiar with the tech- don't pace yourself, the students feel the students to take notes on examples, nique of revealing only a portion of the like the slide disappears before its con- cases and discussion which add depth transparency to focus attention on the tent can be read and understood. to the handouts' content.For other topic being discussed. As other topics students note-taking may be a critical a re discussed, the pe per is pulled lower Use the efficiency of this method to step in integrating and retaining infor- across the transparency revealing ad- present better, not just more. Use the mation.8 Remind these students to ditional topics. Persuasion allows use additional time to explain the material stick to their favorite study methods of the same technique through layer- in more detail than previously possible, and use the handouts as a supplement ing". Selected portions of each slide or to add another case example or when their own notes are incomplete, can beassigned to different layers. Each problems to your lecture.Also take not as a substitute for their own notes. consecutive layer is revealed by an ad- advantage of program features to re- They still must do the mental work to ditional click of the mouse. peat slides and reinforce your message assimilate and retain the information. before advancing to new material. The layering technique was frequently Avoid Reading the Projection Screens used in the first half-course, but use This point probably seems obvious but was reduced in the later half-courses

1 141 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 153 for three reasons. First, extensive use of to slide format, it was not especially Such a discussion approach is more layering means that the slide is con- difficult and resulted in a substantial spontaneous and not well suited to a stantly changing. For the students, this time savings over manually entering previously prepared computer visual means theyconstantly focus on the slide the text. aids. and comparing it to their handouts rather than listening. Conversely, if the TEACHING TASKS SUITABLE FOR COM- The blackboard is the most useful visual entire slide is revealed, students can PUTER GENERATED VISUAL AIDS aid for discussing cases and problems observe% compareit to their handouts, Using computer generated visual aids because it allows more spontaneity. A make notes, etc., allowing more op- effectively in class requires advanceblackboard diagram of the parties' re- portunity for listening and interaction. preparation of the visual aids. Unlike lationships can be prepared as the stu- Second, extensive layering requires the the blackboard, computer visuals can- dent discusses the problem ordescribes instructor to constantly manipulate the not be prepared spontaneously. And the case. In addition, its easy to discuss mouse to advance to the next layer. unlike previously prepared overheads, variations of the legal issues by modi- This requires the instructor to remain the computer visual aids cannot be fying the facts of the problem and near the mouse and limits freedom of edited in class by writing additional modifying the blackboard diagram as movement in the classroom.Third, information on the transparency with a well. Such impromptu revision is not layering increases problems involved marker. The tasks for which computer possible with the computer generated withmonitor reading (see Rule7above) generated visual aids are most effective graphics. Unfortunately, the quality of when the entire slide is revealed at once are those which can be prepared in blackboard visuals often are not very it's easier to formulate your thoughtsadvance and are unlikely to change. good. Some diagrams are not fully about the entire slide. In the later half-The tasks for which computer gener- legible or comprehensible and require courses use of layering was reserved ated visual aids are least effective are on the spot editing. Overhead trans- only for the most important topics or those which require greater spontane- parencies combine the good qualities where each layer was to be discussed in ity and easy revision. of prepared visuals with the spontane- great detail. ity of the blackboard. The basic ele- In the Business Law context, computer ments of the problem can be carefully AVOID EXCESSIVE TRANSITION EFFECTS visuals are best suited for teaching prepared in advance, while spontane- Persuasion provides 13 special effects "black letter" law such as defining le- ous revisions can made by writing ad- to make the transition from one slide to gal, terms, listing UCC legal require- ditional information on the transpar- the next.The transition effects can ments, explaining elements of rules of ency with a marker. Both the black- apply individually to each slide, or the law. For example, for listing the ele- board and overhead transparencies same effect can be applied globally to ments of a negotiable instrument under work better than computer visual aids all slides, or various effects can be ap- UCC Article 3 and explaining the for case and problem discussion. plied at random. These are the bells meaning of each requirement.This and whistles that are so tempting to method also worked well to describe The computer was helpful, however, show off to the class!! Initially a variety legal relationships between parties such for instantly retrieving the legal defi- of transition effects were used in theas the relationship between principals nitions, elements of causes of action or class presentations and some were as- and agents in agency law. The method legal principles that related to the cases signed randomly. While this initially also can effectively be used to explain a or problems under discussion.For generated student attention it ulti- step by step approach to analyzingexample, as a student discussed a mately distracted from the students' problems involving commercial paper problem regarding a party's status as a attention to the teaching message, As and secured transactions, then rein- holder in due course, one could im- the courses progressed a single transi- forcing the approach for each case and mediately display the screen describing tion effect was applied for each major problem discussed.Although not the elements required to be a holder in portion of the lecture.Effects were editable in class, the computer visuals due course. If the issue focused on a changed only when beginning discus- can be more effective visual aids be- specific issue (such as whether value sion of the next major topic. cause they are carefully formatted,had been paid by the holder of the edited, and refined before class. instrument) one could instantly d isplay IMPORT TEXT FROM OTHER PROGRAMS the screen related to value issues. In If you already use overhead transpar- While most computer visuals in this preparing for class, you should review encies, you may have developed them project were only text, they also were the cases and problems and make notes using a word processing program. used to graphically represent relation- regarding which screens applied to the Persuasion allows you to import theships between parties during discus- issues made in the case or problem. text into Persuasion. The imported text sion of the cases and problems in class. When the students discussed the legal needs to be reformatted into slide for- These visuals enjoyed limited success. issues, you may immediately present mat, but you will not have to manually The students were asked to describe the slide containing the applicable rule enter the text. Although some time was the case or read the problem and,hen of law. required to convert the imported textinitiate discussion of the legal issues.

142 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1943

1 A Another limiting factor for effective- to teach better, not just more. Using the this method would require great effoi ness of computer generated visual aids computer kept the materials more or- to control the many other educatioru is the inability to displaya large amount ganized and the computer visuals were variables operating in a Business Lai of information at once. This method convenient to use. Previously six ma- classroom that were beyond the stop requires you to divide the material into nila folders of overhead transparencies of this project. Important qualitativ small components visible on a single were used for the class. Now all of the evaluations can be made, howeve TV screen. Occasionally large amounts visuals for the class fit on just two floppy based on the author's personal obse of related topics must be presented at disks. The individual slides never get vations and on the course evaluation once and cannot be effectively pre- misplaced, fall on the floor or get out of sented in screen-sized portions. For their designated order. This project began with two basic a: this material, overhead transparencies sumptions. Fint, that increased edt are superior. Becauseoverheads project Outside class, editing the presen;ations cational stimulus would increas such a large image, even transparencies is easier than reproducing new over- learning, and second, that the col( with large amounts of material will be head transparencies. Editing the con- capability of the computer would ha% readable. tent is no more difficult than editing in a dramatic effect on learning.Bot any word processing program. The were only partly true. Merely addin INSTRUCTOR'S OBSERVATIONS ON THE order of the slides can be rearranged in stimulus does not increase the effe EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF seconds. With overheads, the changes tiveness of the message because not a TEACHING WITH THE PERSONAL COMPU- must be printed and copied to trans- stimuli serve as cues which facilita TER parencies. Even small changes some- leaming.10 Color can advance studei The personal computer has great po- times can require several transparencies learning if used carefully to suppo tential as a teaching tool. But its high- to be reproduced. specific educational objectives." Thu tech nature and use of color alone will while the additional stimuli and col( not ensure that it is demonstrably su- Admittedly, the time difference be- of the computer generated visuals ca perior to other presentations meth- tween editing slides and reproducing advance learning, it cannot be pr ods.Computer assisted teaching overheads is not always dramatic, but sumed they will. methods are not automatically better. it can impede slight adjustments to fine This method, like any other, must betune a presentation.Users of this Used properly computer generate used properly to be effective. Similarly technology will be more willing to ad- visuals aids are an effective means no single method is appropriate for just their presentations for a particular increase learning. Persuasion permi every teaching task. Computer gener- class than to change overhead trans- the use of color in ways that can sen ated visual aids should be used only parencies. In the author's experience, as effective cues for specific learnir when their unique capabilities can as- overheads with slight defects have objectives. Due to the many variable sist, rather than impede, teaching.If continued to be used for several se- that affect learning measuring tl this method is used appropriately, you mesters rather than take the trouble to relative effectiveness of color is cliff can capitalize the personal computer's reproduce the transparency. With the cult. Studies of color's relative effe potential to help you become a more computer visuals, slides were fre- tiveness for learning are inconclusiv efficient and effective teacher. quently added or reorganized and in- and even contradictory. While ear formation was edited to improve the studies of the use of color tended EFFICIENCY presentation. Often cha nges were made show no improvement in learnir Using this method requires an initial either just before or just after class. through use of color more recent studi' investment of time and effort that will show use of color to be a viable instru pay off in future courses. There is a The major threat to using this method tional variable.12 A summary definite "learning curve" in mastering efficiently lies in the temptation to fourteen studies during the period fro the hardware and software, preparing overdesign the computer visuals and 1975 - 1990 concluded that color fad the slides and adjusting to in-class use demonstrate special effects. While it tates both recognition and recall task of the presentations. Once this initial can be enjoyable to "play" with the Color also was found to be superior loss of efficiency is overcome, this computer's capabilities, these efforts black and white images in encodir method can save time in several ways. can take substantial time and yield only information into memory.13 The a, a marginal impact on learning in class. thor's personal judgment is that th In class, there is no question that time is The time would be better spent by teaching method generated a classroo saved in handling the visuals aids when thoroughly preparing other materials atmosphere in which students we compared to using the blackboard or to lend variety to the cla ss, such as cases better able to more effectively uncle overheads. A simple mouse click ad- and problems for discussion. stand and retain the complicated co vances to the next slide. Any slide can cepts presented in commercial pap( be accessed in seconds with a keyboard EFFECTIVENESS secured transactions and agency. command. The time saved can be used Quantitatively and objectively deter- for other teaching tasks. But remember mining the educationa I effectiveness of

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 14 155 In addition to the potential for more to the brain far exceeds the ability to Moreover, higher evaluation scores effective learning, using color visuals process information effectively.16 It is were received on nearly all questions can improve the student interest in the largely unknown whether multiple regarding in-class performance. The class. Color is known to be an effective stimulienhanceor impedeleaming and most significant increases appeared in method for gaining and sustaining at-recall.17 Lecturing too quickly most evaluation of instructor preparedness, tention.14 This can be critical when certainly compounds the problems re- good use of examples and illustrations, teaching a technical subject such as lated to processing the multiple stimuli clear course objectives, instructor's commercial paper. This method gen- students receive from this teaching knowledge of the subject matter and erated great initial student interest inmethod.Failure to give students clear presentation of the subject matter. the visual aids. Student interest natu- enough time to view and study theAgain, in each of these areas the rally waned slightly as the students slides may negate any effectiveness of evaluation scores have increased each become more familiar with the method . the color presentation and may even semester as skill in using the method Varying presentation methods during reduce learning.18 increased. each class period will sustain the student attention generated by the visuals. Distributing copies of the visual aids is In the first 1992 course, the overall Variety prevents students from being important to the effectiveness of this evaluation of the course was lower than mesmerized by the screen and losing method. The efficiency of the method the 1991 course average. Lower evalu- attention. Use of overheads, the black- will be lost if you must wait as students ation scores were reported in key areas board and discussion of cases and take notes from the screens. If you tend such as how much the students learned, problems should be liberally inter- to cover material quickly in class it will their ability to use course concepts, and spersed with the computer visuals. be critical to distribute handouts or ability to read the subject matter better. students will have trouble keeping up In the second and third 1992 courses, as Arbitrary useof color and special effects with notes. This is especially true if the adjustments were made and use of the is an impediment to effective useof this visuals include a lot of content and method became more familiar, these method. Care must be taken to focus detail, rather than mere bullet points of results were reversed for nearly all cat- the use of color on specific learning general topic headings. For less detailed egories. objectives. One study suggests that presentations, handouts are not as es- color improves memory of only pe- sential. While theimproved courseevaluations ripheral information and not the were gratifying, they should not be central materia1.15 These studies pro- A complete set of handouts gives stu- interpreted as proof of a betterlearning vide even greater reason to avoid dis- dents the comfort of knowing they outcome.Research indicates that tractingoverdesign of Persuasion slides won't "miss anything important" in learners prefer to receive and interact and minimal use of peripheral effects their notes if they concentrate on lis- with presentations in color rather than such as transition effects and layering. tening and participating rather than black and white.19 Material presented note-taking. The handouts also help in color is rated as being better, more A second problem hindering effective- the students to connect related topics interesting and more active than that ness is that over reliance on the com- that have been separated into two or presented in black and white.2° In a puter visuals can negate any advantage more slides. study involving overhead transparen- of increased attention. In the second cies, color contributed positively to half-course, the computer visual aids Using computer generated visual aids audience perceptions of the presenter were used more extensively and fewer in the class appears to have a strong of the material and the presenter was spontaneous discussions of cases and positive effect on student evaluations found tobe more persuasive.21 But only problems were held. As a result, half of of the instructor. Appendix 1 contains a small relationship exists between the students felt the method reduced a summary of the author's mean scores learners' preferred types of visual pres- their attention in class. Over reliance on the University of St. Thomas' entations and achievement of specific on the computer visuals interferes with standard student evaluation of teach- educational objectives.22In other classroom interaction between theing. The results of the three experi- words, while students may prefer color, students and the instructor. The method mental half-courses (the "1992 courses") and they may rate instructors more becomes impersonal and limits the in- were compared to those of three pre- highly on course evaluations, they are structor's effectiveness. vious half-courses taught in 1991 (the not necessarily learning more effec- "1991 courses"). The overall rating of tively. Excessive speed is a third factor limit- the instructor (Item 18) in the 1992 ing effectiveness of computer visuals. courses greatly improved when com- One finalobservation. Student surveys In this project students receive a r au- pared to the average of the 1991 courses. from the 1992 courses showed that some ditory stimulus (the lecture) and two The overall rating increased each se- students clearly disliked the new different visual stimuli (the screens and mester as the author became more fa- method. However, no two students the handouts).The capacity of the miliar with the method. learn in the same manner and students human senses to transmit information will perceive and react to a common

144 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 156 stimulus in different ways.23Indi- Studies of the effect of color visual aids The effect of the method on student vidual differences in students, such as have been contradictory and this sur- attention, while rated positively over- intelligence and prior knowledge, also vey was no exception. In general, stu- all, provoked the greatest negative re- will affect the students' reaction to dents in the second half-course rated sponse. The students were sharply di- visual presentations.24 Until indi- the method less favorably in most cat- vided regarding whether the method vidual learning styles can be identified egories than students in the first half- improves or impedes attention in class. and accommodated, striving to meet course. This was unforeseen since one 46% felt the method increased atten- the needs of most learners while pro- would expect the method's effective- tion although 37% said it negatively viding variety which addresses other ness to improve as the user became affected attention. The primary reason learning styles is the best solution. more accustomed to it.Moreover, it cited for the reduced attention was an was surprising since the second-half inclination to rely solely on the hand- students gave much higher ratings on outs for the information and tune out RESULTS OF STUDENT SURVEYS the standard course evaluations they the instructor. The drop in attention Accurately measuring the effectiveness had completed at the same time! was particularly acute in the second of computer generated visual aids for half-course, in which half of the students teaching Business Law as a result ofStudent responses to thirteen open reported a negative effect on attention. this project would be extremely diffi- ended questions were summarized into cult. First, no control group was used groups of generally positivecomments, The impact on students' interest in the for this project so direct comparisons generally negative comments and class received the next largest negative are impossible. Second, there are ancomments of either "no effect" and response, 26.2%. 42.8% gave positive infinite number of variables associated "other". Next, within each group the responses.Oddly, very few second with effective use of visual aids in responses were further sorted based on half-course students reported losing teaching25 and no attempt was made the factors students identified that in- interest in the class, although they had to isolate these variables. Third, at- fluenced their positive or negative re- a hard time remaining attentive. For tempts to compare the 1992 courses sponse. this question the first half-course stu- with the 1991 courses are hampered by dents gave nearly as many negative numerous variables other than the type The strongest positive effect was shown responses as positive responses. The of visual aids employed (course length, in student perception of instructor pre- reasons were varied, but a lack of par- subject matter, room size, etc.). Thus paredness with 80% positive responses ticipation and general boredom topped while no quantitative results can be and only 8.8% negative responses. the list. reported from the project, the responses Perception of instructor knowledge to the student surveys provide impor- (55% positive and 17.5% negative) and The computer generated visuals failed tant qualitative measurements to instructor overall effectiveness (51.3% to generate additional participation in evaluate the effectiveness of this positive and 23% negative) also were class. 68.3 % felt the method did not teaching method. favorable. Most students felt there was affect their participation, but the 22% no change in instructor effectiveness as who said the method decreased par- Before the final exam the students the course progressed (55% no change). ticipation were more than double completed a survey about the use of the However, of those who perceived a the 9.8% reporting increased partici- Macintosh and Persuasion as a teaching change in effectiveness, more students pation. In the second half-course only tool. The surveys were distributed at in the first half-course felt the effec- one student responded positively, while the same time as the university's course tiveness improved, while more students six said participation was hampered. evaluation forms. The survey ques- in the second half- course felt the method tioned the students' perceptions of the became less effective. The factors causing the positive and method's effect upon various aspects negative comments also are instruc- of their learning and upon instructor Student perceptions of how this teach- tive. Overwhelmingly, the most fre- performance. Students also were asked ing method affected the course were quently mentioned positive factor was to compare the method to those used in generally positive.The strongest the Persuasion outline handouts given other courses taught by the author and positive perceptions were shown in the to the students. Handouts were a key by others, to assess its effectiveness for student perceptions of how much they factor cited in how much the students various tasks and to rate the manner in learned (61.9 % positive, 9.5% negative) learned, retaining and recalling the which the method was used. The sur- and in ability to retain and recall course course material, and making the mate- vey questionnaire was used. (Please material and concepts (59.5% positive, rial less difficult. Use of the color visual see note at the end of the footnotes Ed.) 7.1% negative). Most students felt the aids was the next most frequently Results from the third 1992 course have method made learning the material less mentioned factor, followed by "or- not yet been compiled. This section difficult as well (53% positive, 26.5% ganized", "permits better listening" and will discuss the results of the first two negative). "easy to follow". Negative responses 1992 courses. most frequently mentioned were an over reliance on the handouts which

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 145 157 hurtattention inclass. An equal number of law, describing legal relationships CONCLUSION of responses found the presentations and explain rules of legal liability- (mid- Using personal computers and presen- boring. Other noteworthy negative re- waybetween "very good" and "good"). tationsoftwaregives teachers new ways sponses concerned difficulty seeing the The effectiveness rating was roughly to enhance their classroom perform- monitors, the speed of instruction, equal for all three tasks. The method ance. This project demonstrated that amount of material and lack of exam- was rated least effective for discussing using the Macintosh and Aldus Per- ples. cases and problem (midway between suasion presentation software to pro- "fair" and "good"). duce color visual aids is an effective The students most frequently cited the teaching tool. From this project, better handouts as the greatest strength of the The students were surveyed regarding ways to use this method effectively method. Students also said the method the manner in which this teaching werediscovered and the tasksfor which was organized, allowed for better lis- method was used. Their most signifi-computer generated visual aid s are best tening, was easy to follow and allowed cant concerns were the amount of ma- suited were identified. With further them to concentrate better. No single terial covered, the speed in lecturing refinement, use of this method can aspect of the method was stood out as about the screens and the speed in create an efficient and dynamic class- its greatest weakness. The most fre- changing screens. Efforts to slowdown room in which the use of color helps quently mentioned weaknesses were in the second half-course reduced criti- students and learn and retain more that the method was more impersonal, cism regarding speed, but the students information.As these experiments boring, and ill-suited for doing dia- still felt too much material was covered. continue, the personal computer will grams. A second concern was the amount of prove to be a useful tool for teacher layering. Even though much of the who wish to be both more efficient and Students viewed this teaching method layering was eliminated during the more effective in the classroom. favorably when comparing it to other second half-course, students still found methods. Students in the first half- it problematic. The amount of content FOOTNOTES course found the method more effec- on each screen and the use of color 1 Apple and Macintosh are tive than lecture alone, lecture and were well received. The students rated registered trademarks of Apple blackboard, lecture and overheads and the handouts very highly. Computer Inc. lecture with overheads and handouts. 2 Aldus, Persuasion, and The use of visual aids appears to affect To summarize, the student surveys AutoTemplate are registered student opinion of effectiveness since indicated useof the computer generated trademarks of Aldus Corporation. 3 the method was rated much better than visuals will have a positive effect on MORE is a trademark of lecture alone. The differencesdecreased how the students view the instructor's Symantec Corporation. as visuals were added to the lecture performance. They believe the method 4 PowerPoint is a registered format by using the blackboard and helps them learn and retain the course trademark of Microsoft overheads. material while making it seem less Corporation. difficult. Attention to lectures and in- 5Antonoff, 'Presentations that The computer generated visuals were terest in the class were adversely af- Persuade", Personal Computing, rated slightly more effective than the fected for a substantial minority of pp. 60-68 (July 1990). lecture format with overheads and students. This may be addressed by 6Dwyer. F.M., The Effect of Image handouts. This was true both for those varying classroom presentations to in- Size on Visual Learning, Journal who also had taken Business Law with clude more participation in the form of of Experimental Education 39: 36 - theauthorand fornewstudents. Similar cases, problems and discussions. Stu- 41. results were found in the second half-dents love handouts, but handouts 7Casanova, J., and Casanova, S.L., course with one notable exception. cause some students to lose interest in "Computer as Electronic Students who had taken Business Law class because they have the lecture Blackboard: Remodeling the with the author found the method to be material already.The method was Organic Chemistry Lecture", slightly less effective than using over- preferred when compared to other Educom Review, p. 38 (Spring heads with handouts. This result is lecture formats both with and without 1991). attributed to the lesser degree of inter- use of other visual aids. Students found 8 Casanova, J., and Casanova, S.L., action with the class in dealing with the method unsuitable for facilitating "Computer as Electronic cases and problems than in the first discussion of cases and problems in Blackboard: Remodeling the half-course. class. The problems identified in the Organic Chemistry Lecture, manner of use of the method were ex- Educom Review, p. 31 (Spring The students rated the method most cessive speed both in lecturing and 1991). 9 effective for the task of defining legal changing slides and overuseof layering. Antonoff, 'Presentations that terms (nearer to "very good" than And, of course, the students as usual Persuade", Personal Computing, "good"). The method was slightly less would rather cover less material. p. 68 (July 1990). effective for the tasks of explaining rules

146 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 5 R n Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for 10 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for 16Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for Improving Visual Learning, p. Improving Visual Learning, pp. Improving Visual Learning, p. 34, 140 State College: Learning 100-101, State College: Learning State College: Learning Services ( Services ( 1978). Services ( 1978). 1978). 23 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for 11 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for 17 Casanova, J., and Casanova, S.L., Improving Visual Learning,'p. Improving Visual Learning, p. "Computer as Electronic 143; State College: Learning . 149, State College: Learning Blackboard: Remodeling the Organic Chemistry Lecture, Services ( 1978). Services ( 1978). 24 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for 12 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for Educom Review, p. 38 (Spring Improving Visual Learning, p. Improving Visual Learning, p. 1991). 229, State College: Learning 149, State College: Learning 18 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for Services ( 1978). Services ( 1978). Improving Visual Learning, p. 73, State College: Learning Services 25 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies or 13 Berry, L.H., "Visual Complexity Improving Visual Learning, p. 15, and Pictorial Memory: A Fifteen 1978). State College: Learning Services ( Year Research Perspective" 19 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for Proceedings of Selected Research Improving Visualtearning, p. 1978). Presentations at the Annual 150, State College: learning Convention of the Association for Services ( 1978). Editor's Note A copy of the survey questionnaireis Educational Communications and 20 Katzman, N., and Nyenhuis, J., available from the author who Technology, p. 7 (1991). "Color vs. Black-and-White may be contacted at the School of 14 Dwyer, F. M., Strategies for Effects on Learning, Opinion, and Business Law, Curtin University Improving Visual Learning, p. Attention", AV Communication of Technology, Perth, Western 147, State College: Learning Review, p.19 (Spring 1972). Australia or the University of St. Services ( 1978). 21 Vogel, D.R., Dickson, G.W., and Thomas , St. Paul, Minnesota, 15 Katzman, N., and Nyenhuis, J., Lehman. J. A., 'Persuasion and "Color vs. Black-and-White the Role of Visual Presentation Effects on Learning, Opinion, and Support: The UM/3M Study", p. Attention", AV Communication 10, University of Minnesota Review, 20:. 16, 18 (Spring 1972). Management Information Systems Information Research Center.

147 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 TEACHERCHANGE: PHILOSOPHY AND TECHNOLOGY BY HELEN MCDONALD, a secondary English teacher and currently a Ph.D. student from Monash University, has been conducing research at Methodist Ladies' College, Melbourne in the field of educational change.

This paper looks at the relevance of a gardens", changing things they can firm philosophical foundation as a ba- control - small pieces of the syllabus; sis for technological change. It also notes additions to a program - safe innova- the importance of action-research in re- tions that are manageable. (Huberman, assessing the purposes, beliefs and 1992, p.5) By so doing they avoid the practices of teachers. Much of the re-roller-coaster ride of major change search referred to relates to a case study which may exhilarate one minute, and of Methodist Ladies' College, Mel- plunge innovators to the depths of de- bourne, where a program based on in- spair the next. dependent learning and utilizing laptop Computers and their computers has been operating since At Methodist Ladies' College in Mel- related technology may 1990. bourne, the roller coaster ride is man- datory for all staff. The climate at this be relatively new to the Change can be achieved on many lev- school is demanding but it also encour- educational scene, but els, from a superficial adoption of a few ages risk-taking, supports innovators, the process of change is visible facets, to a complete assimila- invites experimentation, copes with mistakes/problems and celebrates not. Persuading people to tion of the change which challenges and alters old structures and existing achievement. Envisioned as "a learn- change is rarely an easy beliefs. Real change must go below the ing place for teachers as well as stu- task. Change can seem surface, beneath the adoption of hard- dents" (Loader, 1993, p.6), M.L.C. threatening, it can bring ware and software, beyond the acqui- seems to have developed an institu- sition of new skills. For teachers it means tional capacity to innovate. Coping insecurity, anxiety and a looking at learning and re-examining with change appears to improve with great deal of hard work its processes. practice and many of the existing staff The process of change is are well-versed in the process. The 1 need three more days in the cycle administration both supports and en- personal and time-con- to be able to get through all of this! 1 feel like courages (or some may say pressures) suming, requiring com- 1 can never do anything properly: I'm just active participation in innovative programs and has established formal mitment and support. skimming over the surface. I haven't got time to read what I need to read and I networks to facilitate change. That is Thus to embark on what haven't got time to digest it. Look at this pile not to say that all change at M.L.C. is may be a difficult process of work I have to get through! successful, nor does it come without the associated "pain and disorder" (and perhaps a stimulat- Please - no more change! We haven't got through the last one yet. I need to have time which are "healthy signs" of school ing and exciting one) to think about what I am doing instead ofimprovement. (Huberman, 1992, p.6) requires a conviction that changing it every five minutes! (M.L.C.teacher Feb. '93) The particular change upon which this the journey will be worth paper focuses is o ne of many occurring it - a belief that the out- To many teachers, frequent change is at M.L.C. and should be seen in that comes are worth achiev- not an attractive proposition. It is too context. The innovation centres upon ing. demanding, too exhausting and often constructionist thinking and the en- doesn't seem worth the effort. Change couraging of effective independent takes time and it often requires the re-learning at Junior Secondary level linquishing of control. No wonder that (Years 7 and 8), although both concepts some teachers prefer to "cultivate their are not exclusive to this section of the

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 149 school. Linked significantly to thisconstructing and reflecting . In fact, As one M.L.C. teacher stated: philosophical base is the integration of "independent" learning is perhaps, a laptop computers and the use ofmisnomer as the relationship with You can't put a kid in a classroom Logo Writer. teacher and peers is more "inter-de- with a laptop and LogoWriter and expect pendent" and co-operative. miracles to happen. The computer itself The Principal, David Loader, speaks doesn't do a thing for you. It needssonwone enthusiastically of M.L.C's move to- Computers and other forms of technol- to make it happen, someone to give you wards a moreconstructionist approach, ogy, were seen as having strong po- ideas. It needs aphilosophy of how and why which centres upon the individual tential in assisting the implementation we are doing it - it needs an aim. It needs student's learning: of these beliefs and so were introduced people who know how to go about achkving concurrently. In 1989 a pilot class was it. This approach is based upon taught by a team of three, following the (Interview: 2/4/92) Piaget's "constructivism" where knowl- ethos of independent learning. Four edge is "built by the learner, not supplied computers were located in the class- And so the teachers who worked in the by the teacher." This idea has further been room as a resource and the program Junior Secondary School had to as- extended by Seymour Papertto Logo Writer, was used. similate the views of constructionism "constructionism" which includes "the and independent learning with their further idea that this happens especially In 1990, four Year 7 classes took the own personal educational outlook. For felicitously when the learner is engaged in innovation on board, with one classa few - particularly the initiators who the construction of something external or using laptop computers. School policy were involved in the pilot program - at kastshareabk ...a sand castk , a machine, requested that each student in this class the philosophy, the technology and a computer program, a book." (Polin,1990. own their own laptop computer at an their own educational outlooks were p.6) initial cost of approximately $1,500. The compatible from the outset. For others, success of the project and subsequent the task was not so easy. The idea of knowledge being constructed by parent demand saw nine out of 10 the student shows appropriate respect for classes in 1991 and 1992 using laptops, Some accepted the philosophy, but the intellect of the learner and reflects the while the remaining classes had daily shied away from the laptops and the subjective and evolutionary view taken of access to the computer network. In 1993, technology entailed. Others embraced knowledge. The student, in such a view, is all year 7 students use their own laptop the computers, seeing the technology not a passive recipient of data but a computer. LogoWriter has been inte- in terms of professional development constructionist trying to understand her grated into English and the Humani- and as a means of enhancing their world, having meaningful experiences, ties (History, Biblical Studies and Ge- teaching. A third group wished only to making personally significant connections, ography), Mathematics, Science. and continue "cultivating their gardens", developing mental models, collaborating some L.O.T.E.. In teacher terms, the and tended to accept the trappings of with others in an enriched teacher sup- team expanded each year, attracting the change without significantly alter- ported social setting. (Loader, like-minded staff until the change being practice. D. 1993, p.4) came policy and all Junior Secondary teachers became involved. However, there does seem to be a point In M.L.C.'s Junior Secondary School, where these paths can merge. Once this view became woven into the phi- Many people both within and outside teachers have come to grips with the losophy of independent learning. The the M.L.C. community tended to view more operational aspects of the change aim was to create a learning environ-the highly visible laptops as "the(whether it be computers or inde- ment which highlighted individualchange". Some labelled it as a "gim- pendent learning) , they begin to build differences rather than suppressing mick" or an "enrolment booster" - part the mental models necessary to provide them. Students were encouraged toof a technological bandwagon that inroads into the other aspect of the work effectively without constant di- would provide a clear advantage to change. For example, the teacher who rect instruction. They could set their those who were a part of it. However, embraces computers soon comes to re- own working pace, have some flexibil- those who initiated the program would alize that students can and do work ity in areas of study, and pursue options argue that the laptops were introduced more independently with the laptop. which motivated them - all within a only to facilitate and enhance the possi- The flexibility provided in recording, framework provided by the teacher. bilities created by independent learn- generating and presenting information "Learning experiences" were empha- ing. In many ways, laptops were not allows students more scope. The me- sized rather than "teaching programs" the change: the change was in thinking, dium also seems to encourage more as students were encouraged to take in learning and in teaching. The tech- frequent interaction among peers -such responsibility for their own learning. nology supported the change as a rich as group problem solving. Whether in- Their role became more active: observ- resource. tentionally or not, the teacher's role in ing, participating, working together, the classroom changes. No longer the expert, the teacher must learn to facili- '1,:fit& 150 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

4t tate. No longer the instructor, the become skilled with the technology, To meet the needs of all teachers, a teacher guides. The philosophy of in- they begin to use it in all subjects. A support system must continue to pro- dependent learning becomes relevant teacher who does not encourage com- vide opportunities for staff to tap into a and the reality of the classroom makes puter-use soon becomesvisible and has learning network which allows par- the connection between beliefs and to deal with a situation where students ticipants to obtain new knowledge and practice. expect consistency of approach both in skills as the need arises. Cary Stager classroom operation and learning style. (Interview: 1991) described it as "cast- Alternatively, for those who believed Students do not react well to a student- ing small nets" - to encourage teachers, in the philosophy, the value of laptops centred approach in five classes and at the point where they feel ready, to and Logo Writer quickly becomes ap- the traditional teacher-centred ap-"have a go" and to be part of the parent. As students use LogoWriter in proach in one. emerging culture. New staff entering most subjects, they begin to utilize its the school must also be catered for, as functions across subject boundaries. This reticent teacher group, although they bring with them knowledge and Teachers do not need a great deal of not experiencing the changes firsthand, skills which may further build the cul- technical expertise to allow the laptop can not fail to observe the educational ture, but may also need support to ac- to be used as a tool in their classes. They outcomes as they become apparent. quire the skills necessary to teach in the do not need to be master programmers Subject meetings soon include frequent established program. to mark a piece of work on disk. As they demonstrations of successful programs see the technology assisting students generated by colleagues; the staffroom Hence, although the school succeeded with organization, drafting and prob- conversations introduce the jargon as- in providing a solid and appropriate lem solving, it quickly becomes ap- sociated with both constructionism and philosophical foundation for the intro- parent that its link with independent computers and the administration be- duction of technology, teachers often learning is a valid one. gins to insist that all reports are gener- had to work with laptops and within ated using a computer. As the culture the new structures - forging their own The third group,teachers who are of the school alters, those who avoided links and meanings. As Fullan (1992: p. resistant to the change, can be quite the change feel increasingly "left be- 25) states "It seems that most people do successful in limiting changes to prac- hind". tice but only for a short time. As students This process where the divergent paths tend to converge may be illustrated diagramatically: Figure 1:

Teachers: Teachers resistant motivated by to the change. Computers 1

Initiators with strong A teacher culture based on the beliefs in: philosophy of constructionism 1)Indep. Learning & and independent learning, and Constructionism utilizing technology to support 2. Technology these aims.

Teachers: New teachers motivated by entering the school. Philosophy

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 151 162 not discover new understandings until However, the point in the change proc- are influenced by the provision of a set they have delved into something. In ess where that meaning is obtained is of beliefs and concepts, proposed as a many cases, changes in behaviour pre- not set or fixed. If a school's philosophy foundation for teaching and learning, cede rather than follow changes in be- is based on constructivism, then teach- so does their experience influence and liefs." Some teachers also need to see ers too must be encouraged to build alter the educational philosophy. Ac- outcomes emerging before committing their own mental models and develop tion-research may result in the exten- themselves personally. their own meanings and beliefs. This sion of ideas, changes in emphases, the includes the active provision of experi- rejection of some concepts and the inte- The importance of "beliefs" and ences which confront theory and allow gration of others. And so the cycle of "understandings" is central to the suc- for the evaluation and re-evaluation of theory and practice continues, con- cess of a change process. As Michael aims and purposes. As teachers constantly evolving. Fullan states: duct and share their own action-research, meanings can beexchanged and Fullan and Miles (1991) describe All substantial innovations a culture extended which includes and "change" as "a process of coming to have underlying beliefs, rationales or accepts the experiences and beliefs of grips with new personal meaning ... a philosophies...(Those involved will ) all participants. learning process." It requires the par- have to come to understand and be- ticipants to alter their purposes, de- lieve in the new assumptions and In such a learning environment one velop commitment to new ways and to ideas that underline that reform. needs to see learning philosophy as "unlearn old beliefs and behaviours." fluid and as changing. Just as teachers (Fullan and Miles, 1991. pp10-12) As Fullan, M.G 1991, p.2

Figure 2

Educational philosophy which underpins the change.

Sharing of ideas and concepts Direct experience: leads to re-evaluation of Learning and doing. purposes and, in turn, alters the base philosophy.

Construction of own personal beliefs and mental models.

such it requires great effort from indi- The process of change is not easy as the It's exciting, but you wonder how long viduals who must cope with anxiety, comments below indicate: people can maintain this enthusiasm and d ifficulties a nd uncertainty as they seek commitment... you wonder how long , not only to introduce an innovation It was the most frustrating thing teachers can keep up the pace and the but to change the culture oftheir I've ever been through. There was a lot of pressure. The environment for the kids is schools. expectation placed on teachers ... the ap- fantastic - they have exciting experiences, proach was made compulsory, but where do computer experiences and all that. But the To embark on major change - to take on you find the time to build new skills? It was teacher workload is very, very high. board new ideas and skills is demand- assumed we would do it, assumed that you (Interview 19/3/92) ing. Change takes effort and a great would understand and be able to cope - but deal of commitment. Anxiety, uncer- some people did not understand and some If the process of change is to be experi- tainty, frustration, overload, lack of didn't cope and some didn't really try. enced as accomplishment rather than skill, complexities, incompatibility: all (Interview 6/12/91) frustration, a strong sense of purpose were experienced in the M L.C. study.

152 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 needs to be accompanied by manySupport must be planned for, but it Encouragement can take many forms practical considerations. must be flexible enough to serve a va- but, as in a financial transaction, people As Linda Darling-Hammond writes: riety of needs at the same time. As need to be able to see a definite return needs change and new demands are for time and effort invested. Learning ...the process of change is slow made, so support structures must adapt, outcomes need to be monitored and and difficult. It requires perseverance, for it is only after attempts are made to recorded, changes in relationships and and it requires investments in those implement change, that we come to roles need to be discussed - and adap- things that allow teachers, as change - understand more clearly what we need tation must occur as needs dictate. In agents, to grapple with the transforma- to know. this regard, the role of action-research tions of ideas and behaviour: time for is critical to ensure that theory and learning about, looking at, discussing, Teachers, like all learners, should beclassroom reality support each other. struggling with, trying out, construct- given the opportunity to make sense of ing, and reconstructing new ways ofchange. Whether a philosophy of REFERENCES: thinking and teaching. learning and teaching, or a technology- Darling-Hammond, L. (1990) Instruc- L. Darling-Hammond 1990 p.240 based innovation, staff must be allowed tional Policy Into Practice: The to experiment, to make mistakes, to power of the bottom over the top, In practical terms M.L.C. did much to explore and to discover. Structures need Educational Evaluation and Policy support staff with workshops, rebates to be developed which allow for the Analysis.vol. 12 no 3 Fall 1990 for computer purchase, educational free exchange of ideas and experiences A.E.R.A. pp. 233-252. courses, classroom support, access to in a supportive environment. Fullan, M. (1991) Overcoming Barriers information and a network of people to Educational Change. University who could provide assistance. The initial motivation to participate in of Toronto: Pa percom missioned by Most activities were voluntary and re- change may come from many direc- the Office of the Under Secretary of peated, thus allowing staff to join in tions, but a climate should exist where the U.S. Dept. of Education. when the experience would be most participants can feel that their in- Fullan, M. (1992) Successful School meaningful and/or convenient. One of volvement in the change has purpose Improvement. Open University the most worthwhile professional de- and will provide benefits. To ensure Press, Philadelphia. velopment options was the running of relevance and a valid framework for Fullan, M.G. and Miles, M.B. (August residential workshops, which took staff change, the existence of a clear phi- 1991) Getting Educational Reform away from their usual commitments losophy needs to be shared with those Right: What works and what and provided the time "to play" with involved. Nor should the change or the doesn't. Submitted to Phi Delta Logo Writer and discuss philosophies philosophy be viewed as a static pack- Kappan. of learning in a supportive environ- age which is to be "learned" or imple- Huberman, M. (1992) Critical intro- ment. As well as formal structures, mented. Meanings and beliefs need to duction to Fullan, M. (1992) Suc- personal networks emerged, through emerge through experience and prac- cessful School Improvement. Open which teachers could obtain informa- tice: they need to be shared and they University Press, Philadelphia. pp. tion without feeling anxious or incom- need to be challenged. 1-20. petent.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 153 1 CA OBJECTORIENTED PROGRAMMING TEACHING OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING USING EIFFEL AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING TO UNDERGRADUATES BY PETER MCKENZIE M0418141University Franiston McMahon Rd Frankston Victoria 3199

In fact most students express fears about Note that technically what we are re- abandoning their well known, tried and ferring to as an object is reallya class. So trusted procedural methods. What is it we have a class of banks, customers Pr about 0-0 that makes it so different? and accounts. The object is really a This paper examines some of the major specific run-time instance of that class. underpinnings of 0-0 in an attempt to explain what 0-0 is. Now that we have some idea of what an object is, what else do we need to WHAT IS THE OBJECT ORIENTED know about 0-0. Booch (1991) lists PARADIGM? four elements considered essential to To start with, let us examine a familiar the 0-0 model: Object Oriented pro- method used to break a problem down 1 Abstraction gramming is fast becom- for coding. That is the Top Down ap- 2 Encapsulation ing the 'flavour of the proach. The top down approach breaks 3 Modularity down the problem to its lowest atomic 4Inheritance month with industry. level and uses techniques such as struc- Many vendors are selling turecharts and pseudo code to represent The rest of this paper will examine each products that now have this breakdown. How is Object Oriented of these four elements in turn, starting different? Well firstly we must ask, what with abstraction. Abstraction is con- object oriented attached. is meant by an object. sidered the most important because it So, it would be reason- allows us to break problems down into able to assume that most Meyer (1988) suggests that the objects less complex parts thus making the are the things we want to model in our overall problem easier to solve. people are familiar with problem statement. Booch (1983) sug- the basic tenets of the gests that objects are the nouns from the ABSTRACTION Object Oriented para- problem statement. I will use an ex- When we use top down decomposition ample to illustrate. we are using a type of abstraction. For digm. Yet when students example high level boxes on a structure come to classes to learn Say that we want to write a program to chart are abstractions that are simpli- about Object Oriented (0- model a banking system. In our system fied further down the structure chart. we would have a bank, some accounts Each level that we go down in the 0) programming they are and customers of the bank who open, structurechartbecomes more concrete, not at all familiar with close and use the accounts. So in an 0- that is includes more about the. how. these concepts. Oa pproach bank, account and customer would be the objects that we want to What we want to know is what the class code. After deciding that these objects is going to do, not how it is going to it. are going to be the basis of our program The how is left to the concrete stage. we might ask how are the details going What then relates the what to abstrac- to be stored. Should we set up some tion? The relationship is how the con- external files to hold customer and accept of abstraction highlights those count details? No. In the 0-0 approach things that we think are important and the data is combined with the method. ignores everything else. This high- So for example, the object bank when lighting gives us an overview of the coded would have some sort of list problem, thus making the entire prob- structure embedded in it that held thelem more easily understandable. customer's details. This list is not separate from the object but contained as part of it.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 155 The important thing then, is to decideAs account is at such a general level we lation allows us to hide how the class what are the essential features of ourmay then use it as a template, later on, carries out its function, while provid- abstraction and what behaviours theyfor more specific types of accounts such ing enough information in the are allowed to exhibit. Let us use theas Savings, Cheque, and Automatic interface for the class to be used by bank example, and make the class ac- teller. If we had defined it at a more other programs. See figure 2 for an count into an abstraction. We ask our-concrete level at this stage, such reuse example. selves; what are the essential featureswould have been very difficult if not ofan account? 'Theanswer; each accountimpossible. This dichotomy gives the program- must have a customer, identified by mer much greater freedom. For some unique numberBy itself however, abstraction is not example, if at some later stage the (account_number) and contain someenough, we need to ally it with other implementation has to be changed money (balance). These features pro-concepts (encapsulations, modularity then the change can be made without vide us with an abstraction of a generaland inheritance) to make a true object affecting other programs using that bank account. oriented model. Encapsulation class. strengthens the abstraction by allow- We then need to enquire, what behav-ing the implementation details to be Note that in figure 2 the method used to iours are these features allowed to ex-hidden from the user. store and access accounts is internal to hibit. That is, what operations can be the class ie they are fully encapsulated. performedonaccountusing ENCAPSULATION This technique means that external us- account_number and balance? The op-Encapsulation is sometimes refe.red ers require no knowledge of how the erations that an account could use are:to as information hiding. account is stored to access it. They just open, close, withdraw, deposit, andThis is not strictly correct. Information have to correctly use the interface to check balance and interest. hiding allows a module to keep secret implement whatever method they have all of its information. If any data is to chosen to use. We have also deferred This information is then combined tovisible externally then it must be ex- the implementation of interest until later provide an abstraction of a bank ac-plicit declared. Encapsulation is the as we do not know what type of account count. See figure 1 for an illustration ofprocess of placing all the relevant code we have yet. our account abstraction. Note that nomodules for a class together. code is included at this stage, just the There is a problem with the use of en- general outline of what an accountFor this to work though we must capsulation by itself however. The in- might look like. In fact when the sys-have two components to our class. troduction of procedures and functions tem is fully coded account may still beOne the interface for external access allowed for the possibility of partial a fully abstract type with no code at all,and two the internal implementation encapsulation. The problem that ap- (all operations deferred) or a partiallyof the class. We can say that encapsu- pears with procedures is that they must abstract type with some operations allow access to the common data if they coded. allow access to the procedures. As we have seen above, in figure 2, encapsulation allows us to hide the implemen- Class Bank account tation details thus partially overcoming variables this problem. account_number : number balance : number If there were some way of grouping procedures procedures so those procedures that open accessed the common data could be joined together in some manner, we clo se could solve this problem.

withdraw MODULARITY Combining encapsulation with de posit modularity provides us with the ability to group common modules into a single checic_balance abstraction but keep the interfaces narrow. This links into Booch's defini- interest tion of modularity as "... a system that has been decomposed into a set of cohe- End class siveand looselycoupled modules" (1991 p53). Figurel

156 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1923 166 The client (class using the service) is passing a message to the supplier (class Class Bank account suppling the service) account asking * external view account to fire up the feature open and open (account_number,amount), use the two parameters passed to it. close (account_number) End of diversion. check_balance (account_number), withdraw (account_number, amount) Do we need to go any further then? deposit (account_number, amount) Yes. interest (account_number) What happens if the user wants to open * internal view a number of different accounts? variables Do we have to write a different pro- amount : number gram for each of the accounts that a account_number : number bank has? No. balance : number accounts : list [number, number] INHERITANCE procedures As mentioned previously we need to open ( account_number,amount) havesomemechanism for sharing code insert (account_number ,amount,accounts) when we create similar classes. Inherit- close (account_number) ance provides just the thing. delete (account_number, accounts) See figure 3 for an example. withdraw (account_number, amount) if may_withdraw See Henderson-Sellers (1992) fora more balance :- balanceamount complete discussion on the above ex- else ample. write "account will be overdrawn" endif When we analyse the problem com- deposit (account._number, amount) pletely we may find that all the above balance :- balance + amount accounts are required. In our procedural check_balance code we would then have to write code check_balance := balance five programs to handle each type of may_withdraw account. Using the 0-0 method we if balance > amount would use the existing code that we may_withdraw := true wrote for account in figure 2. This code else could then be passed down to the 'chil- may_withdraw := false dren' for them to use or extend. endif interest deferred An important feature shown in figure 3 End class is the use of multiple inheritance. The class ATM inherits features from both cheque and savings. So ATM can use Figure 2 methods defined in both its parents, From figure 2 we can see that the meth- access an account object with account cheque and savings. This reuse of code ods such as open and close have been number 1234 and a balance of $1000. is one of the major features of object placed into modules which relate di- What the user would not know and oriented programming. rectly to the account class. In fact some would not need to know is how the ofthesemodules,suchas account was stored or where it was Another point to note is that as we go may_withdra w, may be completely in- stored. down the hierarchy from account to visible externally, and only available ATM the methods in the classes be- for use within the class itself. A little diversion could be of interest come fu Ily cod ed . For example, interest here. The above example serves to il- would have to have some code before it So what we developed so far is an ab- lustrate how a typical feature in a class could be used. stract model with methods that may be is called. This fragment of code in some used but, with the implementation de- class has created an account object. We An example of how the class ATM tails hidden. A user could then code know that account has an external fea- might look is shown in figure 4. amountoped1234,1000) ture called open that accepts two numeric parameters. This is just like a in the knowledge that this would procedure call.

157 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

1 In figure 4 the class ATM inherits fea- SUMMARY tures from both cheque and savings as We have seen that the backbone of well as from account. So that an over-the 0-0 paradigm consists of four draft facility comes from cheque and a pieces. Each piece supports and PIN number comes from savings. There depends on the other for the true is another aspect concerning overdraft functionality of 0-0 to appear. that is of interest. That is that the feature has been altered from what it was in the Firstly, we saw that a model may be ancestor class. abstracted out to make it general. The important element to focus on at this This is part of the generalisation oflevel we noted was the what of the classes that inheritance allows. If a fea- problem not the how. The implemen- ture is too restrictive at the abstract tation details come later. level the feature may be altered, whilst still keeping its integrity and interfaceSecondly, the concept of encapsula- intact. We can also note, that inherit- tion was introduced. That is, the ance is a form of specialisation, where notion of a small interface with the for example, a passbook account is more outside world; as well as hiding how specific or not as general (abstract) as the program carries out its work. account.

ACCOUNT MOST ABSTRACT

CHEQUE SAVINGS

CONCRETE (LEAST ABSTRACT)

ATM PASSBOOK

Figure 3

The third piece, which is probably REFERENCES the most familiar, was creating the Booch (1983) Software Engineering class from modules the class. The with Ada Bejamin-Cummings: CA important point here was that all the Booch (1991) Object Oriented Design features relevant to a particular class with Applications Benjamin- were grouped together along with Cummings: CA, 580 pp. the data for that class. Henderson-Sellers (1992) Object- Oriented information systems: An The last component of our back- introductory tutorial Australian bone, and perhaps the strangest, Computer Journal 24.1.,12 -24 was inheritance. The important Meyer (1988) Object-Oriented Soft- concept of a parent class passing wareConstruction Prentice Hall: down code for its sibling to use was Hemel Hempstead, 534 pp. introduced.

158 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 168 Class ATM account inherit sayings, cheque * external view from parents open (account_number,amount), close (account_number) check_balance (account_number), withdraw (account_number, amount) deposit (account_number, amount) interest (account_number) pin_ok (pin) * internal view variables amount : number interest_amount : number account._number : number balance : number pin : number overdraft_limit : number - 500 accounts : list [number, number,number] * accounts has been extended toinclude pin number procedures * procedures from parent classes do nothave to be rewritten * so just add new ones for this class put_ok(pin) if pin = accounts.pin pin_ok :- true else pin_ok := false endif interest (account_number) interest_amount := balance * .002 add_interest (interest_amount) redefine may_withdraw if balance > amount + overdraft_limit may_withdraw :- true else may_withdraw := false endif * another internal routine invisible tothe outside add_interest (interest_amount) balance := balance + interest_amount End class

Figure 4

159 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 COMPUTER SIMULATIONS: DO THEY HAVE MERIT? BY ALLAN MORTON Lecturer, Department of Professional Studies, Facuky of Education U.W.S. Neiman

The result of another t test did indicate (1973, cited in Kistler, 1988), it is the ler that low ability students may benefit capacity of simulation to unite the cog- most from the incorporation of compu- nitive and affective that makes it a ter based activities in their learning powerful technique. environment. lor Kistler (1988) says a considerable Simulation is the artificial construc- interdisciplinary research base has tion of reality. According to Maguire emerged on the impact of educational (1989) true simulation "is the process simulations. In reviewing this literature, of designing a model for the purposes Kistler found evidence (Dekkers and Anumber of papers on of describing, explaining and predict- Donatti 1981) to suggest that while educational simulations were no more educational simulations ing the operation of a system" (p.111). Simulation does not reproduce reality effective than conventional methods, and computer simulations faithfully, rather it makes they were a superior teaching/learning were examined to estab- simplifications that imitate. In a class- strategy as a motivator, a view that was supported by Taylor (1972) and lish current areas of con- room setting, to aid the development and application of concepts and proc- Thiagarajan (1973). Other studies sug- cern. In this literature ess skills, a pre-designed model is of- gested the existence of more teaching/ there appeared to be clear ten presented, which mear... Zilat edu- learning advantages; greater pupil control over learning processes support for simulation cational simulations often mirror reality less closely than true simulations. (Broadbent, 1967), the provision of a only in the affective do- flexible tool for teaching and learning main, though there was no In any learning situation, the adoption (Harper, 1980; Heinich, 1985), the development of active student involve- conclusive evidence that of a particular strategy must be to the benefit students. Conolly (1988) be- ment (Bok, 1985) and transference of students do not gain in a lieves students gain from using educa- learning (Scriven, 1985). cognitive sense. An ex- tional simulation because it permits COMPUTER-BASED EDUCATIONAL perimental research study them to reconstruct experience, reflect and apply knowledge. Educational SIMULATION was undertaken to deter- simulation may promote learning in Kistler's evidence suggests there is a mine if computer simula- several aspects of the cognitive and place for educational simulation in the affective domains. curriculum. However, with the infil- tion results in improved tration of microcomputers into schools, cognitive performance. In the cognitive domain these can in- a new question is being asked. Lunetta The result of a t test for clude; the accumulation of facts and and Peters (1985) put it this way, "if we are to re-introduce the orreries of the independent samples experiences, handling abstract concepts, learning procedures, sequences past, now in computer-based form, it is showed no significant and strategies for thinking, and devel- fair to ask ... of this new medium, will improvement in cognitive oping an understanding of general it significantly enhance this old tool?" (p.31). They answer yes, saying the key performance between two principles and process. In the a ffective domain simulation can motivate, alter element is the interactive nature of the groups of students, one attitudes towards teacher and subject, computer. Shaw (1981) writing on the using a computer simula- and enhance confidence in making interactive benefits of computers, says interaction forces students into active tion and the other not. judgements. According to Adams

161 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 17i) participation in their learning and half used a computer-based simula- formance. The second group, "the causes them to operate at a higher level tion. In testingthegroupsonknowledge competitive group", was told their of intellectual activity than is often acquisition and health problem diag- grades would be determined from a achieved in more conventional learn- nosis, the learning difficulties simula- comparison between students and that ing environments. tion group not only did better than the bonuses would be given to students group using conventional methods, but who finished first. The last group, "the As a tool, computer-based simulation significantly outperformed the regular individualistic group" was to have their appears to be well suited to problem classroom group. While the results seem grades and bonuses determined solely solving activities, a view supported by conclusive, Woodward et al. emphasise on individual performance. Shaw(1981). Recent research has tended that it is not the computers that have to highlight this advantage. Rivers and most potential, but computers embed- Johnson et al. assessed student per- Vockell (1987, cited in Collis 1987 and ded within a framework of good formance on two aspects; the number Pollin 1989) used simulation to stimu- teaching practice. of worksheets completed and results late problem solving in science educa- on a final exam. On number of tion. They divided students into two Grummitt (1980), conducted a study worksheets completed, students in the groups, one using computers and theon secondary school geography stu- co-operative group completed the most, other studying similar topics usingdents to test the hypothesis that "stu- while students competing amongst conventional techniques. To measure dents taught by the computer simula- each other, completed the least. On students' problem solving skills, three tion method would have greater exam results, co-operative students did content specific pre-tests and post-tests, measurable gains in learning than best on factual questions and better the BSCS Process of Science Test, the comparable students taught by the than individualistic students on ques- test of Integrated Process Skills and the lecture and/or manual simulation tions requiring them to solve problems. Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Ap- method" (p.13). Data were gathered The study also found that girls in praisal were administered. from a population of 70 boys in 4th year competitive situations fared worse than (Year 10) geography at a single sex boys and developed poorer attitudes, a The results of the post-tests showed no school. Students were grouped into situation that did not manifest itself in significant gains in content-specific three homogeneous groups based on the co-operative setting. knowledge as a result of using simu- cognitive abilities testing. Using a pre- lation software. The tests used to assess test, post-test and delayed post-test In the second study, Bracey (1988) re- general problem solving though,design, the researcher was able to ported the findings of research demonstrated tl at students in theidentify a statistically signi. cant dif- (Mevarach, Stern & Levita, 1987), that computer simulation group were de- ference, which favoured the Computer considered questions related to co- veloping more generalisable problem Assisted Learning group. Furtheroperation between students using solving skills than the others. Based on analysis of the delayed post-test indi- computers. In this example, one-third this advantage, Rivers and Vockell cated that while computers in the of the students used a simulation alone, hypothesised that evidence of transfer classroom increased learning, particu- while the other two-thirds were might a ppearas improved performance larly regarding processes, they did not grouped in pairs for the simulation. on future pre-test scores. This trend did necessarily result in greater retention The study noted the development of emerge, suggesting that simulations can of knowledge. Grummitt therefore strong bonds between partners, while improve generic thinking skills and qualified the results, stating that ideally the partners' relationships with other allow students to transfer them to novel computers should be used with other class members remained unchanged. situations. methods of instruction. Favourable attitudes towards co-operative learning also developed in the Woodward, Carnine and Gerstein The organisation of computer-based paired students and while not statisti- (1988, cited in Collis, 1988) using a simulation within the learning envi- cally significant, the paired students similar methodology, found evidence ronment has been a catalyst for resea rch . outscored the others on achievement to support the view that computer This was the case in two studies re- tests. Asa result, the authors were able simulations can promote student ported on by Bracey (1988). In the first to conclude that small-group settings problem solving ability. They assigned study (Johnson, Johnson & Stanne can improve socialorientation, without a group of students with learning dif- (n.d.)), the researchers used threeproducing negative impacts on ficulties randomly to two groups. A groups of eighth grade students to in- achievement and attitudes. third group of regular students was teract with a computer simulation that used as an additional control. Both taught the fundamentals of navigation. Stead (1990) is one researcher who has learning difficulty groups shared the The first group, "the co-operative attempted to define the limits of com- same first half of twelve daily lessons group", was informed that each mem- puter simulation. Based initially on but during the second half one focused ber's grade would be derived from an observations of student performance on the diagnosis of health habits using average of all the students and that in the simulation, Running the British conventional techniques while the other bonuses would depend on group per- Economy 1987, Stead identified two

162 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 171 that has an established migrant back- that Village is an example of a resource factors, time pressure and the element allocation exercise (Edens and Gredler of the unexpected as limitations thatground. The subjects were 87 Year 9 Geography students. As some students 1990). Resource allocation exercises result in students keeping erroneous present a structured problem requir- ideas about what the simulation was were absent at critical times,78 completed the study. ing students to engage in higher order attempting to achieve. The study con- thinking. Learners must apply certain cluded that simulation would support principles appropriately and it is the CHOICE OF SIMULATION learning best when it facilitated the combination of particular principles integration of feedback from the simu- The computer simulation Village (Payne, Hutchings, & Ayre 1980), was that constitutes productive thinking lation with existing knowledge. Failing of selected for the study. This choice was and understanding of the interplay this, simulations should be structured choices. Asa result, students should be to give students time to reflect onandinitially influenced by the teaching/ learning programs used to implement able to apply principles in novel situ- discuss the data presented and that ations more readily than if the princi- some framework is needed tofacilitate the syllabus in Geography for Years 7 Education, ples had been learned within a re- these activities. to 10 (N.S.W. Department of 1983) and the availability of computer stricted context. software to satisfy syllabus objectives. Under the research microscope, the ef- While theoretically sound in it's defects of computer-based simulation ap- Village models the decision making velopment and application of concepts pears to be superior to conventional and process skills, the original version teaching in the affective domain, On involved in selecting a site for a settlement. Students are given data on a of Village contained a number of defi- thecognitive side, however, the positive ciencies that were embodied in a lack impact appears to be a less apparentmethod for calculating optimal locations for settlement in about 600 AD. - of user friendliness. Attempts to im- and favourable results are often quali- prove the sophistication ofthe pro- fied. It is therefore not altogether clear this being a period in which such an activity would have been undertaken gram, occurred throughmodifications whetheritudents engaged in computer though and when thevariables to be considered to the original source code, simulations learn more effectively than these were limited by time and the do students engaged in traditional would necessarily be limited to the availabilityof water, grazing and arable researcher's expertise. In short, data teaching approaches. To address this was better structured so it couldbe question, a small study was conductedland, fuel and building materials. The simulation recognises that siting a presented in meaningful screen to examine whether differences in chunks, and limited textual graphics, achievement on test scores exist be- village is a compromise between the were added. tween students whose learning expe-relative location of resources. Students make selections based on information riences involve computer-based INSTRUMENTS AND LEARNING ACTIVMES simulations and students whosepresented to them and the simulation quantifies these and labels it an effi- In order to assess the effect of computer learning experiences do not involve simulation on student achievement., a ciency score. computer-based learning. The study criterion referenced test was devel- used an experimental pre-test-post-test oped, to be used as a pre and post test, control group design to measure theTo promote informed choice, the simulation provides data ore resource by the researcher with the assistance of effect of an independent variable, several teaching colleagues and computer simulation - on studentavailability before students elect to evaluated before implementation. An achievement. select three sites for a village. Another opportunity is then offered as a means instrument which had been validated and considered reliable, was not In order to keep thestudy manageable, of evaluating the initial choices. Next, available. it was decided at the outset to accept the simulation p resents d a ta on how to calculate the efficiency score used to that motivational and attitudinal gains The test consisted of a combination of exist from incorporating computers determine which locations are optimal sites. Two additional opportunities to short descriptions and one word an- and simulations into the curriculum swers. A I. ictogram of ahypothetical (Bramble, Mason & Berg 1985; Scriven, improve the site of the village are then presented. In the final stage, the region, containing information about 1987; Bracey, 1988; Magney 1990; site and situation factors was used to Roblyer 1990;). simulation asks students to consider the defence of the village. No guidance elicit student responses to the ques- on the effect of defence is given,instead tions. Questions were designed to as- METHOD students are asked to develop an un- sess the acquisition of thegeographic derstanding of the relationship be- concepts of Location, Movement and SAMPLE Interaction, at three cognitive levels; This study was completed using the tween defence and site efficiency by selecting another five sites. knowledge, application, and analysis resources of one school, a comprehen- and were constructed following ex- sive high school located in Sydney's The type of problems presented and tensive trialing and evaluation of the western suburbs, drawing students computer simulation. The choice of from a largely middle class population the range of possible solutions suggest 163 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 172 pictogram over maps, represented an and Walberg (1985, cited in Collis,1986) the day of the post-test. Furthermore, attempt to structure the test more to presented similar findings to the the scores of two students who sat the application and analysis than knowl- American Educational Research Asso- post-test but did not complete the edge, that is, to promote generic think- ciation, though they stated that two simulation activity were also omitted. ing skills and the transference of weeks or less was more beneficial. The learning (Rivers & Vockell, 1987, cited split between conventional and com- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in Collis, 1987; Scriven, 1985, cited in puter assisted learning techniques The means for the computer (experi- Kistler, 1988). arose from the work of Hartley (1978, mental) and non computer (control) cited in Fitzgerald et al. 1985), who groups on the post-test were 18.69 and Three sets of criteria for marking the concluded that students gained more 18.75 respectively. The difference of test were developed, one by the re- when the computer was used as a 0.06 was found to not be significant on searcher, one by the teacher of the non supplement to rather than a replace- a t test for independent samples, t (76) computer (control) group and another ment for traditional methods, a view = 0.055, p < 0. 95. This suggests there by the head teacher in Social Sciences. supported by Woodward et al. (1988, was no identifiable difference in the After consultation an agreed set of cited in Collis, 1988). group's scores that could be attributed criteria were established and used to to participation in the computer-based mark both the pre-test and the post- PROCEDURE simulation. test. Four weeks prior to introducing the Means for pre-test scores for the com- simulation, students were given the puter and non computer groups were Four, forty minute lessons were then pre-test. Upon completion of the pre- calculated at 11.49 and 11.69 respec- prepared, two lessons to identify site test, test scores were rank ordered, and tively. The differences between both and situation characteristics of settle- students paired from highest to lowest group's pre-test and post-test means ments, and two that involved a given before being randomly assigned to one would appear to suggest that each set of pre-defined characteristics to of two groups. All the tests were group did learn from their involvement determine the best location for a set- marked by the researcher. To ensure in the study, supporting the view that tlement using either a computer based validity, a sample of 9 tests, 3 per class, well planned teaching strategies do simulation or a pencil and paper ac- were randomly selected and doubled result in significant student achieve- tivity. In lesson one, both groups were marked by the teacher of the non- ment (Hartley 1978; Woodward et al., given a definition of site and situation, computer group. The group to corn - 1988, cited in Collis, 1988). Further- along with an example - Sydney. They plete the computer simulation - the more,itwouldsuggestthat were asked to complete a mapping experimental group - was then deter- simulations, whether they be compu- exercise that re-inforced the two con- mined by toss of a coin. ter based or use pencil and paper cepts. In lesson two, both groups were techniques, can promote effective asked to apply their understanding of Students were asked to work in peer learning. The addition of a third group site and situation to a novel example of selected pairs or three to complete the to a study would have been necessary a camping site. To keep instruction activities. This served twin purposes. to provide substantive support for this and materials as similar as possible, Firstly, research evidence suggests that viewpoint. the same lesson outlines were used in students gain more when in group lessons one and two, In lessons three situations that involve either comput- Indications that each group improved and four the computer group com- ers or simulations (Leong 1981 cited in by a similar amount, raised concerns pleted a computer-based simulation, Fitzgerald et al. 1985, Bracey, 1988; about the quality of Village as a com- and the non-computer group a pencil Lidstone, 1990;) and secondly the puter-based simulation. In discussing and paper activity. The same lesson number of computers available in the the operation of the non-computer outlines were used, adjusted for the computer laboratory, was limited. To activity, it became apparent that stu- differences in presentation. minimise the impact of gender issues dents used hand held calculators to (Bracey, 1988.) single sex groups were complete computations. It would ap- The rationale for four lessons was established. To minimisc mortality, pear then, that the modifications to based on research on the effectiveness groups were formed at the beginning improve the sophistication and user of computers in the secondary class- of each lesson. friendliness of Village were more cos- room. A meta-analysis by Kulik, metic, and that the pre-designed model Bangert and Williams (1983, cited in The pre-test was given a second time in Village did not utilise the computa- Fitzgerald, Hattie and Hughes, 1985), as a post-test. This was done in the first tional power of the computer, when found that students using computer timetabled lesson after the treatment. compared with other classroom tech- assisted instruction outperformed the Students who did not complete the nologies. Future studies should there- average student in traditional class- pre-test were post-tested if present, but fore be aware of both the development rooms when the computer was used their results excluded. No attempt was of students' computational skills and for short periods of time - four weeks made to test those students who were the technology available to students or less. Samson, Niemiec, Weinstein present for the pre-test, but absent on and use simulations that require more

164 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 173 complex skills or involve the manipu- REFERENCES Lidstone, J. (1989). Using computers in lation of a far greater number of vari- Bracey, G.W. (1988). Two studies show geography teaching. In J. Fien, R. ables, views supported by Howard students gain when teaming up. Gerber & P. Wilson (Eds.), The ge- (1987) and Hodson (1990), although Electronic Learning, 7 (1),19. ography teacher's guide to the class- the number of variables and the time Bramble, W.J., Mason, E.J., & Berg, P. room. (2nd ed.). Macmillan: Mel- required to complete the computations (1985). Computers inschools. bourne, 262 - 285. needs to also be considered (Stead McGraw-Hill: New York. Lunetta, V. N. & Peters, H. J. (1985). 1990). Collis, B. (1986). Research Windows. Simulations in education: Sharp- The Computing Teacher,13 (9),10 -11. ening an old tool. Curriculum Re- Although not initially part of the study, Collis, B. (1987). Research Windows. view, (Mar/Apr) 30-34. research findings by Burns and The Computing Teacher, 15 (2), 42. Magney, J.(1990). Game-based Bozeman (1981, cited in Fitzgerald et Conolly, G. (1988). Games and teaching.The Education Digest,55(5), al. 1985) and Samson et al. (1985, cited simulations for geography teachers. 54-57. in Collis, 1986) suggest that less able The Geography Bulletin. 20 (3), 163- Maguire, D.J. (1989). Computers in ge- students improve significantly more 170. ography. Harlow, Essex: Longman. on test scores as a result of learning Edens, K.M. & Gredler, M.B. (1990). A N.S.W. Department of Education. experiences that include computers mechanism for screening micro- (1983). Syllabus in geography: Years 7 than more able students. To examine computer simulations. Educational to 10. Sydney. author. whether the effect was present in this Technology, 30 (5), 46-47. Payne, A., Hutchings, B., & Ayre, P. study, the pre-test and post-test scores Fien, J., Herschell, R., & Hodgkinson, J. (1980). Computer software for schools. of the students from the lowest aca- (1989).Usinggamesand Pitma: London, 143 -165. demic Geography class in Year 9 that simulations in the geography Pollin, L. (1989). Research Windows.The completed the entire treatment (13 classroom. In]. Fien, R. Gerber & P. Computing Teacher, 17 (4), 7-8. students) were isolated from the scores Wilson (Eds.), The geography teach- Ragsdale, R.G. (1982). Computers and of students in the other two academic er's guide to the classroom. (2nd ed.). education. In R. Lewis & E. D. Tagg classes (23 students and ttests com- Macmillan: Melbourne, 252-261. (eds.), Involving micros in education. pleted on the pre-test (t (34) = 5.03, p < Fitzgerald, D., Hattie, J., & Hughes, P. North Holland Publishing Com- 0.0001) and post-test (t (34) = 1.62, p < (1985). Computer applications in pany: Amsterdam, 191 - 196. 0.1141) scores. A significant difference australian classrooms. Australian Roblyer, M.D. (1990). The impact of between less able and more able stu- Government Publishing Service: microcomputer-based instruction dents did exist in the pre-test results, Canberra. on teaching and learning: A review which subsequently disappeared on Glenn, A.D. & Rakow, S.J. (1985). Com- of recent research. Educational the post-test. This would appear to puter simulations: Effective teach- Technology,30 (2), 54-55. suggest that the Village simulation ing strategies. The Computing &liven, M. (1987). Taking games seri- helped the lower achieving student Teacher, 13 (5), 58-59. ously. Educational Research and Per- more than the high achiever. This re- Grummitt, S.J. (1980). The computer in spectives, 14 (1), 82-135. sult, however should be interpreted the classroom: Some advantages of Shaw, K. (1981). Some educational uses with caution because of the size of the computer assisted learning (CAL) of computers in UK schools. South samples involved. for secondary school geography. Australian Science Teachers' Associa- Classroom Geographer, (Jan) 13-17. tion Journal. (Aug) 16-25. If computer-based simulations are to Hodson, D. (1990). Computer-based Stead, R. (1990). Problems with learn- be used in schools, then some guidance education in new zealand: A time ing from computer-based as to what to look for in a good simu- of transition and uncertainty. Jour- simulations: A case study in eco- lation is required. Teachers must ensure nal of Curriculum Studies, 22 (1), 67- nomics. British Journal of Educational that once a computer-based simulation 72. Technology, 21 (2), 106 .117. has been deemed satisfactory it is in- Howard, C. (1987). Computers and the Watson, D.M. (1982). Some implica- tegrated into good teaching practice humanities: Project work in the tions of micros on curriculum de- and that through thorough evaluation middle school. Educational Review, velopment.In R. Lewis & E. D. the relevancy of the simulation is 39 (2),127 -136. Tagg (eds.), Involving micros in edu- monitored with respect to student skill Kistler, J.R. (1988). Expanding the cation. North Holland Publishing levels and the range of technologies simulation: An interdisciplinary Company: Amsterdam, 197 - 203. available to students. As Lunetta and approach. Educational Technology, 28 Peters (1985), Ragsdale (1982) and (12), 23-25. Watson (1982) point out, if education is to use new tools in place of the old, then the new must result in an improvement of the educative process.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 165 174 UBIQUITOUS PERSONAL COMPUTING CAN WE 'SEE' HOW IT'S DIFFERENT? BY LIDDY NEVILE sunrise Research Laboratory, RMIT, Australia

INTRODUCTION time, the idea of 'computer as beam In 1990 I was working on a Logobalance' was novel. Over time, it has program with a Qc3C1 teacher whobecome the basis for many interesting Ir wanted something which would activities in his mathematics lessons. determine if his students (11 year-olds) Two years later I was in an audience to Fr had correctly transformed algebraic which this teacher (Mitchell, 1992) was expressions. I suggested he could use demonstrating his latest computational Logo to develop a set of 'algebraic 411/ scales' which would show the toy, what he called his 'open ca lculator'. Every child in the class he described equivalence of two expressions and had a personal, portable notebook com- then let the children use the programs Inthis paper 1 try to puter which could be used where and on their notebooks as they played about when the child chose. identify some aspects of trying to solve their equations. At the computing with personal, portable, notebook The speaker explained how he and his children construct algorithms computers which are not in their notebook computers and use / adapt them for many different purposes as they work their way through the mathematics curriculum. available in situations One man in the audience questioned what the children were learning. where only desktop computers are used. In For a few moments, the speaker was tossed. many cases, there are so He recovered and struggled to say that they were learning to organise themselves in the solving of problems, that they were participating n many similarities between the classroom culture in different ways, that children who might have desktop computers and been classified remedial were working hard and long and 'getting notebooks, eg the there', even setting higher standards for themselves.... He explained how the children often borrowed procedures from each other or from hardware specifications another context in which they had used them, .... might be the same, that we The original questioner was getting frustrated. overlook (or fail to He had asked a good question and he, along with many others in the recognise) the differences. audience, was waiting for the answer. Often what is missed is The questioner was concerned that programming was becoming the precisely what is sought focus of the work in the classroom described and that mathematics was by many of us who are no longer being done as he thought it should be. An 'interesting' using notebooks. debate arose: the classroom being described was one in which all children had been using their own notebook computers for two years and in which programming was accepted as just another form of expression. Were the sorts of difficulties they had equivalent but not in excess of those they might have had using English... But the speaker was trying to draw attention to something quite different.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 167 175 The differences betwr,en the classroom being described, and those from which The children were working on mathematics and had written procedures most members of the audience came, to use a random number generator for some activity. The visiting appeared too large for immediate ef- Mathematics person suggested that as a mathematician, he would like fective communication between the to know how often 6 occurred as one of the random numbers. "Out of teacher referred to and those in the how many turns?' the child asked. Within a couple of minutes there audience. It felt to manyas if the speaker was a procedure which recorded this data in addition to whatever was 'had missed the point', lost the plot. being done with it before. The mathematician went on: in one I became acutely aware of the lack of hundred turns? in one thousand turns? .. in fact he would like to be dialogue between the audience and the able to use a general procedure with which he could choose how many speaker, and wanted to work on the turns and get the number of occurrences of 6, or 4, or 2, if he so chose. 'technology' of the situation, what I He went off for coffee. call the a warenesses, the ways of When the adults returned to the classroom, a number of children were speaking and thinking, in the circum- observed to be working on their generalised procedures and busily stances. investigating frequencies and making comparisons between their data and that of others. I was sitting in the audience with a colleague: we were comfortable. I was familiar with the classroom being de- The classroom was now populated bya book, and it was done for fun. Perhaps scribed and he with this kind of new generation of children in their first it was done partly because 'that's what teaching/learning in the context of year with notebooks (the teachers were everyone is doing'. ubiquitous computing. We felt empa- in their third year of teaching with thy with the teacher and at odds with notebooks). I would suggest that the culture of that some of the concerns of others in the group of children supported the formalis- audience. We were lost. What was What was reported as having amazed ing of the informal (the writing of Logo happening? Were we , as the audience, the visiting team was how well the procedures in this case) when in other split into two groups, each imagining dif- individual children, now asked to ex- classrooms, children might have dealt ferent types classrooms or were we just plain what they were doing, could flip with the challenge in quite different attending to different aspects of the same to the formal imperative expression of ways. I would normally expect to find classroom? the problem, now in its generalised the visitors or teacher stimulating a few form but originally used in a special children to work on the challenge in This experience focussed me again on form, and with confidence show the classtime, but in the children's culture some important issues: visitors how they had built up theirdescribed, working on problems was How can we learn to see things programs. the way of life. The culture was not differently? dependent on the teacher or the class- What it is that we see when we These childrenhaveallused room but belonged to the children and do? LogoWriter as their base-software be- their notebooks. and fore widening their repertoire of com- How do we evaluate what we see? puting skills to include a staggering But how many of us see, in the story and range of applications.They have above, an example of children working If we knew the answers to these learned to 'speak' Logo programming from the special case to the general? questions, how would that help us language. They have to think carefully How familiar are we with the idea that in our work. when they add ideas to their notebook young children can behave mathemati- files because in Logo Writer it is neces- cally, using formal expression of ideas Perhaps a subsidiary question is: sary to classify the new information, to to develop generalisations? How often How can those who are working in make decisions about the structure of do we see this sort of behaviour spon- the way described share their expe- what they are accumulating as they taneously arising in school yards? Is it riences with others in order to let write their ideas into formal language. any wonder we find it hard to recognise? the others evaluate vicariously what Working with LogoWriter is not so they are doing, and how the chil- unusual, so are these children different NOTEBOOKS FOR ENTERPRISING dren are responding? in any other way? The work referred to LEARNING was done in their recess time, it was The Australian Commission for the NOTEBOOKS FOR A CULTURE OF done by as many children as heard Future has worked hard with the ex- FORMALISING THE INFORMAL about the problem, not only those who pression 'enterprising education'4 to Last year a team of senior educational were set the problem, it resulted in develop an awareness of the possibility policy makers visited another class- many different, idiosyncratic versions, of being enterprising by working in room in the school described above3. each to match the particular procedures such a way as to have more hands the child already had within their note- making lighter work of a given task. If

168 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 176 one teacher is struggling to give 30 latter process may or may not be sup- But assessment of individual's work is children the particular experience they ported by a classroom ethos that thechallenged by all this. Many original need on a particular day to gain insight more that travels around the classroom contributionsare immediately stripped into some aspect of geography, to and is shared the betterS. of time and author identification, and awaken their awareness of a possible so teachers have to think again about shift of attention, the poor teacher is Copying thus can take on a new dimen- how to increase their awareness of the really working hard. If, on the other sion. Cheating and copying look the contribution being made by each stu- hand, there are 31 people in the room same from one perspective, but open- dent. Similarly, if the work of students with the goal that everyone in the room ing up the possibility of copying as a who are not coping is disguised will have such an insight, it is possible form of sharing, as one way to work amongst a group product, how could a to employ the energy of all those peo- more openly and collaboratively, has student with a problem be identified? ple for the task. Whose problem is it, brought new possibilities to the class- The QSC teachers and others have after all? room. Passing around notes, proce- found that part of the solution to these dures, ideas happens very naturally in problems lies in working more closely The teachers in theclassroom described notebook classrooms where it is valued with students. They started to spend above work hard at 'being enterpris- and saves a great deal of time. It hap- more time with individual students, ing'. Originally it was hard for them to pens without the need for centralised up to half an hour at a time, instead of let go of what they saw as their respon- organisation of distribution, and soon. merely addressing them from some- sibility and rely on the children to pass It would not be so easy to do, one where in the room and assessing their ideas around the classroom commu- suspects, without computer disks and work by evaluating 'chicken prints' on nity but after an initial period in which notebooks constantly present to receive paper. This practice need not mean they were deliberately forced into the offering. 'neglecting' other students in the adopting this stance, because theycould classroom, given the learning culture not cope with 60 children and 60 note- Copying is not the same as cheating: described. What is done with one stu- books 'dumped' in the room, these but the differences are not a s obviou s as dent can start to find its way around the teachers gained faith in their fellow the form they take. Copying within a community when the teacher moves workers in the classroom and there is computer environment happens both on to work with another student. And now a strong sense of shared responsibility when one receives and incorporates the experience of spending significant for learning, at least with respect to someone else's work, and when oneamounts of time with one or two stu- computing equipment. brings to operate in one context, work dents makes an enormous difference to one did in another. 'Cheating' can take the relationship between that student The notebooks helped in two ways: several forms too: working together on and the teacher.It does not need to first, having suddenly to cope with this an idea, sharing an idea and its expres- happen very often to be effective and outrageous act of the Government and sion with someone else is cheating or thus, all students can get their turn and finding they could, provided a shared otherwise depending on the circum- the teachers get to know how they were experience on which the teachers have stances; taking a copy of another's ex- working. drawn many times, and second, the pression of an idea and passing it off as now availablecomputers made it much one's own is cheating, but that is not Assessment in the QSC became more easier for the children to work together, new to our culture6, and taking work meaningful as students and teachers to help each other. done yesterday and making it part of worked together on what was being work done today - is that cheating? done by the students. It started to be The idea of having children working in This last activity is one which appears broadened to include aspects of class- groups is not new but in this classroom to be contributir -. to the process ofroom work which had hitherto been the children were able to go further adding quality and meaning to stu-unrecorded, such as strategies used to than usual. A distinction can be made dents' work in significant ways. learn, ways in which children sup- between working together, when tasks ported and used their peers, etc. are shared, and working collaboratively, when minds are shared.For instance, if children are able to take a There were a number of children in the class who were there 'just to disk of work from one computer and see how poor achievers would cope'. They havedisappeared. Mostly legitimately place it in their friend's they are not poor achievers any more. He reported thatoften children computer and copy the work, they may who had 'completed' work and had it assessed would return to it and simply be making a complete 'project do more. He found that the children who previously were 'no- product' by reassembling pieces hope's' were even more likely to do this than the others and that, for worked on by others but they may the first time, they would have the satisfaction of completing their actually be working on pieces already work at an acceptable standard - and this would be done even if it worked on by their colleagues. The happened after the assessment had taken place!

169 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Sometimes, it has been reported, the The reasoning seemed to be, "If I own It has been reported a number of times students actually have to explain to the it, I should find out how to use it, and if that it is easy to carry a notebook to teachers what they had done and why I want to learn to use it, why not take it someone to get help and that this en- it was a good way to do it.Quality to the football?" courages the seeking of help. It is con- assessment is able to replace quantita- trasted with the process of trying to get tive assessment. 'Ubiquitous, personal computing' - someone to come and help, which is quite an expression to unpack! described as a demanding process and There is yet another aspect of all this. If often avoided. students are trusted to 'teach' and learn It has been shown that once a notebook from each other, some of the more rou- computer is available, there is a ten- But there is still more to it. We have tine computing tasks can be taught to dency to pick it up and to explore what reports now from many using note- those students who might otherwise be it can do. We now expect teachers to be books who describe their notebooks in known within the classroom as poorusing spreadsheets, for example, soon terms which previously might have learners. These children can then re- after they master the first level of word- been associated only with humans or establish themselves by acting as ex- processing (in Works) if they a re able to animals. They say they will 'sit down perts with new technology. The teacher discover the necessary skills at home. with theircomputer and do some work' being challenged in the presentation Why? We don't know, but suspect the and seem to imply something akin to (described above) noted: convivial nature of notebook computing companionship is offered by the com- has something to do with it. The tapping puter. It assumes a personal nature to What did the notebooks contribute? of keys is very annoying to those not such a n extent that it provides compa ny The need to have 'experts' who knew doing it but the pleasure associated with and can foster a new attitude to work- how to do 'this and that' was a contri- physical presence of a friend or mem- ing. 'Computing in this sense is more t han bution, and also the fact that work was ber of the family seems to mitigate this. 'doing work'. never complete and always at hand. Notebook users report using their In most computing environments, stu- notebooks at times and in places where At the girls' school, the mathematics dents have to finish their work by a previously they would not have been teacher had been working for'several certain time for assessment purposes able to 'work': work seems to have years on computer management of the and after that, their 'computer time' is changed its nature and location. students' compulsory mathematics used for the next task. Students with when the notebooks started to appear. their own portable computers have two This operates well for children too. He was able to give students disks advantages in this context: they can Parents who want to 'supervise' which would set them tasks according return to work so that theycan learn over homework have found themselves shut to their performance and provide them timewhat was taught in time and they can out bydesktop computers (often unable with challenges to test their achieve- workbeside their computers, with them to understand what is being done and ments. His programme had been de- shut or open, without feeling that disliking the physical aspects of the signed to divert energy from the man- 'computer time is not being well-spent'. process). When students take their agement of this aspect of the students' notebooks homea nd can be in the fa mily work to helping those in need. What NOTEBOOKS FOR UBIQUITOUS, room working, the parental anxiety happened was not predicted. When PERSONAL COMPUTING seems to be eased. In fact there is more the girls were freed from the bonds of At another school7 in which all the to this. When students can take their the classroom computer, they chose to students are acquiring notebook com- work to their parents, to their neigh- do their skill-development work at puters, the teachers were all 'encour- bour, or to do at a friend's place, the home in order to be free to work on aged'8 to get one for themselves. The conviviality aspect again becomes interesting problems with their friends. expectation was that these teachers conspicuous. would use word-processing and think about using subject-specific software I was having a lot of trouble with my modem. I could not get it to work for teaching purposes. They broke out and when someone else showed me how they used theirs, I could not of this mould very quickly and were understand what they were doing. I did not really need to use it, after 'discovered' to have many other uses all.After I had spent a weekend with my colleagues and we had all for their computers. This happened struggled to solve the clues of the treasure-hunt, found on disks nailed with amazing alacrity and they were to trees, buried in a fur-ball in a tree-truck, and so on, I felt prepared to asked a few questions in order to as- try anything with my colleagues.I had a new sense that working certain what was happening. together would make it possible to do what I could not do alone. I made an appointment to spend some time with someoneelse who also It seems that the secret to this eclectic couldn't use a modem: we'd work it out! computing was related to the ubiquity Now I know that two minds can be so much better than one I am more and the personal nature of the notebook. confident about letting my students work together.

170 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 178 Classroom time was recovered for social AWAKENING AWARENESSES IN THE CONCLUSION construction of mathematics. PRESENCE OF NOTEBOOKS Finally, it might be worth drawing The motivation for this papercame from attention to how little has been said What seems significant about all these the experience of finding myself alien- about the notebooks, their make and stories is the way in which the social ated by having what seemed to me like model etc.It is various attributes of nature of learning has been supporteda richly embroidered image of whattheir presence which seems to make by the use of notebook computers.other people seemed to be seeing asenormousdifferencetothe Contrary to the fears many of us had impoverished. opportunities available but they, as that we were approaching an era when objects, do not so easily catch our studying would be synonymous with After working with notebook comput- attention. I wonder about this. 'having a green glow on the face', weing in one form or another for a decade are finding scope for further develop-it is not surprising that we have a large ment of the 'useful' social attributes of collection of stories and that when a REFERENCES the mathematics classroom. story is told about students with note- Mitchell, D., 1992: QSITE Annual books, manyother stories cometo mind Conference, QUT. NOTEBOOKS FOR A COLLABORATING which enrich the image. But what brings Nevile,L.,1992:'Educational CULTURE my stories to mind, what triggers my Technology - Can It Include The 1992 report of the Apple Class-awareness of certain aspects of class- Discipline And Maintain Diversity?' rooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) pro- room interaction, does not do the same paper presented at AARE. gramme in the United States claims for others. that strong collaborative-working con- ENDNOTES First we have the problem of how we ditions are essential for innovation 1 Queensland Sunrise Centre at within the classroom. We have been have generalised from our experience. Coombabah State Primary School investigating this issue in notebook We, in Sunrise10, have started to dis- 2 one way ofdescribinga classrooms for some time and havecern threads which we now label as preponderance for programming similar feelings. We have been payingcollaboration; enterprise; personal, 3this story was related to me particular attention to the need for ubiquitous, and soon, but we recognise 4originally taken from thePlant and collaboraion among those adults re- that we do not always find resonance in Ball OECD Report. sponsible for students with notebooks. others. We suspect some of the threads 5 not a new idea that computing can we are finding will prove ephemeral, be more easily undertaken We believe it is trust to which the Applethat others will become so common as collaborativelythanother evaluators were alluding.If teachers to be transparent in a short time, and so activities, but vastly accentuated cannot take risks among colleagues, on. So how can we work on the process in this context of ubiquitous students among students, without fearof refining the generalisations at the computing of failure, there is little chance that newsame time as making them more acces- 6the Common La w has traditionally things will be tried and none that there sible to others? Second, what can we do dealt with this as 'passing off' will be opportunities to learn from fail- with new-found awarenesses? and in several centuries found the ures9. only way to decide what is The first problem has led us to try dis- happening is to consider the In the classrooms described, 'having to ciplining our work on experience in particular circumstances in each cope with invading notebooks' helpedorder to find ways in which we can case alert us to the need to develop a trusting share our experience with others but 7 MLC (Melbourne), a private school atmosphere within the culture. Oncemake it possible for them to use their for 2000 girls having achieved this, it is fairly easy to experience to work collabora tively with 8financially and otherwise use it to advantage when working on us (Nevile, 1993) and the second prob- 9 MLC staff report an abundance of the main learning curriculum. lem stimulates our work on rehearsing opportunities to learn from failure the use of our awarenesses, making having appeared since they got the them actionable by preparing for them. notebooks! 10 especially in the Sunrise Research Laboratory at RMIT

A teacher remarked that $ for $ the students' parents could do better than buy expensive notebooks for their children, and the parents are smart, so they will discover that!

171 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 179 SUNRISEAND THE LURE OF EXPERIENCE BY LIDDY NEVILE Sunrise Research Laboratory, RMIT

I write here about the process of Making sense of that experience is not 'disciplining experience' which is easy. It is not an experience one wants making our Sunrise programme a to replicate from one point of view, but learning organisation' (Senge, 1990). the resulting culture is one which one We use the word 'technology' to mean would like to be part of, to see awarenesses and ways of thinking and developing in other places perhaps. Is "I working with computers, mixed media, it possible to learn from the experience? etc. Is it possible that what was found to exist after the experience was in any The paper is written in order to explore way related to it?Would the same what is for the writer a continuing 'product' have been observed if the UrsulaFranklin (1990) puzzle. A particular set of experiences 'experience' had never been had? or writes: preceded a particular development in had been different? More generally, some culti-res (described below). what can we do with experience and Technology is not the how do we know? sum of the artefacts, of INTRODUCTION the wheels and gears, of In 1989 three teachers and their 60 ten yearold children found themselves the rails and electronic being surrounded by technological objectsl. Each person was given a notebook computer and there were some goodies for the classroom; a transmitters. Technology scanner, cd/ROM, TC Lego, printers, modems, plotters, etc. This was a is a system. It entails far shocking act and left the teachers, soon to be supported by a project more than its individual officer, with the massive task of making sense of an this nonsense. components. Technology Three years later those teachers and children have been acclaimed as having not only 'coped' but often are regarded as exemplary models of involves organization, 'successes' within the field of educational technology. They have procedures, symbols, conducted workshops and been asked to consult for others locally, new words, equations, nationally and internationally. and, most of all, a I tell this story as [ believe it to haveas they were and not be doing what mindset. been: there was what could most they are now doing. appropriately be described as an 'abusive intervention' in the lives ofWhat I find puzzling is what is those people. But today, I believe, none sometimes said about what happened, of them would choose to not have had or rather, what we all seem to want to the experiences, well, to have gone on say about it.

The teachers and project officer worked to develop a classroom culture in which computers did not dominate, in which they could us e computers as they chose for a range of uses but in which 'computer use' was not the main criterion for success, ... The teachers and children became technically very competent, knowing between them a great deal about managing the computers for which they were responsible as well as how to program them, ... The curriculum changed significantly and started to make effective use of the children's new-found skills, ...

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 173 These facts seem to invite apparently easy to get an answer which suggests generalisationswhicharenot obvious comments of the type: that the advice is based on the supported by the very experience from experience. In fact it is not: it directly which we claim to have derived them. "teachers need a good understanding contradicts it. Another fine example is provided by of the features of a culture which will the way in which we tend to accept the support convivial use of computers and What happened was that some teachers generalisation that girls do not like the technical competence if they are to struggled and emerged triumphant. using computers as much as boys and be able to manage an abundance of That is all the evidence we have. We do then inadvertently take action which resources". not have any evidence that some confirms this statement (see for teachers who did not struggle example, Hoyles (1993)). This often seems to be followed by a succeeded, or that some who were comment of the type: trained A-TENSION! French educationalists (Brousseau, "they should be trained to use Another interpretation of what has 1984) speak of the 'contrat didactique' computers and helped to understand happened to theexperience, is that those as one in which the teacher has the the right cultures before they are observing have noticed that after a responsibility of teaching and the subjected to the delivery of all thepainful and exhausting experience, student has the responsibility of computers. That way the pain can be some lessons have been learned2. Such learning. This contract can be seen to avoided and more can be achieved." people might like to believe that the raise interesting questions: surely it is lessons can now be transmitted directly most efficient if the teacher tells the Such statements, which at first seem so without the pain. students what they are supposed to do natural and acceptable, are, in my and how to do it? This will save the opinion, dangerous. Either way, we find that not much is students the agony of working through being learned from the actual masses of hard exercises in order to Statements like these are easy to offer experience. extract what it is they need to know and when advice is sought. They lead those it will save the teachers from having to seeking the advice to certain actions In this paper, I use this as an example of battle with lots of work which the which seem very sensible.Those the way in which we can ascribe students do badly. Surely it is better for following this kind of advice often find generalisations to experiences without the students to experience success than no reason to question it. If they ask why taking sufficient care and in fact, soon failure? to practice what we want them this advice is likely to be useful, it is enough find ourselves depending on to do and not to be distracted by things we do not want them to do?

the teaching contract

pressure from the learning contract pressure from the learning contract

Building on this idea, Chevallard (1985) problem. If we have the intention of This notion is often taken one step writes about the 'didactic having students understand a complex further too: innovations are pretty hard transposition3'.According to this idea, why not break it into small parts to cope with (see Hoyles, 1992). The notion, something which is to be taugh t so that they can make sense of thetransition from the pre-computer is dealt with by the teacher in such a various bits and then they canclassroom to the computer-rich way as to make it more appropriate for synthesise the bits to develop the idea? classroom, for instance, is a huge one the students a nd this somehow involves If we follow this course, there will not and if it is to be accompanied by the actually changing what it is that is to be be a ny big ideas too big for the students development of a technologically-rich taught: a complex problem broken into (to cope with, everything will be culture, those involved are going to smaller problems is not a complex manageable and so better? have to cope with an enormous amount

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 174 181 of change. Surely it isbetter to anticipate which leaves the educational system which we can actually undertake as what is going to be required, to make unaffected. The process of adopting isolated individuals anyway? Is not incremental changes, and thus to avoid the technology can be active and every action in the cla ssroom tempered the unnecessary confrontations which purposeful. Technological experienceby the situation, by those present and will otherwise result? need not be something had and their understandings? forgotten. "Wait!" I say in response to all this. Suppose that it has become apparent "What do we know?" Doing is doing, not construing. that children who do not learn to type 'correctly' when they start using LOOK WHERE I AM POINTING NOT AT MY Everyone is an expert on schooling; computers often become very fast FINGERS after all, they went to school for at least typists with very bad 'style' and then, The teachers in the description above a decade.Yet we who work in very difficult to convince to learn good did cope with the circumstances inclassrooms are confronted daily by touch-typingbehaviour. Now imagine which they found themselves and have decisions to which there appear to bethat for some reason we consider that found the ability within themselves to no ready answers, answers for which correct' typing behaviour is necessary thrive in testing circumstances (as do we seek endlessly in meetings with our for our students. What are we going to most teachers). Possibly they did suffercolleagues and at conferences with do when we see a very miserable little the experience in the sense that they peers. Why is this quest so fruitless? Is girl whose family has just split up, had to bear it, to endure it, but possibly it possible that we are not very good at pecking away at the keyboard writing that is precisely what made it possible finding 'truths' which we can a letter to her Granny? for them to achieve as they did. accumulate and upon which we can draw or is it that the nature of the action Avoid the teaching of speculators I am not trying to argue that everyone of teaching is not merely the sum of whose judgements are not confirmed by should suffer (feel pain) as the teachers many answers? Why do we think that experience did, even thatanyone should, but rather there are answers? (Leonardo da Vinci) that without good ways of interpreting what happened, we run the risk of Peter Senge (1990) draws attention to PUTTING FLESH ON THE BONES making decisions about how to the fashionable idea of thinking in I want to propose two strategies which streamline the process and make it more systems and argues that one important might lead to recognition of others. palatableandindoingthis, aspect of any well-functioning First I want to draw attention to a inadvertently 'throw out the baby'. organisation is that it is learning, strategy which can help us prepare for constantly findingout morea bout itself teaching situations and then to work One thing we seem slow to learn from but within a constantly changing on a strategy which can help us use our experience, framework. If we think of a classroom experience to evaluate planned actions is that we do not necessarily learn from in which the participants are learning in the situations in which the plans are experience. as a constantly changing organisation, operating. The first involves bringing what is the right decision one day may our focus of attention to the tension It is my concern in this paper to focus well be wrong the next. In order to be which develops between what we want attention on ways in which we can informed when making decisions, are to achieve and how it is best achieved work eff..ctively and validly with we better off if we are aware of the and the second to how we can use our experience.It makes a lot of sense to possibilities than if we have only one experience, and that of others, to work at practices which are effective so predetermined course available to us? develop and evaluate strategies for use as to be able to use them when another So from what can we build our body of in the moment of teaching. opportunity arises but we have to be a warenesses? We can take the advice careful not to let them just becomeof others but how do we know if they I wrote (above) about the way in which 'forms we fill', to develop formulae for are telling us the right thing? W. r have we learn to work on something which practice which we use without thinking. nothing but our own experience with seems invasive and neutralise it until it Preparing for our future practice so which to interpret the circumstances in ispalatableandmanageable that it will be 'informed' is not the same which we find ourselves and through (sometimes in the process throwing out as determining forms of behaviour and which to see the problems which the baby). We do not decide to destroy fitting them. confront us. How, other than through the thing but in the process of making it our own eyes, can we determine if what fit into our understanding of the world We work hard to avoid making school confronts us is the same as the in which it is relevant, we sometimes experience a meaningless exercise in circumstances described by another? do so much 'fitting' that we transform the manipulation of trivial data. In the How can we decide if the essential the thing in the process. same way, we might choose to avoid aspect of the circumstances in which making the process of adopting we should adopt a particular strategy Let us look fora moment at how people technology, a transparent process is present or missing? Is this a process use Logo6.

175 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 182 Logo can be seen as something which and the area in which the our attention incidents in their three years of project 'the children should experience'. If this is focussed is where there is thedynamic work in which they were struck by is our goal, we might develop a small tension, not where there is a collection what seemed like special incidents. unit of Logo turtle geometry for them of static examples. But all parts of the They describe their frustration and and 'administer' it in a computer bone are important to us. We need the anguish at times as they tried to place laboratory, let's say to 8-year-olds. The examples to give us a sense of the responsibility for their pain back on process can be described as analogous possibilities and we need to have a those who had caused it.They tell to the way an organism deals with an sense of the dynamic connection triumphant stories of how they and invasive germ: the latter would be between them to be able to use them. their children overcame isolated and marginalised like the Logo. Let us now return to the earlier 'insurmountable hurdles' and 'made Alternatively,Logocouldbe comments about the didactic contract things happen'. All these stories work understood as anextensionof children's and the didactic transformation. We to form images which are suggestive, it forms of formal expression in cannot solve the teaching problem by seems,and which havebeen interpreted mathematics (see Nevile, 1991), say, in short-circuiting the learning of the in many ways. which case the focus of attention would students, we cannot solve the be the subject domain and the Logo educational development process by I want to suggest that it is only by being merely the expressive medium in which isolating and marginalising the very careful about these stories that we it is addressed. In the former case we challenges. But there seems to be a lot can learn from them. Merely recounting attend to the use of the Logo and in the of pressure on us to make these things a story which purports to support a latter to the subject matter, so what is compatible - to bring the ends of the generalisation is not enough. 'doing Logo'? bones together, to find some cohesion between them: Consider this story: My concern just now is how do we help There they were, 60 children and no ourselves getaccesstothese Logo programming expertise among possibilities, not so much what they the teachers yet the directive was that are.I suggest we try the strategy of LogoWriter was to be the software for putting 'doing Logo' on a bone7: the first few months. But if learning and teaching become the same thing, we do not seem to gain: When we hear this, are we not tempted rather we find ourselves with what we to jump to the generalisation that the despisend call 'brain-washing'. So teachers should have been taught Logo we need ways to magnify the programming, at least? connections between the many aspects This super-simple technique helps us of teaching and learning which are of recognise that there might be a range of Suppose we 'listen' a little more concern to us, to first come to recognise carefully to another story about this. meanings available for the expression them, then to articulate them so we can 'doing Logo' and we can start to manipulate them. What we need is One child presented a program full of articulate some and attach them to the ways of awakening our awarenesses of bugs to one of the teachers who then bone. We are likely to discern some what is involved in what we are doing spent several nights trying to make common aspects among examples we so we can make some choices about sense of it. She had no idea where to consider and those threads will 'flesh what we do. start but did not want to fail the child. out' for us the tension which underlies For several nights she struggled on, the use of Logo in the classroom: how WORKING ON EXPERIENCE blindly, getting more and more much attention must be given to 'doing So to the second strategy. How can we frustrated. Logo' if students are going to be able to awaken awarenesses if we don't know use it as a natural form of expression in we have them or need them? For what Of what does such a story remind you, their mathematics and how much should we be prepared, and how can formal (remedial?) mathematics, say, we anticipate possibilities in contexts the reader? are wegoing to have to teach if students which have little meaning for us? come to think mathematics can be It might remind you of a time when you expressed satisfactorily in Logo? The Let us return to the teachers who battled with a student's problem and achieved nothing, or when you efforts bone starts to look more like this: suffered the pain and from whom we were rewarded by some learning of might learn some lessons to save others software techniques, or it might remind from pain in the future. doing you of something as far removed as when you suddenly realised how much programmi How did those teachers learn what they children have in their heads which gets learned? They tell numerous stories of

176 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 in the way of what they are trying to do, We have more than one account of some I am not sure that I want to go further that novices are not empty vessels but aspect of experience and we can than to suggest that we can benefit at can easily be vessels overflowing with determine some threads which form least as much from an awareness of the irrelevancies. common bonds between the accounts.risk of generalising and assuming that We can start to think about abstracting the generalisations will become useful I have asked many people to talk about from the individual accounts, forming in themselves, as in collecting the stories which are evoked from their a general, abstraction, a generalisation. 'generalisations'. There is nothing in experience when someone tells a We can do this because we can provide either the particular original story I particular story. The range is usuallyspecific examples of when our told at the beginning of this paper, nor surprisingly wide: each listener pays generalisation was experienced and we in the stories which I have heard it attention to an aspect of the story which can recognise other accounts of evoke, which leads me to the conclusion resonates with theirexperience, feelingsexperiences as examples of the general. that the same result would have been at the time, sense of purpose for theWe can also decide when accounts ofinevitable if the teachers had been story, and so wha t emerges canbebased experiences are not related. We do nottrained in advance, for instance. But I on connections which depend on derivea 'definition' of the circumstances similarly have no evidence that this similarity of physical circumstances, so much as a senseof what isappropriate would not be the case although I have sense of emotion at the time, and so on. and what is not. We become informed observed that 'prior training' does not The teacher described, in working on so that we can make analogies and necessarily work. I am not suggesting the child's program, had many recognise distinctions. that I can identify what causes8 what opportunities beyond the mere fixing but I can be informed by being alert to of the program and we, as people with We have now started to develop athe seduction of 'wisdom' which I personal experiences which are re-disciplined way of thinking aboutsometimes find associated with the minded by the telling of another's story generalisations: have we not now got story. (briefly-but-vividly), can find many what we expect to have in every other opportunities for working on what iscontext in which we work? Have we This second strategy then, is one which available from the original story for us. not now got a sense of the discipline ofprovides a way of evaluating personally We can work on the brief-but-vivid generalising in technology? Just as wewhat we are offered as generalisations, account offered by others and seekrecognise ways of legitimately motherhood statements, by others. In verification of the experience in our developing an historical interpretation the Sunrise context particularly, we own experience. of some events, have we not now got a have found it a useful strategy for way of interpreting and verifyingfiltering out of descriptions of Still we only have experiences on which statements about technology? Or is it experience, the useless judgments to work but it is now that we start to the case that there is no absolute way in which so often get in the way of our have the material from which to develop which special cases of technological productive use of our experience. (We our generalisations. interest can be formed into general reinforce this process by trying to work statements of technological wisdom? on accounts-of experience rather than accounts-for experience9.) One way of thinking about this might be to think of the process thus:

the original story

evokes

many incidents re- minded from rothers' ( experience ) which when worked upon reveal different aspects of the original story to which listeners can be attending and from the many newly-awakened awarenesses,

possibilities for the future can emerge.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 177 184 3I prefer the translation which calls CONCLUSION Franklin, U, (1990), The Real World of My conclusion is a question: Is there a Technology,Montreal, CBC this the 'didactic transformation' discipline which will support us Enterprises. 4 not as opposed to a technologically- without urging on us the need for Hoyles, C, (1992). Keynote address at driven one, but instead of one in makingstatements,asserting LMES, Simon Fraser University, which 'technology' is technological 'truths'? If we can work Vancouver. (publication seamlessly integrated into the in a disciplined fashionand be informed forthcoming). existing curriculum without by ourexperiences, and those of others, Hoyles, C, (1993). "Groups, girls and changing it) what strategies scaffold us and help us Computers" in Rethinking the Roles 5 an expression which was once stated establish resist the pressure of ofTechnologyinEducation,10thICTE "Don't look at me, take what is in undesirable practices? Conference, Cambridge, Mass.. my hand" as Islamic mysticism Austin, Texas: University of Texas 6we could equally have used word processing or something else... REFERENCES at Austin. Brousseau, G. (1984) "The crucial role Nevile L., 1991. "Can epistemological 7The choice of metaphor is as much of the didactical contract in the pluralism make mathematics influenced by the shape of the bone analysis and construction of education more inclusive?" in as anything. The tradition of situations in teaching and learning Proceedings of PME XI, p 80-87. thinking this way is derived from mathematics" in H.G. Steiner et al Assisi: PME. the islamic idea that "every Theory of Mathematics Education Senge, P.M., (1990). TheFifth Discipline. stick has two ends". (TME). Bielefeld, Germany: New York: Doubleday. 8in fact, I do not even subscribe to the Urtiversitat Bielefeld /1DM cause/effect view of education Chevallard, Y, (1985). La Transposition ENDNOTES 9In this, like much of our work, we Didactique, Le Pen see Sauvage. 1 at the Queensland Sunrise Centre are supported and informed by the Grenoble. at Coombabah State Primary work of our colleague, John School. Mason from the Open University in 2 offered by my colleague David the UK. Williams

178 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 185 AREAUSTRALIAN CLASSROOMS READY FOR COMPUTERS ? BY PAUL NEWHOUSE Lecturer in Computer Education, Edith Cowan University

There have been three main compo- ematics ability of the students selecting nents to the research project: class- that unit of study. This paper outlines room action research , the use of a the progress made in the second year of classroom environment instrument, this project. and a statewide survey of teachers involved in the new courses. Findings to GENERAL AIM OF THE RESEARCH date have highlighted the overall need The overall aim of the study was to for support for teachers, even very ex-determine the features of particular perienced and competent teachers,implementation strategies or models, who want to implement computer especially those involved in group-work supported learning environments. support, that appeared to be associated This paper outlines the Teachers need the encouragement and with successful implementation.In progress merle in the sec- support to change the classroom envi- particular which features tended to en- ond year of a project con- ronment to suit the needs of their stu- courage positive interaction between a dents and curriculum. Computers can student and the computer and between cerned with the implementa- both support change and cause such a students, and maintain positiveattitudes tion of computer supported change. towards the explicit curriculum. Part of learning environments for a this was to determine the obstacles The teachers surveyed while demon- needed to be overcome to achieve suc- new upper secondary math- strating positive attitudes towards cessful implementation. ematics course for lower change are having a great deal of diffi- ability students in Western culty making use of computers in their The rationale for the study was that classrooms. Continued in-service while the number of available educa- Australia. While the number training, improved support materials tional software packages available is of available educational and access to more appropriate hard- increasing at an exponential rate, the ware and software are required. design quality is improving and the software packages is in- number of computers available in creasing at an exponential Last year (Newhouse, 1992) !reported schools is increasing, there is still very rate, the design quality is on the first yea r of a three year research little impact of computer based applica- improving and the number project concerned with the implemen- tions on learning associated with class- tation of computer supported learning rooms (Kissane, 1989 : Olive, 1992). It of computers available in environments for a new upper sec- appears to be likely that the key reasons schools is increasing there ondary mathematics course for lower for this discrepancy concern the imple- is still very little impact of ability students in Western Australia, mentation strategies or models em- Mathematics in Practice(MiP). The ployed by teachers (Van Den Akker et. computer based applica- course involved the use of math- al., 1992). tions on learning associated ematical modelling (Herrington, 1988) with classrooms. It is likely in the solution of real-life problem WHERE DOES THE COMPUTER FIT IN situations.Initially I worked with a MATHEMATICAL MODELUNG ? that the keg reason for this local secondary teacher and his classes I contend that to realistically develop a discrepancy concerns the to determine appropriate uses of com- modelling approach to mathematics learning, as opposed to a traditional implementation strategies puters in the new course. We also investigated successful strategies fordidactic approach, the computer is an or models employed by implementation given the limited re- essential support to both the student teachers. sources and the low level of math- and teacher. As Riel (1989) states, the

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 179 186 computeris needed to allow the 'devel- on four classes in Year 11 and 12. Fi- enthusiastic. The previous year he had opment of an appropriate functional nally, I conducted a Statewide Survey expressed surprise at the amount of environment'. As such I am convinced of teachers involved in the Year 11 use of the computer which had been that there are many mathematical Mathematics in Practice course. made throughout the year. He had also models that are not practical to inves- been generally pleased at the progress tigate or implement without computer CONTINUING CLASSROOM ACTION of the students and the running of the support and it is also not practical to RESEARCH course. tackle a wide range of real life problems In 1992 1 continued my close associa- without that support. tion with a teacher and his classes, both One important perception he expressed Year 11 and 12. However, I removed a was that he had not made as much use A computer application could support large amount of the support I had made of computer applications in the second mathematical modelling in a number available to him in 1991. I largely ob- year as he had the previous year or of ways including : to model a real served the class in action working on would have liked to. He largely put environment, as an investigative tool, modelling projects and gathered data this down to his own lack of organisa- to generate data for model, to assist in by means of questionnaires and inter- tion and lack of time to think about new analysis, as a computational tool, to views. applications. I would also add that my check solutions or as a presentation/ reduced support may also be a factor communication tool. In an analysis of the use of computers in here. the projects it is both difficult and IMPLEMENTATION MODELS : pointless to try to isolate the impact of He expressed the opinion that the best COMPUTERS IN CLASSROOMS the computer use from the impact of applications were small tasks that could In this paper, implementation model the project/modelling approach to be completed quickly and included a will be taken to mean thecharacteristics mathematics learning. The computer print out. He felt the most important of the method by which computer use use was designed to be integrated with factors in successful implementations is integrated with the implemented the modelling approach.It would were : being organised, having com- curriculum. It is therefore concerned therefore be counterproductive in this puters available, knowing the software with the expected roles of the computer analysis to extract computer use factors. and having experience at teaching the system, support materials, teacher and In a study by Riel (1989) it is asserted course. He also felt that they needed students within the classroom and the that it is the integration of computer more hardware to allow increased manner in which it is intended these use into a functional learning environ- student access and therefore allow fora entities should interact with each other ment which is important not the com- greater rangeof applications to be used. to create the intended learning envi- puter use itself. Rather the following ronment and outcomes. I defined three analysis will consider the whole ap- YEAR 12 STUDENT OUTCOMES main model types : Whole-class, One- proach to each modelling problem / The mean student ranking, in terms of to-one, and Croup-work Support. project and the extent to which the enjoyment andlearning, o f the six major computer application supported each. projects completed during the year are There is a question of how to define This approach is supported by Olive given in Table 1. In general it appears successful implementation. Obviously (1992). that, as may be expected, enjoyment any definition is highly subjective. I and perception of learning are recip- considered an implementation model Although incomplete an initial analy- rocally related.For example, the stu- to be successful if it is perceived by the sis of the interview responses at theend dents enjoyed the SimCity project but participants, teacher and students, that of the year provided some interesting didn't think they learnt anything. it contributed significantly to the de- indications of the impact of the com- However, the Buying a Car project did livery of the intended curriculum. For puter supported modelling approach not fit this expectation and the other my classroom action research I trans- to mathematics learning. Firstly I will project using computers, Survey of lated some more formal definitions into consider the teacher and then the Year School, was ranked well in terms of outcome measures for the students and 12 students who had already been ex- learning. In answering later questions teacher including affective outcomes. posed to this approach to mathematics all students said that they felt that they the previous year. Finally, I will con-have learned some mathematics. PROGRESS IS BEING MADE sider the Year 11 students and compare In 1992 there were three main compo- their responses with those of the previ- In general this group of students was nents to the research project.Firstly, ous year's students. very satisfied with their mathematics there was continuing Classroom Ac- course and was interested in using tion Research which involved observ- THETEACHER computers in the course. All students ing and questioning two classes, one in The main teacherin the study would be said that they liked using computers in Year 11 and one in Year 12. Secondly, I rated as a computer literate teacher by the projects and all but two said they developed the use of a Classroom Envi- most educators. He would also be con- would have liked to have used them ronment Instrument which was tested sidered to be very experienced and

180 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 187 TABLE 1: Mean Student Ranking of Projects in Year 12 En =141 (C) implies that the project made use of a computer application Enjoyment Learning Mean Order Mean Order Survey of School (C) 3.9 5 3.8 3 Sim City (C) 2.4 1 4.2 6 Build a Bridge 3-4 3 41 5 Build a House 3.8 4 2.9 4 Sharemarket Game 4.1 6 2.4 2 Buying a Car (C) 2 1.8 1 more. From observation the students class and also completed two new and that they learned maths from them. had little trouble using the Macintosh projects (refer to Table 2). As with the In addition they all liked using the computers although six of them indi- Year 12 students the Buying a Car computers and would like to use them cated that they had some difficulty. I project was ranked very highly. Inter- more. So, this apparently lower rank- believe that this was mainly in learning estingly the other three computer sup- ing may be due to the high quality of to use Sim City. ported projects were ranked low on the two new projects and improvements both enjoyment and learning fairing made to the Games and Bin Basketball YEAR 11 STUDENTS COMPARED WITH much worse on learning than the previ- projects. It may also bebecause the first PREVIOUS YEAR'S GROUP ous year. However, it should be noted three projects were too far in the past to This group of students did five of the that almost all students indicated that remember accurately. same projects as the previous year's all the projects were interesting, useful

TABLE 2 : Mean Student Ranking of Projects in Year 11 En =131 (C) implies that the project made use of a computer application Enjoyment Learning Mean Order* Mean Order* Reticulation (C) 5-6 6 (5) 5.1 6 (2) Subdivision of School (C) 5.6 6 (4) 4.8 5 (3) Orienteering (C) 5.3 5 (2) 4.1 4 (1) Bin Basketball 2.2 1(6) 5.2 6 (5) Games 2.8 2(1) 3.8 3 (6) Note: Numbers in School Function 3-2 3 3.1 2 parentheses indicates Buying a Car (C) 3.6 4 1.8 1 order given by students in 1991

OVERALL CONCLUSIONS ware support the modelling approach room environment and whether any For all the projects most students com- by providing a tool for students to use. changes are perceived to be positive pleted projects to a standard in excess In this sense it was successful and stu- and assisting in the creation of desired of the teacher's expectations. Most students opted to use the software as they attributes of the classroom environment dents expressed a high degree of satis- saw fit. by students and teachers. faction and enjoyment from their work. Most students also indicated that they CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT STUDY Initially I have conducted a limited in- had found the use of the computers Fraser and Walberg (1991; x) describe vestigation of the perceived classroom rewarding and relevant. Most students an classroom environment as the 'so- environment, or beta press (Fraser and had found little difficulty in operating cial-psychological contexts or determi- Walberg, 1991; ix), of the studied class- the Macintosh hardware and software nants of learning' within the classroom. rooms. The aims were to compare the supplied. It is clear that the concept of classroom preferred and actual environments for environment is central to any study of the studied classrooms and then to look Almost all of the computer applica- the implementation of computer sup- for differences with similar classrooms tions were successfully implemented portedlearningenvironments where computers were not used and a and contributed in a small but signifi- (DeCorte, 1990; 70).The important classroom associated with the teacher cant way to the success of the student questions concern the effect of the in- which conducted a different course. projects. It was intended that the soft- troduction of computers into the class-

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 181 TABLE 3 : Classes Involved in Study Classes Involved in Action Research A Year 11 Modelling Teacher 1 Used Computers B Year 12 Modelling T:.^ '--z-her 1 Used Computers

Other Classes C Year 12 Modelling Teacher 2 No Computers D Year 12 Calculus Teacher 1 No Computers

The instrument used I have called the PREFERRED VERSUSACTUAL CLASS- comparison between the two for class CEI (Classroom Environment Instru- ROOM ENVIRONMENTS A revealed quite a close match. Unfor- ment) which is based on the CES There has been a Ict of research con- tunately a preferred classroom envi- (Classroom Environment Scale) devel- ducted on the fit of preferred and ac- ronment was not available for class B oped by Rudolph Moos (Fraser and tual classroom environments. Notion- therefore a comparison of their previ- Walberg, 1991; 8) The CEI has seven ally it would seem that if possible the ous and actual environments is given. measures (scales) each made up of eight two should be closely matched to sup- questions. The names of the measures port student learning and welfare. A are given in Table 4.

TABLE 4 : Names of Measures for ClassroomEnvironment Instrument (Maximum score of 24 on each measure.] INV Involvement COM Competition AFF Affiliation 00 Order and Organisation TS Teacher Support TC Teacher Control TO Task Orientation INN Innovation

It appears from the graph in Figure 1 level of Task Orientation than they swer this question conclusively. How- that the classroom environment pre- would have preferred. The question ever, for each of these variables I was ferred by students in class A is matched then is to ask whether this is primarily able to keep the variable constant in closely by the perceived actual class- a function of teacher, level of maths or comparisons involving pairs of the four room environment perhaps with the computer use. Unfortunately! was not classes used. except of Task Orientation (TO). The able to get enough information to an- classroom was perceive to have a higher

Year 12 Modelling Class

20 -- Actual Preferred

10 , iNv AFF TS TO COM 00 TC INN Measure

Figure 1 : Actual and Preferred Environments for Year 12 Modelling Class

182 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 COMPARISON OF CLASSROOMS ON COM- (Class C). From the graph below (Fig-a more student-centred learning environment which incorporates group PUTER USE ure 2) it appears that the perceived I compared theclassroom environment actual environment involving comput- work. I observed that the computer- measures of the two modelling classes ers was lower on the measures of Com- using clasa did indeed complete more which had different teachers, one used petition, Teacher Control but higher group-work than the other class. computers (Class B) and one did not on Innovation. This is consistent with Comparison of Two Modelling Classes on Actual Environment

o Class B Class C

IW AFF TS TO COM 00 IC INN Measures Figure 2 : Actual Environments for Year 11 Modelling Classes

A question which flows from this ob- from the graph in Figure 3 the compu- perceived pre and actual envi- servation is whether he non-computer ter-using class actually preferred a ronments (Graph not shown) for the using class was 'unitappy with these lower level of Competition, Teacher non-computer using class matched very differences. That is did they prefer the Control and a higher level of Innova- closely. It would appear that for both classroom environment of the ether tion than the other class. Further, the classes the preferred and actual envi- group to their own. As can be seen ronments matched.

Comparison of Two Modelling Classes on Preferred Environment 6 Class B Class C

INV AFF TS TO COM 00 TC INN Environment Measures Figure 3 : Preferred Environments for Two Year 11 ModellingClasses

183 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 19x3 1 On Does .his mean that the teacher and that two classes with the same teacher The two classes compared were Class students arrange the actual classroomand similarly aged students are likely B, the main class studied, and Class D to suit what the students want or doesto have similar actual environments. If which was not using computers and this mean that students adapt theirthe preferred environments are similar the students were studying another wishes to suit what they have becomeand the teacher and students arrange mathematics course, Calculus. From accustomed to ? To consider this ques-the actual classroom to suit what is the graph in Figure 4 it would appear tion I will look at a comparison of twopreferred then the actual environments that this second class has a similar classes which had the main teacher. should be similar. It would seem that preferred environment on most meas- the preferred classroom comes first. If ures. Perhaps these students prefer a COMPARISON OF CLASSES WITH SAME not, then it would seem that the teacher higher level of Competition, Task Ori- TEACHER BUT DIFFERENT CONTENT sets up an environment and the stu- entation and Involvement than our Which comes first, the preferred or thedents may then modify their preferred main class. The question is whether the actual environments? It maybe arguedenvironment to suit this. teacher and students in Class D provided an environment to suit this ?

Comparison of Two Yr 12 Classes - Preferred Environment

INV AFF TS TO CON 00 TC INN Environ Measures

Figure 4 : Preferred Environments for Year 12 Classes

From the graph in Figure 5 comparing He had a much more 'conservative' seem that the teacher is the key to set- the preferred and actual environments teacher-centred approach to the class ting up the classroom environment and of Class D it appears that there is a poor and thus it is not surprising that this in the case of Class C, the other Model- match.I believe that this is in part classroom is not high enough on In- ling class, it is likely that the students explained by the difference in the ap- volvement, Affiliation, Teacher Sup- modified their environment prefer- proach of the teacher to that class, part port, Order and Organisation and In- ences to more closely match those of- of which is the non-use of computers. novation for these students. So it would fered by the other teacher.

184 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 a 1 Year 12 Calculus : Comparison of Preferred and Actual Environments 2 Preferred a /" Actual `v 8%.

to 12

IW AFF TS TO COM 00 TC INN Environment Measures

Figure 5 : Actual and Preferred Environments for Year 12 Calculus Class

The question which could be asked is What I would like to suggest thus farcomputer ha ttl wa re and software used. whether this is just due to differences from this section of the study is that theThere were 193 teachers who returned in the type of student choosing to do teacher is central to the creation of thethe survey of which 191 were useable. each of the courses. We have already classroom environment. Teachers canThese teachers represented 107 schools seen that while there is not a lot of create a varying number of types ofin the state. difference in the preferred classrooms environments. In order to better match of the two groups, the higher ability the preferred environment of their stu- INITIAL FINDINGS group tends to want greater Involve- dents teachers need to be given a de-The first intention of the survey was to ment. Looking at the graph in Figure gree of freedom and supporting re-try to identify classroom organisation 5 there seems to be clear differences in sources. In this case the new coursesand attitude characteristics of teachers what the students want and how they permitted the freedom and along withof the Maths in Practice unit and the perceive the classroom to be on a the use of computers provided some ofdegree to which they use computers number of the measures.I can only the resources to allow the teacher to setand what they do with them. The sec- conclude that most of these differ- up such an appropriate environment.ond intention was to determine whether ences are due to the teacher's approach In the words of Olive (1992; 503) thethere was any connection between the to the two classes, part of which would teacher was able to charge of tech- teacher characteristics and computer be the teacher's attitude towards the nology and use it to transform his own use in the unit. subjects and part of which is likely to teaching environment'. be the teacher's interest in using com- Generally it could be said that the puter supported group-work projects STATE-WIDE QUESTIONNAIRE teachers did not dislike teaching the in the Modelling class.Consistent During the year a questionnaire was unit and were more likely to see the with the literature it would seem that sent to all schools in the state addressed unit as valuable than not. Almost all the classroom environment is heavily to all teacliers of the MiP ccurse. The the teachers enjoyed teaching math- dependent on the teacher (Van Den questions were designed to collect data ematics in general. They tended not to Akker et. al., 1992; 68 : Olive, 1992; on the attitudes towards the course,be pleased with the standard of work 503). What is interesting is that the classes and teaching mathematics, theproduced by students. Of interest is teacher is able to change the environ- approach to teaching these classes, the that most of the teachers encouraged ment. In this case the catalyst for the type of instruction and learning activi-students to help each other and pre- change was the new approach to ties used, the amount an-i type of com- ferred students to take responsibility learning mathematics facilitated by puter support used with these classes, for their own learning. Classroom ac- computer applications. obstacles to computer use with thesetivities organised by these teachers for classes, and details about the type ofMiP tended to be mainly projects, often conducted as group-work exercises.

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 185 1q2 Of the 191 teachers, 80 (43%) made use teachers are looking for a computer and yet this is despite quite a large of computers at times in their MiP laboratory implementation and nearly amount of in-service work conducted classes. Table 5 shows the responses to half of them Are not confident in using over the past two years. The continu- the possible reasons for not using computers. Therefore a large obstacle ing perception that you need a labora- computers. The two most frequent is the lack of computer literacy and tory to use computers to assist in responses are, I believe, very signifi- experience of teachers involved in the learning is worrying. cant. In particular that 59% of these units. This would come as no surprise

TABLE 5 : Why MiP Teachers Don't Use Computers "Indicate why you do not use a computer in the MiP class by ticking .T.s many of the following as are relevant."

Reason for Not Using Computers % of non- computer users It is difficult to get access to a computer laboratory. 59 I am not confident in using a computer 46 It is difficult to get access to one computer. 40 There is no useful software available 28 My students do not know how to use computers 24 Using a computer takes too much time and effort. 19 The computer is not relevant to what the students do 12 The computer is not suitable for me to use. 4 The computer is not suitable for the students to use. 3

It is interesting to compare these with performance on standardized tests. in using computers.It appears that the findings of a U.S. study reported by This is not surprising since the twoteachers locate suitable software to go Olive (1992; 511) which identified 'four modelling courses have no external with a certain project and then get each forces that inhibit effective uses of tech- examinations and the education sys-student to use the software on that nology by teachers'. Two are those tem has supported the notion of a flex- project. found in my survey ; lack of access to ible curriculum for the courses. hardware and software, and lack of Do teachers have enough access to training and experience in using tech- What of the teachers who did use com- hardware?When considering the nology as a learning tool on the part of puters in their classrooms? The typical number of computers available and teachers. The two which are missing teacher tended only to use it some-used by teachers with MiP classesI from my list are : lack of support from times, rarely for demonstration. They determined four ranges of values to school and system for diverging from considered themselves to be computer correspond with the best possible com- the mandated curriculum, and ac- literateand rarely gave students a choice puter access strategies assuming a class countability only in terms of student size of between 20 and 25.

TABLE 6 : Computers Used The number of computers usually used with the class. (n=801 No. of Computers Potential Computer Access Strategies 0 - 4 39 Rostered groups or individuals 5 - 9 24 Unlimited groups or rostered individuals 10 - 19 33 Unlimited pairs or rostered individuals 20 - 28 4 Unlimited individuals

What types or brands of computers do in this state in secondary schools. It is not specifically ask for this informa- these teachers use with their classes ? likely that most of these would only be tion. Associated with this is that only The table below shows the high pro- running under MS-DOS,although I did 55 of the 80 teachers (69%) have mice portion of IBM and compatibles used available as an input device.

I 186 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 193 TABLE 7 : Operating Type Used Type of computer as a percentage of teachers who do use computerswith their classes. In = 801 Type/Brand 95 Type/Brand IBM or compatible 76 Commodore Amiga 3 Macintosh 24 Other 1 BBC Archimedes 16

The type of operating system available prising that in Table 8 by far the most list. This ties in with the U.S. report appears to be a major problem for im- used piecesof softwarearespreadsheets (Olive, 1992; 511) that 70% of teachers plementing a range of computer appli- and word processors.It seems to medo not like drill-and-practice software. cations in this unit. While a lot of CAL that with the relative lack of use of This would suggest that these teachers packages are available to run under simulations, statistics packages, are at the point where they are ready to MS-DOS there are many that do not databases, graphics and graphing move from the traditional static role of and further, a number of useful tools packages the operating system avail- teachers to a more dynamic one which are not easy to use in the MS-DOS able to most may be ?using a problem. may reform the curriculum and trans- environment.It is therefore not sur- It is however gratWing to see Drill and form their cla ssroom s (Olive, 1992;510). Practice software at the bottom of the

TABLE 8 : Type of Software Used Percentage of teachers who do use computers with their classes. (n =801 Software Type Software Type Spreadsheet 95 Simulation 25 Word Processor 56 Demonstration 18 Graphing 34 Statistics Package 15 Graphics 31 Drill and Practice 4 Database 29

Initially the picture the survey data As such the second year of the study In the study by Riel (1989) it was found appears to be painting is one of a group has continued to closely examine a that while classroom organisation was of teachers working to implement thegroup of students and a teacher mak- not changed by computer use the pat- new course as intended and wanting to ing use of limited access to computer terns of interaction between students make use of computer applications. applications. To add to this it has in- and studentsand teacher werechangeci. However, they are finding it difficult to vestigated the classroom environment My initial investigation of the classroom give their students adequate access to associated with that class and has begun environment of the main class would computers some of which is as a result the process of widening the ,:ope to seem to indicate that teachers may in of a lack of knowledge and expertise in consider a range of similar classes fact alter the classroom organisation implementation.Over 60% of the throughout the state. and that computer use may be part of teachers who do use computers are in a the motivation and/or support to do situation where the only means of pro- The continuing classroom action re- so. It certainly would appear that pat- viding access is by a roster system and / search has highlighted the need for terns of interaction change. This how- or group work. This in fact fits the support for teachers, even very expe- ever needs a far wider study to be more classroom learning model many of them rienced and competent teachers. Van confident about. stated that they want to pursue.Fi- Den Akker et. al. (1992) found that the nally, most teachers appear to be lim- interaction between teacher and The statewide survey has shown that ited in the type of software they use courseware and the design of support teachers in these courses are having either d ue to the use of MS-DOS or their materials were crucial to the success'ul difficulty making use of computers in own lack of knowledge and experi- implementation cf computer supported their classrooms. However, they seem ence. learning. The main teacher used in this to have a positive attitude towards the study found it difficult to find and use courses, the change in teaching/ CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS ad ditionalcourseware with the reduced learning strategies and the use of The study is critically interested in the support available to him. For the same computers within the course. It seems impact of computers in the classroom, re.son he lacked sufficient support that more in-service training is required, particularly mathematics classrooms rials and therefore not surprisingly improved support materials and ac- involved in mathematical modelling. used computers less than in the previ- cess to more appropriate (GUI operat- ous year. 187 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 194 ing systems) hardware and software in REFERENCES Newhouse, P. (1992). Mathematical order to increase the use of computers DeCorte, E. (1990). Learning With New Modelling Using Computers : Not to support these courses. Information Technologies in Just for the 'Clever' !Paper pre- Schools : Perspectives from the sented at the Australian Comput- In 1993 the research project will be ex- Psychology of Learning and In- ers in Education Conference, July tended to consider in more depth a struction.Journal of Computer 1992. sample of teachers taken from those Assisted Learning, 6.69 -87. Olive, J. (1992). Technology and School involved in the survey. The study will Fraser, B.J. and Walberg, H.J. (1991). Mathematics.International Jour- continue to concentrate more on class- Educational Environments. nal of Educational Research.17. room organisation and interaction pat- Pergamon Press : Oxford. 503-515. terns in the classroom. This study will Herrington, A.J. (1988). Using a Com- Olson, J. (1988).Schoolworlds- seek to add to the findings of Riel and puter to Develop Mathematical Microworlds.Pergamon Press: others (e.g. Van Den Akker et. al., 1992) Processes. Paper presented at the Oxford, England. and contribute to the ongoing debate Australian Computers in Education Riel, M. (1989). The Impact of Comput- concerning the relationship between Conference, Sept 1988. ers in Classrooms. Journal of Re- computer use and the classroom envi-Kissane, B.V. (1989). The Computer: search on Computing in Education. ronment or culture (e.g. Olson, 1988). The Next Tool for High School Winter 1989,180 -189. Mathematics ? Login, 3(4), 6-14. Van Den Akker, J., Keursten, P. and Plomp, T. (1992). The Integration of Computer Use in Education. Inter- nation:,Journal of Educational Research, 17,65-76.

188 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 4,f ur! 195 THEINFLUENCE OF TRAINING ON BEGINNING TEACHERS' USE OF COMPUTERS. BY DR RON OLIVER Senior Lecturer, Department of Library and Information Science, Edith Cowan University Bradford St, Mt Lawley 6050. Western Australia.

Analysis of this data revealed despite ried out among tertiary entrants in computing having a high profile in teaching courses have found the com- the majority of schools, there were puting skills of many students to be widely varying levels of computer sadlylacking (Summers, 1990 do Wilson, use among the beginning teachers. 1990), Large numbers of students still Differences were observed in patterns leave secondary education with only of usage between primary and minimal skills and experience with secondary teachers and these patterns computer technology. In occupations appeared to reflect the nature of the such as teaching, where the use of com- computing courses received during puters plays a significant role in the This study investigated training. quality of the services provided, there the level of computer use is a clear need for programmes of study INTRODUCTION to ensure that graduates have achieved among beginning Computers now have an established the appropriate levels of IT skill and teachers. Beginning place in school education systems. expertise. teachers were asked to There is an expectation among all stakeholders in the education process Bigum (1990) rationalises the need for complete a questionnaire that school students will receive broad computer education in teacher training towards the end of their experience the new technologies. The programmes through issues of first year of teaching. The expectations of the stakeholders are economy as well as pedagogy. He ar- often quite high. They are aware of the gues quite rightfully that there needs to responses provided potential advantages to be derived from be more deliberation by teachers in the information concerning instructional applications of computer selection and application of computing the computing courses technology and expect that students resources in instructional settings. Fre- will receive some of these advantages quently rhetoric and good intentions completed by the teachers at some stage in their schooling. From are used as guides for good practice during their teacher school based experiences, it is antici- more often than knowledge and intraining, the place of pated that students will develop the formed practice. necessarylevels of knowledge a nd skills computers in their in Information Technology (IT) to en- Since computers and computing are schools, the amount of able them to take clvantage of the op- interdisciplinary in nature, some will use the teachers were portunities afforded by computers be- argue that the appropriate skills and yond school settings. knowledge can be derived from mean- making with computers ingful application of the technology and their perceptions of THE NEED FOR COMPUTER EDUCATION rather than instruction in applied set- the computer education The use of computers as a tool for the tings. Although this represents the ideal learner extends through all educational scenario, frequently it is not achievable needs of the beginning levels. Although many would expect in traditional courses of study. teacher. to find sound levels of Information Technology (IT) skills among students COMPUTER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES who enter universities to complete As with school based IT programmes, teacher training, in practice this is often the choices facing teacher educators in not the case. Recent investigations car- the design and implementation of ap-

189 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 196 propriate courses for teacher educatorsRhodes (1989) uses the terms, Deficit the needs of the beginning teacher. are many and varied. Owen (19! 2)and Skills to describe dichotomous Evaluation of training programmes is provides a useful summary of trainIngmodels of IT training for teachers. In frequently undertaken in terms of programmes by considering those as-courses based on the Deficit Model,knowledge of course content and the pects of the field that most influence theemphasis within the programme is to- development of personal skills. A more nature of the given instruction. Hewards developing confidence in the valid test of success is achieved by ex- describes models of in-service training,use of hardware and software. In such amining transferable skills and these all of which have relevance and possi-programmers technology is central to are made evident only when the gradu- bility in pre-service training pro-the instruction while educational is- ates apply their skills to actual teach- grammes. The modelsaredistinguished sues assume a secondary role. In the ing.Computer literacy by its very by the parameter on which they centre.Skills Model, the teacher rather than definition must transcend the content the technology is central to the course of an instructional programme to en- hardware centred, the machine isand the emphasis is placed upon en- compass such outcomes as the attitudes the focus of the instruction andcouraging teachers to use the technol- that are developed, students self-suffi- content is based on knowing the ogy within the classroom. Wild (1991) ciency and the transferability of the machine and how it works. considers that the differentiation of knowledge and skills to new situations. software centred, an item or appli-teaching models based on methodol- This paper describes a study that sought cation is taught. The aim of theogy alone leads to an oversimplifica- to investigate the effectiveness of dif- instruction being to develop com-tion of the dichotomy that exists be- ferent forms IT training within a teacher petence and expertise in the pro-tween such models. He argues for a training programme by examining the gram itself. return to the issue of needs identifica- actions of beginning teachers in apply- curriculum centred, computing istion to gain more insight into inherent ing information technologies in their taught in the context of a particular differences in the nature of teacher train- initial teaching positions. curriculum. ing courses. classroom centred, the instruction There are many factors that can influ- includes investigations into class-There are several identifiable forms of ence the use of computers among be- room practices and learning out-contemporary computing course given ginning teachers. Of paramount im- comes, to teacher- training students in Aus- portance would appear to be the nature whole school centred, the instruc-tralian universities. In some instances, and level of computer experience and tion brings the whole school to ac-courses of a formal nature are deliv- training, including the level of practice count for values about key issues,ered to ensure appropriate knowledge of computer use in curriculum settings. resource management and-curricu-and skills are developed by all stu- There are of course many other factors lum applications. dents. These courses are very much in such as those that have been found to teacher centred, instruction consid-the style of the Deficit Model (Rhodes, impede experienced teachers from ap- ers individual teachers roles and 1989). The capacity of a formal course plying computer technology. Bersan aspirations and maps programmesof instruction to fully develop TI skills Oliver (1991) listed some of these as that are in accord with personaland knowledge is frequently ques- inadequate access to hardware and soft- development needs of each. tioned in the school context (Oliver, in ware, insufficient skills in applying press). One would suspect that similar computers in their teaching as well as Although the demands and require-shortcomings may be evident in pre- the demands and rigours of teaching. ments for in-service training differ con-service teacher training. On the other The purpose of the present study was siderably from those associated with hand, such courses are often the only to determine the level of uptakeof com- pre-service training, within the field of possible way that minimal skills can be puters exhibited by beginning teachers computer education, there are manyguaranteed outcomes of programmes from a university in Western Australia similar inputs and planned outcomes.and courses.Bigum (1990) describes and to investigate factors associated An important consi d era don in the plan- an approach to teacher training that he with computer training that might in- ning of information technology pro-called "situated learning".Such an fluence this uptake.The following grammes in teacher education is deriv-approach provides the necessary skills research questions were framed to ing effective use from those factors thatand expertise through their develop- achieve these goa will aid in the construction of the begin-ment and application in meaningful ning teachers' conceptual models ofcontexts. This approach is along the Does the level of computer educa- computers and computing as toolscontinuum to the Skills Model (Rhodes, tion received during training influ- within all aspects of the profession. 1989). ence the level of computer uptake Although difficult to implement in pre- of beginning teachers? service training, conventional teacher It is difficult to judge the best form of IT Does the form of computer educa- education IT programmes are often aprogramme that can be delivered in tion received during training influ- blend of the models described by Owenany one setting.The effectiveness of ence the level of computer uptake (1992). the training programmes must reflect of beginning teachers?

190 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 gramme, there is no compulsory course. METHODOLOGY beborne in mind as the results ob- The subjects of the study were graduat- tained from the questionnaires are con- In all areas, students can elect to coming teachers from a Western Australian sidered. plete an elective unit in computer edu- university in their first year of teaching. cation. There is also in the secondary Data was gathered from this sample of RESULTS programme, a course of study for be- teachers through a questionnaire. The THE SAMPLE ginning computing teachers who seek questionnaire contained items thatAt this university the teaching pro- to become teachers of computing stud- sought the following information fromgramme offers differing courses for ies and these students undertakes large each teacher: teachers in the three areas. In the pri- number of computer related subjects. the training course undertaken, mary and early childhood areas, stu- A breakdown of the computer educa- the level of teaching, primary sec-dents study a compulsory computer tion training received by the beginning ondary or early childhood, education course in their first year of teachers involved in this study is given the organisation of computing re-training while in the secondary pro- in Table 1. sources within the school, the availability and quality of the Table 1 computing resources, Computing Courses Studied During Teacher Training personal usage patterns of the computing resources and Course 9. teachers' judgments of the quality Compulsory Computing Unit 41 of their computer education. Computing Elective Unit 22 Computer Studies Teaching Units 5 From a total graduation of three hun- No Formal Unit 32 dred and sixty five teachers, one hundred and eighty six were given immediate teaching postings. The question-Theinstructionalprogrammes The students learned to usea variety of naire was sent to these teachers andcompleted by the beginning teacherssoftware packages designed for initially seventy responses were gained. differed considerably in objectives and classroom use. They learned From information received, fifteen of content. A better understanding of the implementationstrategiesand the graduating teachers were found to skills and expertise of the graduating completed assignments that involved have left their positions. A follow up teachers can be gained by considering the use of computers in an integrated mailing resulted in the return of an- each of these courses separately. fashion across broad sections of the other forty seven responses and this prima ryschool curriculum. At all times gave a total return of one hundred and 1. COMPULSORY COMPUTINGUNIT. the emphasis and direction of the twenty two returns from one hundredThis unit was studied by all primary instruction and activity was towards and seventy one beginning teachers. teaching students. It was delivered in the development of skills and The sample from which the results arethe first year of their trainingunderstanding in classroom drawn, represented seventy one per- programmeand was primarily a hands- applications of computers as an aid to cent of the population, an acceptableon unit. The unit ran for three hours the teaching learning programme. figure by most standards. per week over a 13 week semester and was delivered in a computing 2. COMPUTING ELECTIVE Thequestionnaires necessarily required laboratory with a network computers. The computing elective undertaken by teachers to identify themselves so that The model of computer used in the many of the secondary teachers was follow-up letters could be sent to en-courseis used widely in prinwy distinctly different in aims and content courage the participation of the largest schools throughout Western Austn lia. to the primary graduates. This course number of beginning teachers.It is Few primary schools in this state d o nut had a productivity orientation and run contain numbers of these machines for in the students third and final year of likely that some teachers chose not to Students learned the participate due to the fact of possible classroom use. training. components of the integrated package. identification. Furthermore one could The class sessions revolved around The content of this unit was very heavily presume that predominant among the instruction in learning to use the word non-participating teachers would be tied to the Western Australian primary processor, spreadsheet, database and school curriculum. Students learned to those who were not using computer communications facilities.Students technology and did not wish to be iden-use the computer in a novel approach received instruction in classroom tified as such. This would suggest thatthat had them mimic the actions of applications of computers in a lecture the information presented in the study primary students in practical classroom situation.Lectures on modes of might not truly reflect the norm and settings.For example, the word implementation, potential uses of that the figures for computer uptake processor was used as means to record computers and research findings were might be less than initially evident from classroom activities. given during the course. the obtained responses. This fact should

191 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Assessment in the course involved the was computing courses in the able to graduate with reasonable levels submission of assignments. Each of the secondary schools and thedevelopment of computer literacy. Their knowledge assignments tested the students' of appropriate teaching strategies. and skills would probably be closely abilities to use the software package aligned to the students whostudied the and was created in a setting that The students came away from these computing elective, consisting in the prompted thought and activity incourses with a, high degree of main of personal productivity skills. educational applications of the understanding and skills in the use and technology. For example, the application of computers. Their skills AVAILABIUTY OF RESOURCES spreadsheet assignment involved the did not necessarily extend to classroom The purpose of this study was to establishrnentof a marksbook, the word applicationsofcomputersin compare the usage made of computers processing assignment involved instructional settings. by the beginning teachers and to research into computer applications investigate whether patterns of usage whilethe database assignment required 4. NO FORMAL UNIT could be linked to the level and form of students to plan lessons in their major The secondary teaching students who computereducation received. Because teaching area where students would chose not to complete the computing this necessarily involved a comparison use the computer as a tool in the elective received very little exposure to of usage across primary and seconds!), teaching/learning process. computers in their university course. schools, it was necessary to establish Computers are not used widely as other factors that may have influenced This course was designed and delivered instructional aids by the lecturing staff. computer uptake. High among these in a manner that primarily sought to Although the majority of curriculum factors must be the level of access to make the teaching students competent courses given to the students, involved computers. and confident users of computers in mention and demonstration of personal settings.The curriculum classroom computer use, there was very To aid in the comparison, it was applications were included in the course little practical experience available to necessary to judge whether there was a to facilitate the transfer of computer students in such courses. difference in the level of resourcing in usage to classroom settings.The the primary and secondary school students were not exposed to particular Many of the students who chose not to settings.The questionnaire asked software packages for their major study the elective had some degree of teachers to judge the both the subject area.The programme was computer experience. Small numbers availability of the hardware and the designed around the assumption that of students had studied computing in quality of the software in their schools. given personal computing skills, the their secondary schooling. The beginning teachers' ratings of the teachers would have the skills and Approximately fifty percent of the availability of hardware (Table 2) were expertise to make classroom use in their students in the Faculty of Education at generally positive. subject settings. this university use personal computers in the preparation of assignments. The The responses of the primary and 3. COMPUTER STUDIES TEACHING UNITS university has large amounts ofsecondaryteachersconcerning The small number of students whocomputing resources for use in the hardware availability and software completed these units received s solid academic programme and studentsquality were recoded to enable a background in computers from a regularly make use of these facilities comparison to be drawn. The responses technically oriented programme. Their for personal needs. of those teachers who could not judge course consisted of three units in the quality and availability of their computer science including studies in It can be judged then, that a considerable hardware and software were removed. programming, hardware and systems.proportion of the beginning teachers Analysis of variance indicated no analysis. The students completed two who received no formal computer significant differencein the perceptions curriculum units, the focus of which education in their training were still of the beginning teachers concerning

Table 2 Beginning Teachers' Ratings of Computing Resources for Classroom Use

very low low unsure highvery high

Hardware Availability (%) Primary 2 19 8 39 31 Secondary 4 24 18 39 15

Software Quality (%) Primary 4 25 23 37 10 Secondary 4 16 31 34 13

192 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 the availability of computers for Table 3 shows the level of usage made The responses of the primary teachers classroom use (F(1,97) = 1.64, ns) nor by the beginning primary teachers in indicated that hey judged themselves was thereanydifferencein judgements eachof theseareas. While there appears to make substantially less use of concerning the quality of the available to be considerable use made of computers in their teaching than other software (F(1,81) = 0.49, ns). computers for teaching purposes, the teachers in their schools. In a similar usage made for administration and manner to their own use, the beginning PATTERNS OF USAGE personal productivity is much lower. teachers judged that their peers made The beginning teachers were asked to In order to gain some insight into what moss use of computers as teaching aids judge the number of hours in a week night be considered normal practice and used computers for administration that made of computers in three areas: in primary schools, the beginning and personal productivity to a lesser administrative use, as a marks book, teachers were asked to judge the levels degree. It is difficult to speculate as to for record keeping, reporting etc. of computer usage made in each of the the reasons for these unexpected teaching use, as an instructional aid in categories by other members of staff outcome. Given the currency of their the classroom and, (Table 4). P. number of the responses training and their familiarity with the personalproductivity,to create teaching indicated that people had difficulty new technologies, one could have materials, for lesson planning,quantifying usage patterns among expected the level of computer usage of lesson programming etc. other staff members in a general sense, the beginning teachers to have matched so the figures mentioned must be seen or even exceeded that of their peers. zs a guide only.

Table 3 Beginning Primary Teachers' Judgement of Their Weekly Level of Computing Usage

0 hrs 0-1 hrs 1-2 hrs 2-3 hrs > 3 hrs Administration % 84 8 4 2 2 Teaching % 30 35 25 6 4 Personal % 73 21 4 2 0

Table 4. Beginning Primary Teachers Judgement of The Average Weekly Level of Computing Usage Among Other Teachers

0 hrs 0-1 hrs 1-2 hrs 2-3 hrs >3 hrs Administration % 33 15 17 15 19 Teaching % 9 33 27 11 20 Personal % 36 32 14 11 7

Table 5 Beginning Secondary Teachers' Judgement of Their Weekly Level of Computing Usage

0 hrs 0-1 hrs 1-2 hrs 2-3 hrs > 3 hrs Administration % 48 33 9 4 6 Teaching % 63 19 7 5 6 Personal % 40 25 16 10 9

On the other hand, beginning teachersthe secondary teachers.It is evident make considerable use of computers face considerable pressures in theirfrom these figures that the perceived for productivity and teaching purposes. early days to gain their feet in themajor use was personal productivity A useful comparison between tl,e classroom. Unnecessary challengingand the least level of computer usage figures is to compare the numbers of tasks such as implementing computerwas judged to be for teaching purposes. teachers from both groups judged not programmes often receive a lowerThe secondary beginning teachers also to use computers at all in each of the priority than more demanding tasksjudged their levels of usage to be three areas. The numbers of beginning such as classroom management andsomewhat lower than their more teachers in these categories greatly lesson programming. Table 5 showsexperienced colleagues (Table 6). The exceed the numbers of experienced the judged levels of computer usage ofexperienced teachers were judged to teachers. 193 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 200 Table 6 Beginning Secondary Teachers' Judgement of Average Weekly Level of Computing Usage Among Other Teachers

0 hrs 0-1 hrs 1-2 hrs 2-3 hrs > 3 hrs Administration % 17 24 17 7 35 Teaching % 26 24 19 9 22 Personal % 14 28 33 7 18

LEVEL OFTRAINING VS COMPUTER USAGE determine whether differences education component of the secondary The first research questionto be existed in their levels of usage (Table teacher programme undertaken by answered was whether the he level of 7). these teachers, the course emphasised usage of computers madebybeginning the development of personal skills in teachers would be influenced by the The total usage figure for both groups computer use. The course provided level of computer education received was exactly the same. While small the students with skills in applications during training. The secondary variations existed in specific usage of computers that are best suited to graduates provided a sample with figures among the two groups, administration and personal which to seek an answer to this question. analysis of variance found none of productivity. Support for a course of Approximately half of the group had these to be significantly different. this nature is derived from the argument undertaken formal computer education This finding was quite unexpected that once students have strong personal studies during their teacher training and suggested that there are stronger computing skills they will then be able while the remainder had undertaken factors in play, that determine the to apply these skills to using the none. The number of hours of usage for level of usage that beginning teachers computer in theirteaching. This each teacher within each of these groups make of computers. It is interesting argument does not appear to be was calculated and compared toto note that within the computer supported by these findings.

Table 7. Hours per Week of Computer Usage Made by Beginning SecondaryTeachers With and Without Formal Training in Computer Education

Teaching Administration Personal Total With Formal Training 0.89 0.84 1.07 2.80 Without Formal Training 0.50 0.97 1.33 2.80

Interpreting these findings is difficult settings. It could be that those students computing available to students in their and can only be speculative. It could be who chose not to take the formal course courses and these would apply to all that the nature of the formal course had well developed knowledge and students. It would appear though, that taken by the students simply served to skills to start with. Although this was the delivery of a formal course with an develop skills and knowledge that were not measured, it was not likely to be emphasis on applications needs easily gained by other students by the case. There were only limited reassessing if the aim is to produce personal and practical use in other opportunities and experiences in students who will use computers in classroom applications.

Table 8. Mean Hours per Week of Computer Usage Made by Primary and SecondaryBeginning Teachers

Teaching Administration PersonalTotal Secondary 1.72 1.90** 2.22*** 2.86' Primary 2.19' 1.28 1.36 1.83

p < 0.05 ** p <0.01 *** p <0.001

194 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 201 computer use (F(1,114) = 15.373, p< FORM OF TRAINING VS COMPUTER number of hours of use of computers 0.001). The primary graduates on the USAGE between thesegroupsof graduates was Within the primary teacher education performed to see whether significantother hand used the computer programme, the computer educationdifferences existed in their levels of significantly more in their classroom course focused on curriculumuptake.Table 8 shows that the teaching (F(1,114)= 4.79, p<0.05). These applications of the computer while the seeondarygraduatesmadesignificantly findings support the contention that computereducation programme within more total use of the computerthan the form of computer education and the secondary programme focused on their primary counterparts (F(1,114) = computer training received during personal computer use. The number of 4,76, p< 0.05).This difference was teacher training, influences the level hours usage for teachers from these brought about by significantly higher and nature of computer uptake of groups were calculated and are shown levels of ad min istrative usage (F(1,114) beginning teachers. in Table 8. Analysis of variance of the = 10.097, p< 0.01)and personal

Table 9. Mean Hours per Week of Computer Usage Madeby Primary and Secondary Experi- encedTeachers

Teaching Administration PersonalTotal Secondary 1.78 2.17 1.86* 5.81 Primary 2.00 1.73 120 4.93

*p < 0.05

schooling and this should be expected There areoften quitedistinctdifferences SUMMARY in computer usage. This study used in teacher behaviour between primary The findings in this paper must be and secondary schooling and thisviewed within the light of themeasures of experienced teachers' practices in this regard as a means to should be expected in computer usage. limita tions in the methodologyand data This study used measures ofgathering in the study.In the firstcompare practices between the two experienced teachers' practices in this instance, the hours of usage that are areas of schooling.These figures demonstrated differences between the regard as a means to com pare practices used to make the findings are judged between the two areas of schooling.rather than actual.The process ofexperienced teachers that were not Table 9 shows these differences in usage estimating and judging computer usage consistent among the beginning as judged by the beginning teachers. has its drawbacks.People tend to teachers. It is to be expected that other overestimate rather than underestimate factors apart from those considered, Differences between the primary and in such instances.This not totally will influence beginning teac hers' levels secondaryexperienced teachers are not limiting because when such a pattern of computer usage. so evident. Analysis of variance was occurs across a sample. Although the used to test the differences and it was gained measures might be larger than Despite these limitations, there appear only inthe level of personalactual measures, the differences in to be some interesting outcomes for teacher educators. In the first instance, productivity thatasignificant which we are interested should still be difference was found to exist. The level the same. It can also be argued that the the form of computer education of usage among the seconda ry teachers practices of a beginning teacher may appeared to be a significant factor in was not different to that of the primary not provide a truly accurate picture of influencing the computer practices of teachers (F(1, 98) = 0.22, ns).These the underlying knowledge and beginning teachers. When the nature figures suggest that after a period of understanding of that person.The of computer usage was compared time, in relation to computer usage, constraints and difficulties associated between primary and secondary differences in teaching conditions at with beginning teaching may not be beginning teachers, the usage patterns primary and secondary schools the ideal environment to display actual mirrored the nature of the instructional lessen for the beginning teachers. beliefs and training outcomes. A study programmes. While primary students Initially, however, it may be that after three or four years of service may received instruction emphasising curriculum applications and classroom variations in conditions, availability of be a more valid test of outcomes. resources, teaching demands, all local implementations, the secondary and immediate factors, are pervading Another limitation of the study is its students who completed a computer and are more significant in the short failure to control for the many variables education course, learned use of the term than the beginning teachers' that can and will, influence computer computer as a personal tool. In their teaching, the primary graduates made training and education. uptake. There are often quite distinct differences in teacher behaviour significantly more use of the computer between primary and secondaryas an instructional aid while the 195 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 199 3 202 secondary beginning teachers made Bigum (1990), would appear to be Bigum, C. (1990). Situated Computing significantly more use of the computer valuable in guiding teacher educators in Pre-Service Computer Education for administration and personal in the planning and delivery of effective in Computers in Education. A. productivity.These practices were IT programmes for pre-service teachers. McDougall and C. Dowling (Eds). reported by the beginning teachers Elsevier Science, North Holland. despite their perceptions of differing Although this study appears to have Heywood, G. & Norman, P. (1988). practices being made by others in their established differences in computeruse, Problemsofeducationalinnovation: schools. and probable causes have been the primary teacher's response to suggested, it has not been able to using the computer. Journal of On the question of whether the a mount strongly defend the reasons for these Computer assisted Learning, 4(1), 34- of instruction in computer education differences. Heywood and Norman 43. might influence practice, the study did (1988) report on a study in which they Oliver, R. (in press). A Comparison of not find this to be so. Comparisons of sought to establish reasons whySecondarySchoolInformation computer use between students who teachers avoided the use of computers. Technology Programmes. Computer completed a formal course and others Heywood a nd Norman used attribution Education. who did not found no significant theory to expose and analyse causal Owen, M. (1992). A teacher centred difference in any of the areas ofstructures. They sought to determine model of development in the computer usage. This finding must be patterns in responses and to identify educational use of computers. interpreted in light of the nature of the the reactions of different categof Journal of Information Technology for formal training received. The students users. There is a planned follow-up to Teacher Education, 1(1), 127-137. were given instruction in the use of the this study that will seek to use similar Rhodes, V. (1989). Barriers to Innovation. computer as a personal tool.It was methodologies to further investigate A Seminar Report. ESRCOccasional found that skills and knowledge in this influencing factors in computer use. If Paper, INTER/11/89, University of area can be gained from other sources. there are differing outcomes from Lancaster. The expectation that students would varying instructional programmes, the Summers, M. (1990).New student be able to apply these skills to classroom identificationof these discrete teachers and computers:an applications was not evident. differences could provide valuable investigation of experiences and guidance to curriculum planners and feelings. Educational Review, 42(3), This study has demonstrated the need writers. 261-271. for teacher educators to be critical of Wilson, B. (1990). The preparedness of their IT programmes and to use more teacher trainees for computer than conventional means to assess their REFERENCES utilisation: the Australian and British outcomes and success. The study found Bersan, J. & Oliver, R. (1991). A Case Experiences. Journal of Education for that despite well organised and well Study to Investigate the Use of Teaching, 16(2). 161 -171. delivered instructional programmes, Computers AcrossaSchool Wild, M.(1991). The nature of information students' transfer of the learning to Curriculum in Navigating the technology in teacher education: classroom applications was limited. Nineties. Brisbane, CEGQ. Towards effective practice. Further studies to investigate the Unpublished M.Phil dissertation. effectiveness of differing instructional University of Exeter. programmes such as that described by

196 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 2 I) 3 INFORMATION RETRIEVAL FROM INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA SOURCES BY RON OLIVER & LESA PERZYLO

Ed lh Cowan University Bradford St, Mt Cawley 6050. Western Australia.

Despite having focus questions to aid electronic and paper-based book is that their inquiry, students have been ob- the paper renders the information served to concentrate theirinformation "unreactive, static and invariant" while seeking on items of a textual nature and in the electronic book, the information to make minimal use of the multimedia is "reactive, variant and dynamic". The sources. In fact, in the first phase of the majority of interactive multimedia study the multimedia sources of infor- products with educational application mation with their stimulating visual are of this form. and auditory qualities, were found to be a distraction rather than an aid in the The recent advancements in CD-ROM This paper reports a information seeking process.. Group technology has resulted in the project that is interactions have also been seen as a development of affordable hardware significant factor influencing the effec- for school use and the consequent investigating the use of tiveness of the individual's information publication of a large number of interactive multimedia as gathering. When given instruction in interactive multimedia educational an information source in ways to extract meaningful informa- products. In 1993, it is likely to cost tion, students have been observed to about SA1000 to add a multimedia pack classroom research make more effective use of the multi- to an existing computer system and activities. Two phases of media information. The project has about $A100 a copy for CD-ROM the project to date, have identified apparent limitations in the software titles. As CD-ROM drives are research skills of the subjects and future purchased in higher numbers, there is involved upper primary phases of the project aim to investigate potential for their costs and that of the school students using the whether multimedia sources in the form software, to diminish considerably. Mammals Multimedia of electronic books can be used to enhance students' research skills and ac- As with many other computing Encyclopaedia (1990) as a tivities. products, questions remain as to source of information in whether new skills are needed to make independent research BACKGROUND effective use of interactive multimedia. The multimedia applicat'ons that are Are conventional skills able to be projects. Both phases coming into classrooms in increasing adapted? Is it sufficient for students to have found that students numbers hold some interesting simply know how to use the software find the program easy to prospects for teachers and students to gather information from it? A useful alike.A common application of parallel might be to consider driving a use and have little trouble interactive multimedia for education is car. A person who has qualified for a navigating through the the electronic book. This is the term driver's license riay find a car quite levels to find information. often applied to the varying forms of useless in a city where he or she knows databases that are developed with a none of the streets. Even if the car is multimedia format. Barker and Giller automatic, there is likely to be (1990) describe an electronic book as "a insufficient knowledge to make metaphor that is based on peoples' effective use of the vehicle. perceptions of traditional paper-based books." The difference between an

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTINa JULY 1993 197

o nA media applications and was an ad- INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA AND & Davidson (1991) describe a study in which the development of concept vancement with which much of today's HYPERMEDIA. These devices Interactive multimedia and electronic learning was studied in relation to vary- technology is linked. were used more for instructional pur- books are an application cf a -elatively ing levels of learner control. Learner poses than as information sources but new form of media called hypermedia. control was not found to be an influ- Hypermedia is loosely defined as "a encing variable.Other research on much of the research in this area has computer based software system for learner control clearly indicates thatrelevance to this study. McNeil and organising and storing information to learners who are not skilled in the sub- Nelson (1991) report a meta-analysis of beaccessednon - sequentially" ject tend to learn caore effectively if the instructional applications of N over (Jonassen 1991). In early days, the in-control of the learning sequence is left the past ten years. Among their find- formation systems comprised mainly to an external agent rather than the ings concerning effective implementa- text and were referred to as hypertext. learner herself. While skilled learners tions of IV in classrooms are findings These information systems today com- choose more options and make better that suggest: bine a multitude of media as well as use of the instructional materials to the importance of the teacher in the text and hence the term, hypermedia. achieve higher learning gains, less learning process, The application of hypermedia in edu- skilled learners make poorer choices, program controlled producing cation and training has seen the devel- choose fewer items and perform less more effective learning thanlearner opment and implementation of many well (Goetzfried and Hannafin; 1985, controlled IV, new instructional and learning designs Ross, Morrison & O'Dell, 1989). The a favouring of group instruction developed from previous research and findings from such research suggests a and work into computer assisted instruc- need for caution and concern in the learner differences contribute sig- tion. Interactive multimedia, which is application of interactive multimedia nificantly to differences in learning an element of hypermedia, has beenmaterials such as electronic books outcomes. defined as "the integration of audio, among novices and less skilled learn- graphics, animation and text utilisingers. The lack of any form of program COOPERATIVE LEARNING. the computer as a control and presenta- control over the material that is pre- The use of in fe-active multimedia ma- _ztronic books is frequently tion platform" (Edgar, 1992). sented to the learner could result in terials anc many students failing to access impor- completes .regroup settings to provide student access to what is frequently a LEARNER CONTROL. tant information from the program. The A critical difference between conven- non-linear form of information access scarce resource. The need for consid- tionalcomputerassisted instruction and could result in learners choosing inap- eration of the students' discrete and multimedia, is in the sequencing of the propriate information sequences inca- combinedactions in such settings instruction. In the design of interactive pable of delivering the information be- would appear an important considera- multimedia materials, the learner is ing sought. tion in determining the learning poten- given a greater degree of freedom in tial from such activities. In some in- choosing the information and activities The lack of program control in interac- stances, the use of interactive informa- that comprise the learning task. These tive multimedia applications is one of tion providers such as video-discs and choices are typically non-linear in fash- its key attributes and main strengths CD-ROM, may not be well suited to ion (McGrath, 1992) and are controlled (Scott MacKenzie, 1992). If it is the case applications of this nature. by a system of menus that enable the that unskilled learners do not fare well learner to navigate through the pro- with such instructional design, then it At first glance, the use of interactive gram. Learner control is an important is necessary to consider changes to the instructional materials appear to have consideration when considering learn- way learners use the programs rather considerable potential as facilitators and ing applications of interactive multi- than changes to the instructional de- motivators of group activity. There has media. By their very nature, interac- sign of the application. If learners can been considerable research conducted tive multimedia products provide the be trained in the processes involved in into the effectiveness of small group Johnson and highest degree of learner control possi- navigation and appropriate navigation learning activities. ble. The hypermedia base on which strategies developed, the potential forJohnson (1989) report a significant im- they are designed relies heavily on a successful use of the application would provement in effective learning among very low degree of program control appear to be enhanced considerably. students engaged in group learning and maximum opportunity for control when compared to individual learn- given to the learner. EXISTING RESEARCH. ing. With computer based materials, There has been a good deal of research the research once again indicates positive outcomes to be gained from the u se There has been considerable research conducted into computer based learn- conducted into the effects of learner ing that can have direct application in of groups rather than individuals. Re- search indicates that computer based control of computer based learning onthe design of interactive multimedia the acquisition of knowledge. Not all materials. The Interactive Video (N) instruction is often moreeffective when research has been conclusive. Murphy has many parallels with modern multi- completed in groups with the group-

198 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 205 ing able to yield improved achieve- multimedia applications in schools. To lect a particular mammal as the focus of ment and attitudes over individual in-achieve this, the team has conducted a research activity. struction (Dalton, Hannafin do Hooper, several case study projects in which 1989; Hooper, 1992). MPC computers (multimedia personal As the school follows an inquiry ap- computers) have been placed in proach to research work, students were The achievement of improved learningclassrooms and a comprehensive guided to create focus questions that outcomes through the cooperative useevaluation undertaken of the use ofwould direct and lead their informa- of computers is dependent, however,these resources in student-centred tion gathering. Through the develop- on the quality of the design of the corn-research projects. ment of a concept map and class dis- puterbased learning materials. Hooper cussion, students were able to consider (1992) discusses the need for the soft- PHASEONE the nature of the material that would be ware to enable all group members to be In the first phase of the study, the elec- useful in the required summary paper. cognitively engaged at all times in thetronic book, Mammals CD-ROM Mul- Students compiled their own lists of learning process. Dalton (1990) argues timedia Encyclopaedia, was used by focus questions under the guidance of further that the design of instructionalstudents in conjunction with conven- the teacher librarian. materials for group activities demandstional books as an information source inherently different approaches to ma-for a project. The purpose of this re- The students were given comprehen- terials used by individuals. The in-search project was to investigate out- sive training in the operations of driv- structional design characteristics ofcomes from the application of an elec- ing the package. The students spent a interactive multimedia tend to reflect tronic book as a source of information number of designated library research more the intention of individual ratherfor classroom research. To achieve this periods over the period collecting in- than group use, in much the same waythe study sought to discover the fol- formation from which their summary as printed material serves the singlelowing attributes of the use of elec-papers would be written. This time reader. The capacity of the materials to tronic books in the context of an inquiry was spent jointly in the library using display and present information to thebased student activity. books and in the classroom where the wider audience is a key factor in en- the impact of total learner control computers werestored. Data was gath- couraging their group use. In assessing on the quality of the information ered by the researchers through obser- the utility and efficacy of the use of accessed, vation and videotaping of all computer interactive multimedia materials, the the information seeking and re-interactions, follow-up interviews with nature of the interactions and outcomes cording strategies employed byall students and staff. Students' sub- from group use would appear an im- students, missions were closely examined to de- portant and necessary consideration. the forms of information accessed termine the nature of the material that by students, and was contained and the level of use of NAVIGATION. the nature of the interactions among information from the electronic book. Previous research projects conducted students and the potential influ- among varying applications of ence on learning outcomes. WE MAMMALS CD-ROM multimedia in the form of hypertext The Mammals CD-ROM is an interac- and hypermedia have shown that manyThe study was conducted in a class of tive multimedia computer program. It factors can and will impact on the 32 students in their finalyearof primary is published by National Geographic outcomes from the use the application schooling. Two MPC systems running as an electronic form of a popular of interactive multimedia in classroom under Windows 3.1 with the Mammals printed publication, Book on Mammals. settings Trumbull, Gay dr Mazur (1992) program were installed in the students' The software has been designed with found that the different search modesclassroom for the four weeks that the an instructional interface that gives full employed by users of interactiveproject ran. Students were rostered in control to the user. All documentation multimedia was a factor influencing groupg to use the computers and given for the program is in electronic form the success of interactions. Jacobs (1992) access to the computers on four sepa- with help and instruction sequences questionswhethereducational rate occasions during the project. A readily availab:e to the user. The pro- institutions are ready for the open- cooperatively planned unit of work was gram contains44colour video clips, in endednatureofhypermediadeveloped by the classroom teacher excess of 700 colour photographs and applications bearing in mind the and the teacher libraria n and integrated information on 229 mammals. difficulties that have accompanied the into the Social Science Curriculum. The applications of discovery learning. requirements for the project and the An initial screen provides access expectations of the teacher were made through a menu system to a help rou- THE RESEARCH PROJECT evident to the students in a session tine, instructions for use, specific mam- A research team at Edith Cowan conducted by the teacher librarian at mal information, information about University has been actively pursuing the commencement of the activity. The individual animals, a game and an op- research that seeks to determine thetopic of Mammals was discussed and tion to quit the program. If students efficacy and utility of interactivestudents given the opportunity to se- elect to find out information about a

199 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

1; 9t1R specific animal, the program uses a two Despite what appeared to be a large 2. INFORMATION RECORDING STRATE- level alphabetic index to enable selec- number of levels, no student was ob- GIES. tion. A species screen for each animal served experiencing any difficulty inStudents were not observed to make provides a picture of the animal and a moving between the levels and in se-much use of traditional recording small amount of general information. lecting from among the options. Stu-methods when using Mammals. A further eight icons on the screen pro- dents were observed to move directly There were only several occasions vide access to distinct forms of infor- to the required options once a d :vision when students were observed to use mation at yet another level, had been made to seek particular infor- pencil and paper to record informa- a sound file of the animal's call, mation. Once the information had been tion and in these instances, the a video clip showing the animal in gained, the return to the species menu recording was usually done as a consequence of a direct suggestion its natural element, or the main menu to facilitate further a photo album showing still pic- selection was direct and efficient. made by a teacher. This was in direct tures of the animal, contrast to the many pages of notes a distribution map, The information searching strategies that were gathered from paper books. a set of tables showing statistics on that were used by the students when size, reproduction etc, interacting with Mammals appeared to Pencil and paper recording was only an essay about the animal, and be directly related to the size of theever used in the small group size. Stu- a printout of the essay or captions. group using the hardware. Distinctly dents appeared to be quite sensitive to different strategies and processes were the needs of others in their group and Within these eight options, there are observed among students working infor this reason were not inclined to take some that provide access to a further groups of four and groups of two. When time in an activity that could not be level. For example, when viewing the working in groups of four, the students judged as useful to the whole group. photographs of the animals, students shared control of the hardware by pass- Students were very much aware that if can view captions for each photograph ing the mouse between themselves. A they chose to record information, oth- and can often access a sound track. In typical interaction would see one stu- ers would be left idle and made to wait. its operation, Mammals has 6 discrete dent use the mouse to select the mam- With the smaller group size, this prob- levels. Navigation through the levels is mal of his/her choice and use the avail- lem was lessened and a small amount achieved by the selection of icons. At able options to receive information on of recording was observed. each level, there is an icon to take stu- that animal. In the process of viewing dents back to the previous level. the information on this animal, the stu- There were a number of other factors dents would take heed of suggestions that lessened the utility of recording by hand. Much of the information did not RESULTS made by other group member. These The following paragraphs contain a suestions were of the form"let's hear lend itself to recording in this fashion. summary of the behaviours that were it" or 'look at the photographs" and For example, the sounds of the animals, the graphs of animal sizes and the observed and provide some insight into "can we see the video?" the manner in which the Mammals maps of distribution were all difficult program was used as an information In groups of two, the students wereto record. When pencil and paper was source alongside the other materials. observed to pay more attention to theobserved in use, the students took con- mammal from their own project. Indi- siderable time to record the information. It appeared quite a clumsy exer- 1. INFORMATION SEEKING STRATEGIES viduals took more time to view the The program was judged to be easy to information screens on their particularcise. The computer and its peripherals use, by all students in the class. The mammal. There was much less evi- took up much of the space on the desk point and click mode of operation and dence of interaction in the s mallgroups. and left little room for other materials. the icon based navigation, although The student with the mouse assumed a Operation of the program required that initially unfamiliar to many students, higher degree of control with the other the pencil be put down and the hand were quickly learned and applied suc- acting in a more passive role. In bothused to control the program. Taking cessfully to operate the program. On modes, there was still a noticeable re- information from the screen and putting only few occasions were students ob- luctance on the part of the students toit to paper required large physical served to arrive at screens that were not attend to textual information. Textualmovements of the head. These factors expected. In such instances, this was information was available in the formall combined to lessen students' incli- usually brought about by inaccurate of an essay on each animal, captions for nation to use this form of recording clicking of the mouse and an unex- the individual photographs, descrip- information. A more comprehensive pected selection being made. The pro- tions of keywords and ph rasesand short set of printing options within the program operated in a totally reliable fash- descriptions in ma ny of the information gram would have been gratefully re- ion and students were able to access screens. Students were rarely observed ceived by these students. The program precisely the particular menu or infor- to read from the screen despite the large only provided hard copy of the essay mation screen that they sought. amount of information that was pre-and picture captions. sented in this way.

200 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 207 Most students appeared to have no excited by sounds that attracted other GRAPHICS. specific information seeking purpose children's attention and interest Two options provided very useful in using the CD-ROM and for that rea- graphical images about the mammals and these options were observed to be son, the screens rarely presented infor- VIDEO. mation that merited particular atten- When available, the video clips of the students' next most popular choice. tion and recording. The most popular mammals wereviewed. Thevideo clips Students viewed the distribution maps recording method was the production were the second most popular choice of the animals and the charts describing of a hard copy of the essay. All students being viewed after the sounds had been their physical attributes. These graphs gained a copy of this information on dealt with. There was obvious disap-contained a wealth of information that their mammal on the printer and used pointment among the group that the would have been very useful in the it extensively in the production of their video clips did not have a sound track. production of the summary papers. final paper. The essay was judged by In the first lessons, students in all of theStudents were rarely observed to record the students to be a very useful docu- groups were observed to fiddle with information from these screens and in ment. It contained a precise but com- the loudspeakers and their cables as- many cases did not appear to recognise prehensive range of information and as suming that it was a hardware fault the extent of the information that was the name suggests, tended to be a sum- that caused the sound not to be heard.displayed. The screens did not have a mary of all the information made avail- strong holding power and after cursory able through the program. Although the video clips had a strongglances, the students tended to move attracting power, they a ppeared to have onto the next item. 3. NATURE OF THE INFORMATION only a small holding power. In many TEXT. ACCESSED. instances, the video clips were quite Being a multimedia product, the Mam- lengthy and students frequently be-Textual information was the least mals CD-ROM provided access to in- camedisinterested and easilydistracted viewed option and the last choice of formation in a variety of forms. Atten- from the viewing.This was quite students when moving between the in- tion was paid in the observations to the surprising because there was a good formation screens. In terms of use in the relative levels of access made by stu- deal of action to be viewed and thesummary paper, textual information dents to the different forms of informa- video clips contained veryuseful mate- from the program as the most widely tion. When students chose information rial relating to the mammals. Some of used form of information. Textual in- about mammals, there was a noticeable the reasons that appeared to lessen the foana tion was available in a variety of order in the choices made. The major- holding power of the video clips in-forms. There was an essay on each ity used the same order to access infor- cluded: mammal, captions breach photograph mation. It was apparent different forms The small size of the video display. and hypertext descriptions of keywords. of information had different attracting The program showed only a small There were no recorded instances where powers and as a consequence, some screen with limited resolution. This students read the complete essay on forms were utilised more heavily than did not compare favourably withscreen. On most occasions the essay was accessed and a hard copy obtained others. the standard video format with which students were familiar. immediately. SOUND. The lack of sound. Students were Sound appeared to be the most singu- not used to video without sound. It HYPERTEXT. larly popular form of information. appeared that sound must play a The hypertext information was rarely Sound was consistently among the first large part in holding students toused. It may have been that students choices made by individuals.In all video displays. did not require fuller descriptions of the stages of the study, students rarely terms because they were already famil- passed up an opportunity to have the PHOTOGRAPHS. iar with them. More likely, it was that computer speak to them or to have the Having accessed the sound and video since students were not reading the text sound of mammals played to them. images, the students generally elected that appeared on the screen, they had The students' actions demonstrated that to view the still colour photographs. no reason to view the descriptions and the novelty of the situation was a strong The photographs held students' atten-definitions of the terms that were pre- determinant in guiding their decisions tions and interests far better than the sented. Even the short textual descrip- to seek this information. For example, video images even though they did not tions that accompanied the graphics and students frequently had the computer consciously realise this. When viewing images on other screens were not well pronounce mammal names that were the photographs, students tended to read. The photo captions were the most obviously well known to them. Hav-discuss and chat about the pictures. widely used textual form. They were ing heard the pronunciation, the action There was quite a degree of activity short descriptions and were applied to was repeated and comments passed on when photographs were viewed withphotographs. Students were observed the pronunciations.With animal fingers pointing to the screen and sug-quite regularly to read the captions as sounds, students were seen to repeatgestions being made to move ahead they viewed the photographs. noisy and unusual sounds and to be and to move back.

t.". 201 t. AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 . 208 Observations of the usage of the infor- PHASE TWO The sounds weretreated as information mation forms, revealed some interest- A second project was planned to and listened to attentively. All students ing patterns that are worthyof mention. investigate whether appropriate wrote descriptions of the sounds and Students' preference for informa- instruction might be useful in increasing many were seen to replay the sounds tion forms was influenced by the theinformation access skillsof students several times to check the accuracy of capacity of the form to cater for the using this electronic book. The second their descriptions.There were no group rather 'ha n individual needs. study involved a replication of the first examples of browsing as observed The sounds, the video images and project in a similar class of students at previously in which many sought to the photographs each had capa- another school. The two studies were locate the loudest and strangest sounds. bilities to enable the interaction and conducted in a similar fashion in all Similar actions were observed as participation of the whole group in respects except that the researchers students watched and viewed the the viewing process. provided instruction in data retrieval video-clips. Descriptions were written Students are not inclined to read processes. This instruction discussed of colours, movements, and behaviour and digest information from the ways to listen to sounds and to create patterns. On ma ny occasions, the video screen. When presented with a descriptions of what was heard. was played several times to ensure that screen with varying forms of im- Students were told how to watch video nothing was missed and the written agery, students appeared to be at- clips and to observe movement and information was accurate. tracted to the most visually and activity and to describe what they were auditorally stimulating information viewing. Students were also told how The students were not observed to view and tended to neglect other infor- to study photographs of animals and to the colour photograpt s with the same mation that had no means to attract extract and note relevant information. level of purpose and intention as the their interest. sound and video despite having been The only textual information that RESULTS. given similar instruction.The was read and digested was that The results from this second phase are photographs were viewed and in most which was brief in its extent and in the process of being fullycases, information copied from the which students selected intention- investigated. It suffices to say that the captions or the sound clips that ally. The photo captions and species valueof the instruction on data retrieval accompanied them. There was little descriptions were examples of this. was noticeable from the outset ofevidence among the students of an observations among the students. The ability to view a photograph and to The first phase of the project revealed focus given to the ways in which describe what was being seen. The that the informa tion gained by students information could be drawn from the passive nature of the information from this electronic book was multimedia sources saw marked seemed to limit the students' attention considerably less than the writers and differences in the ways that these and interest. publishers may have expected. It was students extracted information from the suggested to the researchers that this electronic book when compared to Observation of the notes taken by the product is for adult use and it was not students from the previous class. students and the material presented in likely that children would make proper the final projects saw the majority of use of it. We could only speculate as to In the first instance, the students came information gained from the pa per book the usage that the students might have to the computers with paperand pencil sources. Although the students had made of the available information from and ready to write. There was ample gained up to two or three pages of Mammals if it bade been presented to room provided in front of the machines information from the Mammals them in paper form.It would most to place the paper and to write. Many program, this was not a large amount likely have been much more. students had blank pieces of paper with of information when compared to that organised headings with the intention collected from other sources.Most It was also interesting to speculate on of placing information from the students had used up to 4 other books the level of unfocused browsing that electronic book into some order on their and had gathered the bulk of their accompanied use of the program.It pages. Although there was a novelty information from these other references. appeared that the novelty factor of this effect in place as had been evident This observation was not unexpected. new resource was a factor that limited among students from the previousIt demonstrated that the students its effective usage.The findings study, the students in the second phase valued the information gained from all suggested quite strongly that students concentrated directly on gaining sources and did not necessarily give needed more guidance in the forms of information from the source.There undue emphasis or credibility to that information that were available in the was a distinct pattern of behaviour in obtained from the Mammals program. programifamoreeffective which a screen was displayed and left implementation was to be achieved. showing while notes were taken. From SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS this point a new screen was selected The on-going nature of this research and the pattern repeated. sees many more questions unanswered and in need of further investigation. It

202 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 209 Jacobs, G. (1992). Hypermedia and dis- was not the intention of the research to information. The organised nature of evidenceto the information that is contained and covery-based learning:a historical gatherempirical British Journal of demonstrate or prove any hypotheses the consistency of the display would perspective.. but rather to gather information onappear to enable andfacilitate EducationalTechnology,23(2).113- students' interactions with interactive information seeking that sought to 121. multimedia sources. It would appear identify patterns, to compare attributes, Johnson, D. & Johnson, R., (1989). Co- operation and competition: Theory from this research that effective use of and to contrast variables, all of which and Research. Minneapolis, MN: electronic books requires more than are valuable research activities.It is the Interaction Book Company. just skill in using the program. intention of the researchers in future studies, touse various forms ofJonassen, D., (1991). Hypertext as instructional design. Educational The first phase of the research found interactive multimedia to enhance the Technology Research and Devel- that information retrieval skills among research skills of students.Such opment, 39(1), 83-92. the subjects were not well developed. electronic books as encyclopaedias with It was evident that many of these full database searching facilities, would McGrath, D., (1992). Hypertext, CAL primary level students were unable to appear to be an ideal resource for such paper, or program control: Do learners benefit from choices? gather information from sources that activities. ! ournal of Research on Computing were not text based. The second phase in Education, 24(4), 513-532. of the study demonstrated that students REFERENCES McNeil, B., & Nelson, R. (1991). Meta- are able to use sources of a multimedia Barker, P. & Giller, S. (1990). An elec- analysis of interactive video in- nature if instructed in ways to achieve tronic book for early learners - A struction: A ten year review of this. The results of the study showed CD-ROM design exercise. The achievement effects.Journal of that this was not a difficult task to learn CTISS File, 10, 13-18. Computer Based Instruction, 18(1), and most students completed these Cennamo, K., Savenye, W., & Smith, P. extra information retrieval tasks quite (1991).Mental efforts and video 1-6. It would appear that based learning. The relationship of Murphy, M., & Davidson, G. (1991). successfully. Computer-based adaptive instruc- appropriateinstruction todevelop these preconceptions and the effects of skills would increase the level of interactive and covert practice. tion: Effects of learner control on concept learning. Journal of Com- effective use of electronic books ifi such Educational Technology Research puter Based Instruction, 18(2), 51- settings. and Development, 39(1), 5 -16. Dalton, D. (1990). The effects of coop- 56. Mammals: A Multimedia Encyclopae- Other questions that have arisen from erative learning strategies on this project concern the levels of achievement and attitudes during dia (1990). Washington DC:National Geographic Society: research skills that were shown by the interactive video. Journal of Com- Ross, S., Morrison, C., & & O'Dell, J. participating primary level students. It puter Based Instruction, 17(3), 8-16. (1989). Uses and effects of learner was evident in both phases of the study Dalton, D., Hannafin, M., & Hooper, S. control of context and instructional that very few students were doing any (1989).The effects of individual support in computer based instruc- more than simply collecting volumes versus cooperative computer-as- tion. Educational Technology Re- of data describing a chosen mammal in sisted instruction on student per- order to complete a well presented formanceand attitudes. Educational search and Development, 37(4), 29- project.This was despite clear Technology Research and Develop- 39. Scott MacKenzie, I., (1992). Beating the instructionsandguidancein ment, 37(2), 15-24. book: Megachallenges for CD-ROM developing focus questions of a research Edgar, T., (1992). Preface. Proceedings nature. In both cases, the teachers of The International Interactive and hypertext. Journal of Research wanted the students to do more than Multimedia Symposium 1992. on Computing in Education, 24(4), simply transcribe notes from one page Perth: Promaco Conventions. 487-498. Trumbull, D,. Gay, G. & Mazur, J. (1992). to another. There was the expectation Coetzfried, L. & Hannafin, M. (1985). Students' actual and perceived use that students would frame questions The effects of locus of CAI control and gather information to find strategies on the learning of math- of navigational and guidance tools solutions. There were few instances ematical rules.American Educa- in a hypermedia p. ;ram. Journal where students appeared to be able to tional Research Journal, 22(2), 273- of Research on Computing in Education, 24(3), 315-328. do this successfully. Most answers to 278. framed questions were based on Hooper, S., (1992). Effects of peer inter- conjecture and contrived reasoning action during computer-based This research was funded by research grants from an Edith Cowan University rather than astute use of 4.nformation. mathematics instruction. Journal of Educational Research, 85(3), 180- Internal Research Gra nta nd The School of Information Studies, Charles Sturt Such programs as Mammals can 189. provide an ideal environment for University. student research due to the reactive, variant and dynamic nature of the 203 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993

. 210 USINGA MICROCOMPUTER- BASED BULLETIN BOARD FOR COURSE DELIVERY AND STUDENT COMMUNICATION IN DISTANCE EDUCATION JOHN PEARSON School ci Education Monash University (Gipps lad)

The purpose of the unit was to encour- software, and (b) using the bulletin age students to think about the ways in board to download and upload files which this software could be applied and to communicate with other stu- NIF to administrative tasks in schools. dents. These phases are described in NIF the following sections. Several accounts of the use of bulletin boards and electronic mail in distance REGISTERING AS A USER AND CHOOS- education havebeen reported (Dekkers ING SETTINGS dt Cuskelly, 1990; Latham et. a1.,1987; When students connect with the bulle- Moore, 1988). These use mainframe tin board for the first time they must This paper describes a computers, and software which re- register as a user. This involves requires specialist programming skills sponding to questions which prompt bulletin board set up for in the design and maintenance of the students to state their name, password course delivery, and com- bulletin board. The bulletin board de- and the place they are calling from. munication between par- scribed here, however, uses a micro- They' also make choices about the way computer (Macintosh Plus with 20 Mb the bulletin board will operate on their ticipants, in a distance hard disk) and the commercially microcomputer - for example, the way education unit. The bulle- available software Second Sight text will be cleared from the screen, tin board was designed for (Watson, 1989). This "framework" and whether menu choices will be re- software can be used to "customise" a acted to immediately or confirmed by students enrolled in a bulletin board to suit the particular pressing the RETURN key first. After second year unit in a purposes of the unit adviser (lecturer- the correct options have been chosen Graduate Diploma in Com- in-charge) of the unit. This paper: (a) the following menu is displayed on the outlines some of the ways in which this screen. puters in Education avail- readily available and inexpensive2 able only by distance soft ware can be utilised for educational = = = = MAIN MENU = = = = education. This unit intro- purposes, and (b) reports on the use ew Password which students made of the bulletin -C>hange Terminal Preferences duced students to data- board in a one semester unit. how Your Statistics base, spreadsheet and nfo About Grad Dip In Computers communications software THE STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF isplay Welcome Message THE BULLETIN BOARD sk for Validation and to concepts associ- From the student (user) perspective oodbye, log off the BBS ated with systems analysis there are two distinct phases in con- and design. necting with the bulletin board - (a) Command (N, C, S, I, D, A, G)? registering as a user and choosing settings so that the bulletin board will Initially, students are only given a operate with specific hardware and minimum clearance level; they cannot

205 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 211 transfer files, or communicate with Some brief comments on some of these to them. They can only send messages other students, until they have regis- options should clarify their purpose. to other registered users of thebulletin tered as a user on this bulletin board. board - the option ind a User's To register, students must choose ew Files Added Since Your Last Correct Name (for Message Sending) sk for Validation from this menu. Call enables them to check the spelling of This facility ensures that only bona fide This signals new files (not messages) other students' names. However, users are able to use thebulletin board. added. The unit adviser is the only public messages can be addressed to person who can add files for students fl students (the only "non-existent DOWNLOADING, UPLOADING AND to download. However, files uploaded user" to which messages can be addressed). Public messages are restricted COMMUNICATING by students can be made available for When students contact the bulletin other students to download. to 40 lines. board as registered users, the MAIN MENU is displayed. ist All Available Files lectronic Private Mail This provides basic information about This option allows students to send private messages to other students. = == MAIN MENU = = = = the name, size, date added, number of ew Password accesses, and file type. When this is selected from the MAIN hange Terminal Preferences MENU the following screen display alk to John now earch For Characters in File results: how Your Statistics Names nfo About Grad Dip In Computers This enables students to obtain the = ELECTRONIC PRIVATE MAIL = ile Transfers correct name of a file for downloading. ead Private Mail

ublic Messages end Private Mail lectronic Private Messages et File's Description & Other Info ook for All Messages Addressed isplay Welcome Message This contains a brief description of the to You oodbye, log off the BBS contents of each file. ind a User's Correct Name (for Message Addressing) Command (N, C, T, S, I, F, P, E, D, G)? ownload a File from this BBS to xit to the Main Menu Your Computer This menu differs from the menu dis- This option is chosen to obtain study Command (R, S, L, F, E)? played when students first connect guides, resource material or other files with the bulletin board. Th sk for from the bulletin board Students can only end Private Mail Validation option does net appear if they know another student's correct (since students are now registered us- pload a File from Your Computer name. If in doubt, they can use ind ers), and four new options are added to this BBS a User's Correct Name (for Message which allow students to use the bulletin Students can select this option when Addressing) to get the correct spelling. board. These options are described they want to post an assignment. Private messages are restricted to 40 briefly here. lines.

ublic Messages ile Transfers When this option is chosen from the alk to John Now MAIN MENU the following screen is This allows students to "talk" directly When this is selected from the MAIN displayed. with the unit adviser. When students MENU the FILES TRANSFERS menu choose this option a "beep" sounds on is displayed. It looks like this: = = = = PUBLIC MESSAGES = = = = the bulletin board to alert the unit ad-

ost a New Public Message viser that a student wants to "chat". Alternatively, the unit adviser can in- = = = = FILES TRANSFERS can Public Messages ew Files Added Since Your Last elete a Public Message terrupt what a student is doing on the Call < R>ead Public Messages bulletin board to "chat" (if they appear ist All Available Files ind a User's Correct Name (for to be having difficulty doing some- earch ForCharacters in File Names Message Sending) thing, for instance) Typed messages et File's Description & Other Info xit to Main Menu can be exchanged in real time. While ownload a File from this BBS to students can select this option at any Your Computer Command (P, S, D, R, F, E)? time it is dependent on the unit adviser pload a File from Your Computer hearing the "beep" and being avail- to this BBS The elete a Public Message option able to "chat". Therefore, a specified xit to Main Menu can only be used by students to delete time is also available one evening each messages which they send to other week for students to use this facility. Command (N, L, S, G, D, U, E)? students, or which other students send

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 206 _212 MONITORING USAGE OF THE BULLETIN Alternatively, students can choose tween Australia and Japan (at 1200 BOARD how Your Statistics from the baud). Within the state, however, sev- The software used to create the bulle- MAIN MENU to obtain similar infor- eral students found that error-free tin board provides two valuable fa- mation. connection could only be madeat 1200 cilities which enable the unit adviser to baud. monitor student usage. USAGE OF THE BULLETIN BOARD In this section data is presented on the Students who contacted the bulk:tin First, if the printer is connected and use which students made of the bulle- board with Macintosh or IBM micro- switched on, each connection with the tin board. computers (and a variety of modems bulletin board is recorded, as displayed and communications software) rein the following example. Location of Students ported few problems. Any initial The enrolled students (N=17) who problems were usually the result of Connection made at 1200 baud on 12/ contacted the bulletin board during their lack of familiarity with their own 02/91 at 17:21:38 the semester were located in Victoria communications software. However, MARY SMITH from BAIRNSDALE (N=14), interstate (N=2) and overseas two students using older Apple // Downloaded (N=1). microcomputers and different modems Logged off on 12/02/91 at 17:24:53 experienced considerable problems. Hardware and Software One student had to make repeated at- Second, a report can be obtained about The hardware and software used tempts to connect, while the other was individual users. The number of files worked reliably throughout the se- never able to use the bulletin board uploaded and downloaded, and the mester. The Macintosh Plus micro- successfully. numberof priva tea nd public messages computer, Maestro 2400ZXR modem posted, canbereadilyobtained foreach and Rodime external 20Mb hard disk When file transfers (uploads) were ini- student. ran continuously from the 5th of Feb- tiated properly by students, the files ruary until the Easter break (17 April) received were generally error-free and Students are also presented with infor- - 1752 hours - and from the 27th of printed successfully. Therefore, since mation each time they call about the April until the end of semester on the uploaded files (eg, assignments) could use they have made of the bulletin 12th of June -1128 hours. be successfully printed, this would board, as shown in the following ex- eliminate the future requests to stu- ample. The communications software (Second dents to also submit printed copies of Sight) also worked reliably although their assignments. Connected on 10/13/91 at 13:1759 initial problems with "scrambled" You have called this system 45 times messages could only be overcome by Initial Contact You last called on 09/25/91 at 13:21:27 installing a new copy of the software Table 1 displays the week in which You have uploaded 9 files and have and rebuilding the bulletin board. students first contacted the bulletin downloaded 17 files board (by sending a message asking You have sent 2 private messages and Data Transmission for validation as a user). 3 public messages Data transmission over telephone lines was generally acceptable. No problems No new messages have been sent to were experienced between Churchill you since your last call and Queensland (at 2400 baud), or be-

~~Table 1 Initial Contact~~

~~Week Number Number of students -3 1 -2 2 -1 2 1 (24 February) 2 2 6 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 0 7 0 8 (Easter) 0 9 1~~

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 213 Tablet reveals that most students made contacted later due to problems in ob- File Transfers and Messages Table 2 presents data on file transfers use of the early opportunity to contact taining access to a modem, delays in the bulletin board; by week 2 of the receiving printed material about how and messages for each of the 17 stu- semester, 13 students (76%) had con- to contact the bulletin board, or reloca- dents enrolled in the unit. tacted the bulletin board. The others tion interstate.

~~Table 2 File Transfers and Messages~~

Messages Student Uploads DownloadsPrivate Public Total 19 1 11 20 13 0 2 24 9 17 1 46 3 10 0 8 4 22 18 4 1 13 0 0 5 0 3 3 0 10 6 12 9 2 2 27 7 3 11 15 10 27 8 6 13 9 8 43 9 7 2 6 3 19 0 13 10 1 18 1 19 11 5 1 8 2 0 33 12 3 9 3 36 13 4 8 1 2 14 0 8 1 1 13 15 7 8 7 2 25 3 16 0 7 1 0 0 5 17 1 11 2

~~378 TOTALS 95 153 104 35~~

Table reveals that the 17 enrolled stu- and helped to alleviate the isolation dent contacts each day of the week. To dents made 378 contacts with the bul- many feel as "distance" education stu- reduce the amount of printed output letin board in the period from 29th of dents. which had to be examined, data was February to 12 June. Many obviously collected from Weeks 4-7 (23 March to welcomed the opportunity to com- Student Contacts Each Day 12 April) and 8 -11(27 April to 17 May), municate this way. The bulletin board The printed output rA student contacts the three weeks before and after the enabled students to "keep in touch" with the bulletin board was also exam- Easter break. These data are displayed ined to determine the number of stu- in Table 3.

~~Table 3 Student Contacts each Weekday~~

~~Day Percentage Number of Contacts~~

~~Sunday 20 33 Monday 18 29 Tuesday 15 25 Wednesday 22 36 Thursday 10 16 Friday 9 15 Saturday 7 11~~

~~TOTALS 101 165~~

208 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 9 1 A Table 3 reveals that the most popular day and Wednesday. These days ac- Time of Calls days of the week to call the bulletin count for 75% of total calls. Table 4 indicates the time of day at board were Sunday, Monday, Tu's- which students called the bulletin board.

~~Table 4 Time Each Day of Calls~~

~~Time Percentage Number~~

~~0600-1159 11 18~~

~~1200-1759 27 44~~

~~1800-2359 52 86~~

~~2400-0559 10 17~~

~~TOTALS 100 165~~

Table 4 reveals that the most popular Time of Calls and Telephone Rates Table 5 displays the relevant STD tel- times each day to call were between Data were a lso collected about the time ephone rates (day, night and economy midday and midnight - 79% of all calls of day at which students called the rates) and the times at which students were made during this period. The bulletin board, and the STD telephone contacted the bulletin toard. Data from 10% of calls made between midnight rates which were applicable at these the period immediately before Easter and 6am were almost all made by one times, to determine whether students (23 March -12 April) were collected. student overseas (Japan) when tel- used the bulletin board in a cost-effi- Calls by the overseas student, and lo- ephone charges were cheapest. cient way. cal calls, were excluded from this analysis.

~~Table 5 Time of Calls and Telephone Rates~~

~~Rates Percentage Number~~

~~DAY RATE 29 28~~

~~NIGHT RATE 31 30~~

~~ECONOMY RATE 40 38~~

~~TOTALS 100 96~~

Table 5 reveals that 71% of calls to the REAL TIME COMMUNICATION bulletin board were made during the Since most students were in full-time wide variety of course-related and times at which cheaper (night and employment, there were few opportu- other topics were discussed. economy rates) telephone charges ap- nities to "chat" during the day. There- plied. This indicates that the majority fore, to enable students to use this fa- COMPUTER CONFERENCING of students used the bulletin board in a cility the unit adviser returned to his The bulletin board was also used for cost-efficient way. office each Wednesday night. Many computer conferencing. students became regular callers and a

~~209 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 215 The~~

ublic Messages option allows First, a bulletin board overcomes prob- successful. This is instant verification messages posted by individ ual students lems associated with long lead times that the unit adviser has received the to be read by all students. Therefore, for the preparation of printed study assignment. the "conference" in interactive, much materials. Changes to study materials like a face-to-face discussion. However, can be made "up to the last minute" Sixth, the bulletin board can be used to the "conference" is asynchronous, since before new students star; to use the conduct conferences between course messages are posted for others to read bulletin board. Changes can also be participants. A special feature of this later. The "conference" extends over made during the semester and stu- form of asynchronous communication several weeks rather thanbeing limited dents can be notified of these using the is the opportunity for critical reflection to, say, a two hour face-to-face discus- "Public Messages" facility. about, and thoughtful responses to, sion. messages posted on the bulletin board. Second, students can use the bulletin This conferencing facility, which is Towards the end of semester an evalu- board to obtain study materials when similar to those used in other distance ation of the course was completed us- it is convenient for them to do so, rather education courses (Florini, 1990; Mason ing this conferencing facility. Students than being forced to rely on a fixed & Kaye, 1989), provides a useful wereasked to comment on "theadvan- schedule of despatch dates. This helps method for course participants to tages and disadvantages of using the to cater for individual differences in "discuss" relevant issues when it is bulletin board for course delivery and rates of progress, since students can inconvenient to meet for face-to-face communication". Ina four week period, organise their study program around seminars. 10 students contributed 25 messages. work, family and other commitments. This computer conference proved to be While building a bulletin board can be very popular with some students. It Third, a bulletin board provides a time-consuming initially, this is a fea- indicated the viability of a computer convenient way for students to contact sible way to deliver study materials to conference for on-line "tutorials" the unit adviser responsible for the students studying at a distance. It is among distance students; clearly it course, and for the unit adviser to con- also a convenient way for students to could be used as an alternative to at- tact students. Because "contact" is by communicate with each other. tendance at residential seminars. messages left on the bulletin board, this asynchronous communication REFERENCES SUMMARY OF DATA avoids problems involved in attempt- DEKKERS, J. & CUSKELLY, E. (1990). The experience of using the bulletin ing to contact others when it is not The Establishment and Use of Elec- board revealed that: convenient to do so. The "Public tronic Mail for Distance Education. (a) downloading files from the bulletin Messages" facility is particularly use- Rockhampton: University College board was an efficient and reliable ful when students need to be notified of Central Queensland. way for students at a distance to of relevant matters (for example, the FLORIN!, B. M. (1990). Delivery sys- obtain study materials; arrival of a set text at the bookshop). tems for distance education: focus (b) students made substantial use of on computer conferencing. In: M. the bulletin board to download and Fourth, the bulletin board provides a G. Moore (ed.) Contemporary Is- upload files, and to leave messages; convenient facility to enable students sues in American Distance Educa- (c) students usually contacted the bul- to communicate with each other. Stu- tion. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 277- letin board between noon and mid- dents can address messages to all 289. night. The most popular days were course participants or to selected oth- LATHAM, S., MOORE, W., RITCHIE, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday and ers. This asynchronous communica- G., ROTHWELL, B. & WILDE, L. Wednesday; tion is more efficient than attempting (1987). Computer enhanced dis- (d) most students used the bulletin to contact other students by telephone. tance learning. In: J. Bartlett & J. board in cost-efficient ways; Moreover, it encourages students to Hedberg (eds.) Using Computers (e) computer conferencing could be an pose problems without thinking that Intelligently in Tertiary Education. alternative to face-to-face tutorials; their queries may be resented; only Sydney: ASCILITE, 138-146. (f) this method of course delivery was those who can, or want to, make a MASON, R. & KAYE, A. (eds.) ('989). received positively by distance response. Mind weave. Communication. education students. computers and Distance Educa- Fifth, students can submit their assign- tion. Oxford: Pergamon Press. MOORE, R. (1988). Data communica- WHY USE A BULLETIN BOARD? ments using the "upload" facility. This The outline given of the structure, op- enables students to spend the maxi- tions and distance education. In: J. eration and usage of the bulletin board, mum available time on completing the Dekkers, H. Griffin & N. Kemp reveals the ways in which a bulletin assignment. When the assignment has (eds.) Computer Technology Serves board can serve various practical and been successfully uploaded, the stu- Distance Education. Rockhampton: educational purposes. dent's communication software indi- Australian and South Pacific Exter- cates that the file transfer has been nal Studies Association, 91-96.

~~210 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONALCOMPUTING,JULY 1993 GENDEREQUITY. INTERPRETING THEPAST: IMPLEMENTING THE VISION.~~

~~BY GREGORY D.PRESTON Lecturer in Education The University of Newcastle NSW, Australia~~

PHASES OF RESEARCH INTRODUCTION As we approach the twenty-first cen- The paper divides gender equity re- tury the vision of computer education search into three phases loosely based is becoming technologically more di- on both philosophicalunderpinnings verse. Breakthroughs in computer and pragmatic outcomes. It is accepted hardwareareahnost a ci ailyoccurrence. that these divisions are often arbitrary. The appearance of the interface is being Indeed, it is not the purpose of this constantly reshaped by developments paper, in suggesting these phases, to in Virtual Reality and further modified imply that there is a fixed "chronol- by pen based and voice recognition sys- ogy" of research in the afea. The im- tems. These technological changes are plication is that the research conducted materially demonstrable. It is obvious in this field is frequently sequential in This paper considers to most computer users that they are its shift through the three phases de- sitting in front of a different machine lineated below. This sequential shift the history of the Gender than faced them ten years ago. Likewise necessitates the division made in an equity issue in Educa- the change in the nature of the interac- attempt to extract meaning from the fo- tional Computing. Spe- tion they are having with the machine is gradual transition in the research's cus. cifically the transitional apparent. nature of the research is Less demonstrable, are changes in re- PHASE!. considered. The research search directions. Even in cases where Gender equity in relation to comput- the evidence is right before our eyes, ing was a topic of research interest itself is divided into three literally, the application of ,,ubtle before computers became common- main phases which stress changes can be difficult to discern. These place in schools. The research in the the changes in gender changes in direction however can have pre 1980 period focussed primarily on a manifest impact on theteaching- the computer as "another" technical research from liberal learning interface and provide guide- device or as a mathematical/ scientific feminist agendas to post lines for practice, plans of action, and tool. Both of these fields were rich in structural objectives. warning of potential problems. opinions, if not research, on the ability, or otherwise, of fcales to use tech- Practical implications of As a means of considering the "vision" nologya nd achievein mathematics and the research are consid- which is to be shared, the focus of this science (Maccobyand Jacklin, 1974; also the ered in their historical paper is the history of genderequity see Rossiter, 1982). This vision of research in computing. It is proposed computer provided the focus for re- context, along with rec- that the issue of gender equity, as with search on gender issues. The focus was ommendations for the most research issues is not static,and primarily on what was happening. future. that as with hardware and software developments constant reappraisal is Resea rc hers began exploring what was needed in order to comprehend the happening in the computer field in changing implications for the teaching- relation to access. Drawing primarily learning environment. on quantitative research, the existence of"aproblem" in relation to comput-

211 AUSTRALIAN F.7 ICATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 217 ing equity was noted (Anderson, Welsh, computing, and the formulation of A case in point is the type of study and Harris, 1984; Becker, 1983; Fetter, these attitudes. Computing role mod- which concentrates on the lack of ap- 1983; Boss, 1982). The predominantels and 'carving styles were consid- propriate images of females in compu- theme of intrinsic differences found a ered, imbalances in magazine articles ter texts (for example, Sanders, 1985). voice in the now familiar "deficit and images were highlighted, the value The logic followed maintains that model". The liberal feminist tradition laden nature of software was ad- should there be an appreciable change was clearly evident during this phase dressed, as was the nature of the com- in images there will be a consequential of research which highlighted histori- puter curriculum itself (for example change in observable behaviour, for cal bias and inequitable access to ma- Slesnick and Brady, 1985; Anderson, example an increased selection of chines and courses. The premise un- 1987;Linn, 1985;Campbell, 1983; computing by females. In this case the derlying the research was more often Chambers and Clarke, 1989). deficit, or "what females lack" is ap- than not expressed in terms of deficit propriate images and the remedy is, as "what girls don't have." Whilst the theories underlying these always, to give females what they lack. studies are drawn from a wide range of Again there are strong links with liberal PHASE IL social, cognitive, psychological and feminism. During the early 1980's there was an feminist stand points, the vast majority appreciable shift in the focus of gender can be divided into two groups. The The second type of study generally research in the computing field. There first being the "deficit" model, so accepts a more interactive view of the was a growing belief that the computer popular in the initial phase of equity variables at work. This type of study is was different from other "scientific and research. The second being a process also more likely to involve a degree of mathematical" tools.Equity papers model. Importantly the equity issues qualitative research. The process ap- began to appear which addressedbeing considered do not determine the proach, as its na me suggests, *_insiders computing as a cognate field inde- group into which the study falls. Whilst the processes at work on an individual pendent of others. This independence certain topics are more likely to adopt in the context of the ed ucational setting. necessitated a new approach to theone approach than another, it is the The process approach generally con- equi y issue. It was no longer sufficient, approach itself which is critical to this siders one or more of the items (or their if it ever was, to accept the general dichotomy. interactions) identified in Figure One. findings of "technology" and "math- This approach in general rejects the ematical" studies.Theincept that Studies in the first group are in many deficit model outlined above. The al- there were specific activities involved ways similar to the studies described in ternative model often questions the in the process of computing which Phase I above. They generally identify validity of the 0W-comes themselves. contributed to gender inequity was an area or areas related to computing emerging. Prominent among the early and claim that an inequality in this area studies in this phase were works which contributes to a reduced performance addressed girls "non selection" of com- of a skill or behaviour by females. puting tasks and activity ( Muira and Hess, 1984; Fitzgerald and Hattie, 1985). Again quantitative research methods were the primary tool of these researchers. These studies, and others like them which addressed enrolment Societal figures in elective computing courses, formed the basis for the study of gender V equity in computing for the majority of Beliefs Expectations the 1980's. The new focus was brought Values about by attempts to explain the dis- Experience crepancies between male and female Attitudes participation in computing activities, despite an apparent equalisation in opportunity and access. Peer Group Questions were now asked concerning the nature of human computer interaction. Issues of magazines, such as Sex Roles and The Computi ng Teacher were Figure One: Factors investigated by "Phase II" studies. dedicated to the equity issue. Student interactions were considered. Studies addressed issues such as attitudes to

212 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 .218 tothe"controllable interactions" which A case in point here is the consideration remedy therefore was seen as supply- of value laden computer curricula. ing what was lacking, be that computer males are encouraged to develop Studies of this type report that the cur- access or role models. The second phase within their social frameworks. Dia- riculum has inherent biases toward generally shifted the emphasis one step grammatically this widening scope is male students.However instead of away from the student. The curricu- represented in Figure Two. concluding that females are lacking lum or software for example was seen This third phase owes much to the something that allows them to take as the basis of equity problems. The more complex interactions addressed advantage of the opportunities pre- third phase moves the equity debate through the qualitative approaches sented it may be suggested that fe- one step further from the individual. adopted in many Phase II studies.It males are gaining different skills and Its focus is on the nature of technology also owes much to the general increase knowledge which are just as relevant. and society itself. in acceptance of qualitative studies. It is the "system" either at the process Likewise these Phase III studies draw or measurement stage which is "at This focus includes the association be- more heavily on post structural (post modernist) feminist theories in their fault" not the individual. The research tween technology and its social context in this field is ongoing and there is as well as the ability of technology to strategies for change. The important clearly much to be learnt from these dictate its own uses (Foster, 1992; change in this stage is in the perception studies. The 1990's however have seen Murphy, 1988; Bignum and Green, of the problem. It is not perceived by researchers in the third phase as exclu- a further shift in research emphasis. 1992). There is recognition that the development of computer technology sively a female problem. Therefore the nature of the research metaphors and PHASE III prescribes certain uses. Drawing on The third phase of research into gender the work of Turkle (1984) it has been intervention strategies are not focused equity has continued the shift away argued that the development of com- on change in females.Rather than from the individual in attributing cau- puter technology, mainly by males, changing female attitudes to current sation in the equity debate. As noted prescribes certain approaches which technology for example, credence is above the first phase of research almost do not necessarily suit the relationship given to the idea that the technology universally accepted that the equity patterns females have been encouraged may be in need of change. problem was based with the individual. to develop throughout their lives. It is The individual females, or females further contended that the "negotiable It is perhaps important at this stage to perse, were lacking something which interactions" favoured by females are acknowledge the transitional nature accounted for the equity problem. The almost totally overlooked in preference of the "progression" through these

~~Technology values: Values of the Hardware and setting eg. schools Software~~

~~Human social Curriculum values and context, content contexts and values~~

~~Figure Two: Diagramatic representation of the increasing scope of genderresearch~~

213 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 el n phases. Whilst they do, by necessity, The failure of these measures to impact which address attitudinal and behav- reflect a chronological order, it is im- significantly on the bias evident in ioural change in society has been use- possible, and in many respects unde- computer access, usage, and course ful, as has gender based evaluation of sirable, to identify precise boundary enrolment gave impetus to two groups technology itself (Huff, Fleming, and dates for any of the phases. This is for of researchers. First, the supporters of Cooper, 1992). Success has been evi- two basic reasons. First, it is not the intrinsic sex based differences saw this dent in many areas, most notably with intention of this paper to suggest that as justification of their standpoint. Re- "Gender inclusive" curricula initiatives research of any of the three types iden- search was conducted intoexactly what (Foster,1992). tified above is no longer possible. characteristicsorattributeswereabsent Clearly this is not feasible. Secondly, in females which led to this apparent CONCLUSIONS the independent nature of the research anomaly (Feingold,1992; Marsh, 1989; The transition through these phases process allows for wide variations in Jacklin,1989; Martin and Hoover,1987). has important implications for equity progression through the phases. research itself as well as for the teach- Secondly, alternative research para- ing-learning interface.In research Take for example the pioneering work digms emerged which investigated the terms it is clear that studies typical of of Turkle(1984); conducted before an way in which social factors influenced the first Phase which address the issue adequate picture of the equity situa- the computing context. Obviously, the of what is happening in the computer tion in Australia existed. What is clear failure of the "equalisation" measures field are now of limited value.In however is that there is a consistent was a necessary precursor to the shift Australia, and indeed most of the trend, as is evident in most fields of in emphasis from the research delin- Western world, the inequities are well research, towards a deeper under-eating an inequity to research ad- known and documented (Sutton,1991). standing of the causal attributes of the dressing why that inequity exists. Studies which focus on this area should issue under consideration. be seen as providing updated baseline Intervention programs were under- information as a springboard to more This trend has led to a recognition that taken at the school level. Some schools complex studies, or as "awareness the variables and interactions between set up single sex computing environ- raising" exercises. They are unlikely to variables are more complex than first ments. Consideration was given to the provide new insights into the issue. sex of computing role models. Schools 1 thought, and spearheaded the meth- odological changes evident in current made attempt to reclaim non-compul- The most useful studies it would seem research (Kay, 1992). This trend, and sory computing time from males. are those which fall into one of the the accompanying research, has also "Gender inclusive" curricula were de- following categories. From the research led to a change in classroom and school vised in many school regions in an perspective, studies which attempt to based strategies for dealing with the attempt to equalise participation in, address the relation of societal and equity problem. and attitudes to, computing subjects technological factors to the process of (Sanders and Stone, 1986). gender positioning in individuals ap- STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE pears to hold great promise in under- During the first phase of the computer Again it appears to be the failure of standing the true nature of inequity. equity debate the solution to the equity these measures to redress the balance Practically, close evaluation of the long problem appeared, superficially at which is providing the spur for the new term effects of intervention strategies least, to be clear cut. By supplying the direction evident in current research. would appear to provide the best necessary access to computers the It is important to note here that the guidance for practitioners. problem would be solved.Females measures described above have not would overcome their deficit and take been ineffective. However the basic As we move toward the twenty-first their rightful place beside males in the question as to what lies at the heart of century the great dangers facing re- computer classes. School based strate- continuing gender inequities remains search into the gender equity issue are gies during this phase were typified by elusivefor most researchers. Similarly, threefold. First, the perception of programs to increase female access to the pragmatics of implementing effec- progress in the equity area makes it computing and raise the awareness of tive teaching strategies appear equally increasingly difficult to keep gender teaching staff about the equity issue. In as elusive for classroom practitioners. equity on the research agenda. Sec- some ways this was the easiest equity ondly, the increasingly complex na- task to be performed. Schools imple- The strategies which stem from the ture of the variables being considered mented policies which were designed current research provide some guid- necessitate the utilisation of more intri- to give females equal access to com- ance. Some success with the critical cate research models and methods. puters. Sex based statistics were kept incident approach based in critical Finally the greatest danger of all; that on enrolments in computing courses, pedagogy theory has been reported in we might fail to share the vision equi- and females were "encouraged" to take the feminist literature (Kirkup, 1992; tably. computing courses (Fish, Gross and Luke and Gore, 1992). Likewise, close Sanders, 1986; Clarke, 1986). evaluation of intervention techniques

214 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 220 Huff,C.W., Fleming J.H., and Cooper, REFERENCES Chambers, S.M., and Clarke, V.A., Anderson, R., Welch, W., and Harris, (1987) Is inequality cumulative ? J., (1992) in Martin, C.D. and L., (1984). Inequities in opportu- Journal of Educational Comput- Murchie-Beyma,E., (Eds) In Search nities for computer literacy. ing research, 3, pp 493-516. of Gender Free Paradigms for The Computing Teacher,11, 8, pp Chen M., (1986). Gender and Com- Computer Science Education, 10-12. puters: The beneficial Effects of ISTE Eugene, Oregon. pp9-14. pp Anderson, R. E., (1987). Females sur- experience on attitudes,Journal of 19-30 pass males in computer problem Educational Computing Re- Jackilin C.N.,(1989). Female and-Male: solving, Journal of Educational search, 2,3, pp 265-281. Issues of Gender. American Psy- Computing Research, 3,1, pp 39- Clarke, V., (1985). Equity: Fantasy or chologist, 44, pp127-133. 51. 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Equity in school Compu- Proceedings of the Fifth world or Harpsichords in Kirkup,G and ter use: National data and ne- conference on computers in Smith Keller, L.,(Eds), Inventing glected considerations. Journalof Education. New Holland: Isevier Women: Science, Technology and Educational Computing Re- Science Publishers, pp 53-58. Gender , Cambridge: Polity Press, search, 3,3, pp 289-311. Feingold, A.,(1992) Sex Differences pp267-281 Bigum,C., and Green, B., (1992) in Variability in Intellectual Linn, M.S., (1985). Fostering Equita- Technologizing literacy: The Dark Abilities: A new look at an old ble Consequences from computer Side of the Dreaming. Discourse, controversy. Review of Educa- learning environments, Sex Roles, 12, 2 pp 4-28 tional Research, 62,1, pp61-84. 13, (3/4), pp 115-122. Bleier, R., (1988) Feminist Ap- Fennaema,E.H.,(1983). Success in Lockheed, M.E.,(1985) Women, girls proaches to science, New York: Mathematics, in M. Marland (Ed) and computers: A first look at the Pergamon. Sex differentiation in schooling, evidence, Sex Roles,13, 3, pp115- Boss, J., (1982). Sexism among the London: Heinemann Educa- 122 micros, The Computing Teacher, tional, Lockheed, M.E., and Frackt, S.E., January, 1982, p55. Feder, M., (1985) Sex Differences on (1984).Sex equity: Increasing girls' Bromley, H., (1990) Culture Power the Californian Statewide assess- use of computers. The Comput- and Educational Computing, ment of computer literacy, Sex ing Teacher, 11, 8, pp16-19. Unpublished paper, University of Roles, 13, 3, pp181-191. Luke,C.,andGore,J.,(1992) Wisconsin-Madison. Fish, M.C., Gross, A.L., and Sanders, Feminisms and Critical Pedagogy, Bornholt, L.,(1991). Perception of 1.S., (1986). The effect of equity New York: Routledge Achievement: Genderand Subject strategies on girls' computer us- Maccoby, E.E., and Jackilin, C.N., domain in Foster V.,and Porter,R., age in school. 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Fifth world conference on com- computing enrollments and Foster, V., Different but Equal? Di- puters in Education. New Hol- achievement, Journal of Educa- lemmas in the reform of Girls' land: Isevier Science Publishers, tional Computing Research, 5,4, Education, (1992). Australian pp 145 -153. pp 409-429. Journal of Education, 36,1, pp 53- 67.

215 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 221 Marsh, H.W., (1989) Sex differences Preston G.D., and Au, W.K., (1989). Sanders J.S., and Stone, A., (1986). in the development of verbal and Gender Differences in computer Neuter Computer: Computers for mathematical constructs, Ameri- access of secondary students,in Girls and Boys. New York: Neal- can Educational Research Journal, Sutton, D., Hands On: The pro- Shuman. 26, pp191-225. ceedings of the 7th annual confer- Slesnick, T., and Brady, H., (1985) Martin,J.D., and Hoover, H.D., ence of the N.S.W. Computer Software for girls: a sexist solu- (1987).Sex differences in Educa- Education group, pp 219-231. tion? Proceedings of the Forth tional achievement:A logitudinal Rossiter,M., (1982) Women Scientists World Conference on computers study, Journal of Early Adoles- in America. 3altimore, MD: John in Education, North-Holland, cence, 7, pp65-83. Hopkins University Press. Amsterdam. pp217-222 Miura, LT., and Hess, RD., (1984). Sanders, J. S., (1984). The computer: Sutton, R. E., (1991). Equity and Com- Enrolment differences in Com- Male, female, or Androgynous, puters in the Schools:A Decade of puter camps and summer classes. The Computing Teacher, 11, 8, pp Research. Review of Educational The Computing Teacher, 11, 8, p 31-34. Research, Winter, 61, 4, pp 475 - 22. Sanders, J.S., (1985). Making the 503. Murphy, J.W., (1988) Computer Neuter, The Comput- The Commonwealth schools corn- Computeriztion, post modern ing Teacher,12, pp23-27. mission,(1985) Girls for Tomor- epistemology, and reading in the Sanders, J. S., (1990). Computer Eq- row: The challenge for schools. post modern era, Educational uity for girls. What keeps it from Canberra: The commonwealth Theory, 38, pp175-182. happening? inMcDougall, A., schools commission. Nolan, P.CJ., McKinnon, D.H., and and Dowling, C., (Ed) Procedings Turkle, S., (1984) The second self: Soler, J., (1992) Computer in Edu- of the Fifth world conference on Computers and the human spirit, cation: Achieving Equitable Ac- computers in Education. New New York: Simon and Schuster. cess and Use. Journal of Research Holland, Isevier Science Publish- on Computing in Education, 24, 3, ers, pp181-188 pp 299-314

~~216 222 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 COMPUTERSIN AUSTRALIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS~~

~~BY DAVID ROBERTS Department of Information Systems, USO AND PETER ALBION Department of Education, USQ~~

Given the hopes held for beneficial ap- that from 1984 to 1986 the Common- plication of computers in education,wealth Government provided $18 the widespread belief that competence millionvia theStates to promotestudertt with computers enhances employment learning about computers. A consider- prospects and the substantial commit- able portion was used for the profes- I IF ment of funds to educational comput-sional development of teachers in the ing, it may be useful to develop a global use of computers. Noting that the view of the availability and use of corn- "Australian school children with the puters in Australian secondary schools.greatest contact with computers appear to be in Tasmania, where the average BACKGROUND ratio is one computer per 22 students", There can be little doubt The extent of expenditure on comput- the Committee recommended that that the increasingly wide- ers in Australian secondaryschools "sufficient government funds be provided to enable schools to meet the spread availability of per- does not appear to be documented in any single source. OECD target of one microcomputer per sonal computers has had ten students by the commencement of an influence on Australian Individual States have engaged in a the 1992 school year." secondary schools. It is variety of projects and the experience in Queensland is probably not atypical. Pelgrum and Plomp (1991) reported almost impossible to imag- Atweh et al (1990) noted that during the results of a 1989 survey of computer ine a modern secondary the three financial years from 1988 the use in 19 education systems around the Queensland Department of Education world. Systems represented in the school without personal budgeted for an expenditure of S20survey were drawn mainly from Eu- computers available for million for a Learning Systems Project. rope but included North America, In- use in support of teaching. Half of the available funding was allo-dia, Japan and New Zealand. cated to establish Business Education Provision of computer Centres in each of the 230 high schools As might be expected there were sig- equipment and the spaces and secondary departments for which nificant differences in the availability in which it can be used has the Department is responsible. The re- and use of computers and the mainder was used for ottr?.r projects student:com puter ratio varied from 12:1 absorbed substantial including the provision of Electronic(Canada/British Columbia) to 572:1 funding from government Learning Centres, the promotion of(India). Typical ratios were in the range and other sources. It has computer related subjects in the cur-15.1 to 30:1. The majority of computers riculum and investigation of commu-in most countries were characterised as also impacted upon the nication technology in distance educa-8-bit with only Japan reporting a ma- curriculum through devel- tion. An earlier initiative, the Compu-jority of 80286 or other more modern opment of new subjects ter Literacy Project, operating from 1984 equipment. had placed IBM compatible equipped and components of sub- computer laboratories in all state sec- In reporting on curriculum uses of jects and has required ondary schools at a rate of approxi-computers Pelgrum and Plomp noted organisational adjust- mately 15 computers per 1000 students. that, with the exception of the USA where almost half of secondary teach- ments to facilitate effective The Hou se of Representatives Standing ers used computers in lessons, only a access to computers by Committee on Employment, Education small proportion of secondary teachers students and teachers. and Training reported (Brumby, 1989) used computers. With few exceptions 217 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 223 usage of computers was more likely to A previous paper (Albion & Roberts, Because the survey was directed to occur in mathematics or science classes 1992) has described nationwide pat- "computer coordinators" and was as- than in classes involving the mother terns related to computer program- sociated with a computing competi- tongue or other subjects. ming in secondary schools. The data, tion it is possible that some degree of obtained from a swvey of schools self selection occurred among re- Australia was not included in the study participating in thr: Australian Com- spondents. Thus it is possible that and so far as can be ascertained no puter Competition, included informa- schools from which responses were comparable study has been conducted tion on the types of computers used in received exhibit more than average in- here. Some aspects of educational com- the competition. However, the survey terest in the educational application of puter use in the Australian states have did not seek information about the computers and may have higher levels been described (Galligan et al, 1991) computer equipment available in the of computer availability and use than but with the exception of the ACT no schools for teaching purposes or the the entire population of schools. quantitative data was provided which uses to which it is put. Moreover, the responses concerning could contribute to a comprehensive computer use by teachers reflect the pietureof availabffity of computers and This paper reports on the results of a perceptions of the computer coordina- their patterns of use. subsequent survey which sought to tors rather than "hard" data. For these elicit information about the availabil- reasons theresults reported here should ity and use of computers in Australian be regarded as indicative rather than Vanzetti and Atkins (1992) investigated - the availability and use of computers in secondary schools. definitive. ACT schools. They reported that while "computers had made a significant im- METHODOLOGY RESULTS pact in the ACT school system" the The AustralianComputer Competition Responses were received from 245 impact varies from school to school has been conducted through the Uni- schools reporting total enrolments of with "most schools and teachers ... at versity of Southern Queensland since 67175 boys and 67809 girls. This rep- the stage of deciding where the com- 1983. It offers students an opportunity resents approximately 10% of both puter can fit within the existing cur- to work individually or in teams to Australian Secondary Schools and their total enrolments (Castles, 1992). The riculum". solve challenging programming problems. In recent years the competition respondents included 147Government, Fowler (1992) obtained data from 49 results have been used as a selection 47 Catholic and 51 Independent schools secondary schools in Queensland, New basis for Australian teams to compete of which 194 were co-educational, 29 South Wales and Western Australia. i n a regional competition. Competition were girls only and 22 were boys only. 9'+ Almost all schools had computer labo- organisers seek to reach every Austral- ratories with the predominant compu- ian secondary school with the annual While male teachers comprised 48% of ter types being IBM compatible and mailing of invitations, presenting a all teachers (N = 11398) in the re- Apple II series. Word processing was valuable opportunity to gather data spondent schools 72% of the computer the dominant classroom use reported about computing in secondary schools. coordinators (N = 243) were male. The but the survey did not seek informa tion substantial difference suggests that the about use related to specific curriculum The 1992 mailing included a two page perception of computing as a male pre- occupation remains a force to be reck- areas. questionnaire directed to computer coordinators. The questions sought in- oned with. Gloet (1992) surveyed 657 first year formation about the school, the coordi- Of the responding coordinators 139 students undertaking an introductory nator, use of computers by teachers indicated that they possessed some computer unit at the University of generally and in curriculum areas, qualification in "educational comput- Southern Queensland. Surprisingly, of availability of various types of compu- ing" with the distribution shown in a total of 175 students who reported ter hardware in the school and expo- Table 1. never having used computers at school, sure of students to types of computer 52 were under 20 years of age and applications and to use of computers Figure 1 shows overall percentages of could reasonably have been expected in specific curriculum areas. teachers perceived by coordinators to to have had some experience of com- match four broad categories of compu- puters during their secondary school- Because the subjects taught vary widely ter use. While it is disappointing that ing. For those who did use computers across schools and states questions many teachers (44% of females and 37% at school the most frequently mentioned about curriculum were keyed to the of males) "make no use of computers" curriculum areas (from most to least broad curriculum areas selected by the there may be some comfort in the fact mentioned) were Mathematics, Com- Australian Education Council for de- that a majority of teachers do use puter Studies, Business Education and velopment of naticnal curriculum computers and almost one in five has been classified as a "regular and effec- English. statements. tive user".

218 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Qualification Number No response 106 No qualification 8 Inservice courses 2 Certificate / Associate Diploma 3 Post Graduate (Diploma or Masters) 68 Major in Undergraduate Degree 16 Minor in Undergraduate Degree 16

~~Table 1: Qualifcations in Educational Computing held by ComputingCoordinators~~

When it is considered that it is only in computers widely accessible it is evi- tise. The differences between male and recent years that improvements in soft- dent that teachers are making substan- female teachers evident in the graph ware and decreases in costs have made tial progress in their computer exper- are not statistically significant.

~~Regularand effective user~~

~~Require little assistance~~

~~Require frequent assistance~~

~~Make nouseof computers I I I I 0 10 20 30 40 50~~

~~Female Male~~

Figure 1: Computer usage by teachers The type, as well as the quantity, of total numbers and types of computersapproximately equal to the combined available equipment impacts on the identified by coordinators as "used bynumbers of Apple H series and Mac- ability of teachers to utilise computers students for instructional purposes". Inintosh computers with other types be- in the curriculum. Figure 2 displays the total the number of IBM compatibles ising generally less significant.

~~IBM XT IBM AT IBM 386+ Macintosh Apple /1- BBC_ I Archimedesml Amiga! Atari STI Terminals Otherimilmil4 4 4 4, 4-1 11-1 14141411 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500~~

~~Figure 2: Computers used for instruction~~

219 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 225 The results of a decade of technologicalwill experience problems with reliabil- shows the proportions of different types advance beyond the Apple II series a ndity related to aging components and of computers which were reported as the IBM XT are evident but thesecompatibility due to newer software networked. As might be anticipated, marques are still prevalent in schools.being inadequately supported by older computer architectures which encour- Data gathered in the 1991 survey platforms. age networking (Macintosh, BBC and (Albion & Roberts, 1992) revealed that Archimedes) are most strongly repre- almost 40% of computers in 61 NewAn indicator of trends in usage pat- sented. Newer computers such as 386s South Wales schools were of the Appleterns may be found in Figure 3 which are more likely to be networked and II type. It might be assumed that schools this trend will probably continue.

~~IBM XT IBM AT IBM 386+ Macintosh Apple II BBC Archimedes r Amiga!~~

~~0% 20% 40% 60% 80%~~

~~Figure 3: Percentage of computers networked~~

Overall the mean student:computer ra-student:computer ratios suggests that similar, ranging from 13.14 to 14.60. tio was 14.35. Some 80% of schools had small schools tend to have very low However, variations across states and a ratio of 20 or less with the median ratios and these instances tend to skew types of school were more notable and value being approximately 12. Forty-the distribution. are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Students at three percent of schools were at or be- Government and Catholic schools ap- low the OECD benchmark of 10. Com-Mean ratios for coeducational, boys pear to be disadvantaged relative to parison of school enrolments andonly and girls only schools were very those at Independent schools.

~~Type of School (N) Mean Ratio~~

~~Government (135) 15.74 Catholic (44) 14.50 Indepen dent (47) 10.23~~

~~Table 2: Student:Computer ratio by type of school~~

It appears that Tasmania may have than for other states and the NT. Recall- most interested in computing there may maintained its earlier lead (Brumby, ing the earlier result which indicated a be reason to believe that students in 1989) and now has a very favourable large proportion of Apple II computers NSW and the ACT may be relatively ratio. The ratios reported for New South in NSW and allowing that the re-disadvantaged in terms of access to Walesa nd the ACT are markedly higher spondent schools are probably thosecomputers.

~~220 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 99c State or Territory Mean Ratios~~

~~ACT(8) 19.00 NSW(88) 18.19 NT (3) 7.67 QLD(23) 9.95 SA (15) 10.27 TAS (9) 7.67 VIC (53) 12.94 WA (27) 12.22~~

~~Table 3: Student:Computer ratio by State or Territory~~

The location of computers in a school is to teachers and students. Responses as many computers were to befound in a significant factor in their accessibility indicated that overall almost four times laboratories as in standard classrooms.

~~Laserprinter Colourprinter~~

~~0 50 100 150 200 250~~

~~NA El >100 0 51 - 100 13 26 - 50 El 11 - 25 Ea <11~~

~~Figure 4: Distribution of student:peripheral ratios~~

Very few schools appear to have in- The graph in Figure 4 shows the distri-quarter of schools have scanners. How- bution of student:peripheral ratios forever, colour printing is not widely vested in the first wave of multimedia a variety of peripheral items found inavailable, a result which is not surpris- as represented by videodisk players schools. NA indicates that peripheral is ing in view of the cost of this emerging but the appearance of CD-ROM play- not represented in a school. technology. ers in significant numbers suggests future developments in this area may Clearly the most widely available pe-The general availability of modems have a higher uptake rate. ripherals are the dot matrix printer andsuggests that a significant number of the mouse. Higher quality printers areschools may be placing a moderate fairly widely available and more than a emphasis on telecommunications.

221 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 227 The survey sought information as to type of computer application" at each an indication of the type of work being the proportion of students (all, some or year level. The responses can be inter-attempted in schools. none) "who receive instruction in each preted very broadly at best but do offer

~~Programming Programming Robotics S Robotics J Music S Music J DTP S DTP NINone Graphics S ElSome Graphics J All Spreadsheet S Spreadsheet J Database S Database J Wordprocessing S Wordprocessing J~~

~~0 20 40 60 00 100~~

~~Figure 5: % of schools instructing at Senior (S) and Junior (J) levels~~

As is evident in Figure 5, word The number of schools where all stu-among curriculum areas, some of which processing is the application most dents are receiving instruction in wordare taught more widely than others, the widely taught and is most often dealt processing drops dramatically at theresponses have been represented as a with in the Junior (Years 7 to 10) classes. Senior level although the majority ofpercentage of schools responding for While database and spreadsheet ap- schools provide instruction for someeach curriculum area. plications are less frequently taught in students at this level. The probable in- Junior classes, at Senior (Years 11 to 12) terpretation is that all students receiveGiven that "Technology" includes level they rival word processing for basic instruction and some receive ex-computer studies it is understandable frequency of treatment. tended career related instruction. that more than 40% of schools reported all Junior students using computers in A surprisingly large proportion of No application is treated more widely atthis curriculum area. schools provided instruction in pro- Senior than at Junior level, indicating gramming at both Junior and Senior that schools place more emphasis onInterestingly the curriculum area in levels. It might be argued that associa- computing for the general studentwhich the largest proportion of schools tion of the survey with the Australian population at Junior than at Senior level.reported some or all students using Computer Competition would tend to computers is Junior English. This is bias responses in this direction. How- Coordinators were asked to indicate forconsistent with the widespread use of ever, all secondary schools were in- each year level the proportion (all, someword processing which lends itself to vited to respond to the survey and or none) of students who "use comput-application in English. However, the most who did so seemed to do this ers in each subject area". Figure 6 showslevel of computer use for English is independently of competition entries. the proportions of schools reporting usesubstantially reduced at the Senior level. of computers in each of the broad cur-The international survey (Pelgrum and riculum areas. To facilitate comparisonPlomp, 1991) found thatarelatively

222 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 22 Health S Health J Society S Society J Technology S Technology J The Arts S None The Arts .1 LOTE S Ea Some LOTE J All Science Science J Mathematics S Mathematics J English S English J

~~0 20 40 60 80 100~~

Figure 6: Percentage of schools using computers in curriculum areas high proportionof teachers of Junior areas in which computers are relatively Plomp, 1991). Ina significant number English in New Zealand used comput- little used. While the coordinators may of schools the ratio of students to com- ers but that with the exception of the be able to assist in raising the skills puters is better than the OECD bench- USA computers were not otherwise level of teachers they generally have mark of 10:1. However, some students widely used in teaching of the mother limited time and resources with which have significantly lower levels of ac- tongue. to do so. cess and much of the available equipment is becoming obsolete to the point The only curriculum area in which The previous Commonwealth funded where it ma ybe unable to support much computers are used more widely at project for professional developmentof the educationally useful software Senior level than Junior appears to be of teachers in the use of computers was which is now available. Health. This contrasts with the interna- conducted in the early phases of school tional results (Pelgrum and Plomp, computing. Computers available at that If $3000 is taken as an estimate of the 1991) in which the tendency was for ti me were prone to be viewed as overtly cost of acquiring a computer for school teachers to use computers more in the "technical" and there was a dearth of use and a useful life of three years is Senior classes than in Junior. suitable software. Computers are now assumed, the OECD target of one com- more widely available, operating sys- puter per ten students could be met for an expenditure of around $100 per stu- CONCLUSION tems are more easily approachable and Itis evident that secondary teachers in there is a wide range of general purpose dent per year. This represents a rela- the sample schools are adapting to the and educational software. A renewed tively small portion of the more than availability of personal computers as professional development effort in $4000 per student annual cost of sec- tools of their trade. Over half of these computing should have an increased ondary education. (Lonergan, 1992) teachers use computers and they use a chance of success and ought be accorded variety of applications packages across priority in funding for teacher devel- So long as most computers in second- the (ull breadth of the curriculum. opment. ary schools tend to be placed in computer laboratories the provision of rooms However, computer coordinators per- Students in the sample schools gener- for this purpose imposes an additional ceive that significant numbers of teach- ally enjoy a level of access to computers cost which may be a powerful disin- ers are not effective users of computers which compares favourably with that centive to increasing the numbers of and have identified several curriculum reported for other countries (Pelgrum computers available.

223 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 229 The debate about laboratory or class- Atweh, B., Hickling-Hudson, A., & Gloet, M., (1992) A survey of first year room placement of computers contin- Preston, N., (1990) Social,ethicaland university students' prior knowl- ues to be aired elsewhere (Maddux, practical implications of the inno- edge and experience of computing. 1991) and it is not necessary to recount vation of computer education in University of SouthernQueensland: the arguments here except to note that Queensland secondary schools. Toowoomba, 20 p.Lonergan, J., placement of computers in laboratories Queensland University of Tech- (1992) APC Schooling Briefs, Aus- may discourage their use other than for nology. Brisbane, 84 p. traliz -t Parents Council Inc: North specialist purposes. Alternatives such Brumby, J., (1989) An apple for the Sydney, 4 p. as distributing computers into class- teacher? Choice and technology in Maddux, C., (1991) Integration versus rooms with network links may be more learning. Australian Government computer labs: An either/4 effective both in cost and educational Publishing Service: Canberra, 127 proposition?, Educational Tech- terms if it promotes more effective inte- p. nology, 31(10), 36-40. gration of computers into the curricu- Castles, I., (1992) Schools, Australia, Pelgrum, W., & Plomp, T., (1991) The lum. 1991, Preliminary (ABS Catalogue Use of Computers in Education No 4221.0). Commonwealth Gov- Worldwide: Results from the lEA REFERENCES ernment Printer: Canberra, 7 p. 'Computers in Education' Survey Albion, P., St Roberts, D., (1992) Pilots Fowler, B., (1992) The Use of Educa- in19 Educational Systems. for the Clever Country: An Exclu- tional Technology. University of Pergamon Press: Oxford, 180 p. sive Club? in Computing the Clever Southern Queensland:Vanzetti, N., St Atkins, W., (1992) Country: Proceedings of the Tenth Toowoomba, 42 p. Teachers and Computer Use in the Annual Australian Computing in Galligan, J., Jennings, J., St Shingles, D. ACT in Computing the Clever Education Conference. Computing (Eds.), (1991) State of the Nation Country: Proceedings of the Tenth in Education Group of Victoria: Reports. Australian Educational Annual Australian Computing in Richmond North, 466-472. Computing, 6(1), May 1991, 4-15. Education Conference. Computing in Education Group of Victoria: Richmond North, 446-452.

~~AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 ?J0 ASPECTSOF GENDER AND COMPUTING PARTICIPATION BY GLENN RUSSELL Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus~~

The gap between male and female atti- will have seen both males and females tudes and behaviour was most pro- in these situations. Such contexts may nounced in studies that dealt with jun- include viewing of videos or films ior high and high school students...the which portray computers, the use of tendency for girls to lose interest and computer adventure games at home, become less confident about their and observation or play in amusement abilities closely parallels what happens arcades with computer games. These to girls attitudes towards maths and contexts and their probable importance science at the same stage of their lives..it are discussed in this paper.It is not does seem clear thatthe strongest suggested that these contexts cover all factor at work is social and peer pres- possible aspects of role modelling of sure. (1992, p. 66) computer use outside the classroom, in recent years, a number but rather that they may be indications of writers, including Gorman's recent research which has of influences on the behaviours of boys Clarke (1990) and recently reported on the biology of the and girls which have not always been well recognised. Thurston (1990) have brain, (1992) suggests that gender differences may be attributed, in part, to discussed reasons for the physical difference. This research does 1. FEATURE FILMS low participation in com- not, however, attempt to offer a com- There are a number of films available for hire from video shops which in- puting by girls. Van plete explanation of the different behaviours of boys and girls. While ac- volve characters interacting with com- Alstyne (1991) found that knowledging that the social and peer puters. It is interesting to examine some boys are more likely than pressure referred to by Salpeter in- of these films tosee how men and women (and students, male and female) girls to use computers volves far wider issues than the use of computers in schools, it is possible to are portrayed. outside school hours, and suggest how such pressures may be it is possible that factors maintained and reinforced; and, in so One of the earliest films dealing with computers, which is still readily avail- outside the classroom are doing, begin the task of making computer participation more equitable. This able in video shops isthe Stanley critical in trying to under- paper argues that three factors can be Kubrick classic 2001: A Space Odyssey stand an apparent lack of identified as possible contributors to (1968). In this film, we meet a computer with a male name and voice (HAL - interest by girls about the low participation rate of girls. These factors include the prevalence of feature 9000), which interacts with male as- computers. Salpeter films or videos which portray com-tronauts and othermale computer (1992) has reviewed some puters as a male domain, the nature ofexperts. Women are not seen as important where computers are con- of the existing research computer adventure games, and amusement arcade computer games,cerned. The 1984 sequel, 2010 - The on computers and educa- which are played mostly by males. Year We Make Contact, also manages tion. She concludes that: to marginalise women and their rela- Before students enter a classroom, their tionships with computers in a similar attitudes to computers may well have way to its predecessor, sixteen years been affected by role models who are earlier. If nothing else, it demonstrates seen to interact with computers. They that although there had been changes

4 225 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 211 in computer education during this pe- how a teenage computer hacker, David volvement with computers. The atti- riod, the influence of these changes had Lightfoot, triggers off the count-down tude implicit in this film towards the not yet permeated Hollywood. Girls to World War III by his illicit computer capabilities of girls and computers is who viewed either of these two films activities. The main character is male, not restricted to War Games. In the could form the opinion that, although and is seen to have typical hacker be- next year, 1984, the stereotype of men great changes are anticipated in com- haviour, as described by Landreth as the gender interested in computers, puter technology in the future, the role (1964) including skipping school, meals and women as the gender interested in of women in the year 2010 has made and sleep in a fanatical devotion to the relationships gained further support in little advance. In retrospect, we can computer. An FBI agent, who features the film Electric Dreams. understand the view of women and later in the film describes Lightfoot as " computers presented in the Space Od- intelligent, an underachiever, alienated In this film, described by Brown's Rat- yssey films, if we remember that the from his parents" and, one could add, ing the Movies (1990) as "silly and 1984 film needed to have some con- male. His girlfriend, Jennifer Mack is preposterous", an architect, Miles, competes with a computer for a girl's sistency with the 1968 film. The 1960's an underachiever in school, who is re- were a time when the PC revolutionbuked by her teacher for not paying love. The girl, Madeleine, is seen as had not yet happened, and the role of attention in class. David and Jennifersensitive, but not really interested in men and women in society could behave somethingin common - they computers. Miles, who could be de- particularly seen as different to that of today. have both received an F for their last scribed as a "nerd", is workin class. This is not a very positive clumsy, The computer eventually self- To some extent this is also true of the imagefor eithermaleorfemalestudents destructs to preserve the relationship next film. The Computer Wore Tennis who may be interested in computers. between Miles and Madeleine. One Shoes. (1970) is a disney film which Students who saw this film could reach interpretation of this film is that girls tells the story of a male college student the conclusion that successful students are, by nature, more interested in rela- who is "zapped" by a computer, and may not be those who are interested in tionships than computers. Girls who become involved with boys who are then becomes very knowledgeable. The computers writer, producer, director and star of interested in computers will end up this computer are all males. This was Jennifer is more interested in people . with a "nerd".Translated to adassroom one of the oldest films examined for "What's so special about playing games situation, it would not be surprising if this research, and it shows a single with a machine?", she asks. The mes- girls were less likely to be involved mainframe computer being used by a sage of this film appears to be that girls with computers, or with boys who were male teacher at the front of the class. are not interested in computers, and interested in computers. The idea that Not only are there no positive role girls who are interested in boys whocomputers are alienating for girls is models for girls in this film, but com- use computers will end up with less reinforced in the first five minutes of puting is seen as something akin to a than satisfactory boyfriends.The the film, where a brief cameo shows a priesthood, where the patriarchal computer has a male name (Joshua), girl using a computer and being told teacher figure dispenses such infor-and has been programmed by Dr that she is too fat. Such episodes would that it is mation as necessary to the underlings. Stephen Falken. When David needs be likely to persuade girls unlikely that they could interact satis- In terms of computer use in education, assistance to break into the computer, factorily with a computer, or use one this film provides an interesting coin- he turns to two men for assistance. merit on how technology and pedagogy Jennifer, who is with him at the time, is without embarrassment. are inter-related.It was a time when made to stay in the background. The computers certainly didn't sit on everyimplication is that girls would not un- Films made around the mid 1980's student's desk. However, the technol- derstand computers and could not be portrayed a recognisable series of stereotypes. In essence, a clever boy is ogy had certainly changed by the 1980's, trusted with information concerning when another film depicting students them. able to do unusual things with com- and computers, War Games, was pro- puters. Women and girls, in this ver- duced. By this time, it was possible for The wider message of the film is that sion of reality, are seen as incompetent, teenagers to use a computer at home to computers cannot be trusted. Profes- or as domestic servants. This may be contact the world, and for individual sor Falken, who had originally pro-seen as a variation of the image of women presented in previous films, computers to be appearing on student's grammed the computer which is now where women are more interested in desks at school. However, it remained threatening to destroy the world, had relationships than in technology. to be seen whether Hollywood would been trying to teach it that, with war as portray boys and girls as having equal with the game of Tic-Tac-Toe, the game D.A.R.Y.L (1985), is an example of a competence and access to computer itself is pointless. The computer even - film involving computers which presents women in this way. It tells the technology. tually concludes that "the only winning move is not to play" .It would not be storyof a strange boy, who is a computer whizz. The acronym is short for Data War Games (1983) still makes interest- surprising if some girls were to reach a Analysing Robot Youth Lifeform, and ing viewing, ten years on. It is a story of similar conclusion about their in-

.1satteoo . 226 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 4. 4. 23.2 Daryl is later found to be a robot. The typical computer whizz-V ;t: (a boy) and otypical images which were character- role of women and girls is peripheral in a strong male lead, Edison Carter,it istic of the 1970's and 1980's, the nature this film. They are portrayed as moth-seems unlikely thatadolescent girls of the discourse may change enough ers, who work in the kitchen, or, in the would have their confidence in compu- for there to be some educational advan- case of girls, as part of a group of young ter use boosted in this film, as the com-tage. While this is one possibility, we women whoare lesscapable than Daryl. petent female image is overshadowed may never know whether films reflect by males involved in computer tech-society's attitude towards women, or The theme of D.A.R.Y.L. is continued nology. It is, however, interesting thatwhether they shape it.If it is the in two further films of the same period. the most recent film reviewed for thisformer, then we may see changed at- I.F.0 and Computer Wizard continueresearch showed some indication oftitudes towards women in films in the the now familiar concept of intelligentawareness that women can be seen in a near future. If it is the latter, then the boys who are able to do clever things positiverole where computers are films may change only when the pro- with computer technology. LFO concerned. This may demonstrate an ducersrealisethat both men and women (Identified Flying Object) is a 1985 film emerging awareness that the roles ofmay not pay to see films which repre- about two boys who liberate an ad- the people associated with computerssent women in unacceptable ways. vanced, computerised, helicopter. Oneneed not be restricted to males. of the boys has a sister who owns a 2. COMPUTER ADVENTURE GAMES computer, but she is portrayed as less It is more than possible that films re- Computer adventure games are avail- competent with computers than herfled community attitudes towards is- able to many students, at home and at brother. Girls have only insignificant sues such as the position of men andschool.Regrettably, many of the parts in this film. Computer Wizard is women in society, and the jobs and at- available games, particularly commer- also a story about a school-age boy andtitudes which are thought to be typical. cial ones, are violent and sexist, and it computers. Willie is shown to be par- It may be that, as films more recent than is likely that exposure to them would ticularly clever with computers. His 1987 find their way into video shops,reinforce boys in attitudes towards dad presumably wants him to grow up the changing roles of men and women women and girls which some might to have similar interests to his own,will be reflected in them. One could listdescribe as undesirable. The last few and together they share pursuits such a number of other filmsconcerning years have seen a continuation of the as shooting. Female role models in this computers where women and girls have phenomena which meant that more film are limited to Willie's mum, who is only a marginal role, or are seen as less computing power is available for less usually associated with meal prepa- competent than males.These might money. Increasingly, computers are to ration for men, and a fat lady who include THX 1138 (1971) Tron (1982), be found in student's homes, and in screams a great deal when alarmed byand The Last Starfighter (1984). The their classrooms at school. Concurrent Willie's computer pranks. Girls who impact which the preceding films might with the growth in hardware has come lack confidence in the use of computers have on the participation rate of girls in the rise of the soft ware specialist. It has are unlikelyto gain encouragementcomputing is admittedly speculative.become common for major shopping from this film. Conversely, some boys Although it may be difficult to provecentres in capital cities to have a soft- may be reinforced in their belief that that a particular film has influenced a ware shop, which sells entertainment, computers are interesting and man- particular group of boys or girls, itis educational and business software. ageable. more reasonable to assert that, whatever feature film concerning computers isFive years ago, such shops were much Some slight change in attitudes can be watched, it is likely to contain negativeless common. That there could be seen later in the decade of the 1980's. role models for girls. As Sachs, Smith several chains of shops competing to The Adventures of Max Headroom and Chant (1491) have demonstrated, sell software, much of it for home use, (1987) provides a partial relief to thethe viewing of videos is important inindicates confidence in the size of the lack of female role models with com- the media tastes of adolescents. market. The importance of such confi- puters. A strong female support is dence should not be overlooked.It provided in Amanda Pays, who is anThese comments, of course, are not ap- suggests that a considerable quantity expert in computerised news technol- plicable to educational or documentary of entertainment software is destined ogy. Amanda provides a positive role films, where the films' purposes mayfor home use. As computers become model, of a person in a senior position include the raising of conscir usness ofmore common household items, the who is competent, decisive and inde- some groups, including girls, towardssoftware which is purchased for their pendent. She is quite at home with computers. Perhaps one step towards use will be critical in the determination computer technology, and this is a re- having a more positive representationof attitudes o; members of the house- freshing change to some of the earlierof girls and computers in films is to hold towards them. Software, of course, films described in this paper. However, make teachers and their students aware reflects what is perceived to be the needs the most memorable character is a of the current situation. If filmmakersof the market.If the software to be computer-generated male character,find that audiences are becoming so found in homes is aggressively violent Max Headroom. Combined with thesophisticated that they reject the stere-and sexist, rather than problem-solving

227 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 and gender-neutral, the attitudes of portant producers of all-text adven- 1. Computer adventure games are boys and girls may be modified in tures, sold out to Activision, and all- not intended for girls. undesirable ways. McHugh (1992) re- text adventures rapidly faded from the 2.Girls are not expected to use com- counts the story of the four year old girl scene. Soon graphic adventures of the puters. who was watching her father play the type described above had also mostly Callaghan (1992) hasdescribed research game Wolfenstein 3-D. She loved ani- gone. In their place were icon-driven by Kay Fielden in which male and mals, but when she saw that her father and animated adventures. Such games female students were asked to write was going to be killed by a German often required a more powerful com- stories about computers and/or tech- Shepherd in the game, she screamed puter, with a colour monitor and hard nology. Belden found that many boys "Shoot all the doggies, shoot the disk.More importantly, the player wrote about war and violence, includ- doggies" (1992, p.10) had to move a figure (which some in ing computers killing each other and the industry call an EGO) to play the violent computer games, while girls Many of the games sold by computer game. Clearly, the EGO, unless it was wroteabout computers breakingdown, shops could be described as adventure a non-human figure, had to be repre- and their fear of technology. The vio- games. Addams (1990) has noted that sented as male or female. Once such a lence which some boys associate with before 1988, adventure games could be decision was taken, it was logical for computers, and the insecurity which broadly described as puzzle-solving the advertising on the game package to some girls see as being typical of their adventures, and role-play games. The be consistent with the gender chosen. interaction with computers may be at- puzzle-solving adventures could be tributed, in part, to the software which further divided into text and graphic Although some writers have used is available for their use at home. While adventures. The text adventures were commercial adventure games with their it is d fficult to estima te the effect which all text, as their name suggests, and the students (eg Russell, 1990 and 1991), it the playing of games might have on the graphic adventures typically had a has become increasingly difficult to computer attitudes of boys and girl, picture occupying most of the screen, obtain recently produced games which they can, in effect, be considered as a with a space for a few lines of text are either gender-neutral, present powerful medium. Writers who discuss underneath. women and girls in a positive way, or the effect of television on the attitudes use a female as the EGO. Roberta and behaviour of students might find it Allowing some time for research and Williams, who has produced the King's useful to consider the potential power publication, it could be assumed that Quest Series, used a female EGO in of computer games.It is interesting much of the research on students and King's Quest IV, -The Perils of Rosella. that McHugh (1992)cites research adventure games prior to 1989 con- However, this was only one out of six which found that, in the time of the cerned these types of games. It is not games in the King's Quest series to Bush Administration in the USA, five surprising that research on adventure date. The use of King's Quest IV with out of ten children knew who George games rarely highlights concern with students has been described by Russell Bush was, but ten out of ten could gender bias, as the nature and avail- (1991), and by Salpeter (1992).The identify Mario from the game Super ability of games altered significantly King's Quest Series are produced by Mario Brothers. after most of the research was com- Sierra-On-Line, who have also pro- pleted. duced the Laura Bow series. It is probable that the production of computer adventure games is market- One advantage of such games was that But beyond this list, it becomes difficult driven.If more titles using girls in they were often gender neutral. The to name recent titles which would be positive ways are purchased, then it is game which was, arguably, the first likely to reinforce girls. The software likely that similar titles will be prod ucecl computer adventure game ever written, shops which have been described ear- and stocked.If parents make a con- was Adventure, written by Crowther lier use as much of their available space scious decision to purchase software and Woods (1976).This game com- as possible to display their titles. Out of such as The Perils of Rosella rather menced with the words, "you are what must be hundreds of game titles, than Gunship 2000 or Commanche standing at the end of a road before a it would be possible to count on the Maximum Overkill it may stimulate small brick building". Whether "you" fingers of one hand those which might the production of a more useful range happened to be male or female was appeal to girls because they portrayed of titles. More importantly, a shift in irrelevant, and such games could bewomen and girls in a positive way. the publ ac's buying pa tterns may result, played with little difficulty by boys Very few games use a female character eventually, in a more positive attitude and girls. It was true that some games as the "Ego". As these games are pur- towards computers by girls, both at had gender-stereotyped objectives; chased, it is highly likely that girls will home and at school.Parents could Transylvania asks the player to rescue see boys using them, and it will become influence this buying trend by guiding Princess Sabrina, for example. How- apparent to them how girls are repre- their children in their software pur- ever, changes in the industry altered sented.It would not be surprising if chases when theyareyoung. Teachers the cha ra cteristi cs of the ga me. In focom, some girls were to reach two conclu- could assist in this role by pointing out which had been one of the most im- sions:

228 AUSTRALIAN EDUCKRONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 234 to parents the likely consequences if Computers are chameleons.Their Brown, J., (1990) Rating the Movies for this duty were neglected. nature and purpose changes accord- Home, TV and Cable. Publications ing to the software with which they are International, Lincolnwood An interesting indication is provided used. Similarly, the perception of the Callaghan, P., Programs fail to Bridge by Forsyth and Lancy (1989) that girls computer's value to an individual stu- Gender Gap. The Australian, 28 can enjoy computers as much as boys, dent is likely to be affected by the uses April 1992, p. 23 and learn as much from them. While to which it is put. Even before students Clarke, V.A., (1990) Sex Differences in such findings only substantiate what reach the classroom and think about Computing Participation: Con- many would believe to be true, it is using computers,they will have cerns, Extent, Reasons and Strate- nevertheless valuable to consider the learned attitudes to computers and gies. Australian Journal of Educa- writers' suggestion that the key to this computing which are culturally de- tion, 34 (1) 52-66 situation is software. Computers used pendant. Socialisation is likely to oc- Forsyth, A., and Laney, (1989) Girls in this study did not feature traditional cur, and factors such as the media, and Microcomputers. Computers "male" approaches, including arcade family, peer groups, and socio-eco- in the Schools, 6 (3-4) action, explosions and battles. By using nomic status may well affect a student's Gorman, C., (1992) Sizing up the Sexes. A.A Milne's Hundred Acre Wood, a learned behaviours. A student who Time Australia, 7 (3) 30-37 fantasy game, girls were able to re- has the opportunity to use computers Landreth, B., (1985) Out of the Inner spond positively. Similarly, it could be at school will see computers repre- Circle: A Hacker's Guide to Com- argued that if parents are able to provide sented in a number of different ways, puter Security. Washington, a computer and non-sexist software including non-school contextsThis Microsoft Press. for girls at an early age, some later paper has discussed the use of com- McHugh, E., (1992) Screen Play. The problems might be avoided or reduced. puters in three non-school situations, Australian Magazine, December and it can be argued that the repre- 12-13, 1992, p. 8-21 3. COMPUTER GAMES INAMUSEMENT sentation of computers will influence Russell, G., (1991) The Worlds of Ad- ARCADES the attitudes of male and female stu- ventureGames and Books: A choice The writer had the opportunity to re- dents towards them. Students can see for English Teachers. In Navigat- search the participation rate of girls other people using computers, and this ing the Nineties: Proceedings of the and boys both as players and onlookers may include peer group, family, or Ninth Australian Computers in in an amusement arcade which pro- media personalities. The way in which Education Conference, - ACEC '91 vided computer arcade games. Over computers are used conveys an implicit Brisbane, September 22-25, 1991. a period of three weeks, it was appar- message. Such factors as "who uses C.E.G.Q Brisbane., p. 160-168. ent that the majority of players and the computers?" and "what are the Sachs, J. Smith, R., and Chant, D., (1990) onlookers were male.On one occa- computers used for?" are likely to be Bombarding the Senses: Adoles- sion, there were sixty-two persons in critical determinants of girls' attitudes cents use of information technol- the arcade, and every machine was in in an educational context.It is only ogyin Australia and Scotland. use. However, only five girls were when we start to critically reflect on Metro, 82, 2-6. included in this number. Three girls the images of computing which bom- Salpeter, J., (1992) Kids and Comput- were playing games, one was watching, bard students every day that we can ers: A Parents' Handbook. Sams, and one later turned out to be a mem- begin to understand how their atti- Carmel. ber of staff.This is consistent with tudes are formed. Thurston, L., (1990) Girls, Computers research in Australia and in the United and Amber Waves of Grain: Com- States, cited by Clarke (1990, p. 54) BIBLIOGRAPHY. puter Equity Programming for which found low participation rates for Addams, S., Quest for Clues 111. Ori Rural Teachers. ED319660 Aspects girls in the use of Arcade Games gin Systems, Austin. of Gender and Computing Partici- Alstyne, A., (1991) Computers in the pation., page 18 Home Curriculum Project: An At- titude and Gender Study. Unpub- lished M.A Dissertation Univer- sity of British Columbia, 1991.

~~229 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONALCOMPUTING, JULY 1993 COMPUTER EDUCATION OR PEOPLE EDUCATION?~~

~~BY GRAEME SALTER University of Western Sydney, Macarthur , Campbelltovm,NSW~~

This may seem a trivial difference that THEORIES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING is obvious to all, but I think that there The methods you choose for teaching can be a tendency in this field to and assessment will reflect your own concentrate on the technology rather theories of teaching and learning. For than the education process. Another example, the same content would possible danger is to over-emphasise probably be treated very differently content. In either of these cases, we can by someone who considers learning easily neglect the reason we are in to be a quantitative increase in education in the first place ie. theknowledge compared to someone students. who considers it to also involve the formation of relationships between CONSIDER RESEARCH IN EDUCATION concepts and to the relationship and Much research has been done to application in the real world. Someone once remarked highlight the importanceof considering to me that 'computer studentsineffective teaching. As with learning, theories of teaching communication' makes as Unfortunately, the demands of keeping are many and varied. Some see up-to-date in a chosen field (particularly teaching as the transmission of much sense as suggesting a rapidly evolving one such as information. Such a content-based that we can 'communicate computing) leave little time forapproach isstill widely held, with a bus'. A computer searching out relevant research, reading particularly in universities. The it and considering ways of applying it. emphasis is on what the teacher does can be a tool to assist to students.If there is a failure to people in communication, Perhaps the last encounter with such learn, those holding to this theory but it is not the object we research was studying for some usually place the blame squarely on education qualification. With luck, the the learner. Students are placed into communicate with. In a lecturers were current in the field at the categories of good or poor learners similar fashion, the term time, but nevertheless this could still be depending on performance. While 'computer education' some time in the past. You may ask there will be individual differences in 'Why doesn't someone synthesise the learning, this ignores all of the other suggests that the results of current research into an easily variables that may come into play. computer is the object. In digestible format?'. The fact is that some fields, such as the many people do. There are numerous For example, if a subject has a high authors who write books on such topics failure rate the remedy would more development of expert as 'Effective Teaching' who have done likely be to increase the entrance mark systems and intelligent their homework and researched the rather than consider improving the tutoring systems, this may research. quality of the teaching. Interestingly, computer technology is seen as be the case. However, in Needless to say they are of varyingattractive by those holding to this most instances, computer quality and all will have a different bias theory in that it will allow more education reflects the use to project, but I would suggest that to information to be presented. search out and read one that is suitable of computers in education to your circumstances every so often Another common theory of teaching or education about would be a valuable exercise. While it is that teaching is organising student computers. is vital to remain abreast of your subject activity. A failure to learn will now be area, if you are in the field of education ascribed to external conditions as well you should also endeavour to remain as the individual students. Many staff current there as well. development efforts are aimed at

231 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 21E accommodating thistheoretical that being non-experts receiving the presentation of your assignments in all subjectscanbebetter),but is particularly perspective. Teachers are given better instruction they are in a unique position skills and taught improved teaching to judge what is useful. There are no effective if it relates specifically to the techniques. However, the focus is still rules for effective teaching because all individuals needs.This obviously on what teachers do to students. students are(thankfully) individual and requires knowledge of the student. the process is so complex. A theory that focuses more on the One problem that may be encountered students is that teaching is making There is no 'best' way of teaching "it is if the students actually like the subject learning possible. "Teaching involves folly, however, to carry this truism is that colleagues may consider it to be findingoutaboutstudents'beyond its proper territory and to a 'soft-option'. (In a similar fashion, I misunderstandings, intervening to suggest that there a re no better or worse know people who ,through some change them, and creating a context of ways of teaching, no general attributes interesting shift of logic, consider learning which encourages students that distinguish good teaching fromMacintosh computers to be 'toys' for actively to engage with the subject bad" (Ramsden, 1992). Based on his the fact that they are easy to use). While matter" ( Ramsden, 1992). Here the study of research in higher education, it may seem obvious to you, you may content and methods are driven by the Ramsden proposes six key principles have to defend the position tha t learning students and their problems. of effective teaching - can (and should?) be fun.

In many cases, educators know and KEY PRINCIPLESOFEFFECTIVETEACHING 2. CONCERN AND RESPECT FOR would proclaim adherence to one STUDENTS AND STUDENT LEARNING theory yet for pragmatic reasons teach 1. INTEREST AND EXPLANA- I have experienced courses conducted as though ascribing to another. Such a TION by aloof experts who gave the impression that they are the keepers of position can considerably diminish the To learn requires effort, but this does enjoyment of teaching. While each of not have to be u ri plea sa nt. Thin k of a ny some mysterious knowledge. They us may feel constrained by the system task or hobby that you were particularly make subjects appear harder that they we work in, we should see the need to interested in.Chances are that you really are. For example, during the first keep our principles intact as a challenge. could spend hours learning new skills lecture of a second-year biology course Another easy mistake to make is to with little thought of time passing. Fart we were told 'look at the person sitting have objectives based on one theoretical of the jobof a good teacher is to generate next to you. One of you is going to fail'. perspective, presentation on another, interest. This turned out to be far from the truth. and perhaps assessment yet another. For a start, it is difficult for students to Research has indicated (and common- It is important to examine alternate get enthusiastic about a subject which sense would dictate) that the opposite theories and reflect on your own their teacher has lost enthusiasm for. If approach is better. Students should be experience and expectations to arrive this is your situation then you may encouraged to feel that the subject can at a consistent framework to work in have to al ter your circumstances to some be mastered. Opportunities should be (Of course, being theoretical such a degree (eg. re-write subjects, change given to allow students to succeed, position is not static, but open to change presentation techniques, aim for better particularly in the earlier stages of a based on new evidence). quality teaching). subject. While not all students may eventually exhibit such mastery, more are likely to if they begin with the EFFECTIVE TEACHING Computing is often seen as an To determine whether teaching has intrinsically motivating area to study. expectation that theycan. Nevertheless, been effective can vary depending on While this may be true for somethis should be linked with realistic the theoretical stance taken. Suppose, students, it is important to rememberexpectations of the workload required for example, a group of students that there will be others who feel exactly to reach such mastery. mastered all of the concepts involved the opposite, particularly if the unit is in a computing subject and passed all compulsory. Associated with this is the availability of the required exams, but none of them of staff to students. This is a common ever wanted to see a computer again, Using different met hod s of presentation problem in higher education and may The teaching was certainly successful, will not only help to cater for different reflect the much higher priority given but whether it was effective depends learning styles within a group, but can to research compared to teaching. This on your perspective of teaching. engender interest, particularly ifchosen situation is slowly changing, but even with this aim in mind. without external rewards, such as better Research has numerous findings promotion prospects, educators at all concerning effective teaching.It is Much can be gained by highlighting levels should be committed to high interesting to note that they correlate the relevance of the subject to students. quality teaching. highly with student views. This is not In some cases, this can be general (eg. if surprising though when you consider you can use a word processor then the

232 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 237 3. APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT AND should be scope for students to proceed 6.LEARNING FROM STUDENTS None of the above provide rules which FEEDBACK beyond the set objectives if they are No doubt, as a student, you experienced able and wish to do so. Many students will work in all circumstances. Effective the annoying situation of receiving an in computing learn much by discovery teaching "sees the relation between assessment item back with nothing but and to stifle that could also cause teaching and learning as problematic, a mark or grade on it.This is of students to lose interest. uncertain and relative. Good teaching absolutely NO use in locating errors in is open to change" (Ramsden, 1992). understanding or for establishing ways 5. INDEPENDENCE, CONTROL AND of correcting such errors. Feedback is ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT All too often, evaluation stops at really an extension of the commitment The long-term aim of good teachers is collecting data, giving it a cursory to be available to students. It takes time to make themselves redundant. The inspection and then forgetting about it. to give quality feedback, but I feel it is trend today is to view education as a Real evaluation of teaching should essential for effective teaching. life-long process rather tha n something consistof collectingevidence,analysing bounded by several years in an it and applying the results to modify Much thought also has to be given to institution. Ultimately, students should further teaching. This may apply to an the assessment items themselves. Are be self-disciplined and independent. entire subject or parts of an individual they set with a view to highlight areas lesson. of understanding, or perhaps more At all levels of education, there can be importantly, misunderstanding, or are an emphasis on teacher-controlledCollecting the data may be a formal they simplya means to grade students? activity rather than on gradually process such as a student questionnaire Do they individual parts of the items phasing over from teacher to student- or item analysis of a computer managed reflect the actual aims and objectives of control.This can be particularly test.However, the easiest methods, the subject? It is easy to put together a distressing for a student when there is which are often neglected due to time, test or assignment.It is much more an abrupt change and suddenly they are simply talking to the students and difficult and time-consuming to put are 'on their own'. examining the products of their together a good test or good assignment. learning. Making time for these simple A teacher-centered example is the steps could make your teaching more 4. CLEAR GOALS AND INTELLECTUAL typical science practical where students effective and pleasurable for both you CHALLENGE are given the precise method to follow. and your students. At the very least, the teacher must be This neglects an important part of what clearon the goals of a subject in order to real scientists do ie. design experiments. SUMMARY plan appropriate instruction and assess From my own experience, it is possible To be committed to high quality performance. However, for students to get through nearly an entire science teaching in computereducation (orany to gauge their own study and to get the degree in this way. A student-centered field), I suggest - big picture' it is important for tnem to approach is to give students appropriate Review current research on educa- beclear on the goals also. In computing, equipment and initial conditions and tion (or other peoples reviews). it is common to deal with trivial, ask them to design their own Be clear as to your current theo- irrelevant problems while the students experiment to test a certain hypothesis. retical basis for teaching and gain the necessary skills to attempt more An added advantage is that afterwards learning. realistic problems. Without knowledge students can compare designs and Set clear goals and communicate of where the subject is heading, students results. them to your students. could easilyquestion the releva nce a nd Don't be inflexible and allow room lose interest. Instruction in basic skills usually need for challenge. to be provided in a teacher-centered Move students towards independ- In addition, "there is some evidence fashion.Unfortunately, this is often ent learning. (Mager St McCann, 1961) that giving where it ends. computing lessons need Regularly evaluate your teaching instructional objectives can markedlyto be more than exercises in button- and act on that evaluation. reduce the time required for learning" pressing. For exa mple, in learning word Where possible, make learning rel- (Anderson St Faust, 1973). However, processing a student may be able to evant and fun. Schuell St Lee (1976) warn that simply follow the steps to use a different font Make time for: providing the objectives does not for a heading, but do they know why consultation guarantee their use and it is up to the they are using a different font, when to developing appropriate assess- teacher to clearly communicate such use a different font, which font(s) to use ment tasks objectives. or how to go about locating the buttons providing quality feedback to press if they were using a different diagnosing student Another problem that may arise is a package? providing quality feedback lack of challenge and inflexibility. There

233 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 238 Salter, G., Psychological Bases of diagnosing student misunder- REFERENCES Anderson, R. & Faust, G., Educational Instruction ASCILITE-89 standings Proceedings of the Seventh pro...iding remediation Psychology - The Science of Instruction & Learning. Dodd, Annual Conference of the Australian Society for Computers and STUDENTS! Mead and Co., New York, 1973. Brown, G & Atkins, M., Effective in Learning in Tertiary Education, teaching in Higher Education, Watson Ferguson and Co., Routledge, London, 1992 Brisbane, 1989. Shuell, T. and Lee, C., learning and Instruction. Brooks/Cole Publishing., Monterey, 1976.

~~234 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 21A CHANGING CLASSROOMS A NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE~~

A NATIONAL SURVEY ON THE INTEGRATIONOF COMPUTERS INTO SCHOOLS: TEACHERS' CURRENT PRACTICES ANDEXPERIENCES BY CATHIE SHERWOOD Lecturer, Faculty of Education, Griffith Univer- sity, Queensland and PHIL BUCHANAN Senior Project Officer, Open Access Support Centre, Department of Education, Queensland

INTRODUCTION identify teachers who had success- The last decade has witnessed unprec- fully integrated computer into their edented efforts by education authori- classrooms; ties in Australia to ensure that schools describe their practice with the are preparing students to meet the currently available technology; challenges a nd dema nd s of the modern determine whether they believed computer age. However, while large their teaching had changed as a sums of money have been invested in result ofthe use of computer hardware and, to a lesser extent, soft- technology; ware, much less has been spent on identify factors which may promote or hinder the effective integration In 1992 a national survey reviewing curriculum policy a nd practice and developing teacher expertise. of computer technology; and of classroom teachers was compare the results of the Austral- undertaken to determine Are teachers effectively integrating ian study with those of the US. teachers' practice with technology into their classroom organisations and teaching? If the answer Surveyed teachers were selected computer technology. is yes, what are their range of practices through contact with education au- Drawing on the consider- and what is their value? What barriers thorities and professional bodies in all states. Self nominations were called for able knowledge base de- are experienced by teachers in the process of integrating technology into through publicity in various profes- veloped by teachers about thecurriculum? What are the incentives sional journals and conferences. the effective integration of (both beliefs and experiences) which Nominated teachers were considered technology into the cur- have encouraged teachers in their use to be experienced and effective users of of computers in the classroom? computer technology in the classroom. riculum the survey exam- They are, therefore, not representative ines current and changing To gain some measure of just what of teachers in general. The study contains responses from teachers in all practice. The session will teachers do with computers in today's classrooms, the authors conducted a states, years P-12, a range of schools - comment on those factors national survey in 1992 of teachers who state, parochial and independent - and perceived by teachers to had successfully integrated computer from a range of communities. Of 731 teachers who were sent the survey, re- be barriers and incentives technology into their classroom. Using a survey instrument developed by the sponses were received from 362. to the successful integra- Centre for Technology in Education, tion of computer technol- Bank Street College of Education (who This project was significant as it was only the second national survey un- ogy into Australian class- had conducted a similar survey in the United States in 1989), the survey set dertaken on computer applications in rooms. out to: Australian classrooms. The first survey, conducted in 1985, was commissioned

235 ALISTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 240 by the Commonwealth Department of teachers to describe the most appro- WHO WERETHE SURVEY RESPONDENTS? Education (as it then was) and exam- priate and effective ways by which they The teachers who answered the survey ined the use of computers in learning have acquired the necessary skills and were a mature and experienced group, programs, and the attitudes of students, knowledge required to effectively uti- almost half (49%) between thirty-five teachers and parents to possible uses of lise technology in their curriculum. and forty-four years old, and 61% computers to support the learning having been teachers for thirteen years Forty-five percent were process (Fitzgerald, Hattieand Hughes, Results from the survey highlight the or more. women and fifty-five percent were men. 1986). need for organisational change, at the school level, central bureaucracy level, The majority of teachers (59%) were In the last seven years, the technology and in teacher education institutions. from state schools, 33% from inde- itself has undergone considerable de- Professional associations do not appear pendent schools and 8% from parochial velopment. In addition, the number of to play a major part (as perceived by schools. The table below shows the computers in Australian schools has the survey respondents) in providing number (%) of respondents from each increased dramatically, as has the level teachers with knowledge and/or ex- state and territory. Further informa- of knowledge and expertise of teachers pertise enabling them to become com- tion on the school and teacher back- in relation to computer integration into petent and confident users of technol- ground is in Table 4 at the end of this paper. the curriculum. This study enabled ogY-

~~QLD NSW TAS VIC SA WA NT ACT~~

~~2% 28% 10% 20% 18% 10% 10% 2%~~

~~Table 1. Percentage of respondents by state~~

CHANGING CLASSROOMS While the survey requested informa- computer had made a significant dif-computers for an extended period of tion on a wide range of issues related to ference to the way they taught. time in their classrooms, more fre- the barriers and practices encountered quently reported a difference in their by teachers in effectively using infor- For these teachers, the advantages ofteaching. It is interesting to note the mation technology, a key component fered by computers to enhance their jump in those replying in the negative was to determine whether the integra- teaching was sufficient to overcome the at the 9-10 year period (See Table 2). tion of the computer had made a differ- problems and barriers which they also While the survey has no way of deter- ence to teaching methods and styles. It recorded in the survey. For them, the mi ni ng specific rea sons for this, it might is this aspect which is discussed in this computer had been a major force in be conjectured that this indicates a point paper. As previously mentioned, sig- reshaping their curriculum and their reached by teachers where enthusiasm nificant sums of money have been in-own beliefs about teaching and learn- runs out for the in:identalor occasional vested by schools and education sys- ing. use of specific/ favourite software, and tems in providing computer hardware real organisational change in their cur- to support learning. It would seem, at From the data presented in Table 2, it riculum is required. Could this indi- least for the respondents to this survey, can be seen that experience with using cate a potential 'burn-out' point where that this provision has had a positive the computer has a positive influence teachers require assistance to refocus impact. Of the teachers who replied to on the effect teachers perceive on their their use of computer technology? the survey, almost 76% felt that the teaching.Teachers who have used

~~No. of years using computers Unsure No Yes~~

Less than 2 years 25.00% 21.43% 53.57% 3 to 4 years 16.39% 13.11% 70.49% 5 to 6 years 10.87% 13.04% 76.09% 7 to 8 years 11.36% 7.95% 80.68% 9 to 10 years 5.56% 14.81% 79.63% More than 10 years 5.41% 10.81% 83.78%

~~TOTAL 11.67% 12.50% 75.83% Table 2 Do you feel that integrating computers as an educational tool into thecurricula you teach has made a real difference in how you teach? (n=360)~~

~~236 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993~~

. .- ?41 Many of those teachers who did not feel There were also those who acknowl- I am able (as are the students) to go far that computers had changed theiredged that the computer had changed beyond existing curricula and work pro- teaching still acknowledged the worth the way they taught but not in a posi- grams. I can provide more advanced in- of computers in the classroom. These tive fashion. struction and have pleasure in teaching teachers felt that their existing style of relevant topics. teaching was already suited to the inte- Wasted time due to computer maintenance gration of computer technology. -breakdowns and diskerrors. It has become My teaching has altered where I eared my busier because you are always spending students to take more responsibility for I do all this (reviewing students' work, your own time reviewing software or fixing their learning.Students learn to work working with small groups etc), but not as hardware problems. In effect, the teacher independently and to access other students a result of using computers. Perhaps this is has become more of a technician. for help. The teacher becomes a resource not a reason for using computers. This is how I a dictator. teach and teachers should teach; computers The most significant change for these are incidental but doll! in ideally with good teachers has been the move from As a teacher in Special Education, it offers teaching practice. teacher-centred to student-centred a new perspective to some of the students classrooms. While other factors cer- who formerly had little or no skill in writ- The onset of computer technology hasn't tainly contributed, they saw that effec- ing, numeracy , art or music. It offers a way changed how I teach, but has added another tive use of the computer technology of exploring infonnation in anon-subjective dimension to the classroom, an extra re- required them to change their style of format. The more severely disabled enjoy source or tool, which the children can use, teaching. the sight, sound and animations, which like they would a library resource. they can control.

Mainly being able to give the students an More comfortable with students working indendently 73.63% idea, and then being able to let them go off Expect more from my students 72.16% and do the work.Also its great to see More time with individual students 66.30% students often helping other students. I try Better able tp present more complex material 54.21% to get the students to see the computer as a Tailor work to student's needs 53.48% tool they can use, together with a little More comfortable with small group activities 51.65% imagination, to produce work to a higher Less time lecturing to the whole class 50.55% standard than they might otherwise be in- Less time with the whole class reviewing 32.60% clined to.

It has enabled my children to achieve things Table 3 How teaching has changed (N= 273) unheard of, and simply not possible, ten years ago. Other technologies present in the class- have learnt to feel comfortable sitting in room, such as video cassette recorders, class for a lesson and not being asked a I am expecting higher standards of work overhead projectors and film projec- question while students get on with learn- with the neatness, flexibility and power of tors, do little to break down the tradi- ing. the computer. tional 'teacher-centred' model of the classroom. The computer too can also I no longer standout the front thinking that Use of the computer in my teaching has be used in this mode by delivering I am a fountain of knowledge. Our class- placed more of the responsibility forlearning teacher-determined content to the stu- room is based on a premise of collaborative with the student , allowing them to progress dents. However, the respondents to this small group learning. I am more of a at their own rate. survey clearly indicated that the com- facilitator but I'm still teaching/support- puter played a significant role in ing children in areas of need. Teachers also believe that the compu- changing the focus of their teaching ter enables them to meet the needs of from the teacher to the learner. The teachers' expectations of their students have increased with the use of individual students. Many teachers used small group activities to make the My teaching has become more student computers. They expect more from best use of limited computer resources oriented. The main aim is for them to learn them and believe that students can in- thus enabling them to give increased and for me to assist (or the computer or any teract with more complex material us- attention to individual students. other tool for that matter). ing this new media. The computer is seen as an empowering device allow- More able to meet some special needs of Main impact has been that I'm no longer a ing students to accomplish ta sks in ways certain children. sage on the stage, but a guide on the side. not previously possible and to take greater responsibility for their own I realise that effective learning can go on learning. without the teacher talking or directing. I

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 237 242 I'm more relaxed dealing with small groups/ classroom where individuality, creativity, NOTES individuals rather then whole class krt uses. problem solving and communication skills Phil Buchanan was on secondment as a Different activities can now take place at are highly valued. lecturer at Griffith University in 1992. the same time in the classroom. Many of these teachers are obviouslyThe authors wish to thank the teachers Teaching is more individualised allowing motivated learners, with an enthusi- who participated in the survey. venter !rip from remedial to talented. It is asm for their profession and a dedica- more flexible and enables one to explore tion to their students. They use a vari- Table 4 SchOol and Teacher Background 'unknown' areas and methods. Teacher is ety of software applications with the 1. Sex (n=362) part of the process or team and not just an most common application being the Female 44.75% 55.25% instructor. word processor (96%). A significant Male number (89%) also make use of drill 2. Size of school (n=361) 859% Teaching is morr individualised. Challenges and practice software, 82% percent use Large (1000+ students) 27.98% presented are more stimulating and moti- adventure games, simulations and Medium (500-1000) 63.43% vating for a wider variety of children. problem solving programs, 79% use Small (<500) the computer for keyboarding, while 3. Year levels taught (n=362) 57.73% My original teaching style might be called tutorial programs and paint programs Primary 'classic'. My lessons these days are less are sed by 78% of teachers. Junior Secondary 4.97% 7.46% rigid and student based with an emphasis Complete school 19.89% on individual instruction. My communi- While it is the tried and true applica- High school 9.94% cation skills have improved asa result of the tions such as word processors which Other small groups and individuals with whom I are most commonly used many teach- 4. Type of school (n=362) 58.84% communicate. These changes are a result of ers indicated a willingness to use newer State 32.60% technology in the classroom. technologies such as multimedia, tel- Independent ecommunicationsandon-line Parochial 8.56% Though I still value the basics of literacy databases; technologies which at 5. Ethnic group representation* (n.--.341) and numeracy I spend less time on pen and present may be beyond their schools' (as per respondents perceptions) paper drill activities and far more time in current resources. Aborigine 2.61% 0.14% application situations fie) African 3.96% production of a newspaper, problem solving CONCLUSION Asian 88.06% situations. I encourage individuality and The picture that emerges from the re- Other Australian 1.54% creativity more and value kids helping and sponses to this key component of the Middle Eastern 3.12% leading to a higher degree. Also I no longer national survey is one of dedicated Other Groups feel that everyone needs to be doing the teachers endeavouring to incorporate 6. Economic representation (n=320) same thing at the same time. technology into their classrooms in (as per respondents perceptions) ways that will enhance their teaching Very poor 8.25% What can also be read in these com- and students' learning. Many of these Working poor 23.79% 51.13% ments is a change in the teachers them- teachers have undertaken professional Middle class selves. The beliefs and attitudes of the development in their own time, moti- Relatively affluent 13.12% teachers is reflected through their re- vated by the beneficial changes they Very affluent 3.86% sponses to the open-ended questions ofbelieve that computers have brought to 7. Size of town (n=361) 40.72% the survey. their classrooms. This technology is, Large city (100K+) for them, a linking element which ena- Small city or town (<100 K)27.98% 15.51% My teaching has changed dramatically from bles them to provide stimulating and Rural town 11.63% when I started teaching back in 1956 (talk effective learning experiences for their Rural district 4.16% and chalk). Now children are able to work students and gives them more com- Other independently '1 I work with groups or plete information about the level(s) at 8. State (n=362) 28.45% encourage and direct. Hove the computers which individuals are performing. Queensland 20.17% and how children respond. I wish that I had Tasmania 17.68% been born 50 years later as I thrive on the Victoria 10.22% type of teaching I am currently engaged in. REFERENCES New South Wales Fitzgerald, D; Hattie, J & Hughes, P Western Australia 9.94% 9.67% It has become more challenging and there (1986). Computer Applications in South Australia is an excitement about me as I develop a Australian Classrooms. AGPS: Australian Capital Territory 2.21% 1.66% theme or topic. Canberra. Northern Territory

~~Computers enable me to create an exciting Responses did not always add to 100% new teaching /learning environmentin my~~

~~AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 238 243 IT IN SCIENCE EDUCATION A CLOUDED VISION? BY MAURICE TEBBUTT University of Birmingham U,K,~~

~~PROVISION~~

~~IT provision in the school~~

~~IT provisionscie~~

Co-ordination between school and science provision Distinctive This paper is essentially aspects of science in three parts. The first, in provision keeping with the theme of the conference, outlines my vision for IT within science education. The Improved learning second part examines the Pupils who have broadly in science actual situation at present, based and transferable skills in IT while the last part will OUTCOMES suggest ways forward, and, as befits the practical Figure 1 nature of IT, will attempt to do so by demonstration Links between IT provision and outcomes with at least some degree of participation. My vision for IT in science is at the same of skills which pupils must have in time both positive and easy to describe an increasingly technological world in general terms (Figure 1). The essen- e) and it is an aid to effective learn tial features of the provision of IT are; ing in science. a) the provision of IT in the school as a whole, and in science is substantial I, as a science educator, would not b) these provisions are coordinated dream of suggesting for one minute but that this is new to an audience which c)IT in science also makes its own probably consists mainly of IT profes- distinctive contributions; sionals. However, in the UK at least, it and there is mutual benefit in terms of is the case that the TTcoordinatorsin outcomes, since schools are relatively ignorant of those d) IT in science reinforces and sup aspects of IT which are specific to sci- plements the work of the IT pro ence; and do not see it as part of their fessionals in the development job to know which parts of science pro-

22,9 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 :9A A On the face of it, therefore, all the conditions seem to be satisfied for saying Figure 2 that my vision for IT in science should Contributions of various aspects of IT to general IT and science already be realised. However, it will be courses no surprise that, in the UK at least, the situation is far from the ideal. Thus, Part of general IT Part of although there are computers in most IT contribution course? science secondary school science departments, course? and considerable amounts of computing in a few, the extent to which IT is actually used on average in this cur- Yes Yes Word processing or DTP riculum area is very limited. Figure 3 Yes Yes shows possible reasons for this, por- Spreadsheets trayed as falling into three groups to do Yes Yes Databases with hardware, software and profes- Yes Yes? Drawing/painting packages sional matters, but being somewhat Yes? Yes? difficult to describe since they are inter- CO ROM related. Once again, some of this will No Yes Simulations be familiar to IT specialists, but some Yes may not be since it is particular to other Interfacing (Data logging, No non-datalogging, control) curriculum areas, such as science, and

No Yes is important since each aspect contrib- Hypermedia utes to barriers to tha use of IT in science. No Yes? Multimedia Many of these barriers may seem to be No Yes individually quite trivial, but the com- Games bination of a number of barriers can No Yes Modelling often be sufficient to inhibit teachers No Yes My World whose interest in IT is limited from making use of the resource.

vide appropriate uses for those general Figure 3 aspects of IT which can be applied to in science many curriculum areas.It is equally Barriersto the Implementation of IT thecase that science teachers do not see IT as a significant component of their Hardware aspects Software aspects Professional aspects work, and, for reasons which I will deal k with later, perceive substantial barriers Shortage of computers Complexity. power vs LicAstanTQf gm to its use in science. Because of this simplicity, ease of use Lack of knowledge of considerable degree of mutual Organisation problems uses of IT in science incomprehension it is perhaps worth Dems vs pupil Lack of expertise spelling out the contributions which activity Science vs comp. lab Lack of INSET science and IT can make to each other base (Figure 2). The length of this list pro- Fixed or mobile IT not used in science vides ample justification for my earlier machines Lack of coord. with assertion that the contribution of sci- Need for worked out ways of using general IT in school IT ence to IT is both distinctive and sub- science Rapid development Lack of policy for IT in stantial even allowing that some of the school or science Large variety of elements, like 'My World' or 'Games' machines and capability"`Non-portability of software are much more limited in their rangeof Widening gap between IT 'activists' and most applicationthanothers,like High tech. vs low tech. science teachers spreadsheets. Figure 2 also indicates for interfacing Narrow focus for IT in the that the general work in IT in the school Costs National Curriculum is capable of considerable reinforce- ment within science, and I hope to demonstrate later how IT can contribute to effective learning in science.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY if -1 240 2.5 afford to have a computer room suffi- impinge on their lessons to any great Hardware is the most obvious problem. extent. Those teachers who do nothave Few science departments have enoughciently free of commitments for de- it. even this basic level ofexpertise are computers to involve all the pupilsin a partments to have flexible access to One school in the Birmingham area has quite unlikely to be prepared to use class at the same time. Therefore if com- computers in their lessons. Many sci- thebeen able to set up a computer room puters are actually to be used in ence teachers are also awareof the science department ways have to bewith 10 machines, for use solely bythe potential of datalogging in science les- found to do this with the available hard-science department, but this is very unusual, and is only possible fora very sons,but seem insufficiently persuaded ware. One way would be tohave a in their large school. to actually use these techniques computer permanentlymounted in each lessons. Even those teachers who are laboratory, which could then be used Clearly, cost is a major reason for the sufficiently motivated to attend INSET for demonstrations, or by groups of courses on datalogging seem tobe pupils as part of a cirrus of activities.limited numbers of computers overall, and this is also one reason for different daunted by the combination of Such an arrangement is not common, a) the extra hardware needed for and although it is more generous thanmakes of computers being used in different parts of the school, because of data logging (sensors, interfaces); usual, it still has disadvantages. It pre- b) the software; let alone cludes other staff from using the ma-the difficulty of equipping the whole c) the experiment itself! chine if the laboratory is in use, andschool at one time. This problem is prevents machines being gathered to-likely to continue because of the very rapid rate of development, which shows Apart from datalogging, most science gether in one laboratory so that pupils teachers would probably beunfamiliar time. Ano signs of slowing down. can use machines at the same with most of the applications of IT in better solution would be for the compu- science which have been described in ter to be mounted on a trolley sothat itThe variety of machines which are in time might figure 2. In contrast, there is a small, is ca pable of being easily moved and yetuse in a school at any one not be a problem if the software were but increasing number who are very quickly set up once it is where it is to be familiar with many of these aspects, used. It must also be said that an allo-portable between them. Unfortunately, educational software often tends to be and are innovative in their use. As cation of one system per laboratory on development occurs at its usual pace in average is fairly uncommon, andtheseproduced for only one of the machines which are commonly used, and since IT it is likely that the gap between the suggestions take no account of other majority of science teachers and the practicalities, such as laboratories beingthe educational market is small it may 'activists' will increase, hence increas- sited on different floors, or even in dif-not justify the labour ofconverting ing the challenge presented by the need ferent buildings! All of this has assumed software to suit the remaining ma- to close the gap. that the computers are the usual 3-boxchines, even if the differences in the types, which are both bulky and heavy,capability of the various machines would allow this. Whatever the rea- Because most schools seem not to have and whose associated cables represent an IT policy, or at least onewhich is How-sons for the differences in machine pro- a major problem to non-experts. known to anyone other than the IT ever, who is to say what the futureholdsvision, the consequent differences in software mean that it is less easy than it specialists, it is not surprising that little with the rapidly increasing power and is known generally about what knowl- availability of lap -top, notebook or palm-might be for skills which pupils develop edge and skills in IT are being devel- top computers?Although there arein the general IT programme to be re- of suchinforced in other departments. oped in pupils. In these circumstances some experimental systems the lack of coordination with the basic machines, they are probably not going workdone in IT, and the lackof depart- to be generally available for some time,In addition to the barriers presented by mental IT policies is even less surpris- and even then will not be effectivelyhardware, and the associated software used unless the classroom culture isproblems, the other major barrier to the ing. beginning to be favourable. use of IT in science co ncern cthe teachers themselves, which is f.ummarised in Of course, all of this takes place within figure 3 as a lack of an 'IT culture' a socio-political context,which in the A more realistic alternative, therefore, UK embodies a National Curriculum, is for centralised facilities to be used bywithin science teaching. While it must be said that the situation has improved which specifies the overall curriculum the science teachers whenever they are framework together with that for indi- needed. Moving classes to such a facil-substantially over the last two or three years, it cannot be assumedthat all the vidual subject areas - in this case sci- ity is an extra demand, which can con- ence on the one hand, andTechnology, stitute a barrier to computer use, even ifscience teachers are sufficiently skilled to use computers at a personallevel including information technology as a the facilities are available when they are distinct and seperable component on needed. However, although manyeven in schools which have agood supply of computers. The usual level the other. The references to the use of schools will have one or more computer computers in science for pupils of sec- rooms, the cost of these generally meansof corn petence seems to be the ability to for their ondary age are sufficiently clear and that they tend to be timetabled for regu-use basic wordprocessing skills to broad to encourage the use of IT lar commitments and few schools canown use, but this does not seem 241 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY1993 not seem to be much 'Government encouragement' for science teachers to become in/olved in using IT, but the Department for Education has set up a Communkattloo Proarsoutws of study working party on IT in science whose Pupae should be encouraged Them, activIllee to develop tnyeartigedve *Mt Should: results should be available by now. It is and undamtanding of *donor theough eclIvIttee which: to be hoped that some attempt will have been made to address the prob- Key Pupils should use computers to include the WO of cornPutoM awoke ihe centre. Staff*dors. retrieve and present Iles bananission. 00111011 lem of the almost complete absence of work and extend thee and retrieval of 2 inderstanclog of intoemaion inf.:melon tamp INSET provision in this area. I regret Sander. computers and sensors. that this appraisal of theactual situation in the UK is so much less heartening They should blab to use alow the ace:comae use of information and data uxessed orcuts containing sensors than the vision which I described ini- from a computer and be obi* as serrated by e variety of Kay idendly the man features of an envIronmenls1 facto such as tially, and I wonder how this compares mlonneSon transmission lemperalute.101. moistire, alt. Stfrisystem and the wens in Mullin preside, and magnetic ltsid. with he situation in Australia. 3 data are coded. handed Ind tanamitled offer opportunities to &Nebo compiler alilb ID MOM. process I wish now to return to being more and Melee* intomweon aid as control and collect dos awing positive, making suggestions about expeeiments. what might be done to improve the

They should hem opportunitespre 01:Portunales b use situation, but tempering the original lo tensiale information from nfonnation technology to gathec vision with the realism induced by the Kay one form another lo suit and display data from Stag.auclosnoe and purpose and to weriterrients. lo imcou and previous section. 4 use databases and avenue data relevant ID tint spelechirimits n Mir work. study of science. and b use procaarranable systems to control external eiectortic. However desirable it would be to have electrical or mechanical pupils' IT capability being developed

Figure 5 Links with Science in the IT National Curriculum Figure 4 Extracts from the National Curriculum (Science) LevelStatements of attainment Examples (Figure 4), but it may be significant that Sd Use information technology to Usinga simulation, explore how the all the references are from the general explore patterns and populations of predator and prey introductions, or the programmes of relationships, and to form and testspecies fluctuate, and suggest 'sten study (guidance for course construc- simple hypotheses. a predator is most active. tion), and there are no specific refer- Understand that devices can be Use acomputer to draw a graph of made to respond to data from the temperature of a liquid as it cools; ences in the statements of attainment sensors (guidance for assessment)(DES, 1991). identify advantages and Use a desktop publishing program to limitations of data-handling integrate text and images in the As might be expected the programmes programs and graphics programs report of a scientific experiment: of study and statements of attainment and recognise when these offer for IT itself are too extensive to repro- solutions to a problem of data handling. duce here. While they clearly focus on coreaspectsofITsuchas Understand that the results of Use data-logging equipment to c experiments can be obtained overmeasure the acceleration of a model wordprocessing, spreadsheets, long or short periods or at a car as it runs down a ramp: databa ses and presentational packages, distance using data-logging they also provideexamples drawn from equipment. science (and other curriculum areas) Understand that dangerous or Experiment with the operation of a (figure 5)(DES, 1990). 7f costly Investigations. or those not simulated nuclear reactor easily measured can be simulated by information technology. While this might imply that a coordi- Use software to represent a Model and investigate the grotogh of nated 'delivery system' was intended, situation or process with bacteria using a spreadsheet, use a or was at least desirable, instructions variables, and show the graph - plotting program to find a ha verecently been sent to schools which relationship between them. curve which fits a set of experimental data. seem to require IT to appear as a clearly identifiable part of Technology (SEAC, 1993).Overall, therefore, there does

242 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 g47 by means of a programme taught by Figure 6 both IT specialists and science teachers, it is unlikely to be realistic to expect Making IT in science happen many science teachers to contribute to general IT capability. Rather, science IT provides basic teachers would be expected to use TT as skills and knowledge a means of improving learning in sci- A policy is needed in ence by building in a coordinated way each area to ensure on the work done by the IT specialists, coordination but also adding components which are Science builds on distinctive to science (Figure 6). this, and adds its own contribution There w... therefore be a need for policies for IT in the school and science department which ensure that the two curriculum areas are mutually supportive. All of this will require liaison Coordinator for IT in science which most science teachers are not qualified to do, and which is an undue demand on IT specialists - I suggest, Improve knowledge of Ms Develop an IT culture in science therefore that this should be a desig- potential contribution to by increasing the frequency of nated role for someone in the science science use of IT through department with the appropriate a) ensuring adequate machine knowledge and interest. The essential provision requirement seems to me to build an IT culture within the science department b) working at the in which there are so many opportuni- implementation of IT in ties to use IT, which are so obviously science useful, that science teachers are encouraged to use IT so often that the initial unfamiliarity with computers is eliminated, and their new-found ex- apparatus can be easily made in schools, understanding or constructing simple pertise is continually practised. This which makes it much easier to afford keys to generating testable questions. Suitable software ranges from simple will require (Tebbutt, 1991). However, it is less ob- a) an adequate supply of machines viously easy to use than the 'plug-and- key-builders to powerful databases b) an adequate supply of other hard- go' systems, even if simple software is with substantial datafiles of scientific ware (eg for data logging) used to avoid inhibiting beginners. information. Even larger 'datafiles' of scientific information have recently c)a collection of software which can contribute to many aspects Datalogging is not the only context inbecome available on CD ROM, and of the science curriculum which pupils can utilise interfacing. these show signs of becoming very d) worked-out ways of using gen Suitable software enables pupils to popular. oral IT facilities (eg word processors, practise reading a variety of laboratory spreadsheets) in science lessons. instruments; to plot distance-time or Hypermedia packages with ready- speed-time graphs in real time; or to produced content, can be used in 're- I have already dealt with a) above, but examine the process of coordination and ception mode' by pupils, but currently Alterna- b) is an aspect of hardware provision the effects on motor coordination offew of these are available. tively, such packages can be used in which can cause substantial problems. substance abuse. The latter is one of the The 'high-tech' approach uses dedi- few examples of games which are'manipulation mode' as a means of cated dataloggers and can be easy since available for science teaching. Another helping pupils to learn by researching and constructing written, and illustra- the logging process may be automatic,example uses an adventure game for- including auto-recognition of the sen- mat to help pupils to learn about com- tive material. sor. However, although the analysis munications. The technique called 'cut- software can be very powerful, it can ting and sticking' is a popular way of Wordprocessing and DTP can also enable pupils to experience the products also be quite daunting, particularly for helping pupils, particularly less able beginners. The other problem is that ones, to learn actively. 'My World' could of IT in reception mode and this is clearly the area in which most science this approach is expensive, especially if be seen as an IT equivalent of this ac- enough loggers are bought for pupils tivity. Using databases can help pupils teachers are best prepared. Pupils have much less opportunity to use these to use in groups. Some datalogging to develop useful skills, ranging from 243 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 A Helping teachers to overcome the ini- Figure 7 tial barriers to computer use will still require a considerable amount of IN- A method of conceptualising spreadsheet difficulty SET, which, in the UK is tending to decrease in availability rather than in- -4E-- --Jr,- crease. Trainee teachers are likely to be more computer literate than their established colleagues, and could act as change agents if their level of expertise al 0/14.4 was high. Unfortunately there are bar- 6per.4a14 -4114 .11414144 441eAsliorw riers to this too - teacher trainers tend to ~MO be no more expert than their colleagues in schools, and the pressures in the UK mirdpL4411w 11,41,1641 to make teacher education more school- based is likely to place the responsibil- 0441141114. ity for training in IT in science in the 1 I 1 4 Wool el 11.4414 hands of those who find it difficult!

Lagar OW um. dos. On140.441444 I hope that I have been able to demonstrate my vision that IT has much to Level of demand contribute potentially to learning sci- Lowest ence, and that there are many relatively

1. Spreadsheet framework and data (and possibly formulae) are simple means of doing this but that the in the machine. Pupils merely use it by searching for patterns vision is clouded by the existence of or plotting graphs. many barriers.I hope too that I have

2. Spreadsheet framework (and possibly formulae) in the indicated how science teachers can be machine. Pupils enter data and use the spreadsheet by provided with an IT culture, which has searching for patterns or plotting graphs. benefits both for their effectiveness as 3. Spreadsheet framework and data are in the machine Pupils science teachers, and their ease in using enter formula(e) and use the spreadsheet by searching for the technology; and therefore provides patterns or plotting graphs. good prospects for 'blowing the clouds 4. Spreadsheet framework is in the machine. Pupils enter data away'. and formula(e) and use the spreadsheet with guidance.

5. Pupils design the framework, enter data and formula(e) and REFERENCES use the spreadsheet with guidance. DES, (1990), Technology in the National 6. Pupils design the framework, enter data and formula(e), and Curriculum, HMSO, London, 58pps use the spreadsheet entirely on their own. DES, (1991), Science in the National Curriculum, HMSO, London, 40 Highest PPs SEAC (School Examinations do Assess- techniques in manipulation mode. Yet is arguably more difficult. Teachers are ment Council), (1993), Technology there are numerous situations when less used to spreadsheets, their use is at Key Stage 4 Central Office of this would be possible, ranging from very dependent on their content, and Information, London, Epps the routine writing up of experiments, on the amount of help which pupils are Tebbutt, M.J., (1991), Logging on to to the production of notes on sections given to set up the spreadsheet. A Science, Association for Science of a topic, such as the planets, or the colleague and I have been trying to Education, Hatfield UK, 103 pps electromagnetic spectrum, for subse- make a systematic approach to this Tebbutt, M.J., (1993), The Use of New quent conflation and distribution to the problem (Tebbutt and Flavell) which Technology in Science Teaching, whole group. This process can often conceptualises spreadsheets in terms 148-178, in Hull, R.A.(Ed), (1993), benefit from the d ra ft, dialogue, redraft of type, content level, and the degree of The ASE Science Teachers' Hand- - via - editing process which is made so help givenincompletingthe book, Simon and Schuster, Hemel easy by wordprocessing. The IT coor- spreadsheet (Figure 7) (Tebbutt, 1993). Hempstead UK, 380 pps dinator in the science department Tebbutt, M.J. and Flavell, J.H., (Forth- should identify those aspects of the While this is based on a pragmatic rather coming), Spreadsheets in Science. science curriculum which benefit from than a theoretical approach, it does al- this approach. The same ideas can be low the work given to pupils at a par- applied in principle to the use ofticular stage to be differentiated ac- spreadsheets in science, but the process cording to their capability.

~~244 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 0 A n HYPERTEXTAND LEARNERACCEPTANCE OF CONTROL: LEARNING OUTCOMES OF HYPERTEXTUSE.~~

~~BY DENISE TOLHURST University of New South Wales Australia~~

in which information is organised conferences on hypertext one will find that Mir according to semantic links rather such reports are in the majority, with well- than organised into sequential pages controlled experimental papers few and far 11/ and chapters. In order to use this between. opportunity effectively they will, as Although there are not very many ex- hypertext readers, be required to perimental findings, those that have develop their general reading skills been undertaken mostly address the and confront the challenge of devel- successful use of particular aspects of 11/ oping some new reading skills the user interface, while a smaller required by the media. number consider the benefits of sequential vs non-sequential presentation Hypertext is a term that One vital new reading skill thatof material. Some findings regarding is used to describe the hypertext readers must develop is thethe use of interactive video and com- ability to navigate complex structures puter assisted instruction (CAI) have concept of non-linear text. of information that possess many se-relevance due to the non-sequential It is generally presented mantic links, rather than sequential form of presentation. using electronic media page-by-page presentation. The study to follow explores a learner'swilling- USER INTERFACE RESEARCH FINDINGS that provide rapid re- ness or ability to accept thechallengeMarchionini and Schneiderman (1988) sponse to readers when offered by non-linear presentation of a re among those that addressthe issues they nominate to branch information. related to the user interface in a summary paper of experimentalfindings. to a different screen, or OVERVIEW OF HYPERTEXT RESEARCH When considering the hardware aspects node of information. Well controlled experimental papers in of a hypertext system, reference is made the domain of hypertext are few and far to a paper by Schneiderman that high- between. Most papers written are re-lights two experiments that demon- As hypertext becomes ports about the experiences of thosestrate a speed advantage in using the increasingly available on developing hypertext systems or anec-arrow keys to select hypertext keywords microcomputers it seems dotal information about their effec-over the use of a mouse for the same purpose.Reference is also made to inevitable that it will, as a tiveness, as hasbeen found by McKnight et.al. (1991): studies indicating that reading from consequence, be used To date researchers and developers cathode ray tubes (CRT) is up to thirty more frequently in many have, in the main, been content to discuss percent slower than reading the same the apparent advantages of hypertext material from paper. contexts including the systems for most tasks, occasionally home and the classroom. describing systems they have implemented Marchionini and Schneiderman also Students will be exposed and informally presenting user reactions to discuss the relative merits of the use of them. Such reports are difficult to assess indexes over a browsing facility in to a reading environment critically and it is easy to get carried away hypertext environments. They describe with the hype su mound ing the new medium. their observations and studies of the If one looks at the proceedings of recent 'Hyperties' system and the 'Grolier

245 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY1993 250 Gray (1987) and Gay (1986) have also Electronic Encyclopaedia' that indicate Among those researchers exploring the subjects directed to perform efficient advantages of particular user interfaceundertaken studies using non-sequential presentation of computer as- searching for specific factual informa- designs is Monk et.al. (1988). They ex- tion predominantly chose to use an plore the mechanisms of hypertext,sisted instruction materials. They both alphabetical index over the alternative scrolling and folding for browsingsuggest that the more apparent control strategy of browsing. In contrast how- through computer programs. Theya user has over computer assisted instruction the greater the learner's mo- ever, they found that the study of a log conducted two experiments, finding that of usage of a hypertext system in a the most effective mechanism for userstivation. Gray and Gay also find that museum setting revealed that the pre-is scrolling, the second is folding andstudents who have 3n existing knowl- dominate usage was that of browsing. hypertext is the least effective.In aedge in the domain of the learning are These findings indicate that the read- second experiment they report that pro-more skilled at making selections of ers' purpose has a large bearing on the viding a map of the hypertext structuresequence. Specifically, Gay suggests that 'learners can be given more control method of use of hypertext systems. improved the performance of hypertext users by twenty-five percent,makingif their prior understanding of a topic is Hammond and Allinson (1988) also ex- the hypertext equally as effective as therelatively high; conversely, learners plore the usage of a hypertext system scrolling mechanism. should be provided with more structure whose user interface is based on the if their prior conceptual understanding holiday travel metaphor. In this sys- A study in which it was found that stu-of a topic is low'. Gay also suggests that learners should be taught how to use tem the user has the choice of guided dents make full use of the interactive, tours, go-it-alone travel, orienteering non-sequential nature of the interactivecontrol options more effectively. or the use of an index facility. video system is enthusiastically de- FINDINGS REGARDING SEQUENTIAL AND Hammond and Allinson found that the scribed by Laurillard (1984). She found NON-SEQUENTIAL PRESENTATION OF users of the system found it easy to use that the subjects of her study, twenty- and felt that they were successful in two summer school first year technol- INFORMATION achieving their aims. When studying ogy students, enjoyed using the systemGordon et. al. (1988) in their compari- the usage of the system, they found that and were highly motivated in its use.son of readers' use of hypertext and the majority of users took advantage of Laurillard admits however that the con-conventional linear text, also fail to each of the possible navigation meth- clusions can only be made tentativelyshare Laurillard's enthusiasm. Gordon ods, selecting the method according to 'given the small numbers involved', andet.al., contrary to their expectations, the task to be achieved. also, the majority of her findings arefound that hypertext did not enhance based on observational interpretationsexpository or general interest reading. A study of the information seeking rather than empirical testing. They concluded that hypertext tech- strategies of novices using an electronic niques may be good for searching for encyclopaediaundertakenby In contrast to the enthusiasm ofinformation, but the difficulties pre- Marchionini assesses the effectiveness Laurillard, Burwell (1991) questions thesented by navigation make it difficult of the user interface in assisting novices potential of the interactive video diskfor a reader to concentrate on the con- to achieve their reading goals.The lessons to encourage learners to accepttent of a hypertext document. It should subjects for the study were American control of their learning.Burwell fo-be noted however that in Gordon et.al.'s elementary school students. The study cused on field dependent learners, thosestudy, each reader was presented with found that the problems of cognitive learners who have difficulty extractingtwo articles on different topics. The overload encountered by students information in a perceptual or cognitivegeneral interest group was presented could be minimised by using the mini- task and therefore take a passive ap-with a sequential article and a non- mal capabilities of the system for tasks proach, and field independent learnerssequential article, and another group appropriate for the users. These mini- who have less difficulty in perceptualread two technical articles presented in mal capabilities included the presenta- and cognitive tasks and therefore ex-the two formats. The general interest tion of only single paragraphs of infor- hibit a more active approach to intellec-readers were presented with the topics mation on the screen at a time, simpli- tual tasks.Contrary to expectations,of 'Falling in Love' and 'Reverse Steri- fied searching methods and a mini- Burwell found that in a visually richlisation, and the readers of technical mised requirement of keystrokes. environment, 'field dependent learnersarticleswerepresentedwith Marchionini and Schneiderman con- thrived on the personal control when'Attentiona 1 Factors in Jet Aircraft clude their paper by recommending aided with appropriate instructionalCrashes', and 'Speech Synthesis and key user interface design characteris-advice'. He attributed this to the factRecognition'. No direct assessment as tics.They recommend; 'finding the that, M a visually rich environment, fieldto the effectiveness of the same topic correct information granularity for dependent learners spent more time onpresented in the different formats was particular users, presenting interfaces task. Overall, however, there was noattempted. The diversity of topics in with low cognitive load .... and striking significant difference in the post-testthe two presentation formats, and the a balance between analytical and performance scores between the twodegree to which the topics for general browsing search strategies' (page 79). groups.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 . 246 ?51 interest would actually be chosen by ment from each screen: they can move tion.It is assumed that the random the subjects for general reading, raise to the next screen of information or to allocation removes the influence of the some doubts about this study. A the previous screen. The sequence dic- part-time or full-time study from the comparison of sequential and non-se- tates that students read the definitions group comparisons. quential presentations of the samefirst, and then information about the reading material provides potential forrelational, hierarchical and network Before introducing the tutorial on da- research, and is the focus of the studymodels, in that order. tabase models, it was necessary to es- described below. tablish whether the students had any The non-sequential tutorial has 123 existing knowledge of the topic. All INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY AND THE screens of information, the additional students were undertaking this course HYPOTHESIS screens offering menu choices that al- for the first time and had little, or no This study focuses on the characteristic low material to be viewed in a user previous experience in database use. at the heart of hypertext, the non-linear selected sequence. The first menuoffers As students had encountered the idea It ad- presentation of information. a choice of the four main sections, and of drawing concept maps in other dresses the hypothesis that the non- within the sections on the models are courses, they were asked at the begin- linear presentation of material affects additional menus which allow students ningof theirfirst lectureinthedatabase students' learning in two ways: firstly, to choose to see the development of the course to draw a concept map of what that those students who experience the model or the summary of its features. they knew about databases.These non-sequential branching achieve bet-The non-sequential version also offers concept maps indicated very little, if ter results in a test of academic a numberofotherbranchesthatallowed any knowledge in the domain and no achievement than students who expe- relevant information in the three models evidence of any knowledge of the three rience a sequential presentation c f the to be linked. The three final screens database models. same material; and secondly, that , tu-from the model developments were dents who have the opportunity to linked, as is each section describing the Immediately prior to the tutorial they utilise non - sequential branching within database models' features.There is were again asked to draw a concept a computer based tutorial style lessonalso a link from every screen to the map of what they knew about do use the opportunity, resulting in definitions section and the main menu, databases, with specific instructions to their gaining a better conceptual un- and an option from every screen to include anything they knew about da- derstanding of the information pre-more forward or back one screen. Stu- tabase models. It was indicated to the sented. dents have a total of 30 unique students that 'database models' was branching opportunities in addition to the focus of the tutorial they were about The method of presentation for the ma- the basic movements and the oppor- to undertake and it was not expected terial used in this study was a Hyper-tunity to branch to the terminology they would know about the topic, but Card tutorial on the topic of the three screen and the main menu. to include in their map anything they database models, hierarchical, relation didknow. Againthere was noevidence and network. A tutorial presentation SUBJECTS of any existing knowledge regarding was chosen rather than hypertext to The subjects for this pilot study were database models. isolate the non-sequential characteris- two groups of second year under- tic of hypertext from its other com- graduatetertiarystudents . Both groups Students were then each given a tuto- plexities. were undertaking a semester course on rial disk, written instructions on how to databases, one group studying part- start the tutorial and a list describing Two different tutorials were created, time and the other group studying full - the links that existed in their tutorial. both using the same screens of infor- time. A total of 32 students participa ted, Students individually worked through mation and differing only in their in- 16 full-time a nd 16 part-time. Although the tutorial with no time restrictions, troductory screens and method of the original groups were a little larger, with both groups, the sequential and presentation.Each tutorial has four some students were not present on the non-sequential, working in the same main sections; one section that provides day of the tutorial, and others had room at the same time. Because the definitions of terminology used, and problems with tutorial disks which tutorial was done independently by three sections that each provide a de- made their data unusable. students there was little, if any, inter- velopment of a database model with a METHODOLOGY action between students. Those who summary of its features.The three did begin to discuss any part of the database models are the relational, hi- THE PROCEDURE tutorial were interrupted and asked to erarchical and network models. Students in each group were randomly work individually. allocated to undertake the sequential The sequentialtu torialhahas 120 different or non-sequential tutorial. For the pur- THE MEASURES screens of information and forces stu- poses of this study they are considered Four measures were used in this pilot dents to view screens in a pre-deter-as two groups experiencing either the study. Three of these required stu- mined sequence. Students are allowed sequential or non-sequential presenta- dents to complete written or 'tick box' only two possible directions of move- 247 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 answers to questions, and the other ditional marks to a total of three marks follow, worthwhile and whether they measure was a program trace recorded per question, resulting in a total of 24 learned anything new. They were also by the computer as students worked possible marks for the whole short an- asked a question about a preferred al- through the tutorial. swer test.After a list of acceptable ternative learning style and a question answers was established, the test was which asked them to estimate the The three measures requiring written marked by two independent markers. mental effort required by the tutorial. responses were the 'Short Answer Test A correlation of .83 was found between - Database Models', the 'Test of Un- the two markers. The aim of this measure was to obtain derstanding of Database Models' and evaluative information from the stu- the 'Evaluation of the Database Models In order to establish the reliability of dents, and to determine whether there Tutorial'. Each of the four measures is the short answer tests, a reliability test was any correlation between students' detailed below. was conducted using two scales. Theperformance and preferences. tests indicated that question 6 contributed little to the scale, and on re-ex- 1. A PROGRAM TRACE OF STUDENTS' RESULTS PANS THROUGH THE TUTORIAL amination of the question itself it was Due to the exploratory nature of this A potential of the computer tutorial apparent that the question was badly study, and the small sample size, it was environment was utilised in this study worded. As a result question 6 wasdeemed appropriate to accept a sig- to record a trace ofthe students' omitted from further statistical analy- nificance level of 10 percent. Any dis- movements through the tutorial. The sis. The reliability of the first scale, the cussion of the implications of these retrace kept track of the sequence in which short answer test administered imme- sults is made with the realisation that the screens were viewed and the time diately after the tutorial was a co-effi- these conclusions need to be substan- spent on each screen. This trace made cient alpha of .48, and the second scale tiated in further studies with larger it possible to determine the time spent representing the delayed short answer samples. Accepting these limitations on task by each student, and the number test was .63. to the findings, the results of this study of deviations from the linear made by point to some interesting implications students experiencing the non-se- 3.A TEST OF UNDERSTANDING OF for providing an environment in which quential tutorial (students experiencing DATABASE MODELS students are able to control their the sequential tutorial had no oppor- The Test of Understanding of Database learning through the selection of tunity to deviate from the linear). Models was designed to measure the branches and are worthy of discussion. conceptual understanding students gained from the tutorial.It required 2. A SHORT ANSWER TEST ON PROGRAM TRACES DATABASEMODELS: IMMEDIATE AND students to construct a concept map The program traces permitted the DELAYED from a given list of 10 concepts that gathering of information on the time The short answer test, with eight ques- were presented in the tutorial. At the spent on task by each student, and the tions about database models, was de- time of designing this test an 'expert number of deviations from the linear signed to measure the academic concept map' was developed by the made by each student. The measure of achievement of the students.The tutorial creator, one which would the number deviations from the linear questions required students to dem- hopefully be approximated by the is appropriate only to the group expe- onstrate specific knowledge and com- students. riencing the non-sequential tutorial, as prehension of information presented the group experiencing the sequential in the tutorial by providing written In order to measure the degree to which tutorial had no opportunity to deviate responses. students developed a conceptual un- from the linear at all. derstanding of database models, a count The short answer test was administered of the number of links that matched the An observation from the program traces immediately after students had com- links in an expert's map was made for is that some students took the oppor- pleted the tutorial, and again 10 weeks each student's concept map. A possi-tunity to re-enter the tutorial after later. The delayed short answer test ble 12 links could be matched by the having worked through it the first time. was administered in order to establish students. This was an unanticipated behaviour, the degree of long term retention of the and occurred when students wereasked information. No time limit was im- 4. AN EVALUATION OF THE DATABASE to complete the short answer test. When posed on students completing either MODELS TUTORIAL entering the tutorial for subsequent test. After completing the two other meas- times, students who experienced the ures requiring written responses, stu- non-sequential tutorial went more di- dents were asked to complete a ques- The short answer test was scored by rectly to the information they required. allowing students one mark for each tionnaire that asked them to give their Some students did reenter the sequen- correct response per question. Students opinions and provide evaluative tial tutorial, but they were fewer than who gave more than one possible cor- judgements of the tutorial. Studentsthose who reentered the non-sequen- rect response were rewarded with ad- were asked if the tutorial was easy to tial tutorial. Those that did re-enter the

248 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 253 sequential version laboriously worked From the program trace it was possible From these statistics it is apparent that through the whole sequence, spending to determine the number of deviations the students using the non-sequential more time on some screens, possibly and time spent on task for the initial tutorial did not use many of the branch- while they completed written answers. time working through the tutorial, and ing opportunities available. With all One student who re-entered the se- for subsequent uses of the tutorial. Sta- the permutations of the possible 30 ba- quential tutorial worked through the tistical summary information is pro- sic links, and the opportunity to branch whole tutorial four times. vided in Table1.

~~Statistical results for time on task and number of deviationsfrom the linear. Sequential Non-Sequential First SubsequentTotal First SubsequentTotal~~

~~Time on Task (in minutes) 16.7 58.9 Mean 31.3 9.9 41.2 42.2 33.3 Standard deviation 12.8 16.0 18.5 31.3 23.8 0-70 13-110 Range 20-69 0-40 20-69 13-110 17 Number of subjects 15 15 15 17 17~~

~~Number of deviations 4.4 from the linear Mean 0 0 0 2.1 2.3 4.3 Standard deviation 0 0 0 2.5 3.7 0-10 0-11 Range 0 0 0 0-11 17 Number of subjects 15 15 15 17 17~~

'" Note that there was no opportunity to deviate in the sequentialtutorial from every screen to the definitions tutorial (31.3 minutes), but not signifi- pared to five who reentered the sequential tutorial spending a mean of screen or main menu, the total number cantly so (p=.22) Their subsequent mean It is of deviations from the linear was an time on task (16.7 minutes) was again 29.6 minutes in subsequent use. apparent that when asked to complete average of 4.4. When students reentered slightly higher than the sequential the tutorial the average number of de- group (9.9 minutes), but again, not at a a task, more students reentered the non- viations was greater (3.4) than the significant level (p=.35). A oneway sequential tutorial, resulting in them number of deviations on their first use analysis of variance indicates that the spending more time on task overall of the tutorial (2.7).Those students total time on task is significantly greater than the sequential group. who actually reentered the tutorial for the non-sequential group than the numbered seven in total, and the mean sequential group (p=.09), see Table 2. SHORTANSWER TEST ON DATABASE number of deviations for those stu- Although it can not be claimed that the MODELS dents in their subsequent entries was first nor subsequent time through theA oneway analysis of variance was 8.3. Although the number of devia- tutorial contribute significantly to the undertaken on the results of the short tions from the linear is generally low, total time on task, the larger amount of answer test in order to establish if there students who reentered the tutorial ac- the numerical difference in time spent was any effect of the non-sequential cepted more opportunities to branch. on task appears to be attributable to the tutorial on students' performance in first time through the tutorial. the short answer test. Accepting the Mean time on task for the non-sequen- 10% level of significance, for both short tial group on their first time through It is interesting to note that the seven answer tests there is no significant difference between the groups, either im- the tutorial is slightly higher (42.2 min- students who reentered the tutorial utes) than those using the sequential spent an average 40.57 minutes, com- mediately after the tutorial presenta

~~Table 2 Oneway analysis of variance for time on task Source D.F. Sum of Mean F F Squares Squares Ratio Prob~~

~~3.00 .09 Between groups 1 2442.07 2442.07 Within Croups 30 24415.93 813.84 Total 31 26858.0~~

~~249 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 9c A Sequential Presentation Non-sequential Presentation~~

~~Test immediately after tutorial: Number of correct responses Number of correct responses Mean 9.20 10.41 St andard deviation 3.41 2.91 Range (possible 21 marks) 4-15 4-16 Number of subjects 15 17~~

Test ten weeks after tutorial Mean 5.77 4.79 Standard deviation 2.98 2.56 Range (possible 21 marks) 1-10 2-9 Number of subjects 13 14 Table 3 Statistical results for the short answer test, immediately after tutorial and 10 weeks later

In order to determine the significance tion (p=.35) or 10 weeks later (p=.33). CONCEPT MAPS of the number of mappings a oneway Table 3 shows summary statistics for Students were asked to draw concept both short answer tests. As the short maps in order to assess the degree to analysis of variance was undertaken for the two groups. The results of this answer test has a possible total of which they developed a better concep- test are provided in Table 5. This result mark of 21 (with question 6 omitted), tual understanding of database mod- shows that the number of matching it is apparent that the overall per- els. The general statistical results for links for the two groups is significantly formance of the students in the short the number of links parallel to the ex- answer test was low, with fewer than pert's map is provided in Table 4. greater (p < .10) for the non-sequential 50% correct on average on both tutorial. occasions.

~~Sequential Presentation Non-sequential Presentation~~

~~Mapping of concept maps to Number of links Number of links expert map for (of a possible 12)~~

~~Mean 6.00 7.47 St andard deviation 2.45 2.03 Range of mappings 0-9 5-11 Number of subjects 15 17~~

~~Table 4 Statistical results for number of mappings of subject's concept map to expert map~~

~~Source D.F. Sum of Mean F Squares Squares Ratio Prob~~

~~.07 Between groups 1 17.25 17.23 3.44 Within Groups 30 150.23 5.00 Total 31 167.47~~

~~Table 5 Oneway analysis of number of mappings of subjects' oncept~~

250 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 235 rial organised in a logical sequence and EVALUATION AND PREFERENCE SURVEY not phrased in a way that suggested were not encouraged by need to use The evaluation and preference survey that multiple responses should be pro- It is when revealed some interesting information vided. The low results could also be branching opportunities. their purpose for reading changed that about the students feelings towards the attributed to the fact that the content tutorials, but there were no correla- material is relatively complex and the their strategy changed. tions that indicated any relationships overall time on task was insufficient to Of particular interest is the finding that between their performance and prefer- appreciate all the complexities of the the number of deviations from the in- ences. subject. Of additional sigrtificancecould be the fact that the reliability of the herent linear presentation in the non- Generally speaking the students indi- short answer test was found to berather sequential tutorial is not very high, with cated that they enjoyed working low. students only deviating on average a through the tutorial, learnt something total 4.4 times. In the conditions of thiS from the tutorial and found it worth the The second hypothesis, that students study, the majority of students who time spent. Both groups reported that who have the opportunity to utilise were given the opportunity, did not they did not get lost while navigating non-sequential branching within a use the branching facility. the tutorial, but this could be due to the computer based tutorial style lesson do them fact that the non-sequential group did use the opportunity, resulting in LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY not deviate very much from the inher- gaining a better conceptual under-The limited sample size in this study ent structures. When asked to indicate standing of the information presented makes it difficult to make generalisa- alternative methods for learning about is partly supported. Students using the tions about the results, although the database models, the majority indicated non-sequential tutorial developed con- findings do raise some interesting isthat if given an alternative to the tuto- cept maps that reflected a higher con- sues. Further studies of this nature, rial they would prefer hands-on prac- ceptual understanding than those us- which use more substantial sample tical work using each of the database ing the sequential tutorial, which sup- sizes, are required to provide more models (18). Overall, the students rated ports the latter part of the second hy- conclusive results that indicate the the tutorials as requiring a mediumpothesis. An average of 4.4 devia- presence or absence benefits of non- amount of cognitive effort. tions from the linear indicates that there sequential branching opportunities for was not a large acceptance of the op- readers. DISCUSSION portunity to branch. The first hypothesis, that students who The low reliability of the short answer experience the non-sequential branch- Although neither group of subjects test, particularly that completed im- ing achieve better results in a test of achieved high results in the short an- mediately after the tutorial, limits the academic achievement than students swer test,the non-sequential group possibilities of demonstrating a signifi- who experience a sequential presenta- did achieve a higher level of conceptual cant difference in the means of the tion of the same material, is not sup- understanding, as is indicated by a sequential and non-sequential groups. ported by these results. On neither higher level of convergence of the Further studies need to improve the occasions was there a significant differ- number of links matching the expert quality of the measures of academic ence in the means between the sequen- concept map. This could be attributed achievement to enable a more conclu- tial and non-sequential groups. to the fact that the non-sequential group sive outcome considering any effect of spent more time on task overall (an the different methods of presentation Students did not perform well on the average of 17.5 minutes more than the to be determined. short answer tests, as is evidenced by sequential group) and in some cases an average of less than less than 10.5for engaged in more focused learning. The reentry of the tutorial by some the immediate test and 5.3 for the de- Observations of the program trace show students is an aspect that warrants fur- layed test of a total possible 21 marks. that students who unexpectedly re-en- therattention. Analysis of the program Several factors could have contributed tered the tutorial when asked to com- traces indicate that students engaged to this outcome. The discrepancy be- plete the short answer test, used the in more focused learning when their tween the mean score levels and the tutorial differently when they had a purpose was to complete a short an- maximum possible score of 21 could in task to complete. These students went swer test. Although this is an unex- part be attributed to the fact that theto the desired information more di- pected outcome of the study, it is an tests were marked so as to allow stu- rectly. The purpose of reading appeared aspect that suggests promising poten- dents who gave more than one possible to influence the manner in which thetial for providing students with a spe- answer to a question to be rewarded tutorial was used, resulting in a more cific task to focus their learning, and with additional marks. The majority of focused approach to finding informa- hence increase their use of branching students however did not provide a tion and more time spent on task. The opportunities. Giving students a task number of alternative answers, rather design of the non-sequential tutorial to complete, rather than reading mate- being satisfied when they had found may have been such that on the first rial without a specific purpose, may oneacceptable answer. Questions were time through students found the mate-

251 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 result in them making more effective computer are actively engaged in re- When trying to think of ways to en- use of hypertext potentials. lated non-computer work such as strat- courage students to accept and use the egy planning, research, report writing opportunities to branch, the related area The way that students reentering theor other cross curriculum activities. of student control may suggest relevant tutorial focussed their attention on theSuch off-computer activities are often considerations. Research into factors most relevant sections of the tutorial to seen by teachers as being essential to which affect a student's acceptance of complete the short answer test, sug-the effective use of computers in their control of his/her own learning has gests that familiarity with the tutorialclassroom. been undertaken in different contexts may have assisted students to more using a variety of teaching/learning successfully navigate the informationThe above described approach is fre- methods. Consideration of these fac- space. Establishing a knowledge basequently used and has been successfully tors, together with the findings of this in a domain of study, together with a applied for a number of years. This study, may indicate some directions of familiarity of the medium of presenta-approach has potential benefits for the further research that are of particular tion, may result in more effective learn-classroom use of hypertext, if appro- relevance to the use of hypertext. ing in an hypertext environment. priate and effective complementary off - computer activities can be developed ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Subsequent studies should explore the to support learners. For example, off - The advice and assistance of Dr R. L effect of providing students with a task computer activities could involve pre- Debus from the University of Sydney, to complete when reading in an paring students in a topic of reading in Prof M. Dunkin and R. C. Baker from hypertext environment.Exploration order to facilitate their effective the University of New South Wales, of the potential of particular tasks to sequencing choices when using the and E Chopping from Charles Sturt provide a focus for learning may result hypertext. As identified by Gay (1986), University Bathurst are appreciated by in some interesting and beneficial out- Brown and Deloache (1978) and the author. comes. Steinberg (1977), students with a prior conceptual understanding are better REFERENCES able to make better sequencing deci- Brown, A. L. and DeLoache, J. S. (1978) SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER sions.Other off-computer activities Skills, plans and self regulation. In RESEARCH Siegler, R. S. (ed) Children's In an attempt to identify strategies forcould involve pairs or small groups of students in evaluation of the strategies Thinking:WhatDevelops? encouraging hypertext readers to ac- Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence cept the opportunites to branch, thethey used for locating information in the hypertext and then planning their Erlbaum Associa tes, Publishers, p3- following ideas are presented as areas 35 for possible future research. path(s) for their next on-computer opportunity. Print outs of the paths taken Burwell, L. B. (1991) The interaction of and maps of possible paths would as- learning styles with learner control OFF-COMPUTER ACTIVITIES TO sist this process. treatments inartinteractive COMPLEMENT THE USE OF HYPERTEXT videodisk lesson. Educational From the study it is apparent that learn- The findings from the study also sug- Technology. 31, (3) 37-43 ers do not accept the branching oppor- Gay, G. (1986) Interaction of learner tunities that are available to them in a gest the potential for another type of classroom support to help hypertext control. Journal of Educational lesson that allows them to nominate Psychology, 78, 225-227 the seqeuncing of presentation of ma- readers. The fact that students in the study seemed to engage in more focused Gordon, S., Gustavel, J., Moore, J. and terial. It is apparent that students should Hankey, J., (1988) The effects of be provided with some assistance in use of the tutorial when they re-entered to complete the short answer test, sug- hypertext on reader knowledge their use of hypertextual environments, representation. Proceedings of the and perhaps some lessons can be gests that worksheets may help to guide hypertext readers.Teacher planned Human Factors Society 32nd An- learned from existing practices in cla ss- nual Meeting. 296-300 rooms that utilise computers. activity worksheets may help students to make appropriate sequencing deci- Gray, S. H. (1987) The effect of sequence control on computer assisted The use of computers in Australian sions in order to attain desired reading goals. learning. Journal of Computer schools is often complemented by in- Based Instruction. 14, (2) 54-56 volving students in off-computer ac- Productive research could be under- Hammond, N. and Allinson, L. (1988) tivities that are related to the computer Travels around a learning support based activities occurring in the class- taken to determine whether off-computer activities and well-designed environment: rambling, orienteer- room. Because of limited computer ing or touring. In: Proceedings of facilities many teachers organise classes worksheets will enhance the effective use of hypertext systems. ACM CHI '88. 269-273 into small groups of three to five stu- Kinzie, M. B. (1990) Requirements and dents, with only one or two groups benefits of effective interaction in- working at the computer concurrently. ISSUES RELATED TO LEARNER- CONTROL RESEARCH struction: learner control, self regu- Those students not working at the lation, and continuing motivatio6. 252 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 257 Educational Technology Research McKnight, C.,Dillon,A. and based instruction. Educational and Development. 38, (1) 5-21 Richardson, J. (1991) Hypertext in Technology Research and Devel- Kinzie, M. B. and Berdel, R. L. (1990) Context. Cambridge: Cambridge opment. 39, (2) 70-79 Design and use of hypermedia University Press. Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J, Jacobson, M. systems. Educational Technology Monk, A. F., (1989) The personal J. and Coulson, R. L. (1991) Cogni- Research and Development. 38, (3) browser: a tool for directed navi- tive flexibility, constructivism, and 61-68 gation in hypertext systems. Inter- hypertext: random access instruc- Lauri Hard, D. (1984) Interactive video acting With Computers: The Inter- tion for advanced knowledge ac- and learner control. Educational disciplinary Journal of Human- quisition in ill-structured domains. Technology. 24, (6) 7-15 Computer Interaction. 1, (2)190-196 Educational Technology. 31, (5) 24- Laurillard, D. (1987) Computers and Monk, A. F., Walsh, P. and Dix, A. J. 33 the emancipation of students: Giv- (1988). A comparison of hypertext, Stienberg, E. R. (1977) Review of stu- ing control to the learner. Instruc- scrolling and folding as mechanisms dent control in computer-asisted tional Science. 16, 3-18 for program browsing. People and instruction. Journal of Computer- Marchionini, G. & Schniederman, B. Computers IV. Proceedings of the Based Instruction. 3, (3) 84-90 (1988) Finding facts vs browsing Fourth Conference of the British Zellermayer, M., Salomom, G., knowledge in hypertext systems. Computer Society, Human-Com- Globerson, T. and Givon, H. (1991) IEEE Computer. 3, (5) 70-80 puter Interaction Specialist Group. Enhancing writing - related Marchionini, G. and Schniederman, B. 421-435 metacognitions through a compu- (1988) Finding facts vs. browsing Rysavy, S. D. M. and Sales, G. C. (1991) terised writing partner. American knowledge in hypertext systems. Coperative learning in computer- Educational Research Journal. 28, IEEE Computer. 3, (5) 70-80 (2) 373-391

253 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 IMPLICATIONSOF THE STUDIES OF EXPERTS AND NOVICES FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING BY DENISE TOLHURST University of New South Wales Australia

The study of computer programming, telligences of students; the differing as opposed to the curriculum uses of amount of access by students to com- computing, is one which has been in- puters at home; the threat that pro- troduced in many cases without a full gramming can provide to an individu- awareness of the inherent complexity al's self esteem and image; the lack of of the activity. Many students have teacher training in the teaching of com- experienced feelings of frustration and puter programming; and, the circum- inadequacy because of their inability to stances under which some teachers are succeed. The complexity of program- required to teach programming (some- ming is acknowledged by Ilc,galski and times being directed to teach the subject Samurcay 1989, p170: by a supervisor) (Perkins et al. 1986, pp In recent years computer Acquiring and developing 37-38). Perkins et al. (1987, p155) also programming has been knowledge about (computer) claim that programming is precision introduced to many of our programming is a highly intensive. 'It calls for an extraordinary complex process.It involves a high degree of precision in order to schools as an activity that variety of cognitive activities, obtain a relatively modest degree of has accompanied the and mental representations success. Contrast a spelling test in which introduction of the study related to program design, 90% of the words are spelled correctly program understanding, to a computer program in which 90% of of computers and com- modifying, debugging and the statements are coded correctly.' puting. Pressure from the documenting.Even at the community, students and computer literacy level, it The undeveloped state of pedagogies requiresconstructionof (Husic et. al 1989, 13570; Perkins et al. teachers has reflected the conceptual knowledge, and the 1986, p37) and the degree of experi- view that computers are structuring of basic operations mentation in teaching methods also now a pervasive part of (such as loops, conditional contribute to students' difficulties in statements etc)into schemas developing programming skills. An our societal infrastructure and plans. investigation of the studies on the de- and therefore are an es- velopment of expertise generally, and sential subject of study in Apart from its inherent complexity, of expert and novice programmers many factors have contributed to the serves to highlight practices that can our schools. problems associated with the teaching help students to develop their pro- and lea ming o f computer programming gramming skills, and hence contrib- in schools. These include: the limited utes to the development of successful resources and access to these resources pedagogies for teaching computer by students; differing abilities and in- programming.

255 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1923 $3n EXPERTS HAVE SUPERIOR SHORT-TERM This essay explores the studies on ex- EXPERTS EXCEL MAINLY IN THEIR OWN pertise, particularly studies on expert DOMAINS AND LONG-TERM MEMORY Experts are able to recall recently pre- and novice computer programmers. There is little evidence to suggest that a sented material at a level that seems to The reason for the focus on expertise is person who is highly skilled in one that computer programming is con- domain can transfer the skill to another. exceed the limits of short-term memory. sidered a study in its own right. An example of this is a study of non- Mists not because they have ca pacifies that are beyond the scope of other hu- Teachers of programming are trying to domain experts (chemists) who solved assist students to develop program- political science problems like novices, mans, but because the organisation of portions into one item for memorisation ming expertise - assisting them to make describing the causes for the problem allows resources for greater storage. the transition from novice to 'expert' at a very concrete and specific level,. programmers (as much as time will Domain experts attributed the causes Experts also seem to excel in in long- term recall. For example, in chess, it is allow). This essay does not address the for the problems at the more abstract not uncommon for chess masters to issue of whether computer program- causal categories (Voss and Post 1988, ming should be taught to help the de- in Chi, Glaser and Farr 1988). An ob- recognise plays from certain well- known games (Chi, Glaser and Farr velopment of general problem solving vious reason for such excellence of ex- skills. Generalisability of problem perts in their domain is that they have 1988, pxvii). solving skills is a topic worthy of dis- a good deal of domain specific knowl- cussion in its own right and beyond the edge. EXPERTSSEE AND REPRESENT A DEEPER scope of this essay. PROBLEM IN THEIR DOMAIN AT A EXPERTS PERCEIVELARGE MEANINGFUL When developing a representation for a problem experts see and use deep As an extension to the discussion of PATTERNS IN THEIR DOMAIN expertise, this essay considers papers Many studies have highlighted the fact structures, whereas novices use surface that suggest instructional strategies for that experts in a domain are able to features of the problem statement. For example, in categorisation of physics teaching computer programming.It recall information as 'clusters' or discusses their implications for NSW 'chunks' of information. For example, problems, experts may categorise secondary schools in the light of the chess players recall configurations of problems as 'an application of the Conservation Law of Energy', while findings on expertise in programming. pieces on a board as representing particular strategic formations (Perkins and novices may categorise problems as A starting point is to establish the Salomon 1989, p18), and computer pro- those 'containing blocks on an inclined general characteristics that all experts grammers recall programming state- plane' (Chi et. al 1982, p42). Similarly, are considered to possess, before es- ments in clusters that represent pro- in computer programming, novices tablishing exactly what computer programming structures (McKiethen, may categorise problems according to the syntax of a specific programming gramming is and characteristics specific Reitman, Reuter and Hirtle (1981, cited language, while experts will think of to experts in this domain. in Anderson 1985, p256). These special configurations or 'chunks' that experts the problem interms of the programming constructs required to CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERTISE think with are often referred to as 'sche- Studies of expertise began in the 1970s mata' (Perkins and Salomon 1989, p18) reach a solution eg looping or conditional branching (Anderson 1985, in many domains. Collectively these p256).Strategies used to solve the studies have contributed to the devel- EXPERTS ARE FASTER THAN NOVICES problems reflect these categorisations opment of a robust and generalisable AT PERFORMING SKILLS IN THEIR OWN of problems. body of knowledge of the characteris- DOMAIN tics of expert knowled ge a nd behaviour Although studies have found that ex- (Glaser 1988, cited in Chi, Glaser and perts are slower than novices in the OF Farr 1988, pxvii). Studies of expertise EXPERTS SPEND A GREAT DEAL initial stages of problem solving, experts TIME ANALYSISING A PROBLEM have included those in the domains of solve problems faster overall. There physics problem solving, mathematical OUAUTATIVELY are two factors to which this canbe Protocols show that, at the beginning problem solving, computer program- attributed: one is that in simple tasks of a problem solving episode, experts ming, chess playing, medicine (Perkins such as typing, experts have acquired and Salomon 1989, p18), reading ar- typically try to 'understand' a problem, automated skills from their many hours whereas a novice will plunge immedi- chitectural plans, reading circuit dia- of practice; the other is that experts can grams, interpreting x-ray plates and ately into an attempt to solve for an often see a pattern, or combination of unknown. To build a qualitativeanaly- the ga me of GO, taxi drivers' knowledge patterns that lead to a solution which of mutes (Chi, Glaser and Farr 1988, sis of a problem an expert will develop trigger a predefined sequence of solu- a mental representation of the problem pxvii). These studies have highlighted tion actions (Chi, Glaser and Farr 1988, characteristics of experts in their re- from which they infer relations thatcan pxvii). spective domains which are briefly define the solution. Experts develop such solutions by 'working forward'. summarised below.

256 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1903 EXPERTS HAVE SELF4IONITORING SKILLS least 100 hours to reach even modest As mentioned in the introduction, pro- Experts seem to be more aware than computer programming proficiency in gramming is viewed as a complex skill. novices of when they are making er-their first programming language Merrienboer et aL (1992, p23) suggest rors, why they fail to comprehend, and (Anderson 1985, p255). Simon, (cited that programming is a multidimen- when they need to check their solu-in Mayer 1981, p138) estimates that a sional, complex cognitive skill that in- tions. For example, the expert problem person requires 50,00 'chunks' of do- volve several component skills.For solver in Simon and Simon's studymain specific information to become this reason, while the above definition (1978, cited inChi, Glaser and Fair 1988) an expert, which of course would be does define programming, it is also would often check his answer, and theacquired over a lengthy period of time. appropriate to consider programming expert physics-problem solver in from the perspective of the cognitive Larkin's study (1983, ibid) would often PROGRAMMINGDEFINED activities it involves. abandon solution attempts before ',t-Programming is defined in the Oxford rying out the mathematical details. Reference Dictionary of Computing Rogalski and Samurcay (1990, p160) (1991, p363) as: present a schema for analysing the cog- EXPERTS DEVELOP THEIR SKILLS OVER In the broadest sense, all techni- nitive activities involved in program- A LENGTHY PERIOD OF TIME cal activities involved in the produc- ming tasks from 'a real-world problem Evidence suggests that expertise devel- tion of a program, including analysis of to a runnable program text'.This ops over a long period of time.It isthe requirements and all stages of de- schema is shown yow, in Figure 1. estimated that chess grand masters take sign and implementation. In a much at least ten years to reach such a ranknarrower sense it is the coding and (Chi et al. 1982 p12), and that it takes at testing of a program from some given design.

~~Figure 1. The task of programming, from Rogalski and Samurcay (1990, p160)~~

In this schema, the crucial dimensions solving takes place on a real world they have established into a program. I in the activity of programming are object, processing precedes represen- would suggest this is the way that nov- processing and representation. There tation. ices are most likely to work, and how are two ways that individuals can move they are likely to be taught when in- from a real world problem to program An example which can be usedto illus- troduced to programming. text that is implementable on a given trate these ideas is that of sorting a set device. A real world problem can be of names into alphabetical order (a In the 'programming language' ap- solved in the domain and then trans- relatively simple problem solving task). proach the problem would be translated into program text. Or, alterna- In the 'real world' situation above, the lated into a representation of data tively, it can be approached in the pro- problem solver may take a set of cards structures, for example an array, and gramming language and then applied with names on them, physically sort then the procedures necessary to sort to thereat world object. When problem them, and then translate the procedure the data would be established. I sug-

257 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 gest that in this situation expert behav- (1973, cited in Perkins and Salomon that is breaking a difficult problem into iour would involve the activation of 1989, p18) who conducted an experi- a series of smaller manageable prob- pre-defined part-solutions that, when ment to determine the recall skills of lems, which are in turn broken into combined, produce a solution to the chess masters (now recognised as a smaller even more manageable prob- whole problem. landmark study in the domain of ex- lems. The difference between novices pertise). The studies of programmers and experts however is that experts CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERTISE IN found that experts remember groups tended to work breadth first, identify- COMPUTER PROGRAMMING of instructions that represent structural ing all the sub-problems at each level Although the characteristics of exper- components in programming, iteration before moving down to the subsequent tise described above in the general sec- for example. Even if they were not level of sub-problems. Novices worked tion Characteristics of Expertise are in- presented in any specific order, experts depth-first, breaking each sub-problem dicative of the nature of expertise gen- would group the instructions into down to its smallest component before erally, there are some specific charac- structural components in order to re- addressing the other sub-problems at teristics that expert computer pro- member them. Novices tended to re- the highest level. The top-down re- grammers possess that should be spe- member instructions as individual finement of problems is a task that cifically identified. components, or lines of code, and recall novices find difficult. They are aware them much in the same order as they that the approach of breaking down As described in the general section on were presented in the memory test. problems is appropriate, but do not expertise, differences have been found The recall by novices and experts were know how or where to divide the in the way in which experts and nov- similar in number, but the experts re- problem into sub-problems. This could ices recognise and categorise problems. called a chunk of information to each be attributed to their undeveloped Novices categorise problems accord- statement the novice remembered. Ex- knowledge base and undeveloped ing to 'surface structures' of the prob- perts remembered information in schemata. lem, whereas experts categorise prob- structural 'chunks', and with increasing lems according to 'deep structur' (Chi skill more higher-order chunks are de- The particular characteristics of expert et al. 1982, p42). Anderson (1985, p256) veloped. programmers identified, that is: the reports the development in experts of development of language independ- programming language independ- The chunks that are remembered by ence; the recall of programs as seman- ence.Novices tend to think of the experts carry with them additional in- tic structures rather than programming solution to a programming problem in formation that aid the solution of sub- statements; the development of se- terms of the syntax of the language sequent problems. Chi et al. (1982, p62) mantically organised schemata or that they are using - which commands in a study of the chunks, or schemata 'chunks' of information; and the use of would be used to solve the problem. used by experts, found that: 1) informa- those schemata in the design of solu- This leads to novices categorising tion remembered in a schemata acti- tions to problems by top-down, problems according the surface fea- vate higher level schemata; 2) expert's breadth-first refinement; have rel- tures of the programming language in schemata contain additional procedural evance to the later discussion of teach- which the problem will be imple- information, and; 3) expert's schemata ing approaches that might encourage mented. Experts however, go beyond contain much more explicit conditions the development of expertise. the implementation language and of applicability to particular principles think of a problem in terms of the underlying a problem. As a result of COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS OF NOVICE programming construct(s) required to the organisation of their knowledge PROGRAMMERS reach a solution, that is iteration bases and their previous experience in Having considered the characteristics (looping),selection(conditional problem solving, experts do not require of expertise and established the goals branching) or sequence. complex planning for simple problems. that novice programmers and their They have existing routines or 'pro- teachers strive to achieve, it is also im- It is generally excepted that experts duction systems' that they can apply to portant to consider the realities of the possess a large knowled ge base in their a problem. Solving a problem becomes difficulties encountered by novice domain, and that the organisation of a case of categorising a problem into programmers. An understanding of the information is different to that of one or more problem types and ap- the specific difficulties students en- novices. In an attempt to determine plying existing routines (Chi et al. 1982, counter should provide an insight for how expert programmers organise p19). teachers which may assist them to guide their knowledge base, McKeithen, students. Reitman, Reuter and Hirtle (cited in Exploration of the problem solving Chi et al. 1982, pill) and Shneiderman strategies of expert and novice compu- Two groupings of errors have been (1976 , cited in Anderson 1985, p258) ter programmers found a difference in identified by those investigating the investigated the memory skills of the planning methods used. Both ex- problems of novice programmers. They computer programmers. This study perts and novices attempted to solve a are the identification of language in- paralleled the work of Simon and Chase problem using the top-down approach, dependent conceptual problems (or

258 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 262 'bugs' in the jargon of the domain) and of bugs are elaborated below with spe- Rogalski and Samurcay (1990, pp162- the language specific problems. Each cific examples. 165) and Mayer (1989, p132-147) also of these groupings is discussed indi- raise an overall conceptual problem vidually in the sections that follow. The parallelism bug in essence is the that may be encountered by novice assumption that different lines of code programmers, that of the conceptual representation of the computer device LANGUAGE INDEPENDENT CONCEPTUAL in a program can be active or known by they are programming. They suggest BUGS the program at the same time, or in DuBoulay (1986, pp57-58) suggests that parallel. An example of this is the IF that expert programmers refer to their the difficulties in learning to programstatement. Students often believe that knowledge of the system underlying can be separated into five areas with a an IF statement will be implemented at the programming languages and the certain degree of overlap. The five any stage in a program when the condi- programming tools available. Novices areas begin with difficulty in orientation, tionbecomes true, which isnot the case who do not possess a good conceptual the problem of finding out what pro- in the implementation of a program model of the computer they are programming is for, what kinds of prob-but true in natural language. A parent gramming make incorrect assumptions lems can be tackled and what the ad- suggesting "If you want to go to the about the operations and mechanisms vantages of programming might be. store, I will drive you" is assumed to be of thecomputertheyareprogramming, Secondly, there are difficulties associ-an offer that lasts for more than the reflected in the programming strategies ated with understanding the generalinstant that it was made. The natural they adopt. properties of the machine they are language meaning of an IF can be car- learning to control, the notional ma-ried by the novice into theprogramming STUDENTS' ERRORS IN SPECIFIC chine. The third problem is associated environment. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES with the notation of the language, mas- There are specific problems that stu- tering both the syntax and the underly- Intentionality bugs are those in which dents encounter with all programming ing semantics. Forth, and associated thestudent attributes goal directedness languages, and there has been a rela- with the problems with notation is theor foresightedness to a program, as- tively large amount of literature pro- difficulties acquiring an understand- suming that it goes beyond the specific duced about these specifics (DuBoulay ing of the structures that can be used to instructions in the given code. For ex- 1986, Sleeman et a1.1988, Putnam et al. achieve a goal. Finally there is the issue ample, in the code below: 1989, and other references not listed for of mastering the pragmatics of pro- this essay). Presenting information of gramming, that is learning the skills of area = length breadth all material of specific errors in pro- how to specify, develop, test and de- read length gramming is beyond the scope of this bug a program using whatever tools read breadth essay, but a representative sample will are available. print area be discussed specifically for errors encountered in using editors, operating The conceptual problems of novice the student assumes that the computer systems and languages necessary for programmers are categorised differ- 'knows' the intention of the program- programming; some common errors in ently by Pea (1986, pp27-32), who argues mer and will know the sequence, as a using the BASIC language and; some that there are three types of persistentperson undertaking the same problem common errors using the Pascal lan- conceptual bugs that novices must would. The knowledge that programs guage. overcome. He refers to them as paral-are implemented in the exact sequence lelism,intentionality and egocentrism they are written is not always accepted. DuBoulay (1986, p60-63) identifies bugs. Pea suggests that there is an problems encountered by novices re- underlying analogy that is at the rootEgocentrism bugs are the flip side of quired to cope with operating system cause of these bugs, the analogy ofintentionality bugs.Egocentrism is commands, program editors and the 'conversing with humans'. Pea claims where students assume that there is commands found in the programming that many misconceptions in pro- more of their meaning for what they language itself. Students loose track of gramming are caused by students' wish to accomplish in a program than exactly 'who' is being addressed and understandings of particular words or what they actually present in the code. what are the appropriate commands to terms in common usage that have as- Students assume that the computer can use. This problem is compounded by sumed somewhat different meanings follow the advice of the former Mayor the situation in which a novice is in- in programming languages. Becauseof Chicago Richard Daley used to give troduced to all of these levels at the one the role of the 'listener' is changed in reporters: 'Don't print what I say, print time. A study of the problems en- programming, the usual option of what I mean.' (Pea 1986, p30). An ex- countered by novice high school Pascal clarification for understanding is notample of this is where students omit programmers was undertaken by available. The program interprets the lines of code or variables, and assume Sleeman et al. (1988). A sample of the language according to a specificthe computer 'knows' or will 'fill-in' most commonly made errors is pro- mechanistic meaning. The three. types the gaps as a human listener would. vided here.

259 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 P 1. The alphabetic ordering of the vari- understandings of the mechanisms be- number of commands for the purposes In ables determined the order in which hind particular commands. Teachers of solving a particular problem. data was read. who read these types of studies may be languages like BASIC the problems are 2. The statement WRITELN('Enter a considerably enlightened, and be pro- typically mathematic type applications number') caused a value to be read vided with an insight that may help that require a temperature conversion 3. WRITELN statements adjacent to a them to overcome some of the problems or finding an average of a unknown loop were considered to be part ofthat students encounter in learning number of values. the loop, programming. The syntactic approach could be de- 4.Assignment statements like a: =b were interpreted as swapping the The conceptual and specific misunder- scribed as operating at the level of nov- values of the variables standings of students, together with ice programmers who have not yet developed the expert characteristics of 5.Students believed that using a information regarding the characteris- READLN statement with a mean- tics of expert programmers can be in- having established a semantic under- ingful variable name caused thecorporated into teaching cpproaches standing or schemata for particular program to select a value based on and strategies in the classroom. procedures. Recognition is limited to the idiosyncrasies of a particular lan- the name's meaning. INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES IN guage. A similar study of the problems of TEACHING PROGRAMMING novice high school BASIC program-A number of approaches to teaching While it is true that the syntax of a mers by Putnam (1989) with anothercomputer programming have been language must be mastered in order to collection of interesting findings. A used by teachers during the relatively achieve success in programming, an sample of the problems encountered is short time that the subject has been approach that focuses on the syntax of languages does not foster the skills that as follows: taught, some heeding the lessons are characteristic of an expert. This 1.Students misinterpreted the use learned from studies of experts and quotation marks in a PRINT state- novices, others not. The most common approach does not assist the development such as PRINT "Q="; Q approach in the early years of teaching ment of the recognition of deep struc- One student did not know what the programming was the 'syntactic ap- tures of a problem, or the development quotes meant so just ignored them proach' which focused on the com- of schemata of programming struc- and said the value of the variable mands of a particular programming tures. would be printed eg. 4 language. When it was obvious that Another student thought the value the genera lisability of such an approach DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH of Q would be printed in each case was poor, a more semantic based ap- The developmental approach as suggested by Marchionini (1985) does en- eg. 4:4 proach was adopted, often referred to A third student thought that theas the 'developmental approach' courage the development of more ex- first value assigned to Q would be (Marchionini 1985). This is the approach pert-like skills than the syntactic ap- printed first, and the current value that is advocated by the NSW Com- proach.Marchionini builds his ap- second eg. 0:4 puting Studies Syllabus Years 11-12 for proach on the cognitive psychology 2. Students believed that the REAL' the programming core and option and computer science work of statements would select the values (evidenced by the list of suggested stu- Shneiderman(1980,citedin from the DATA statements ac-dent experiences). An alternative ap- Marchionini 1985, p12). This approach cording to the meaning of the proach that is now becoming common focuses on the development of '...general concepts important for program- names.eg READ SMALLEST in the literature is a 'schema based ap- would select the smallest value in proach' in which the schemata on which ming but which are independent of the data statements. expertise are based are explicitly taught. any specific language.' (Marchionini 1989, p12). A developmental approach 3.Students believed that the READ Each of these are detailed in the sections statements would cause more than that follow. to programming should: one value to be assigned to a value 1.Stress concepts rather than vo- eg READ EVEN would result in all SYNTACTIC APPROACH cabulary and syntax. the even numbers being assigned The syntactic approach focuses on the 2.Provide motivational, relevant ex- to the variable. function of individual commands of a amples and activities. language and the specific syntactic 3.Proceed from the concrete to pictorial to abstract, according to the age From the examples given in these sam- construction of each command. Indi- and previous experience of the ples of the findings of language specific vidual commands of a specific language errors, it is obvious that students makeare individually taught with explana- learners. quite logical assumptions. These as- tions of their syntactic structure, their 4. Use a sequence of increasingly sumptions however can be quite be- function and how they are commonly complex activities which build yond the imaginings of teachers who used. As students' knowledge devel- upon and extend previously haveestablished theirown ops they arc encouraged to combine a learned examples.

260 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 2E4 Marchionini also suggests the develop- a complete program. As children spendsolution to a programming problem. mental sequence of programming ac- lots of time reading stories before writ- Marchionini's activities are structured tivities to assist beginning program- ing stories of their own, novices pro-according to this philosophy. The ten mers to develop expertise (shown in grammers should also spend timetypes of programming activities are as Table 1. below). This sequenceincludes reading and changing programs beforefollows: ten types of activities, the most com- being required to design and write a plex of them being to design and write

~~Activity Type Example~~

~~1. Use enter, run, alter inputs~~

~~2. Study read, describe the purpose, trace execution, predict output~~

~~3. Complete supply missing statements~~

~~4. Modify add formats for output, comments, alter to produce related outputs~~

~~5. Extend add features - related output, files, generalise~~

~~6. Test try all cases, assume naive user role~~

~~7. Debug correct logic errors on-line and off -line~~

~~8. Design state problem; describe output, input and procedures; draw flow diagrams, draw screen display~~

~~9. Code from design code a given algorithm~~

~~10. Develop design and write a complete program~~

~~Table 1. - Devolpmental Sequence of Programming Activities from M archioni ( 1985, p. 14)~~

The developmental approach does not Marchionini's developmental approachfeet of the developmental approach teach the syntax of a language specifi- requires more work on the part of a (referred to as a 'completion' approach) cally.In their activities of reading, classroom teacher that the syntactic ap- for the training of the comple) -ogni- using, changing and testing programs proach, but is more likely to result infive skill of computer progra.. .ning. students will encounter the syntax of a skills that students can use with multi-They tested the effect of the completion language in their endeavours to under- ple programming languages. Students'approach over a syntactic approach stand existing programs. Commands knowledge is more likely to be at a level(referred to as a 'conventional' ap- are presented within the context of in which constructs of programmingproach) on low-level transfer and high- whole programming structures, rather are recognised and used as 'chunks', a level transfer in a classroom situation than isolated syntactical items. Teach- characteristic considered to be one ofand a Computer Based Training (CBT) ers need to draw students attention to an expert programmers' repertoire. environment. The completion strategy the groups of commands that make up yielded transfer performance higher a programming construct and particu- A study undertaken by Merrienboer etthan or equal to the conventional train- lar syntactic usages in order that stu- al. (1992) provides evidence to supporting strategies in both the classroom and dents are explicitly made aware of the the use of the developmental approachCBT environments. For high-transfer schemata they will use when undertak- overthesyntacticapproach.tests the completion strategy was sig- ing more complex programming ac- Merrienboer et al. investigated the ef-nificantly superior to the conventional tivities such as levels 8, 9 and 10 in the approach for both environments. The table above. diagram below (Figure 2) illustrates the results of this study.

261 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1943 9gq In the schema based approach, a pro- 1990, p211) found that experts recall gramming problem may be represented programs according to meaningful hierarchically as goals and subgoals structures, and Adelson (1981, cited in Computer programming with potential programming schemas Detienne 1990, p211) showed that the categorisation of programs or parts of C41111000rfl associated with each goal or subgoal. An example of a problem broken into programs is different according to ex- goals and subgoals is provided by pertise. Novices' categories depend on Detienne (1990, p210) and shown in the surface features of a problem, while Figure 2. below. It illustrates the notion expert categorisation clusters around of goals and subgoals for a program structural elements. The assumption that computes the average of a set of on which this model is based, that ex- numbers. Coals are decomposed into perts possess schemata for categoris- sub-goals. At each terminal sub-goal in ing and solving problems, is supported the tree there is an associated schema by empirical research in this domain, for the coding of that sub-goal into and also in research undertaken in other code, in this case Pascal. domains (see the third, fifth and sixth NO Won, we general characteristic of expertise at Empirical support for the schema based the beginning of this essay). There is no approach can be found in studies of the CBT apparent research specifically into the knowledge organisation of experts. effect of using this approach. Shneiderman (1976, cited in Detienne

~~>Vs (a)~~

~~Goal REPORT-AVERAGE~~

( 0 SubGoal SubGoal SubGoal ENTER-DATA COMPUTE-AVERAGE OUTPUT-AVERAGE Lew Onl,n, Hvhrants, we 46/"--...... '..i.s...... " SubGoal SubGoal SubGoal COMPUTE SUM COMPUTE COUNT COMPUTE DNISION i i i Print Plan Running_ Total Loop Running_Total Counter Variable avid@ Figure 2.Scores on high- and low- Plan Vatiablo Plan Plan Plan transfer tests for the conventional and completion strategies in classroom and CBT environments. (b)

SCHEMA BASED APPROACH PROGRAM Avow,* (input output); VAR Sum, Count. Numbm: INTEGER The schema based approach draws Awn.:REAL: more directly from assumptions of ex- Running Total Variable Plan BEM Sum:.O; (initialization) perts' knowledge representations. In Counter Variable Plan (initialization) Count:.O; the schema based approach experts are REPEAT Running Total Loop Plan READLN(Numbar); assumed to use mainly knowledge IF Numbare,99999 THEN Running_Total Variable Plan BEGIN structures that represent semantic in- , Sum:.Sum+Numbor (updata) formation in the programming domain. Countae_Variabla Plan (update) Count.Count+t END; These structures group together infor- UNTIL Numbar.995199 Avaraga:.SurniCount: mation on those parts of programs that Divide Plan P WRITELN(Amemp) perform the same function.The Punt Plan grouped knowledge structures, representing the schemata of experts, are explicitly presented to students in or- Figure 3. Representations of a program computing an average. der that they learn to use them to solve a) Hierarchical representations of goals and schemas. programming problems. b) Representations of combinations of schemas implemented in program code.

262 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 211 Perkins et al. (1986, p40) in discussing shed light on the strategies used by Gilmore, D. J. (1990) Expert program- the schema based approach suggest experts and the way in which experts ming knowledge: a strategic ap- that : develop their skills.Studies of the proach. In Hoc, J. M., Green, T.R.G., problems encountered by novice pro- Samurcay, R. and Gilmore, D. J. ... skilled programming appear grammers have also shed light on the (eds) Psychology of Programming. to depend on a repertoireof well- specific misconceptions and problems London: Academic Press Ltd. 223- practiced schemas ...Such encountered by students of program- 234 schemata and accompanying ming. Together, these two areas of Husic, F. T., Linn, M. C. and Sloane, K. reasoning tactics might be taught study have provided teachers with D. (1989) Adapting instruction to to students directly, rather than valuable information to help them the cognitive demands of learning leaving students to figure them overcome some of the potential prob- to program. Journal of Educational out for themselves as more lems of novice programmers and pro- Psychology. 81(4) 570-583 typically happens. ...There is vided an insight into the world of the Marchionini, G. (1985) Teaching pro- every reason to think that these expert programmer. This insight has gramming: A developmental ap- schema-based approaches to contributed to a knowledge base of proach.TheComputingTeacher.13 instruction will result in more how people develop the skills required (8) 12-15 efficient learning. by programmers, and in the develop- Mayer, R. E. (1981) How novices learn ment of methodologies that allow computer programming. Computer Unfortunately, the schema based ap- teachers to assist students to develop Surveys. 13 (1) 121-141 proach is not used in classrooms very even a modest level of expertise. Mayer, R. E. (1989) The psychology of much, mainly because teachers have how novices learn computer pro- not been made aware of the approach REFERENCES gramming. In Studing the Novice and its potential. Some teachers who Anderson, J. R. (1985) Cognitive Psy- Programmer. Hillsdale, New Jer- have become aware of this method at chology and its Implications. Sec- sey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assiciates, inservice courses I have attended are ond Edition Publishers. 129-159 very keen to know more, but basically Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R. and Farr M. J. Ormerod, T. (1990) Human cognition want a 'recipe' of how to use this ap- (1988) The Nature of Expertise. and programming. In Hoc, J. M., proach. This is due in part I believe to Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Green, T.R.G., Samurcay, R. and the fact that teachers have had limited Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Gilmore, D. J. (eds) Psychology of success with the methods they are us- Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R. and Rees, E. Programming. London: Academic ing, but do not have the time required (1982) Expertise in problem solv- Press Ltd. 63-82 to undertake the necessary research and ing. In Sternberg, R. (ed) Advances Pea, R. (1986) Language-independent reading in order to explore the schema in the Psychology of Human Intel- conceptual "bugs" in novice pro- based approach fully and apply the ligence. Hillsdale. New Jersey : gramming. journal of Educational method to all classroom programming Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Computing Research. 2 (1) 25-36 activities. Publishers. Perkins, D. N., Hancock, C., Hobbs, R., Detienne, F. (1990) Expert program- Martin, F. and Simmons, R. 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(1990) Programming Studies of the characteristics of experts Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence language/problem solving rein a domain, and specifically the do- Erlbaum Assiciates, Publishers.431- search: a review of relevant issues. main of computer programming, have 446 Review o f Educational Research. 60 (1) 65-89

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 263 Putnam, R. T., Sleeman, D., Baxter, J. A. Salomom, G., and Perkins, D. N. (1987) Van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Jelsma, 0. and and Kuspa, L. K. (1989) A summary Transfer of cognitive skills from Paas, F.G.W. C. (1992) Training for of misconceptions if high-school programming: when and how? reflective expertise: a four-compo- BASIC programmers. In Soloway, Journal of Educational Computing nent instructional design model for E. and Spohrer, J. C. (eds) 5tuding &mush. 3 (2) 149-169 complex cognitive skills. Educa- the Novice Hillsdale, Sleeman, 0., Putnam, R. T., Baxter, J. tional Technology Research and New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum and Kuspa, L. (1988) An introduc- Development. 40 (2) 23-43 Assiciates, Publishers. 301-314 tory pascal class: a case study of Visser, W. and Hoc, j -M. (1990) Expert Rogalski, J. and Samurcay, R. (1990) students' errors. In Mayer, R. E. software design strategies. In Hoc, Acquisition of programming (ed) Teaching and Learning Com- J. M., Green, T.R.G, Samurcay, R. knowledgeand skills. In Hoc, J. M., puter Programming: multiple re: and Gilmore, D. J. (eds)Psychology Green, T.R.G., Samurcay, R. and Barghxrapecfilm. Hillsdals., New of Programming. London: Aca- Gilmore, D. J. (eds) Psychology of Jersey: Lawrence Eribaum Associ- demic Press Ltd. 235-249 Programming. London: Academic ates, Publishers. 237-257 Press Ltd. 157-174

264 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 26S GOVERNMENT SUPPORT OF COMPUTER EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS' CONFIDENCE IN THE USE OF COMPUTERS:A REPORT BY ROB WALKER Principal Matt Park Contra School NSWI

The NSW Minister for Education re-cepts of their respective curriculum leased Computers in Schools: A Gen- statements/syllabi. eral Policy Statement in August 1983. It's policy directions supported those The use of computers by all teachers is of the Commonwealth Government at affected by the quality of educational the time. The Department encouragessoftware that is available and the fea- teachers to see computers as having a tures of the computer being used. Some role in schools in three ways: computer systems are better suited to curriculum tasks than others. Learning about computers and computing The third of the three areas for which computers are used in schools is the This paper reports on Using computers for learning Using computers for management application of computers to the ad- research conducted into ministrative roles within the school. To the support of computer COMPUTERS IN SCHOOLS - A GENERAL this end the Department has produced education activities in POLICY STATEMENT NSW DEPARTMENT the Office Automation and School In- OF EDUCATION (1983) formation System (OASIS). NSW government Some learning about computers occurs schools. The research in the primary school through the use THE PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH The research was concerned with the compares the perceptions of the technology. But the majority of learning about computers, it is expected, support of computer education activi- of the providers and the will be learnt by students via study in ties in NSW state schools. It covered consumers of regional the secondary area. This would be done aspects of support from departmental means (centre, regional and school- and state consultancy through the undertaking of courses such as Computer Awareness (now incorpo-based) and non-departmental means services during the intro- rated in Design and Technology), (parents and community, commercial ductory phase of this Computing Studies 7-10 and /or Com- enterprises, professional association, tertiary institutions, etc.). However, the educational innovation. puting Studies 11 and 12 (or some other approved course of study). focus of the thesis was the relationship between differences in regional de- The second major role computers have partmental support and responses in schools relates to the value of the madeby teachers about their confidence technology as a tool to assist the learn- in using computers in the school. ing process. Teachers in primary schools and each of the secondary curriculum CONTEXT areas are encouraged to make use of The thesis focussed on the period 1986- computers in the teaching of the con- 88, the years immediately following

265 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 2R4 1986 to December 1988, regions at-funding to support computer educa-Table 3.1 provides a summary of the tracted equal amounts of funding fortion through other funding programs, teaching population in each of the re- the support of computer education de-such as the Disadvantaged Schools gions. (Source: Person to person con- spite these differences. Some regions, Program. tact with Departmental demographer however, were able to attract additional in each region)

~~Table 1~~

~~Number of teachers in region Region Primary Secondary Total~~

Hunter 2158 2264 4422 North Coast 1877 1363 3240 North West 1041 1084 2125 Riverina 1120 1067 2187 South Coast 1875 1952 3827 Western 1271 1489 2760 Metropolitan North 2573 2903 5479 Metropolitan East 2076 3597 5673 Metropolitan South West 2744 2905 5649 Metropolitan West 3400 3200 6600

This indicates the larger teaching Each of the country regions is geo-Given the introduction of the micro- populations of the metropolitan re- graphically larger than any of the met-computer during the 1970's and its regions. The region with the largest ropolitan regions. Western Region coy-duction in price in the 1980's, educators leaching population is Metropolitan ers the largest geogra phic area, followedcame to see applications for its use in West Region, the smallest North West by Riverina Region. schools. Some years after the first Region. teachers began using these machines in

~~Table 2 Number of schools in region Region Primary_Central High Support Total~~

Hunter 302 2 37 6 242 North Coast 219 6 26 3 254 North West 102 20 20 6 148 Riverina 145 14 25 7 191 9 218 South Coast 173 1 35 Western 130 39 40 6 215 Metropolitan North 166 0 48 24 238 34 273 Metropolitan East 177 1 61 Metropolitan South West 140 0 48 10 198 Metropolitan West 189 0 53 20 262 Source: Consultant's Major Questionnaire - Appendix9 in thesis)

schools (including the famed Canon The employment of consultants was a brief were Richard Wiktorowicz, Ted Canola!), the Department saw a need to logical consequence. These people Duffy, Paul Jenner, Bob Baker, John formulate appropriate policies for use could provide support, direction and Bennett, Paul Mulhearn and Trevor of the technology in the state's schools. linkagebetweenresource people. Kruger. Most of these people were Coupled with this was the need to Whilst early consultancy was limited, employed as consultants for other support those teachers currently using these people played a key role in the curricula and perhaps only worked as computers and, perhaps more impor- development of computer education in consultants for part of the week but tantly, seek out directions in which the NSW schools. The first consultants with their work, during the mid 1970's, set technology could make a difference to computer education as a part of their trends for future consultancy. the learning of children.

268 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 27o Consultants were there to support and train teachers, to initiate the production Table 3 of support materials, and to provide Geo ra //gpisarea ofmilq)ons . /cm advice relating to technology. As time Region Area passed more of these people became full time appointments, with the single Hunter 30828 (broad) brief -computereducation. This North Coast 35862 began a significant period in which North West 143614 teachers receivedconsultancy visits Riverina 155388 and publications related to computer South Coast 53448 education, participated in courses of Western 369755 various duration, and held school de- Metropolitan North 2817 velopment days focussing on compu- Metropolitan East 664 ter education (a relatively late innova- Metropolitan South West 3564 tion). Regions varied in the number of Metropolitan West 5353 consultants employed, the types of service made available to schools and Metropolitan regions tend to have more schools, however, Hunter and North in how decisions were made regarding Coast Regions also have a large number of schools. (Source: NSW Departmentof expenditure of computer education Education, Annual Report, 1990) funds. These variations produced differences in the type and level of support SUMMARY OF REGIONAL DATA available from each education region. The following table summarises a se- As Fitzgerald, White and Woodley lection of the data recorded in the (1990) have shown, variations in the preceeding sections. confidence levels of teachers were apparent.

~~Table 4 Summary of Regional Data 5.1.5 5.1.6 5.1.7 5.1.9 CkrkhCentre Region 5.1.1 5.1.8 5.2.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4~~

~~Hunter . . . North Coast .. 0 IPS 0 0 0 0 . North West ...... Riverina . 4, ...... South Coast ...... Western ...... Met. North . Met.East Met. Sth Wst Met.West .~~

~~Key: = low/none = medium/part time = high /full -time~~

Number of 5.1.1 Consultancy visits per teacher 5.1.8Interactions per teacher 5.2.1Consultants per school 5.1.2Consultancy visits per school 5.1.3All types of inservice course per school 5.1.4School Development Days per school 5.1.5After school courses per school 5.1.6One day courses per school 5.1.7Extended duration courses per school 5.1.9Interactions per school Clerical = employment of clerical assistance for computer education support atregion Centre = operation of regional computer centre

~~269 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 271 Table1.5~~

Means: Primary and support school teachers' perceived number of hours of instruction time on computer education The multivariate contrast comparing primary school teachers with support school teachers on the variableperceived degree of professional developmentwas significant (mult. F = 8.33, p < 0.01, effect size0.03). The univariate analysis clearly indicated that the variable contributing to this difference wasthe number of hours of instruction time the teacher had had on computer education (p <0.01). (6.1.5)

~~Primary school Support school teachers teachers 3.36 2.13~~

~~Table1.6~~

Means: Primary and support school teachers frequency of use of computers at school and teachers' ability to preview a programfor use in their class The multivariate contrast comparing primary school teachers with support school teachers on the variable perceived confidencein the use of a computer was significant(mull. F = 2.40, p < 0.05, effect size 0.04). The univariate analysis clearly indicated that the variables contributing to this difference werefrequency of use of the computer at school(p < 0.01) and the teachers'perceived ability to preview a program for use in their class(p < 0.01). (6.1.4)

~~Primary school Support school teachers teachers frequency of use of a computer at school 3.32 4.20 ability to preview a program for use in 3.77 5.00 their class~~

'High school teachers indicated they had received more instruction time on computereducation than central school teachers (Table 1.7), indicated they made greater use of in-school staff with computerexpertise (Table 1.8) and they indicated greater confidence in the use of computers than central schoolteachers (Table 1.9).

~~Table1.7~~

Means: Central and high school teachers' perceived number of hoursof instruction time and extent of attendance at inservice courses on computer education The multivariate contrast comparing central school teachers with high school teachers on the variableperceived degree of professional development was significant (mult. F = 3.46. p < 0.05, effect size 0.04). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were thenumber of hours of instruction time the teacher had had on computer education(p < 0.05) andperceived extent of attendance at inservice courses in computer education(p < 0.05). (6.1.1 1

~~AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1903 . 272 -1 e 9'79 Central school High school teachers teachers number of hours of instruction time on 2.89 3.19 computer education~~

~~extent of attendance at inservice courses in 1.91 2.14 computer education~~

~~Table1.8~~

Means: Teachers' perceptions on their use of in-school computer- literate teaching staff The multivariate contrast comparing central school teachers with high school teachers on the variable use of Departmental support was significant (mutt. F = 2.38, p < 0.05, effect size 0.04). The univariate analysis indicated that the variable contributing to this differencewas the use of the provision of teaching staff for their school withappropriate training and experience in computer applications (p < 0.05). (6.1.19)

~~Central school High school teachers teachers 1.92 2.20 Table1.9~~

Means: Central and high school teachers' perceived expertise in useof an administrative program. of a databaseand of a spreadsheet The multivariate contrast comparing central school with highschool teachers on the variable perceived confidence in the use of a computer was significant (mult. F = 3.44. p < 0.01,effect size 0.06). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were perceived expertise in the use of an administrative program (p < 0.01), perceived expertise in the useof a database (p < 0.05) and perceived expertise in the use of a spreadsheet (p <0.05).(6.I.6)

~~Central school High school teachers teachers expertise in use of an administrative 2.85 4.13 program expertise in use of a database 3.67 4.14~~

~~expertise in use of a spreadsheet 2.58 3.37~~

Furthergeneral discussion of variations Schools Renewal strategy (1990) devel- DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS OF THE between metropolitan and country oped by Dr Brian Scott. Specific effects MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES ON THE teachers, and teachers from various on teacher confidence, perception of INTERACTIONS VARIABLE types of schools, can be found in the the extent of their professional devel- The interactions variable was con reports of Fitzgerald and Fitzgerald opment and use of Departmental sup- structed based on information collectec (1990), and Fitzgerald, Woodley and port possibly caused by the activities of from regional consultants. The interac White (1990). Recommendations from regions can be found in the following tions variable considers the number o these reports were used to develop the sections. consultancy visits, school developmen

2V AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 273 days, one day inservice courses, after The purpose of the analyses conducted the more confident they felt to use school courses and extended duration in this area was to identifyconsequences administrative software (Tables 1.10, courses in which consultants and teach- of variations in the number of consul- 1.11). It is possible the consultants had ers were involved. Separate considera- tancy visits, school development days an effect on teachers' feeling of confi- tion is also given to any relationshipand interactions in the broader sense dence in the use of some software. As between the number of consultancy on the confidence teachers have to use teachers' rating of time with consult- visits and the number of school devel- computers in their lessons, on theirants increased, so did their rating of opment days on teacher confidence, perceptions of the extent of their pro-confidence in the use of these pro- perception al professional development fessional development and on theirgrams. The time with consultants in- and use of Departmental support. use of Departmental support. cluded consultancy visits, one day The results indicated that the more inservice courses, after school courses, consultancy visits and the more inter- extended duration courses and school actions with consultants teachers had,development days.

~~Table1.10~~

Means: Teachers perceived expertise of use of a word processor and perceived expertise of use of an administrative program, by low/high consultancy visits The multivariate contrast comparing teachers in regions receiving a low number of consultancy visits with teachers in regions receiving a high number of consultancy visits on the variable perceivedconfidence in the use of a computer (mull.F = 2.71, p < 0.01, effect size 0.05) was significant. The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were perceivedexpertise in the use of a word processor(p < 0.05) andperceived expertise in the use of an administrativeprogram (p <0.01).

~~Number of consultancy visits Low High expertise of use of a word processor 3.97 4.14~~

~~expertise of use of an administrative 2.51 2.91 program~~

~~Table 1.11~~

Means: Teachers perceived expertise of use of a word processor and perceived expertise in the use of an administrative program, by low/high interactions with consultants The multivariate contrast comparing teachers involved in a low total number of interactions with consultants with teachers involved in a high total number of interactions with consultants on the variable perceived confidence in the use of a computerwas significant (mult. F = 2.71. p < 0.01, effect size 0.05). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were perceived expertise in the useof a word processor (p <0.05) andperceived expertise in the use of an administrative program (p<0.01). (6.1.3)

~~Total number of interactions with consultants Low High expertise in use of a word processor 3.97 4.14~~

expertise in use of an administrative program 2.51 2.91 The results indicated that with fewer consultancy visits (in fact altogether fewer interactionswith consultants) teachers used the in-school computer-literate staff more (Tables 1.12,1.13). However, (an exceptionwas) the greater the number of school development days involving consultants the more teachers made use of in-school staff with computerexpertise (Table 1.14). 274 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 274 Table 1.12

Means: Teachers' perceptions on their use of computer-literateteaching staff by low/high consultancy visits The multivariate contrast comparing teachers receiving low numbersof consultancy visits with those receiving high number of visits onthe variable use of Departmental support was significant (mull. F =310, p < 0.01. effect size 0.05). The univariate analysis clearly indicatedthat the variable contributing to this difference was their use of in-school teaching staff with appropriate training and experience in computer applications (I) <0.01). (6.1.13)

~~Number of consultancy visits~~

~~Low High 2.19 1.92~~

Table1.13 Means: Teachers' perceived use of the provision of teaching staffwith appropriate training and expertise in computer applications bylow/high interactions with consultants The multivariate contrast comparing teachers involved in lowtotal numbers of interactions with consultants with teachers involvedin high total numbers of interactions with consultants on the variable useof Departmental support was significant (mult. F = 3.10, p < 0.005,effect size 0.05). The univariate analysis clearly indicated that thevariable contributing to this difference was the use of the provision ofteaching staff with appropriate training and experience in computer applications (p<0.001). (6.1.16)

~~Number of interactions with consultants Low High 2.19 1.92~~

Table1.14 Means: Teachers' perceptions on their use of in-school computer- literate teaching staff by low/high number of school developmentdays The multivariate contrast comparing teachers participating in low numbers of school developments days involving computer education consultants and those participating in high numbers of school developments days involving computer education consultants on the variable use of Departmental support was significant (mutt. F =1.96, p < 0.05. effect size 0.03). The univariate analysis clearly indicatedthat the variable contributing to this difference was the use of the provisionof teaching staff for their school with appropriate training and experience in computer applications (p < 0.01). (6.1.15)

~~Numbers of schoo development days involving computer education consultants Low High~~

~~1.74 1.98~~

Staff seeking to learn more of computers have sought the expertise ofin-school staff where consultancy assistance was not available. Following school development days (involving consultants),teaching staff made increased use of in-school computer-literate staff. 275 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 The number of interactions with con- number of consultancy visits, school the regions with the larger teaching sultants had no significant effect on the development days and courses and to- populations that did this. Consequently, use of Departmental support. Teachers tal number of interactions between there was no significant impact on the in regions rated high for number of consultants and teachers, this section confidence levels reported by teachers. interaction with consultants, did not specifically addresses the number of So that, although South Coast and Met- rate any higher (or lower) for use of consultants employed by each region ropolitan South West rated high for Departmental support than teachers in at any one time and any possible rela- number of consultants employed, regions rated low for numl-ers of inter-tionships. The consultancy variable is teachers from these regions indicated actions with consultants. based on the greatest number of re- no greater feeling of confidence than gional consultants employed at any one those from the other regions. These re- Teachers made no greater use of time in a region. It may have been that sults are particularly interesting given inservice provisions nor called on the the earlier analyses, based simply on those results reported in the section on advice of regional or CEU staff follow- number of "formal" interactions, did the interactions variable, where the ing increased interactions with con- not reveal the total effect of consul- greater the time spent with consultants sultants. These results do not cover any tancy services to teachers. By simply the greater the feeling of confidence increases in requests for use of publica- addressing the number of consultants expressed by teaching staff. tions which are reported in the section employed, general findings may have on the publications variable. become apparent with further research It is possible that the effect of the work conducted to find out what behaviours of these consultants may not yet have In summary, the more consultancy vis- carried out by consultants may have been felt. Teachers may require longer its and the more interactions with con- been producing the effects. time to develop real feelings of confi- sultants teachers had, the more confidence than time between support from dent they felt to use computers. With However, the results indicated that the these consultants and the time of re- less interactions with consultants, number of consultants employed by a sponding to the questionnaire. teachers made greater use of the in-region did not significantly effect school computer-literate staff. Teach- teachers' confidence in the use of com- The results indicated that the greater ers made no more (or less) use of De- puters. There are a number of possible the number of consultants employed partmental support as interactions with responses to these findings. by a region the greater the teachers' consultants increased. rating of the amount of instruction time The findings may be explained by the and the extent of inservice education DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS OF THE fact that no regions employed enough received (Table 2.1). This result indi- MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES ON THE consultants to make a significant dif- cates that as more consultants are em- CONSULTANCY VARIABLE ference to the results in this area. While ployed, more inservice activities are While the earlier analyses sought to it is true that some regions employed provided to schools. identify the relationships between the more consultants than others, it was

~~Table2.1~~

Means: Teachers' estimation of hours of instruction time on computer education and estimation of the extent of inservice courses they havehad in computer education by lowthigh number of consultants per school The multivariate contrast comparing teachers in regions in thelow band for number of consultants per school with teachers in regions in thehigh band for number of consultants per school on the variableperceived degree of professional developmentwas significant (mult. F = 3.80, p < 0.05, effect size 0.02). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference wereteachers' estimation of hours of instruction time on computer education (p <0.05) andteachers' estimation of the extent of inservice courses they have had incomputer(go education(p <0.05).

~~276 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 190~~

~~A..Ago an. Number of consultants per school Low High hours of instruction time on computer 3.05 3.25 education extent of inservice courses they have had 1.90 2.14 in computer education~~

gested therefore, that the eight regions This result is reflected in both the re-DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF THE which have established computer cen- sults reported by the teachers and con-MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES ON THE tres have put time and effort into a sultants from South Coast Region. For CENTRE IN OPERATION VARIABLE resource which does not appear to yield Metropolitan South West, the other re-Analyses in this area sought to identify significant benefits. It should be noted gion rated high for number of consult-any effects related to the operation of a however, that the resources located in ants, the number of one day coursesregional computer centre, the lending these centres are the same resources only rated in the medium band; theof software for evaluation and the em- used in other areas of computer educa- number of consultancy visits, afterployment of centre clerical assistants tion support - areas which do show a school courses and extended duration(ancillary staff). There were three sim- significant relationship with teacho courses rated low. The fact that Metro-ple variables formed from the data confidence. In establishing the centre: politan South West is one of the regionsgained from the regional consultants. the regions have simply made avail with the greatest number of teachers toThecomputer centre variable indicated able these resources while not in use it support, may have influenced thesewhether or not a computer centre oper- other areas of support. It is also possi results. ated, another variable addressed the ble that the centres are having a sig number of software packages the re- nificant effect on areas of support no The number of consultants employed gion mad e a vailable to teachers for trial, covered by these analyses, or that a: by a region did not significantly effectandthe third variable indicated yet, the effect of the operation of thi teachers' use of Departmental support.whether or not the region employed a centres is yet to be registered. Give] Despite the fact that some regions em- clerical assistant to work in the compu- that most of the centres were estab ployed greater numbers of consultants,ter centre. lished part way into this period o teachers have reported no greater use analysis, this may be relevant. of inservice provisions, advice from re-Eight regions (all except North Coast gional consultants or assistance from and Western) elected to establish com- More than any other variable, the loan the CEU. puter centres to base their support of ing of software to staff for trialling prix computer education. The regions fell to purchase appears to have had a sig South Coast Region, rated high for into four groups for number of soft- nificant effect. With an effect size of : number of consultants, also rated high ware packages available to teachers for 0.50, teachers' confidence in the use c for number of interactions with con-trial. They were labelled "low", "me- computers appears closely linked t sultants (per school). Whereas Metro-dium-low", "medium-high" and the number of software program politan South West Region (rated high"high". Low and Medium-Low were available for trial from region (Tabl for number of consultants), rated lowgrouped and Medium-High and High 3.1). In regions where a high number for number of interactions. were grouped. Comparisons were software programs were available fc made between regions rated low and trial (Hunter, North West, Riverim In summary, employing more consult-high. For employment of clerical assist- Metropolitan South West and Metre ants may have only had an effect on theance regions were listed as "employ- politan West) teachers were more fn number of inservice activities provideding" (for full time and part time em- quent users of computers at school, fe to teachers. As the number of consult-ployees) or "not employing". more confident to use word proce ants employed increases, teachers per- sors, databases, spreadsheets and a4 ceptions of the extent of their profes- The operation of a computer centre did ministrative software, felt more cons sional development increases. No sig-not significantly influence teacher con- dent to evaluate software for classroo: nificant effect on teachers' confidencefidence in the use of a computer, teach- u se a ad were more involved in comp to use computers or on their use ofers' perceptions of their level of profes- ter activities at schools, than teachers Departmental support were recorded. sional development or teachers' use of regions with fewer software progran Departmental support. It could be sug- available for trial.

~~2'; AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 277 Table3.1~~

Means: Teachers' perceived use of computers at school, expertisein use of a word processor. administrative program, database, spreadsheet; ability to evaluate software, preview software, involvement in computer activities by low/high software available for trial The multivariate contrast comparing teachers in regions with accessto a low number of software programs available for trialling withteachers in regions with a higher number of software programs on thevariable perceived confidence in the use of a computer(mull. F = 1510.20, p < 0.001, effect size > 0.50) was significant. The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference werefrequency of use of computers at school (p <0.001),perceived expertise in the use of a word processor (p <0.001),administrative program(p < 0.001), database (p <0.001),spreadsheet(p < 0.001),ability to evaluate programs (p <0.001) andability to preview a program for use in class (p <0.001). (63.1)

~~Software available for trial Low High use of computers at school 3.38 3.55~~

~~expertise in use of a word processor 3.98 4.30~~

~~expertise in use of an administrative 2.98 2.99 program expertise in use of a 3.57 database 2.99~~

~~ability to evaluate 3.06 software 2.94~~

~~expertise in use of a 2.53 spreadsheet 2.38~~

~~preview software for use in class 3.51 3.91~~

~~involvement in computer activities at 1.97 1.99 school~~

Teachers in regions with higher numbers of software programs available for trial also reported higher numbers of hours of instruction time and a greater extent of inservicing on computer education (Table 3.2). This may be due to teachers recording time spent on trialling software as professional development time, or it may be that in regions where higher numbers of software programs were available for trial, staff attended a greater number of inservice activities. While Hunter,

278 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 Table3.2 North West, Riverina, Metropolitan Means: Teachers' estimation of hours of instruction time on computer South West and Metropolitan West re- education and estimation of the extent of inservice courses they have had in computer education by low/high software available for trial gions reported high numbers of software packages available for trial, only The multivariate contrast comparing teachers in regions with access to a North West rated high for number of low number of software programs available for trialling with teachers in regions with a higher number of software programs on the variable interactions with consultants per perceived degree of professional developmentwas significant (mull. F teacher. Hunter and Riverina rated in 291.92. p < 0.001, effect size 0.65). The univariate analysis indicated the medium band and Metropolitan that the variables contributing to this difference wereteachers' South West and Metropolitan West estimation of hours of instruction time on computer education(p < rated low for number of interactions 0.001) andteachers' estimation of the extent of inservice courses they with consultants per teacher. have had in computer education(p <0.001). (6.3.2)

~~Software available for trial Low High hours of instruction time on computer 3.03 3.22 education extent of inservice courses theyhavehad 1.95 2.45 in computer education~~

Teachers in regions with higher numbers of software programs available for trial, indicated greater use of Depart- Table3.3 mental support (effect size 0.65). These Means: Teachers' use of Departmental support by low/high software teachers reported they made greater available for trial use of inservice provisions, specific The multivariate contrast comparing teachers in regions with access to a curriculum advice from regional con- low number of software programs available for tnalling with teachers in sultants, and involved regional con- regions with a higher number of software programs on the variableuse of sultants in more demonstration and Departmentalsupport was significant (mult. F = 70.78, p < 0.001, effect team teaching lessons than teachers in size 0.65). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables regions where less software was avail- contributing to this difference wereteachers' rating of the use of in general the provision of inservice education(p < 0.001),general advice able for trial. They made more frequent and guidance from the Department's regional computer education use of in-school computer-literate staff consultant(p < 0.001),specific advice by the regional computer than colleagues in regions where less education consultant on the development of computer-related curriculum software was available for trial (Table materials (p <0.001),involvement of the regional computer education 3.3). consultant in demonstration lessons or team teaching sessions showing the application of computers to the learning process (p <0.001), software publications provided by the CEU (p <0.001),software support from the CEU (p <0.001).hardware support from the CEU(p < 0.001) andin-school computer-literate staff(p < 0.001). (6.3.4)

~~AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 279 n-1n Software available for trial Low High provision of 2.10 inservice education 1.95~~

~~general advice from 1.93 regional consultant 1.99~~

~~specific curriculum 1.87 advice from regional 1.73 consultant regional consultant in dem. lessons or team 1.56 1.66 teaching sessions software publications 2.47 from CEU 2.57~~

~~software support from 1.94 CEU 1.96~~

~~hardware support from 1.40 CEU 1.64~~

~~in-school computer- 2.03 literate staff 1.84~~

(Metropolitan North) did not employ It is of note, however, that these people regions where ancillary staff were em- ancillary assistance. made less use of general advice from ployed in the computer education cen- regional consultants, software publica- tre (Table 3.4). It may be that in these regions, the ancillary staff are contrib- Primary school teachers rated their use tions from the CEU, and software and of Departmental support higher in re- hardware support from the CEU. It is uting positively to the smooth opera- gions where ancillary staff were em- possible that they have developed be- tion of the region's computer educa- ployed in the computer .:entre. This yond the "general advice" stage and tion support. As a result, these regions may be due to these regionsbeing able have a more developed understanding are able to offer a greater numberof inservice activities. North West region to ensure someone is able to answer the of the use of computers in schools. Their phones and provide direct contact and lower reported use of software evalua- rated high for number of interactions follow up while consultants have been tions may be due to the fact that they between consultants and teachers; North West also employed ancillaryout in schools. There was no specific have worked out for themselves the direction implied by the results for high merits of the software programs of in- staff in the computer centre. Riverina school teachers. terest to them. Lower demands on soft- rated in the medium band for interac- the tions between consultants and teach- ware and hardware advice from In summary, the results did not indi- CEU may be expected for similar rea- ers. Riverina also employed ancillary cate any significant effects causedby sons. It should also be noted thatthe staff. While Metropolitan East, Metro- politan West and Metropolitan South the operation of a computer centre on CEU was intended to play a larger role teacher confidence, perception of ex- in supporting the work of regions rather West all employed ancillary staff, they all rated low for interactions between tent of professional development or use than providing direct support to of Departmental support. Teachers in schools. teachers and consultants. Metropoli- tan teachers rated their extent of pro- regions where higher volumes of software was available for trial were more The employment of centrea ncillary sta ff fessional development lower generally, though it is interesting to note that the confident uses of computers, indicated appears to have had little effect on the devel- only metropolitan region which rated a greater extent of professional confidence of teachers. However, opment and reported greater use of country teachers reported a greater ex- in the medium band for interactions more specific Departmental support. tent of professional developmentin between consultants and teachers

~~AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 280 20 Table3.4~~

Means: Teachers' estimation of professional development in computer education by employment of centre ancillary staff The multivariate effect involving the interaction between metropolitan and country teachers in regions with ancillary staff employed in the computer centre and teachers in regions with no ancillary staffemployed in the computer centre on the dependent variable perceiveddegree of professional development was significant (mult. F = 354, p < 0.05, effect size 0.02). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were teachers' estimation of hoursof instruction time on computer education (p < 0.05) and teachers' estimation of the extent of inservice courses they have had in computer education (p < 0.05). (6 3.3)

Centre ancillary staff Not employed Employed hours of instruction Metropolitan 3.22 time 3.53 Country on computer 3.33 education 3.11 extent of inservice Metropolitan 2.13 courses they have 2.25 Country had in computer 2.44 education 1.99

The employment of ancillary staff in nunther of publications included news- to bring publications to the attention of centres had little effect on teacher con- letters, journals, user guides, teachers teachers at school development days, fidence. Teachers in regions where an- notes and the like. The regions varied it service courses and meetings, despite cillary staff were employed reported a in the numberof publications produced. the fact that the publications were al- greater extent of professional develop- In thedata they were grouped as "low", ready located within the school. The inment. Primary school teachers rated "medium" or "high" for number ofschool flow of information could, per- their use of Departmental support publications produced. Regions rated haps, require review in some schools. higher in regions where ancillary were "low" (North Coast, Riverina, South employed, but high school teachers Coast, Metropolitan East) were com- A well reported example by consult- rated their use of Departmental sup- pared with regions rated "high" (North ants was that of the CEU publications port lower in these regions. West, Western). on software evaluation. While not specifically a regional publication, the case

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF THE The results indicated that variations in identifies a common problem. Teach- MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES ON THE the number of newsletters and journals ers frequently report a desire to know more of the available educational soft- PUBLICATIONSVARIABLE (in fact any type of publication) had no The purpose of this set of analyses was significant impact on the confidence of ware - what is available and how can it to identify any effects related to the teachers. There area number of ways in be used? The Computer Education Unit number of publications produced by which this result could be interpreted. had produced large quantities of software evaluations and both regions and each region. The publications analyses Broadly, the number of publications were conducted using two "sub-vari- issued to teachers on computer educa- the CEU produced sample units of work ables". Teacher confidence, perception of tion simply has no effect on their confi- or tips on classroom use for many packages. Most commonly, these publica- the extent of their professional development dence levels. It is likely, however, that and use of Departmental support were a number of other factors may have tions were later "found" filed in the analysed with the number of newsletters come into play. Producing the publica- principal's office or in the computer and journals produced by the region and the tions does not necessarily mean they coordinator's possession and not dis- total number of publications produced by have been read and used by teachers. seminated or broadly publicised the region. The variable based on total Many consultants have reported a need amongst general teaching staff.

281 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 281 Another conclusion which can be not have had the computers and re- Teachers rated their instruction time drawn from these results is that there lated software to trial and hence de- and extent of inservice education on were too few publications produced to velop confidence. Without the equip- computer education higher where re- have any significant impact on confi- ment to try out some of the recom- gions produced more publications (Ta- dence levels of teachers. Perhaps be- mended practices, teachers would be bles 4.1, 4.2). However, when further fore any significant increase in teacher not much better off. analyses are run it is seen that this is the confidence is registered, a greater case with high school teachers but not number of publications needs to be The publications themselves may not the case with primary teachers (Table produced. The results from the survey have been of sufficient quality to build 4.3). Primary teachers indicate more of regions indicated one region withconfidence in the teachers. Teachers instruction time and a greater extent of only three publications produced over have frequently complained of the jar- inservice education when the number the period, with thirty-one the greatest gon involved when dealing with com- of publications produced is low. number produced by a region. puters. Publications which used too much jargon or which failed to set out It is also possible, that despite the factinformation in a readable fashion for the publications were produced, and the novice, may well have missed their perhaps even read by staff, they may mark in these early days of computer education.

~~Table4.1~~

Means: Teachers' estimation of hours of instruction time on computer education and estimation of the extent of inservice courses they have had in computer education by low/high number of newsletters and journals produced The multivariate contrast comparing teachers in regions in the low band for number of newsletters and journals produced with teachers in regions in the high band for number of newsletters and journals produced on the variable perceived degree of professional developmentwas significant (mult. F = 6.44, p < 0.005, effect size 0.03). The univariate analysis clearly indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were teachers' estimation of hours of instruction time on computer education (p < 0.005) andteachers' estimation of the extent of inservice courses they have had in computer education (p <0.005). (6.4.1)

~~Number of newslettersand journals produced Low High hours of instruction time on computer 3.07 3.37 education extent of inservice courses they have had 1.95 2.39 in computer education~~

282 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 282 Tails4.2 Means: Teachers' estimation of hours of instruction time on computer education and teachers' estimation of the extent of inservice courses they have had in computer education The multivariate contrast comparing teachers in regions in the lowband for total number of publications produced with teachers in regions inthe high band for total number of publications produced on the variable perceived degree of professional development was significant (mull F = 5.07, p < 0.01, effect size 0.02). The univariate analysis clearly indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were teachers' estimation of hours of instruction time on computer education (p <0.01) and teachers' estimation of the extent of inservice courses they havehad in computer education (p < 0.005). (64.z)

~~Number of publications produced Low High hours of instruction , time on computer 3.07 3.30 education extent of inservice courses they have had 1.95 1.92 in computer education~~

~~Table4.3~~

Means: Teachers' estimation of the extent of inservice courses they have had in computer education, by low/high publications The multivariate effect involving the interaction between teachers in regions in the low versus high bands for total number of publications produced and type of school on the dependent variable degree of professional development was significant (mult. F = 3.04, p < 0.05, effect size 0.01). The univariate analysis indicated that the variable contributing to this difference was teachers' estimation of the extent of inservice courses they have had in computer education (p < 0.05). (6.4.3)

~~Total number of publications produced Low High extent of inservice courses in Primary 2.12 1.65 computer education High 1.68 2.11~~

The result for high school teachers may stepped through a series of inservice gation shows that high school teachers have been influenced by the use ofmodules on basic computer use in make greater use of inservice provi- publications at the inservice activities schools. The modules worked staff sions and Departmental consultancy consultants attended. Through use of through a series of activities and drew when more publications are produced . the publications at these activities, attention to other useful publications. Primary teachers make less use of teachers would note the existence of inservice provisions and consultancy the publications and the provision of When more publications are produced, advice when more publications are inservice support. An excellent exam- teachers indicated they made greater produced (Table 4.6). ple of this is the pattern of inservice use of inservice provisions and Depart- used by North West Region. Titled the mental consultancy (Tables 4.4, 4.5). RACE (Regional Awareness of Com- Once again however, further investi- puter Education) Course, staff were

~~. ;-44. 283 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 283 Table4.4~~

Means: Use of inservice education, general and specific advicefrom the regional consultant, and involvement of the regional consultant in demonstration lessons or team teaching sessions by low/high number of newsletters and journals produced The multivariate contrast comparing teachers iu regions where low number of newsletters and journals have been produced and those in regions where high numbers of newsletters and journals have been produced on the variable use of Departmental support was significant (mull. F = 4.47, p < 0.001, effect size 0.07). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were teachers' rating of the use of in general the provision of inservice education (p < 0.001), general advice and guidance from the Department's regional computer education consultant (p < 0.001), specificadvice by the regional computer education consultant on the development of computer- related curriculum materials (p < 0.001), and involvement of theregional computer education consultant in demonstration lessons or team teaching sessions showing the application of computers to the learning process (p <0.05). (6 4 4)

~~Number of newsletters and journals produced Low High provision of inservice education 2.05 1.96~~

~~general advice from regional consultant 2.12 1.89~~

~~specific curriculum advice from regional 1.83 1.82 consultant involvement of the regional consultant in 1.63 1.49 demonstration lessons or team teaching sessions~~

~~Table4.5~~

Means: Use of inservice education, general advice and guidance fromthe regional consultant, use of publications on software evaluation and software support by the CEU, by low/high publications The multivariate effect involving the interaction between teachers in regions where a low versus high total number of publications havebeen produced and type of school on the dependent variable use of Departmental support was significant (mull. F = 2.69, p < 0.01. effect size 0.05). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference were teachers' rating of the use of the provision of inservice education (p < 0.001), general advice and guidance from the Department's regional computer education consultant (p < 0.01), the provision of publications on software evaluationby the Department's Computer Education Unit in Sydney (p < 0.05) and general software support from the Department's Computer Education Unit (p < 0.05). (6.4.7)

In the case of the high school teachers, support on offerand encouraging them to use computers, what types of soft- the publications may well be assisting to make use of it. Newsletters and jour- ware are available and how they may them to identify other Departmental na Is identifyother publications on how be incorpora tecl into learning programs

284 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 0 A Total number of publicationsproduced Low High provision of inservice Primary 2.20 1.53 education High 1.81 2.33 general advice from Primary 2.27 1.53 regional consultant High 1.87 1.78 software publications from Primary 2.51 2.41 CEU High 2.45 1.78 software support from CEU Primary 2.00 1.65

~~High 1.79 1.89~~

~~Table4.6~~

Means: Use of inservice education, general advice and guidance from the regional consultant. use of publications on software evaluation and general software support provided by the CEU. by low/high newsletter and journal production The multivariate effect involving the interaction teachers in regions where low versus high number of newsletters and journals have been produced and type of school on the dependent variableuse of Departmental supportwas significant (mull. F = 2.64, p < 0.01, effect size 0.04). The univariate analysis indicated that the variables contributing to this difference wereteachers' rating of the use of in general the provision of inset-vice education(p < 0.001), generaladvice and guidance from the Department's regional computer education consultant(p < 0.05),the provision of publications on software evaluation by the Department's Computer Education Unit in Sydney(p < 0.05) andgeneral software support from the Department's Computer FAtration Unit(p < 0.05). (6.4.5)

~~Number of newsletters and journals produced~~

Low High provision of inservice Primary 2.20 1.65 education High 1.81 2.52 general advice from Primary 2.27 1.61 regional consultant High 1.87 1.76 software publications from Primary 2.51 2.42 CEU High 2.45 1.96 software support from CEU Primary 2.00 1.R4

High 1.79 1.92 for children. The same publications cal resource people, CEU staff) and room computer use. would also identify people who maybe courses which may lead teachers to able to assist teachers (consultants, lo- further develop their skills in class-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 285 285 Departmental support - perhaps con- Ti ..e possible effect on primary teachers that ifKeylinkusage is rated as impor- may be explained by a different type of tant its use is also high. sultants are using the service to help publication or different number of pub- teachers identify where support is lications being sent to primary schools. The results have indicated that whether available. In country regions, consult- These publications may have answered or not consultants useKeylinkto iden-ants may be using the service to prob- many of the questions put by primary tify the needs of schools there is nolem solve directly, thus leading to less staff and so, they felt no need to seek out significant effect on the confidence of call on Departmental support by teach- further Departmental support - a logi- teachers. The result was the same for ers. cal aim for all consultants is eventually the use ofKeylinkas a means of provid- to train people to the extent that consul- ing assistance to schools. Teachers in When primary and high school teach- tancy assistance is no longer required. regions whereconsultants made greater ers are compared; the results indicate useofKeylinkfor assisting schools were that whenKeylinkuse is high, high Alternatively, the publications may no moreconfident than their colleagues school teachers make greater use of have lead primary teachers to the con-in regions whereKeylinkuse was low. Departmental support. This is the case clusion that limited assistance was for the use of inservice provisions for available to them and so, the demand It is useful to note however, that teach- primary teachers, but they seem to make for Departmental support from primary ers in regions whereKeylinkwas ratedless use of software publications when usage is high. This may be due staff was not forthcoming. This wouldhigh for use in providing assistance to Keylink reflect the limited amount of software schools considered they had received to advice on software use being re- Keylink. available for use in primary schools atmore inservicing in computer educa-ceived from consultants via this time. tion. Coupled with the last result, this could mean that teachers consider Insummary, the use ofKeylinkmade no In summary, the number of publications Keylink asa useful form of professional difference to the confidence of teach- Keylink produced by a region appears to have development, but that as yet, it had noters. Teachers in regions where little impact on the confidence of teach- led to any greater confidence in the use use is more highly rated by consult- ers. However, teachers in regions where of computers by teachers. ants, report higher levels of professional development support. Teachers in re- more publications were produced indi- is more highly cated they had been involved to a greater Overall, teachers reported greater use gions whereKeylink extent in professional development ac- of ;nservice provisions, general advice rated by consultants record greater tivities. High school teachers recorded frcm the regional consultant and spe- usage of Departmental support. Fur- ther analysis indicates that metropoli- greater use of Departmental support incific curriculum advice from the re- tan teachers make greater use of De- regions where a large number of publi- gional consultant in regions where Keylinkuse is cations were produced: for primary Keylinkis used more frequently by con- partmental support when teacher the result was reversed. sultants. It is likely that during elec-high, but country teachers make less tronic mail discussions with staff, con- use. High school teachers make greater use of Departmental support when DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF THE sultants are bringing to the attention of use by consultants is high, but MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES ON THE school staff inservice provisions as well Keylink primary teachers make less use. CONSULTANT'S USE OF as providing direct advice. TELECOMMUNICATIONS VARIABLE Analyses conducted in this area sought When differences between metropoli- DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF THE to identify any relationship between tan and country teachers are analysed, MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES ON THE DECISION MAKING VARIABLE the use ofKeylink(the Department's it appears that the greater usage of De- preferred electronic mail system) and partmental support lies with the met- In the surveying of regions, all ten regions reported on the operation of re- teacher confidence. Two independent ropolitan staff. They report greater use variables were constructed: one ad-of inservice provisions, general andgional computer committees. Six redressing the use of Keylink for needs specific advice from regional consult-gions indicated that their computer committees took an advisory role. These identification, a second listing the con- ants, involvement of regional consult- committees typically provided a voice sultants' rating ofKeylinkas a means ofants in demonstration and team teach- providing assistance to schools (as a ing lessons and use of software publi- for a range of people impacted on by picture of frequency of use). Use ofcations from the CEU, whenKeylink the use of computers in education and frequently involved people with ex- Keylinkfor needs identification was in- use is high. The reverse consistently dicated in a yes/no response. Consult-applies to country teachers. It is likely pertise in computing specifically. The "advisory" committees usually made ants' rating ofKeylink as ameans ofthat country consultants are using recommendations regarding the ex- providing assistance was initially on a Keylinkfor a different purpose than scale of one to six (one = very impor- their metropolitan counterparts. The penditure of regional computer education funding, but it was the consultants tant). Responses were grouped: one to results would tend to indicate that in or inspectors in these regionswhich three as "important", four to six as "not metropolitan regions consultants' use important". The assumption is made ofKeylinkis leading to greater use ofhad the final say on expenditure of

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 286 2kg funds. Four regions indicated their no significant effect on teachers' per- Schools Renewal strategy (Scott, 1990). committees were "determining", that ceptions of the extent of their profes- More specific variations between these is to say, the regional committee had sional development. teacher groups, in the context of this the final say over expenditure of the thesis, will be addressed as each of the region's allocation of computer fund- Teachers in regions where computer dependent and independent variables ing. As a matter of process, consultants committees wereadvisory made greater are addressed. were not provided with as much free- use of Departmental support than dom in the organisation of support in teachers in regions where committees Country teachers have indicated these situations. Consultants were also were determining. They made greater greater confidence in the use of com- surveyed for the opportunity to have use of inservice provisions, as well as puters than metropolitan teachers. This individualinput into funding decisions calling more frequently on both general is despite the fact that metropolitan - a "yes" or "no" response followed. and specific advice from the regional teachers have rated their instruction This section attempted to identify consultant. They involved regional time and extent of inservice education whether or not this variation in flexibil- consultants in more demonstration and greater than did the country teachers. ity for the consultants made any differ- team teaching lessons and called on the Country regional consultants reported ence to teachers' confidence, rating of CEU more frequently for hardware a higher number of interactions with extent of inservice and use of Depart- support. The results also indicated that teachers than metropolitan consultants. mental support. teachers in regions where consultants had individual input to funding deci- High school teachers indicated a In regions where the committees were sions made greater use of Departmen- greater frequency of use of computer "advisory", primary teachers consist- tal support. Teachers in these regions at school than did primary teachers. ently rated their confidence in the use made greateruse of inservice provisions High school teachers also felt more of computers higher than those in re- as well as greater use of in-school com- confident in the use of software. Pri- gions where committees were "deter- puter-literate staff. mary teachers indicated that they re- mining". For high school teachers the ceived more instruction time and a results were orientated the other way. These results tend to build a case for greater extent of professional devel- These results may be due to commit- "advisory" committees and possibly a opment in computer education than tees which are "determining" placing a maintenance of flexibility for consult- high school teachers. Primary school greater emphasis on secondary sup-ants in decision making regarding teachers reported that they made port. While a number of other factors funding in those regions where com- greater use of both regional and CEU may have influenced this result, it seems mittees are "advisory" and establish- consultancy than did high school that when committees operate in an ment of such flexibility in regions where teachers. "advisory" fashion and consultants are they are "determining". permitted more flexibility in which to Primary teachers estimated they had work, teachers' confidence in the use of In summary, the results indicate thatreceived more instruction time on computers is enhanced. teachers in regions where computercomputer education than support committees are "advisory" in terms ofschool teachersHowever, support The results indicated that in regions funding expenditure are more confi-school teachers indicated they were where consultants had opportunity for dent users of computers, and make more frequent users of computers and individual input to decision making, greater use of Departmental support. felt more confident to preview pro- teachers were less confident in the use The type of regional committee operat- grams for class use than primary teach- of computers. In regions where funding has no impact on teachers' percep- ers. ing decisions were made through co rn- tions of the extent of their professional mittee teachers indicated greater con- development. High school teachers indicated they fidence. It is likely that, as committees had received more instruction time on generally had representatives from CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS computereducation than central school schools, the Department and tertiary Prior to addressing the results of the teachers, indicated they made greater institutions a balance of expertise was analyses between the dependent vari- use of in-school staff with computer available to contribute positively to the ables and the independent variables, expertise and they indicated greater decision ma king. Cou pled with the last brief mention is warranted of varia- confidence in the use of computers result, a balance in committee input tions between teachers from metro- than central school teachers. and flexibility for consultants seems a politan and country regions, a nd teach- worthwhile combination. ers from schools of different types (pri- Consideration will now be given to mary, central, high and support). Sev- each of the dependent variables and The results indicated that the type of eral of the results mentioned here are their relationships to the independent regional committee operating, or already a part of the work conducted variables and recommendations that whether or not consultants had indi- by Fitzgerald, Woodley and White seem to flow from these results. vidual input to decision making, had (1990) used in the formation of the

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 287 EFFECTS ON TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS EFFECTS ON TEACHERS' CONFIDENCE IN mobility of the regional consultants THEIR EXTENT OF PROFESSIONAL THE USE OF COMPUTERS (requiring them to spend less time OF A The results indicated that the greater on office tasks). DEVELOPMENT the number of interactions teachers had with consultants, the more con- In this research, regions reported a A The results indicated that the grea ter fident the teachers reported they range of between three and thirty the number of consultants em- were in the use of computers. one publications produced over the ployed by a region, the greater the period of investigation. The results teachers rating of the amount of Recommendation: indicated that variations in the instruction time and extent of Encourage Departmental staff to in- numbers of publications produced inservice education received. Logi- crease the number of consultancy vis- by regions had no significant effect cally, as more consultants are em- its, one day inservice courses, after on the confidence of teachers. This ployed, more inservice activities are school courses, extended duration includes newsletter, journals, hard- provided to schools. Information courses and school development days ware and software guides, teaching put forward by the consultants was focussing on computer education. (1.1) notes and the like. It is possible that confirmed by the teachers within benefits resulting from this work each region. A Variations in the number of con- are directly felt by the people in- sultants employed by a region did volved in the compilation of the The operation of a computer centre not significantly relate to teachers work or that benefits to other teach- did not significantly influence confidence in the use of corn puters. ers may yet be forthcoming. teachers' perceptions of the extent The minimum number of consult- of their professional development. ants per region addressed by thisA The use of Keylink to identify the However, in regions where the research was one, the maximum, needs of schools, or to provide direct provision of computer software for four. support to schools did not signifi- trialling was high, teachers also cantly effect teachers confidence in rated the extent of their professional A The operation of a computer centre, the use of computers. development high. This finding in itself, did not significantly relate supports recommendation 1.2. to teacher confidence in the use of Regions reported two types of re- computers. However, some of the gional computer committees oper-A The employment of ancillary staff services operating from the centres ated. In one situation committees at regional computer centres ap- seemed to have influenced teach- advised regarding expenditure of pears to have had no direct signifi- er's confidence. regional computer education funds, cant effect on the teachers' percep- ir the other, the committee deter- tions of their extent of professional The loaning of software to teachers mined funding levels allocated to development. As indicated earlier for trialling prior to purchase had a various projects and determined in- their employment may have as- significant relationship to confi- dividual purchases.The results insisted consultants in ensuring the dence of teachers. Teachers in re- dicated that in regions where re- quality provision of such activities. gions where greater numbers of gional computer committees ad- software programs were available vised regarding expenditure of A High school teachers rated their infor trial indicated greater feelings computer education funds (as op- struction time and extent of of confidence in the use of comput- posed to determining expenditure), inservice education higher in re- ers across a range of areas. primary teachers were more confi- gions where higher number of dent users of computers. Secondary publications were produced. Pri- mary school teachers indicate more Recommendation: teachers were more confident users Increase the number and range of soft- of computers in regions where the instruction time and a greater extent ware programs regions make available committee determined computer of inservice education when the to teachers fortriallingpriortopurchase. education expenditure titan their number of publications produced is low. Information was not avail- (1.2) colleagues in regions where advisory committees operated. able on the focus (primary or sec- A The employment of ancillary staff ondary) of publications produced. at regional computer centres ap- Recommendation: pears to have had no direct signifi- Expenditure of computer education Recommendation: cant effect on the confidence of funds should be tied to a policy frame- Publication of support materials be encouraged, with the provisothat a balance teachers to use co m p u ters a t school. work determined by the regional com- It is possible that these people con- puter committee. Regional consultants, is maintained between secondary-ori- tribute positively to the operation as managers of regional computer edu- ented and primary-criented publica- of inservice activities and /or the cation support programs, should be per- tions produced. (2.1) muted flexibility in expenditure within broad policy guidelines. (1.3) 288 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 2.88 Teachers reported a greater extent centre. Results were not significant research programs have been identi- of inservice provisions in regions for high school teachers. fied which address variations in NSW where the consultants made greater regional computer education support use of Key link as a means of pro- Recommendation: programs and the resultant confidence viding support. Ancillary staff should be employed to levels of teachers in those regions. assist in the operation of regional Clearly, as the development of compu- Recommendation: computer centres (where operating). Use of Key link as a means of providing (3.1) ter use in schools is at such an earlier stage (little more than a decade in real- support to teachers be encouraged. (2.2) High school teacher; in regions ity) the time span for research has been A The results indicated that the type where higher numbers of publica- short. The scope then, for further re- of regional computer committee tions were produced reported search is quite broad. operating had no significant effect greater use of Departmental sup- on teachers' perceptions of the ex- port than colleagues in other re- This research has answered some tent of their professional develop- gions. Primary teachers made less questions, however many more are raised. Within some of the areas of ment. useof inservice provisions and consultancy advice as more publica- analysis, more detailed research is EFFECTS ON TEACHERS' USE OF tions are produced. warranted. For example, in which areas do computer consultants need more train- DEPARTMENTAL SUPPORT ing (more particularly because of their area The number of interactions between The results indicated that when consultants and teachers had no Keylink use by consultants is high, of work)? The current research suggests significant impact on the teachers' both primary and high school a need for more detailed investigation use of Departmental support. teachers make greater use of De- of the kind of skills needed by compu- Teachers in regions rated high for partmental inservice provisions. ter consultants in education. This is number of interactions with con- Primary teachers, seem to make less consistent with the findings of Miles et sultants, did not rate any higher (or use of software publications when al (1988). Such research could identify lower) for use of Departmental Keylink use is high, perhaps indi- key skills required in computer educa- support than teachers in regions cating that they are receiving soft- tion consultants so that the most effec- rated low for numbers of interac- ware advice via Keylink in these tive support and training programs tions with consultants. regions. These findings support are offered. recommendation 2.2. The number of consultants em- What makes a more effective computer ployed by a region did not signifi- A Teachers in regions where regional centre? This research has indicated that cantly affect teachers' use of De- committees take an advisory role some services may have a significant partmental support. Despite the fact have indicated they make greater effect on teacher confidence (in par- that some regions employed a use of Departmental support than ticular the loaning of software for trial greater number of consultants, their colleagues in regions where prior to purchase. The merits of pro- teachers reported no greater use of the regional computer committee ducing some types of publication have inservice provisions, advice from adopts a "determining" role. This been questioned - which publications are regional consultants or assistance finding supports recommendation of use to the reader and which yield most from the CEU. 1.3. benefits only to those involved in its writing? The operation of a computer centre FUTURE RESEARCH did not, in itself, lead to variations Following extensive searching of the It seems that only minimal use of a in teachers' use of Departmental literature, it is apparent that very little significant resource is made where support. Teachers in regions with research has been conducted into the electronic mail is concerned. The use of higher numbers of software pro- computer education support programs electronic mail for training, comple- grams available for trial indicated of Education Departments, in particu- menting communication networks, greater use of Departmental sup- lar their regional branches. The work and providing consultancy assistance port than colleagues in regions rated of Nanlohy (1985, 1986, 1988) and appear largely unrealised at present. low for amount of software avail- Morgan (1991) has reported on models Significant scope exists for research able. This finding further supports of staff development in use in support into models of training staff in the use of computers and their application to recommendation 1.2. ing computer education in NSW schools. Miles et al (1988) have identi- education. Primary school teachers rated their fied key skills for agents of change in Results in this research indicated pri- use of Departmental support higher general and unrelated specifically to mary school teachers were more confi- in regions where ancillary staff were computer education. It is notable then, employed in the regional computer that apart from this thesis, no other dent users of technology where regions

289 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 289 operated advisory regional computer dence with computers should be ad- Nanlohy, P. (1986). School Based committees. In regions where compu- dressed. Thecurrent workand the work Inservice - Preparing Teachers, Par- ter committees made firm decisions of Fitzgerald and Fitzgerald (1992) and ents and Children For Using Com- regarding the expenditure of compu- Fitzgerald, White and Woodle,, (1990) puters in Education. What To Do ter education funds (determining provide measures from which subse- With What You've Got: Proceedings of committees), secondary teachers rated quent research could gauge changes in the Fourth Annual Conference of the their confidence higher. While the rec- the computer expertise of students, New South Watt Computer Educa- ommendations in this thesis attempt to teachers and principals. Fitzgerald et tion Group. pp. 267-276. satisfy the needs of both groups, it is al provide future researchers with rel- Nanlohy, P. (1988). Organising School likely that other areas of Departmental evant data from students, teachers and Based Inservice. Making It Happen: support (not covered in this research) principals. This work contributes in- Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Con- will provide a better environment for formation relating to regional support ference of the New South Wales Com- developing the confidence of teachers. programs. puter Education Group. pp. 327-339. NSW Department of Education. (1983). An underlying assumption in theabove Computers in Schools - A General comments is that state support for SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Policy Statement. Sydney. computer education will continue. Commonwealth Schools Commission. Scott, B.W. (1990). School Centred Edu- Survey responses by teachers have (1983). Teaching, Learning and Com- cation - Report of the Management clearly indicated a need for ongoing puters. Report of the National Ad- Review: NSW Education Portfolio. support for the training of staff in the visory Corn mittee on Computers in Sydney. use of computers in education. What is Schools. Canberra. Walker, R.G. (1992). Computer Educa- an appropriate level of teacher confidence Fitzgerald, D. and Fitzgerald R. (1989). tion in NSW State School: Variations in the use of computers? (Self autonomy?) Computer Activities in New South in Regional Departmental Support How will the system gauge that staff have Wales Government Schools: Comments and Teachers' Confidence in Use of arrived at that point? on the Questionnaire Responses. Uni- Computers, M.Ed Thesis, University versity of New England. of New England, Armidale NSW. June 1992 marked the conclusion of a Fitzgerald, D., White, M. and Woodley, very significant period of funding for C. (1989). Unidentified paper Man- computer education in NSW schools. agement Review - NSW Education Rob Walker is the Principal of Ariah Over the previous four years in excess Portfolio. Colin Woodle3'. Park Central School NSW. Prior to his of $64 million of government funding Miles, M.B., Saxl, E.R. and Lieb "rman, appointment to Ariah Park, Rob has has been spent in state schools on com- A. (1988). What Skills Do Educa- been a teacher of science, maths and puter education. This funding has ad- tional "Change Agents" Need? An computing in NSW and Victoria. He dressed the purchase of hardware, Empirical View. Curriculum In- was Regional Computer Education software and published resources, the quiry. Vol. 18 No. 2. pp. 157-193. EJ Consultant for the Riverina Region professional development of teachers, 370 259. 1987-1990, and was also Team Leader, the training of computer education co- Morgan, J. (1991). An Alternative Ap- Computer Education in 1990 in the ordinators, the establishment and de- proach to Staff Development: Riverina. From 1987-1990 he was man- velopmentof computer classrooms, the RACE. Taking Time: Proceedings of ager of the Riverina Resource & Infor- use of electronic communications the Eighth Annual Conference of the mation Technology Centre. services, and increases in consultancy New South Wales Computer Education support. Coupled with this there has Group. pp. 125-134. been significant change in the manage- Nanlohy, P. (1985). Inner West Regional ment structures operating within the Computer Resource Centre. Chip NSW education system, providing Chat. Vol. 2 No. 2. Metropolitan East much greater flexibility for local deter- Computer Education Regional mination of priorities for development. Taskforce. Nanlohy, P. (1985). An In-school As this research has provided a bench- Inservice Scheme. Proceedings of the mark for the state of regional support Third Annual Conference of the New of computer education to the end of South Wales Computer Education 1988, the time is opportune for further Group. Mecllow Bath, NSW. pp. 107- research addressing change since 1988. 112. Each of the areas focussed on by the state funding program could provide specific research issues, but perhaps more importantly issues relating to change in teacher and student confi-

~~290 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 2 311 APPENDIX~~

~~Questions from Major Questionnaire - requiredfor interpretation of tables.~~

~~time on computer education. Q10: Estimate how many hours you have had of instruction~~

~~None 1 Less than 3 hours 2 Between 3 and 10 hours 3 Between 10 and 40 hours 4 More than 40 hours 5~~

~~Q12: What is the extent of inservice courses you have had incomputer education?~~

~~None 1 A few hours 2 About one week 3 About one month 4 One semester 5 More than one semester 6~~

~~Q14:At school, how often do you use a computerfor any purpose?~~

~~Never 1 Very rarely 2 Once a week 3 A few times a week 4 Almost every day 5~~

~~Q17: How well can you do the following tasks related tothe use of a computer?~~

Not Very at all well Use a word processor 1 2 3456 Use an administrative program 1 2 3436 Use a database program 1 23456 Evaluate programs students are using 1 23456 Use a spreadsheet program 1 2 3456 Preview a program for use in your class 1 23456

school? Q20:Are you involved in any computer activities in your present No Yes 1 2 If you answered NO then you are finished thequestionnaire. If you answered YES then please complete the restof the questionnaire.

~~- 291 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 0 1 Q21: Circle a number to indicate the level of Department of Education support usedby your school with respect to computer activities~~

~~None Extensive~~

~~In general, the provision of inservice education 1 23 45 6~~

~~General advice and guidance from the Department's regional computer education consultant 1 2345 6~~

~~Specific advice by the regional computer education consultant on the development of computer related curriculum materials 1 2345 6~~

~~Involvement of the regional computer education consultant in demonstration lessons or team teaching sessions showing the application of computers to the learning process 1 23 45 6~~

~~The provision of publications on software evaluation by the Department's Computer Education Unit in Sydney 1 23 45 6~~

~~General software support from the Department's Computer Education Unit in Sydney for the equipment in this school 1 2 3 45 6~~

~~Hardware support from the Department's Computer Education Unit in Sydney for the equipment in this school 1 2345 6~~

~~The provision of teaching staff for this school with appropriate training and experience in computer applications 1 2345 6~~

~~The provision of funds to purchase computer hardware and software 1 23 45 6~~

~~The provision of time for teachers to upgrade their computer skills 1 2 3 45 6~~

292 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 292 COMPUTERSAND COLLABORATIVE INTERACTIONS BY KATHY K. WATSON Lecturer, Department of Learning, Develop- ment and Communication University of New England

Computers and the vast array of EFFECTIVE COMPUTER USE AND programs are only valuable if they IMPUCATIONS FOR PRIMARY CLASS- contribute to the teaching and ROOMS learning process. For teachers, Computers have been clearly estab- computer software should provide a lished as an appropriate form of educa- context for the construction of tional technology (Niess, 1990; Polin, understanding which meets an 1990; Ray, 1991a,b). A recent study of existing curriculum goal. Teachers the Northwest Region of New South must decide if using a computer is Wales provided a sample of teachers' the best choice for the task, if the perceptions regarding the effective use There is a need for computer's capabilities meet an of computers in primary classrooms. educational need and if it can be "Generally, computers were regarded information relating to effectively integrated into the existing as useful educational tools which pre- effective computer educa- curriculum. pare students for the future and teach- tion in primary class- Today's challenge for teachers is to ers believed that all students needed to know how to operate a computer" rooms. This paper dis- provide a range of activities which sustain high interest and offer valid (Knight, and Watson, 1992, p.202). cusses the computer as a purposes to promote active learning. However, responses cons istently indi- tool and situations which Effectively used, computer software can cated that the actual !eve s of skill, experience and knowledge about the uses may provide opportunities engage children in a range of situations such as investigations, discovery, com- of computer, as educational tools were for collaborative interac- munication and problem solving. The minimal. There was general agreement tions. experience of students sharing corn - that more knowledge about the uses of raters provides real purpose and mo- computers as educational tools would tivation for collaborative work which be beneficial requires cooperation and communication skills. Debate about how computers should be used in classrooms will continue COMPUTERS AND COLLABORATIVE and not all educators will come to the INTERACTIONS same conclusions.This is to be ex- Although the amount of hardware and pected since a wide range of opinions software in classrooms has increased exists regarding appropriate learning significantly in the last decade (Knight environments, including the role of and Watson, 1992; ten Brummeihuis computers. and Plomp, 1991), there has been little progress in integrating computers into Ultimately, classroom teachers muse existing classroom practices in primary decide if a computer is the best tool foi schools. A need exists for information a particular task, if computer software relating to effective computer use in meets an educational need and if corn primary classrooms. This paper dis- puter use can be effectively integrate( cusses the computer as a tool which into an existing curriculum. These de provides situations for collaborative in- cisions are based on personal beliefs a teractions in classrooms. views about learning processes. I

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 29. teachers believe that all knowledge is meaning and on how language is in-ety of purposes. Simulations can en- constructed, instruction is a nurturing volved in the construction of meaning courage students to apply higher order thinking skills involved in making de- of these processes, and accept that lit- (Derewianka, 1990). Selected software eracy development is a social event, then can provide collaborative experi- cisions, and analysis of outcomes. Ad- then their classrooms should provide ences that will promote activereading, venture games can promote cooperative learning and guide reading for in- experiences to facilitate this construc- expand experiences and enhance learn- tion process. Central to this view of i ng. formation.The most effective constructivism is the notion of the simulations/ackenturegames incorpo- learner "as 'active' not just responding Growing research evidence is converg- rate cooperative effort, and research to stimuli, as in the behaviorist rubric, ing on a view of the reading process as beyond the computer screen. but engaging, grappling, and seeking transactions between reader and text The reality of integrating computers in to makesenseof things" (Perkins,1991). which results in construction of mean- Perkins states that "learners do not just ing. This view regards the role of the any classroom depends on the struc- take in and store up given information. readeras a highly activeone. Goodman, ture of the learning environment and They make tentative interpretations of Smith and others emphasise that "read- the underlying assumptions held by the teacher about the nature of teaching experience and go on to elaborate and ing is meaning-seeking, tentative, se- and learning. Constructivist instruction test those interptetations." lective and constructive... they all emphasise the importance of inference and generally confronts learners with situ- Software should be selected because it prediction in reading" (Goodman,ations that challenge them to ponder, offers opportunities for students to en- 1985).Students sharing the task ofcompare, contrast, reflect and construct understanding. "Information process- gage in an interactive learning process. reading computer text fa: a common Teachers will need to have skills for purpose are in an excellent situation for ing technologies offer special help, be- selecting and evaluating software to shared understandings to evolve as they cause they allow building the kinds of meet specific goals and that process read, discuss, make decisions and more intimate, supportive, learning will be greatly influenced by a teach- clarify meaning. environments called for by the er's assumptions about how knowl- constructivist perspective .... together, information processing technologies edge is constructed. Collaborative small group computer work presents a situation for students and the constructivist point of view fashion an image of education much HOW WILL TEACHERS DECIDE IF USING to construct mutual understandings of more attentive to understanding and A COMPUTER IS THE BEST CHOICE FOR text and to take responsibility for their Free- the active use of knowledge and skills" THE TASK? own learning. Newman, Vibert, Computer use and appropriate soft- man, and Sharp (1988) point out that (Perkins, 1991). (For additional information about integration, see the Ap- ware should provide a context to en- computers encourage collaborative pendix: Curriculum Correlation for hance student understanding and meet learning, even in story games. The an existing curriculum goal. Since many games seem to generate comprehen- Where in the World is Carmen schools have a limited number of com- sive, collaborative problem solving ac- Sandiego?) puters, students sharing computers can tivities. Carefully chosen educational AN EXAMPLE: WHERE IN THE WORLD IS provide an excellent situation for com- games can promote classroom interac- munication and collaborative skills. tion, encourage student planning and CARMEN SANDIEGO? This paper presents support for using decision-making and become an im- There are many excellent computer pro- educational adventure games which portant part of the computer-literacy grams available now. The following program is presented only as an exam- can provide real purposes for practis- events in the classroom ple to clarify the role of a computer as a ing many language skills and offer chal- (p. 435). Students naturally collaborate tool which can provide situations for lenging reading experiences. and use language to enhance and clarify their thinking when playing computer collaborative interactions in classrooms. Teachers can select software which pro- games. vides a situation that promotes interac- Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? is an example of an excellent tive, cooperative learning and provides HOW CAN COMPUTER USE BE EFFEC- interactive adventure game now avail- experiences to use language for a vari- TIVELY INTEGRATED? able in a Multimedia version. The play- ety of purposes. Some interactive soft- Computer programs can be chosen to ers (detectives) have the task of solving wa re can supporta functional approach compliment existing curriculum goals. to language by providing a context for Classrooms designed to encouragea string of crimes which involves an using language naturally. A functional problem solving, critical and creative intriguing chase to many destinations around the world The ga me effectively approach to language looks at how lan- thinking can use a variety of programs incorporates the need to research clues guage enables us to do things - to share such as: adventure games, graphics, information, to enquire, to argue, to simulations, and integrated software in the World Almanac, read to learn about different parts of the world and reflect, to construct ideas, and make programs. Teachers can provide soft- sense of the world. The emphasis is on ware as a motivation to readfora vari- to work cooperatively and collabora-

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 294 294 tively. The mystery in this adventure priate and effective use of computers Agenda. Issues for the Nineties. game provides students with a chal- must consider software which places r. Eleanor Curtin Publishing. pp. 4-5. lenge, real purposes to communicatehigh cognitive demand on students. Knight, B.A. & Watson, K.K. (1992) using a variety of language skills and a Software should offer students an op- Investigating the use of computers social context for critical reading and portunity to apply skills and knowl- in primary classrooms in the discussions. edge, to evaluate and make judgements Northwest Region of NSW, Selected and to draw together selected bits of Papers from the Second Joint Na- Students are naturally drawn to the information in order to solve problems. tional Conference (Hobart) of the game situation and easily engage in the Ideally, students will use computers as Australian Reading Association and investigations and problem solving a tool to enhance their own thinking the Association for the Teaching of situations presented to them. This col- and to achieve goals which goes be- English, September, 201-213. laborative learning situation fosters yond the acquisition of isolated facts. Newman, Vibert, Freeman, and Sharp. discussions that allow different points 1991. InTheElementaryClassroom. of view a nd exchange of ideas which all To summarise, many educators do not by Eileen Tway, In Flood, J. Jensen, contribute to the development of crea-fully comprehend the implications of J. M. Lapp, D.; Squire, J.R. (eds.) tive thinking and deeper levels of un- computer use in schools and many Handbook of Research on Teach- derstanding (Cunningham, Knight, and questions remain regarding the future ing the English Language Arts. Watson, 1992). The student detectives roles of teachers and computers. Com- Macmillan share creative inquiry (trying to solve puter applications can motivate stu- Niess, M. L. 1990 Preparing computer the crime) as they learn how to: ask the dent to engage in many essential future using educators in a new decade, right questions (a kind of critical curi- skills such as higher order thinking. Computing Teacher, November, osity); investigate and interpret (read- Teachers must decide if using a com- pp. 10-11. ing for specific relevant details); recon- puter is the best choice for the task, if Perkins, D. N. 1991. Technology meets struct text (using clues found in the thecomputers' capabilities meet an edu- constructivism: Do they make a original text), and use prediction to cational need and if software can be marriage? Educational Technology, draw tentative conclusions (problem effectively integrated into the existing May, pp. 18-23. solving). curriculum. Are educators willing to Polin, L. 1990. Young children, literacy meet the challenge, to review personal and computers. The Computing The software creates a context, motiva- views of learning and current prac- Teacher, November, pp. 34-35. tion and purpose to use all forms of tices, to provide necessary support to Ray, D. 1991a Technology and restruc- language: speaking, listening, reading, integrate computers into classrooms? turing part 1: New educational di- and writing. Two or three students rections, The Computing Teacher, working together with this instnictiona I REFERENCES March, pp. 9-19 adventure game will have many op- Brummelhuis, A. and Plomp, T. 1991. Ray, D. 1991b. Technology and restruc- portunities to use a variety of reading The Relation Between problem ar- turing part 2: New organisational strategies. In an effort to make sense of eas and stages of computer imple- directions. TheComputing Teacher, the text, they will actively read by sam- mentation. Paper presented to the April, pp. 8-12. pling and selecting text; and using in- annual meeting of the American ference, prediction, confirmation and Educational Research Association. correction strategies. Investigating the Chicago, April 3-7, 22 p. crimes provides real purpose for read- Cunningham, D.J., Knight, B. and ing and discussing information on the Watson, K. (in press) Instructional screen as well as from the World Alma- prescriptions can be ahzardous to nac. Feedback supplied by the soft- your pedagogy. Journal of the So- ware allows students to self monitor ciety for Accelerative Learning and and to evaluate their experiences. This Teaching. feedback can also promote strategy Derewianka, B. 1990. Exploring how analysis (often through naturally oc- Texts work.Primary English curring talk) to help students learn more Teachers Association. about their personal metacognitive Goodman, K. S. 1985. Unity in Read- strategies and problem solving ap- ing. In Singer, H. and Ruddell, R. B. proaches. (eds.) Theoretica I Models and Proc- esses of Reading, Third Edition. pp. Teachers have a powerful tool and the 813-840. ability to significantly alter instruction Kale, J. and Luke, A. 1991. Doing Things with the availability of computer soft- with Words.Early Language ware, especially Multimedia. Appro- socialisation. In Furniss, Ela lite a nd Green, Pamela (eds.) The Literacy

~~AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1093 295~~

~~J 29F COMPUTER HARDWARE- SOFTWARE AND ORGANISATION WITHIN PRIMARY . SCHOOLS: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY INVOLVING SCHOOLS IN THE NW REGIONOF NSW, AUSTRALIA BY BRUCE ALLEN KNIGH AND KATHY K. WATSON~~

~~Lecturers in the Department of Learning, Devel- opment and Communication University of New England~~

Generally, the most common types Region of New South Wales ( Appen- of software found in the schools dix A1) provided a sample of their per- were problem solving, creativity and ceptions regarding the effective use of thinking skills, and utilities (eg. computers in primary classrooms. The Print Shop, Crossword Magic). conclusion drawn from this can be There appeared to be no uniform summarised as "Generally, computers organisation regarding software were regarded as useful educational purchase or storage nor responsibil- tools which prepared students for the ity for hardware and software within future and teachers believed that all the schools. Some respondents students needed to know how to oper- Computer coordinators indicated that computers and ate a computer" (Knight and Watson, software were high on a list of 1992, p. 202). Responses consistently from 11 primary schools priorities for their schools and there indicated the actual level of skill, expe- responded to a survey were limited funds available for rience, and knowledge about the uses designed to gauge the such purchases. Although comput- of computers as educational tools was ers were commonly used in the minimal. There was general agreement amount of computer hard- schools, less than half of the schools that more knowledge about the uses of ware, software andorgani- had provided any computer computers as educational tools would sation within their schools. inservice training fcr teachers. bebeneficial (Knight and Watson,1992).

The schools were from a These findings, if replicated in future If educators are promoting the use of rural area of NSW and studies, have implications for both computers in classrooms and funding ranged in size from less preservice and inservice teacher edu- for hardware and software, then com- cation. puters are in the schools to stay and than 50 to more than 500 teachers must learn to make the maxi- pupils and the number of BACKGROUND TOTHE STUDY mum use of them. How then is compu- computers in the schools Computers have been clearly estab- ter hardware and software organised lished as appropriate technology for within schools? What are the implica- ranged from 2 to 14. education (Ahearn, 1991, Niess, 1990; tions of this organisation for effective Polin, 1990; Ray, 1991a,b). An earlier use of hard ware a nd software by teach- study of teachers in the Northwest ers and students in primary schools?

297 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 296 This pilot study aims to provide pre- INSTRUMENT PROCEDURE liminary information from a sample of A survey (see footnote re Appendix B ) The 20 surveys were distributed with school principals and/or computer co- was designed to gather information reply paid envelopes to a sample of ordinators in the Northwest Region of fromprincipals/computerco- primary schools in the Northwest Re- New South Wales who responded to a ordinators to gauge the amount of gion of NSW. After a period of three to survey regarding their current organi- computer hardware, and software and four weeks, 11 responses were received. sation of computer hardware and soft- its organisation within schools. The first The Statview computer package was ware in schools. section consisted of four questions re- used to analyse the quantitative data. lating to the number o f computers, type AIMS OF THE STUDY and amount of software and organisa- RESULTS 1. To gather information from a sam-tion within the school. Respondents Because of the small numberof respond- ple of primary principals and/or were required to provide numerical ents to the survey, any conclusions computer co-ordinators to gauge the data for these questions. stated cannot be generalised to all amount of computer hardware, and schools. They can however, be used to software and its organisation within The second section of nine questions describe the situations as they currently schools. refer/ed to the school's organisation exist in some schools. 2. To describe the current situation and funding of hard ware and software regarding computer organisation in and the principals/computer co- SECTION ONE the Northwest Region° f New South ordinators beliefs regarding the use ofThe number of computers in schools Wales. available funds, uses and priorities of varied between two and fourteen. As 3. To document the implications ofcomputers in their schools. A five- expected, the number of computers in such organisation for preservice and point Likert scale was used to assess each classroom, and organisation inservice education. beliefs, with categories ranging from within infants, middle and upper pri- strongly agree to strongly disagree and mary areas varied considerably. There were no computers laboratories, all of METHOD from none to very much. The final three questions dealt with how the the computers being located in individual classrooms. There was a wide SAMPLE school provided inservice training for From reply-paid surveys distributed to teachers and kept up to date with new variety of amount and type of software twenty schools ranging in size from developments needed to use a compu- with utility and problem-solving pro- two to thirty teachers, 11 were returned. ter effectively in the classroom. grams being the most popular. The This sample of respondents represented least often found software in these schools catering for less than 50 to more The survey responses were completely schools was Logo (see Figure 1). than 500 students. voluntary and anonymous, with the period taken to complete it ranging from 10 - 15 minutes.

~~Word processing 9.2% II Integrated packages14.1% Utilities 32.0% O Databases 5 3%~~

~~IIILogo 1 5% Problem-solving 25.7% Other 12.1%~~

~~Fig 1: Software Usage~~

298 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL L IAPUTING, JULY 1993 297 ing of software in the schools and where ated with the schools. For example, SECTION TWO most funds were supplied by parent A majority of responses to question 6 it was housed. Because no central stor- organisations such as 'Parents and on the survey (responsibility for hard-age facility was used, teachers(espe- ware and software) suggested that in- cially those new to the school) would Friends' of each school who presum- dividual teachers at a school were re-presumably not know of all the re- ably thought the purchases were essential for their children. `) remain in sponsible for both computers and soft- sourcer that were available. Doessuch ware. Other responses indicated that a situation suggest that somesoftware touch with modern technology and one person at the school was responsi- is only applicable to one grade level prepare them for the future. ble for both hardware and softwareand not suitable to others? while no responses suggested that a Not all schools however, ranked hardware and software high on a list of committee or others had responsibility The question regarding sources of priorities (see Figure 2), and indicated for this essential task. funding for hardware and software drew general agreement from re- there were only limited funds available. Responses concerning software stor- spondents in that all funding was gen- In general the use of computers in the schools also varied from 'a little' to 'very age suggested that most material was erated by the actions of persons associ- stored in individual classrooms. There much' (see Figure 3). was no indication of a centralised list-

~~II Agree63.6% INNeutral 27.3% Disagree 9.1%~~

~~Fig 2: School Priorities~~

~~II Little27.3% II Fair Amount 54.5%~~

~~C3Much 18 2%~~

~~Fig 3: Computer Use~~

299 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1$3 n n n SECTION THREE to assist with many basic processes of REFERENCES Responses to the questions concerning organising data, creating, storing and Ahearn, E.M. (1991) "Real restructur- inservice provisions for staff were alsomanipulating information for personal ing through technology", Perspec- varied and ranged from none (55%) to purposes. Such experiences encourage tives, 3, No.1. programs that were completed severalstudents to become responsible for their Knight, B.A. & Watson, K.K. (1992) years ago to those that were happeningown learning. "Investigating the use of comput- now. erally those schools who had ers in primary classrooms in the provi inservice had done so in moreTeachers have a powerful tool and the Northwest Region of NSW", Se- than o e area (beginner courses, soft-ability to significantly change current lected Papers from the Second Joint ware usage, problem solving and man-instructional practices with the avail- National Conference (Hobart) of the agement, Of concern however is theabilityof computer software, especially Australian Reading Association and high percentage of schools who haveMultimedia. Ultimately, teachers must the Association for the Teaching of not provided any inservice and the im-decide how computers can be effec- English, September, 201-213. plications of this will be discussed later. tively used in classrooms and those Niess, M. L. (1990) "Preparing com- decisions require time to review and puter using educators in a new decade", The Computing Teacher, DISCUSSION evaluate software, to collaborate with Even though schools appear to havecolleagues and resource people. November, pp. 10-11. satisfactory resources in the form ofInservice provisions to allow teachers Polin, L. (1990) 'Young children, lit- hardware and software, the lack of cen- to firstly explore the hardware and soft- eracy and computers ", The Com- tralised organisation in schools may beware and then to experiment with these puting Teacher, November, pp. hindering the most useful applicationtools in their teaching practices will 34-35. of these resources. The present systembenefit the educational system by sup- Ray, D. (1991a) "Technology and re- of grafting these resources onto theporting effective classroom teachers and structuring part 1: New educa- school and the curriculum will not re-active learners with this new technol- tional directions", The Comput- sult in effective use in the classroom. ogy. ing Teacher, March, pp. 9-19. Ray, D. (1991b) "Technology and re- There are a number of issues to be re-The findings of this small pilot study structuring part 2: New organisa- solved before computers will be effec-forms the basis of a larger future study tional directions", The Computing tively integrated into classroom prac-needed to explore the organisation and Teacher, April, pp. 8-12. tices. Teachers must decide if using a use of computers in schools. If similar computer L. the best tool for the task, ifresults are obtained, then there is a 1 Appendix A and B have been the software meets an educational needneed to provide support to schools and omitted from this version of the and if computer use can be effectively teachers so that computers can be effec- paper in order to reduce the length integrated into the existing curriculum. tively integrated into the school sys- of the document. Please see authors Therefore teachers will need to have tem. for further information about these skills for selecting and evaluating soft- survey forms Department of ware to meet specific needs.TheseThe broader implications of the results Learning, Development and decisions are greatly influenced by a of this study suggest that ongoing sup- Communication,University of New teacher's assumptions about howport is a major concern for teachers. It England, Armidale, NSW 2350 knowledge is constructed, and a teach- is therefore necessary that a system for AUSTRALIA (Ed.) er's expectations and philosophy ofproviding support is created to meet education. Do teachers feel computersthis need.Addressing these needs are drill and practice machines or pow- within schools is necessary to inspire erful tools for developing thinking? teachers, to overcome hardware defi- ciencies, and to enable resources to be If teachers believe that all knowledge iseffectively used in the classroom. constructed, their classrooms should provide a variety of experiences with the construc.:'on process. Some general purpose programs, can offer excellent opportunities for students to construct orcreateusefulinformation. Word processors, graphics, and database managers are examples of general purpose programs which are benefi cial since they are "information free" by des:gn. A major benefit of an "information free" program is that it offers students a tool

~~300 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 THENATIONAL VISION FOR TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION DO THE POLICY MAKERS HAVE A CRYSTAL BALL? BY ARNA WESLEY NSW Representative ACCE~~

The discussion of the development ofpolicy-maker may state that teachers tne Technology Project is histot i.41 inare resistant to change. It cannot be character and provides an overview ofdenied that schools are embroiled in the past and present situation for both small a nd large scale change. There technology in the school curriculum.is no doubt that the context in which The context in which these changes areany initiative occurs will influence the occurring is analysed, with somefinal result. Those who must cope with deliberation on the situation in thethe change, need to reflect and United Kingdom and the United States. understand both their own situation Technology Education is discussed inand the situations of others around the light of a study of the literature, andthem, in order to plan or cope with the this is related to the Australian, and inchange. This paper aims to particular, New SouthWales, illuminate the pathways curriculum. It is noted that there is some Change has always been with us, which led to the tension between decentralisation at ainteracting with the world around us state level and the centralisation ofand providing new challenges. Society development of the curriculum at a national level. has moved through the agricultural National Technology revolution and the industrial revolution Project. A number of The results of a survey conducted at thetoface the challenges of the last national conference - ACEC '92 -technological revolution. The 1990s questions are posed, but are included. They ra isequestions about have witnessed many internationally few answers are provided. the consultation with technologysignificantchangesalready - Various systems, groups, educators. The process ofDemocracy has swept across Europe; implementation has received littlethe Berlin wall has been removed and procedures, emphasis in official communications.Germany reunited; one party systems bureaucracies, individuals How will these initiatives manage toare on the retreat in Africa; Iraq invaded etc will be involved in the find their way, via the bureaucracy toKuwait; there is a greater emphasis on the technology education teachers, and social justice. implementation of this finallytothe most important national initiative - Will stakeholders - the students? Time willToffler (1980), in The Third Wave refers they form stepping stones, tell. As technology educators, we mustto the "colliding waves of change". He prepare ourselves for the launch of thediscusses the political, social and or will they be stumbling National Technology Project. economic trends which interact and blocks? challenge old assumptions. "We INTRODUCTION explore the many new relationships Some may say thlt education is beingspringing up - between changing inundated with change, while othersenergy patterns and new forms of will say that there is nothing new at all. family life, or between manufacturing It is sometimes stated that policymethods and the self-help movement, changes are made with little knowledge to mention only a few - we suddenly of the classroom situation, while adiscover that many of the very same

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 301 conditions that produce today's greatest Education has responded to thesethe Education Reform Act which perils also open fascinating new changes and, as reported in the United provided fora National Curriculum. It potentials." While he focuses on the Nations Development Program Report furnished government with the direction of change, he also warns of (1991), education systems continue to responsibility for legislating for the cost of not being fast enough in respond to the challenges set by society. 1) the subjects which were to form the making changes. basis of the curriculum, Australia has shared in the educational 2) assessment of learning, and In the Australian context similar revolution of increased participation,3) the development of management warnings are given by Jones (1990) in and has also experienced changes in policies for schools. the preface to Sleepers, Wake.educational thinking, and "Technology could change our participation/responsibility. FosterandMoon (1992) describes this move as an perceptions of the world and increase Harman (1992) express surprise at the "overtly and unashamedly political individual capacity exponentially, but fact that educational change occursact;...... an audacious, perhaps unique failure to come to grips with the social within such a strong institution. intervention to restructure radically a implications could lead to personal nationaltraditionof curriculum retardation rather than advance." He "Specific factors that might create resistance organisation and control" He traces the describes how Australia has developed to change, let alone reform, include a high development of national curriculum into a new type of society with different degree of administrative centralisation, from the "Revised Code " of 1862, economic bases, and how knowledge rigidity inbureaucratic organisation,commenting that the concept of a and skill have replaced raw materials professionalisation and unionisation ofnational curriculum was accepted, but and muscle power or the imperative to teachers, a comparatively low level ofdirecting criticism at "the stark, work harder. community participation in school (and, traditionalist model that subsequently mor e generally educational)politics,inertia passed into legislation without any major Vice President Gore, as a senator in in the clientele, excessive reliance on modifications". 1991, stated that he believes that the credentials and biases on class, gender, United States must remain a t the cutting ethnic or racial grounds. Despite these Stringer (1991) agrees that the political edge of computer technology if it is to factors, howemr, change does occur." . influences have been paramount in the be successful in this global civilisation. United Kingdom experience. It"is In referring to the lead in weaponry Many writers point to the ra pid changes another example of politicians' inability to technology demonstrated in Iraq, he in technology as a mar...rust inunderstand the complexity of how to states: "This same technology is securing educational develop__ ant. As implement change. The number of changes our economic security by helping American Nickerson (1990) states: to the system are indicative of the way scientists and engineers to develop new politicians are unable to foresee the products and processes to keep the US "To the extent that the purposes of education unintended results of their policies and the competitive in world markets." (District of are determined by the context in which it way governments shift their ground as Columbia, 1991) occurs, technology by virtue of its role as an they identify the detailed implications of agent of social change, is a force in shaping their policies and their problems." In providing advice for policy makers, them. Technology also affects the content of there is little difference between the education, because among the objectives of This National Curriculum in the United advice of Toffler in 1970 and Jones in education is that of making understandable Kingdom provides ten foundation 1990. Both urge the formulation of the world in which one lives, and we live in subjects to be taken by all pupils during positive technologica I goals, in response a technological world." their period of compulsory education. to the pace of change. The core subjects (Education Reform NATIONAL CURRICULUM Act of 1988) are: Boyd (1988), Fleming (1987), Jones "There is a widespread tendency of central English , Mathematics and Science (1990, Nickerson(1990)and governments not only to achieve or maintain The others are listed as: a modern Toffler(1980) agree that technology control but also to seek major changes, atforeign language (in secondary school), questions cannot be answered in the national level, in school curriculum and technology, history, geography, art, technological terms alone. Political, assessment. The concepts of a common, music and physical education. social and economic consequences must core curriculum, key competencies, be con sidered within the soc ial, cul tura l progression through nationally defined and Each of these studies has a statutory and psychological environment. To use assessed levels or stages, are now common 'program of study' and specified Toffler's metaphor, the waves of change place in countries which only a few years 'attainment targets' for individual in each of these areas, "collide and ago saw no place for them" (Skilbeck,1992) student assessment. The National overlap", creating the society in which Curriculum Council and the Schools we live today. THE UNITED KINGDOM Examinations and Assessment Unit, are In the United Kingdom, in 1988, the the national bodies supervising the Conservative Government introduced implementation.

302 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 301 Theearlyexperienceof implementation In 1983 the report The Nation at Risk Historically and constitutionally, is related by Moon (1992). was released, prompting debate on the education has been the responsibility "Despite stringent protests about thequality of education. Seldon (1991) of the individual states and territories. paceand extent of change, and the form reports that no state comparisons were Foster and Harman (1992) outline the of some of the subjects, surveys show made at this time because no change of educational control, showing that teachers have accepted themeaningful data was available. that the federal government role in principle of national curriculum. However A Wall Chart was released funding for post secondary education Professional and academic comment soon after, and this provided data on in 1950s and the introduction of 'State has been critical of much of the each state - including the Scholastic Aid' during 1960s and 1970s began the development process. This comment Aptitude Test Scores. The states, as trend, but that accelerated change has been borne out in practicebyalmost Seldon reports, responded with aoccurred with the creation of the immediate changes in some key aspects movement into assessment and national Curriculum Development ofthestructureandsubject accountability. Centre (later to become under the formulations." - eg the National auspices of the Schools Commission) Curriculum Technology. Kratzenmeyer (1986) comments that the in 1980s. The arrival of the Curriculum curriculum was in state control and Development Centre formalised the The Engineering Council (Smither and that the federal role was to collect and participation of the Commonwealth in Robinson; 1992) is critical of the collate information. Harmen (1991) the area of curriculum and legitimised National Curriculum Technology. It believes that although there is no the concept of national curriculum provided a detailed report based on national curriculum, it is the national development. comprehensive research, detailing the emphasis on national teststhat is problems experienced by teachers, and driving the curriculum at state level, There were examples of cooperation comments that "manyof the difficulties constituting a de-facto national between the Commonwealth and the seem tc be associated with a curriculum. States on curricula in the 1960s - eg. progressively generalised and abstract curriculum planning associated with notion of 'technology'. " The National Seldon (1991) expresses concern at the introduction of the metric system and Curriculum Council responded in ability of a decentralised system to set decimal currency; Australian Science 'National Curriculum Technology: The the performance goals established at a Education Project. Appendix 1 in Case for Revising the Order (1992) national level. Fasano and Winder (1991), lists selected which suggests changes as essential if " government reports and policy the Order is to meet the objectives of AUSTRALIA documents in Australia from 1980 to the Education Reform Act". The Foster and Harman (1992) trace the 1990, tracing the wave of reflection and recommendations do, however, changes in policy making in Australian reform in Australian education. Such a support the conceptual approach to the education. They state that "for policy- list demonstrates the changes in focus - technology process which integrates making machinery to become active, some from teachereducation, to equality a nd analysis, problem solving, practical issue or issues of significance need to arise special population groups, to concerns capability and evaluative skills. that provide impetus for change. A with efficiency in education and single trigger mechanism can operate, or a training. It must be noted that the national series of incidents or interplay between initiative in Australia differs from the incidents can occur, to induce initiators The Commonwealth Schools United Kingdom situation. Our into transforming a concern into an issue Commission, in light of the number of 'national curriculum' takes the form of that will become a political issue." They programs it initiated, could be viewed a statement which will provide a list technological change, social change, as a symbol for change in schooling in framework to systems, who have and unemployment among others. Australia. Since its demise in 1987, the agreed to support the statement. How functions of the Schools Commission this occurs will be up to each system. The economic problems of Australia have been delegated to the Australian are significant in Neil Dempster's (1992) Education Council (AEC). It isthis THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA editorial. "As Australia's politicians councilwhichoverseesthe A fundamentally decentralised system seek solutions to our economic ills, the development of national projects. of education operates in the United contribution that all public institutions States. The federal government is make to national productivity has been In his overview of these developments responsible for educational statistics, subject to scrutiny. Education has been Neil Dempster (1992) comments: research and improvement, and for no exception." Fasano and Winder "Action has already extendedto implementing specific functions (1991), and Kennedy (1992) express rationalising the tertiary education sector, mandated by Congress. However, the similar views, emphasising the restructuring the awards under which states hold constitutional responsibility, influence of political and economic Australia'steacisers work, fosteringprojects and this responsibility is passed to the reform. that contribute to improving the quality of local schools systems.

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 303 Inn teaching and learning and pursuing The National Technology Project is these writers, as not only appropriate, agreements between Australian education one of these areas of learning. but necessary in order to foster the authorities and the Commonwealth wider view of technology.It Also perceives technOlogy as a social issue - Government over a range of matters TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION affecting schooling provision in the States The literature in the field of Technology ahuman issue controlled by btu:inns. and Territories. Among these matters, isextremely varied, since the recent agreement on the broad purposes of development of knowledge and THE TECHNOLOGY CURRICULUM education in Australia by the Australian practice in this area has been quite The Map of Technologyin Australian Education Council set a precedent for explosive over the last few years. Government Schools (1990) found that common curriculum development activity learning in technology education across the country. In short the Australian DERNING TECHNOLOGY emphasised three interdependent Education Council, through the Hobart There are many interpretations of the aspects-learning ABOUT technologies; Declaration, has argued for a sense of term "Technology", ranging from the learning WITH technologies; learning national unity, identity and continuity in perception of technology as the toolsTHROUGH technologies. The Map Australian schools through allegiance to themselves, through to the concept of also found that "No one definition of technology education is used in all states shared curriculum goals." technology as a process. Many articles about technology refer specifically to and territories. A variety of definitions are At its meeting in April 1991, the the use of computers, videos etc., employed both within and across systems. AustralianEducationCouncil conceptualising technology as the object Each definition reflects the area of the approved eight areas of learning as a produced through technological curriculum and the audience for which it is base for national collaborative invention. The more recent articles of intended." curriculum activity : the 1980-90's focus on technology as a English, Science, process, rather than the tool itself. There Technology in education may embrace Mathematics,Languages Other Than is no doub t that there is a move towards every possible means by which information can be presented and the English (LOTE), The Arts, Technology, the perception of technology as the Studies of Society and Environment, drawing together of knowledge, skills tools used in an educational context. Health(incorporatingphysical and understanding of technical Those with a stake M a particular subject education and personal development). processes to solve problems andarea tend to see technology as the produce a "product". specific tools of that subject. eg the The joint funding involves 50% woodwork teacher will see the lathe, contribution from the Commonwealth Jennings-Wray and Wellington (1985) jigsaw etc as technology, while the and 50% collectively from the States cited in Owen and Chapman (1990) computing studies teacher will perceive and Territories (according to a weighted comment: computers as technology. Others refer formula). Responsibility for the various "There is a tendency for us to think of to the technology of education where the principal role of educational projects is shared: 'technology as the radio, TV, satellite, or Mathematics - New South Wales; microcomputer. These, however, are simply technology is to help improve the Environmental Education - Victoria; the embodiment or products of technology. overall efficiency of the teaching/ Science and Studies of Society - Technology is really the thinking, the learning process. Queensland; English - South Australia; rational and creative capacity that man Technology - Tasmania. uses to initiate and develop such products. The need to educate students in the It is not to be confused with the products skills and capabilities demanded by a For each of these learning areas, a themselves." rapidly industrialised technological society is recognised by Bolter (1990), statement will be developed. Hannan Boyd (1988), Chevelier (1990), Jones (1992) describes them as being "limited UNESCO (1985) defines technology as: (1990) Mayer (1992) and Slator (1991), . in their scope to a general outline of the "...the know-how and creative processes They have accepted the premise that main subject matter and skills in the area. that may assist people to utilise tools, societies which fail to respond to the Their circulation will also be limited, resources and systems to solve problems economic and social opportunities essentially to curriculum developers in and to enhance control over the natural and systems and schools rather than to all made environments in an endeavour to presented by the technological revolution will be unable to compete teachers as though they were some kind of improve the hu man condition."(Rationale: effectively on an international level. syllabus. Their purpose is twofold: to give a Technology for Australian Schools) common basis in knowledge and skills for systems and schools across Australia to Bail (1986), Brusic (1990), Fleming (1988) A study of current New South Wales syllabus documents shows that some work from and develop; and to propose new andRainsly and Hughes (1989), curriculum developers see technology aspects of content where there appear to be comment on the move away from the in the curriculum as teaching students gaps in existing State frameworks." Profile simplistic view of technology merely for assessment and reporting, will as tools . The wider definition is seenby about computers, workshop machinery accompany each statement. etc, while others emphasise the

304 AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 1 development of the skills in using such learning to a variety of educational a social :ontext.Thus, knowledge in tools as necessary to enhance the moveopportunities and experiences for curricu..tin areas should be defined in a from school to the workplace. Recent students, such as thematic learning, social context. Provision should syllabus documents (eg Design and problem solving, modular instruction, be made in the curriculum for groups with Technology) focus on the problem integrated learning and co-operative special learning requirements. The solving skills which will enable students learning. curriculum should be based on a moral and to formulate ideas, put them into ethical position. Schooling should practice and foster technological As Savage and Sterry (1990) state: be an experience which contributes to change. "the dynamic nature of technology developingself confidence,resped forothers, education should reflect the dynamic world optimism and high self esteem. The Based on the premise that technology of technology As our world becomes curriculum should provide for equality of education is an integral part of society moretechnological,and our learners require educational opportunities and recognise and education, researchers (Bolter,1990; the ability to make decisions based on that students bring a wide range of abilities Brusic1990;Hutchinsonand intellectual rather than emotional criteria, and experiences to each area of schooling." Hutchinson, 1991; Savage and Sterry, technology education should enjoy greater 1990;) have provided discussions about visibility." Students need not only to understand the philosophical aspects of technology various technologies themselves, but and the processes needed to teach about As our society has developed, it has how these technologies impact on their it. They include models for technology been necessary to change working ideas lives. education - mission, goals, problems, or methods-leading to several curricula opportunities, resources, assessment, transitions. A search of the literature "New technology does not standalone. It is practical implications - and thehas shown that technology is not the linked to transformations in real groups of challenges such models bring to the sole responsibility of any one subject people's lives, jobs, hopes and dreams. For curriculum. area, although it is more likely to be some of these groups, those lives will be included in some subjects - science, enhanced. For others, the dreams will be Harden (1989) refers to the differing mathematics,industrialarts,shattered. Wise choices about the philosophical camps which cause computing studies - than in others - appropriate place of the new technology in conflict in technology education and humanities. education, then, are not only educational cite the industrial arts situation as an decisions. They are fundamentally choices example. He explains that teachers Some curricula link science with about the kind of society we shall have, adhere to the beliefs and traditions that technology and adopt the perception about the social and ethical responsiveness are firmly established in successful that science is the way of knowing, of our institutions to the majority of our pedagogical methodologies which have while technology is the way of doing. future citizens." (Owen and Abbott- served them well, slowing in many cases (NSW Deparment of School Education: Chapman, 1990) the progress to the 21st century, Science and Technology K-6) The technology based paradigm.This emphasis on technology education NATIONAL TECHNOLOGY PROJECT reinforces the concept proposed by varies from place to place - one mayThe development of the National Bolter (1990), Boyd (1988), Chevelier stress the broader aspect of social issues, Technology Project is occurring in a (1990), Jones (1990) and Mayer (1992), while another the use of technology in time of rapid change - in society, in that in order to create new opportunities the classroom. education and in technology, as in education for the technical society, discussed previously. At present we curricula decisions can no longer be The research of Bernard and Luundgren are witnessing a move by the based on traditions. (1990) found that technology ed ucation Commonwealth Government to urge is perceived as a "melting pot" for the States and Territory Governments Recent developments in technology various disciplinary orientations. toadjust their education policies to meet curriculum build on the widest possible contemporarynationally based view of technology education, and Technology and society interact.In economic imperatives.The federal attempt to incorporate many different developing technology education social educationportfoliohasbeen aspects - knowledge and skills in issues such as inclusiveness, culture, restructured within the Department of technological tools, vocational training, and values are to be considered, Employment, Education and Training, social aspects, economic priorities, according to the Australian Education promoting the relationship between creativity, autonomy. However, theTask Force on Education and these three aspects. Within this political issues ofchoosing appropriate Technology (1985) environment, theCarmichael, Finn and curriculum organisers for the study of Meyer Reports demonstrate a very technology are often raised, but The Guidelines for National Steering strong support for the inclusion of consensus remains allusive. In general, Committees state that industry perspectives. the literature encou rages the move from "Curriculum statements should recognise content or subject based teaching and that knowledge has been and is developed in

AUSTRAUAN EDUCAllONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 305 304 Clarke (1990), in discussing the national July 1991 curriculum and all ability ranges perspective towards technology Finn Report released as part of a was undertaken. education, takes the view that it national review of post compulsory Information was gathered from provides a catalyst for change - and a education and training, proposing policy statements, guidelines, change in the right direction. six employment-related key support materials and other forms competencies to be developed for of documentation as well as from DEVELOPMENT all young people through a range of descriptions of practices and A summary of the following initiatives pathways. projected plans. demonstrates the extent and speed of The process used in particular states developmentsinthenational February and June 1992 and territories to collect and collate curriculum arena. The focus is the Mayer Committeereleased information varied. The range of Technology Project. discussion paper and proposal for peopleconsultedincluded discussion,proposingKey education administrators, May 1988 Competency Strands, each to be consultants, subject specialists, Strengthening Australia's Schools: describedatanumber of principals, teachers and in some A Consideration of the Focus and performance levels. cases parents and members of the Content of Schooling was released community. by the then Federal Education March 1992 The survey instrument was Minister, John Dawkins.It Carmichael Report released, designed to collect information on identified education as part of the proposing an integrated system of "what is happening" and "what is "National good" vocation education and training planned". In conjunction with this which would becompetency based. the literature review was designed April 1989 to provide information on "what The HobartDeclaration on May 1992 might happen", derived from Schooling, where the Australian National Statement on Technology emerging national and international Education Council agreed to act in Australian Schools released as trends. jointly to assist Australian schools an Interim Statement A preliminaryquestionaire in meeting the challenges of the determined the issues and major times, and developed Common and June 1992 areas of concern, and the questions AgreedNationalGoalsfor CURASS, the Australian Education in the survey instrument were Schooling in Australia. Council's Curriculumand developed. AssessmentCommittee is January 1990 restructured,providingthe The Brief for Phase 11 states: "While Establishment of Curriculum CURASS Executivewitha recognising there are variations both in the Corporation, a company limited by Secretariate to assist in the process stage and nature of development in guarantee,ownedbythe of progressively approving drafts technology education across the systems, Commonwealth, Stateand Territory in all learning areas; trialling and there is a platform of commonality that Ministers of Education validation of profiles; and preparing provides the basis for a second phase of recommendations to the Australian collaborativeactivity. "The aims for Phase February 1990 Education Council Standing II are listed as: National K-12 Technology Committee. to develop a national statement Curriculum Mapping completed about K-12 technology education There are three phases to the National in the curriculum December 1990 Technology Project: to describe common curriculum Australian Education Council agree Phase I - the Mapping (completed) elements around which technology to establish a national review of Phase II - the National Statement education can be organised post-compulsory education Technology for Australian Schools' to describe the kind of learning (released as an interim statement) experiences thpt should be provided achievedin April 1991 Phase III - The Technology Profile (at andoutcomes Upgrading of National trialling stage) technology education Collaborative Curriculum topromote furthernational Development Activity providing During Phase I, the project team carried collaboration on technology eight areas of learning for national out the request of the Australian education. collaborative activity,to be Education Council: approved by Australian Education A survey of Technology Education Phase III involves the development of a Council. Work on the development in government systems in all States National Technology Profile, to provide of national statements and subject and Territories, in all areas of the an agreed structure for reporting on profiles is extended. students' achievements in Technology.

~~306 AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993~~

(1 5 It will : a good track record. If the Technology Residential status was as follows: develop a share language amongProject is to be successful, the ACT 5 Australian teachers for reporting government will need to give thought Victoria 48 on student achievements to marketing the idea. The state leaders New South Wales 25 draw on the work, experiences and have accepted the concept of national Tasmania 7 expertiseof all Australian states and curriculum, but can they be sure that Queensland 12 territories in this area of learning. the systems will provide the necessary Western Australia 11 The profile describes different levels of support to teachers? Will the systems South Australia 15 achievement for students who have provide the stepping stones to the Northern Territory 4 followed a program of study that is teachers, or will they also become a consistent with the National Statement. stumbling block? Participants were asked to rate their It will be used by teachers to determine knowledge of the statement on the scale and report on the level of achievement As this national initiative moves from of 1 (I have never heard of this for individual students in each strand, the Australian Education Council, to document) to 7 (1 know this document from year 1 to year 12. Exemplars of the sntes, to the systems, to their very well). learning will be collected from regions, to the schools, to the teachers practising teachers to, ilevelop the and finally to the students, will it remain 75% of the sample selected 1, 2 or 3, profiles, validationwilfbe conducted intact? There is every chance thatdemonstratingaverylimited by the Australian Council for unique, but valuable ideas may be lost knowledge of the statement. It was Educational Research, trialling will in the process. interesting that 31% had never heard of occur early 1993, and the Technology the national statement. Such a result, Profile is to be released in July 1993. At the last Australian Computers in leads one to question the effectiveness Education Conference (Melbourne, of the consultancy process during the Some writers have expressed concern 1992) a longitudinal design survey was development of the statement. 15% of at the speed of development. However, used to collect data from a sampled the sample selected 5, 6 or 7, with 10% I am sure that those who have beenpopulation.One can make the on 4. involved in the decision making have assumption that the delegates at ACCE found the progress slow. If too long is have an interest in technology in Participants in the survey were also spent in developing the policy, it is out education. There is no doubt that such asked to select adefinition about of date before the implementation, but a sample represents only a very small technology education from a choice of if the time is too short people criticise percentage of the population, and that four. the speed of change. Is there anthey are committed. Although this acceptable approach? I doubt it. sample eliminates the ability to 1.learning to utilise technological tools, generalise, it is accepted that the results resourcesandsystemsto solvea variety The development of common and givea valid indication of the knowledge of problems agreed approaches to curriculum is seen of educators who have a stake in the 2.the technological tools that allow byCumming (1992) and Watkins (1992) area. students to contribute to the design to be at odds with the current moves process towards school based management. Participants were asked to use a Likert 3.thepuiposefulapplicationofknowledge, There is definitely some tension scale to indicate their knowledge of the experience and resources to create between decentralisation a t a state level national statement. A comparison after pmcessesand products that meet human and the centralisation of curriculum at the statement has been released, will needs a national level. How this will beenable a judgement regarding eh), 4.teaching aboutthe evolution, reconciled remains to be seen. This issue increase in awareness. application and significance of may become a stumbling block as the technological developments project is implemented. 127 participants were surveyed in 1992 and came from the following areas: Morris (1992), when discussing parents' primary 22 Despite the lack of knowledge of the perspectivesontheNational secondary 44 document itself, 37% selected the first Curriculum, argues that: "teachers will tertiary,2, 32 description of technology education only implement curriculum initiatives consultancy 22 and 46% selected the third description, faithfully when they are committed to special education 1 demonstrating that a majority of those the reforms and they understand the research 1 surveyed had an understanding of intention behind the changes. .... and technology education which relates to that education reform requires that promoted in the national statement. community support. Large scale 'top down' curriculum reform does not have

AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 307 306 Judging by reactions at meetings held Although there is criticism about many upon which a student's cumulative to explain the national Technologyaspects of national curriculum, performanceasassessed can be placed. That Project, and letters in ProfessionalCumming (1992) offers a positive is in relation to a nationally or systemically Group journals, sections of the comment: "The concept of a national devised set ofattainment levels, judgements community have felt excluded from 'framework', comprising guidelines can be made about present achievement. the planning process. However, there and principles incorporating sufficient Each of the levels, or strands within the is no doubt that a conscious effort was flexibility to embrace the needs and levels, describes a standard against which made at a bureaucratic and political circumstances of local systems and the students work can be compared or level to ensure consultation. Although schools seems to be reasonably well- matched." the intentions are laudable, the size ofsupported at this stage." our country and the time restraints The The Further Education Unit (1982) experienced by most educators, will In studying the current meaning of provides further comments about form stumbling blocks. We have allnational curriculum one must also profiles: experienced the arrival of a document, consider another initiative - that "For a common curricula framework, the requesting feedback within a week; or concerned with the development of format of the profile should be common, for the short, unreasonable notice of a employment-related competencies unlike many personal records of meeting to discuss issues. inaugurated in the Finn Report (1991) achievement, profiles are meant to be and developed by the Mayer comparable if they are related to a common Profiles, if they are worth Foggo and Martin (1992) comment that Committee (1991,1992).This is another curriculum. teachers feel excluded from decisions huge issue, of interest to technology using, should be employing a wide and maderelated to their profession. "While educators, but one which deserves more diverse range of assessments." the process may be intended to betime and space, than that which is collaborative, the agenda is frequently available in this paper. Broadfoot (1992) discusses the world compared to a juggernaut out of wide trend for change with regard to control". At public meetings However, it should be noted that the assessment. "There is an increasing (Australian Council for Computers in Mayer Committee (1992) explains that international concensus that it is Education, July 1992; Technology the Key Competency Strands do not, important for governments to know Education Federation of Australia, and are not intended to comprise a what is being learned by students in the December, 1992) educators have curriculum, but assume a basis of education system, and perhaps more expressed concern that this consultation knowledge. Where knowledge and significantly, the reasons for theoverall was "too little, too late". Kennedy(1992) understandings need to be made strengths and weaknesses in student expresses the view that "the grudging explicit, (eg technological performance that this monitoring way in which the educational understanding), the knowledge base identifies." community has become involved (in will be provided by the national thedevelopmentofnational statements. UNITED KINGDOM statements) has only served to alienate In the United Kingdom profiles have been developed to meet educational, the educational community" THE TECHNOLOGY PROFILE The issue of assessment and the bureaucratic and parental 'needs', and national The need to enhance the collective and development of profiles, has initiated inconjunctionwith individual capacities of groups to much debate. The Profile is designed to curriculum. The Task Group on respond to national initiatives and be used by teachers (whilet he Statement Assessment and Testing developed an policy, resulted in the formation of the has been written for systems), and as approach which comprised descriptive National Education Forum in late 1991. such will be of greater interest to the Attainment Targets, four levels of pr--..tising teacher. Standard Assessment Tasks (involving We, as technology teachers cannot sophisticated national tests and ignore the national agenda. "The word profile has been used over a long period in the literature on measurement teachers' assessments, individual Despite Foggo and Martin's (1992) use and evaluation in education to describe the records), and the publica tion of schools' of the term "bewilderment' to describepresentationofanindividual's results. the reactions of teachers to the series of achievements or characteristics on multiple changes occurring in the educational dimensions." Neil Baumgart cited in Broadfoot (192), Kenway (1992) and environment, they also state that Broad foot (1986). Moon (1992) write of the political and controversy which "teacherswho have hadthe educational surrounds assessment in the United opportunity to consider the situation Boomer (1992) states: (of national curriculum) have generally "the subject profile is not itself an Kingdom. come to see the potentially positive instrument of assessment, something which Kenway (1992) comments that "Major aspects". does not appear to be well understood. it is if you like, a vertical map of performance politicians oppose its likely costs, its territory from lower to higher performance reliance on teachers' judgements and

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Pot advocate simple population testing. one to year twelve. The levels do not Skills Testing Program; Western Teachers oppose the tests, the equate with either year levels in school Australian Monitoring Standards in proposal's costlydemands on their time or chronological age of students. The Education Program), will be linked to and the publication of results." Moon progression of student achievement the national subject profiles. expands on the clash between teachers from level one to level eight represents and politicians - the idea of short and a continuum of learning in technology. McTaggart (1991) uses the sharp 'pencil and paper' tests against Mathematical Profiles Project as an the quest for more reliable and valid There are four elements for each levelof example todemonstrate the lackof time instruments. profile : allowed for serious debate during the The level statement describes theconsultation period. However, the The research of Broadfoot (1992) into characteristics oflearning at the level scope of consultation as listed by the the impact of assessment of schools in by giving a holistic picture ofAustralian Education Council is the United Kingdom, points to rapidly learning across all four strands. extensive, andBoomer (1992) is declining teacher morale, invidious Outcome Statements describe what realistic:"Whileprofessional comparisonsbetweenschools, students can be expected to achieve associations and sections of the wider widespread pupil and parent anxiety, in each strand of learning in community will have had some input and a host of technical difficulties. technology at that level. into the meta framework, in the final Kenway (1992) also expresses concern Pointers are typical, not required,analysis it cannot be an unfiltered new about the 'marketing' aspect inherent examples of student's activities that vision." (p64) in the publication of results by school. demonstrate achievement of particulr r outcomes. Other issues concerning Profiles may Government policy in the United Work Samples are record samplesbe seen as: Kingdom, to separate the curriculum of student's thoughts and actions * The potential conf)1ct of purposes - function from the assessment function, that illustrate particular outcomes one being for the profile to assist under the auspices of two separate and pointers. teachers in programming and the nationalbodies(theNational other being to provide a basis for Curriculum Council and the Schools Together these elements describe reportingachievement. The Examinations and Assessment Unit), student achievement typical of thelevel. reporting aspect requires a simpler has led to a degree of 'infighting', No one element should be interpreted structure than the function of according to Broadfoot (1992), Kenway independentlyoftheothers. assisting in the development of (1992), Medley and White (1992), and Assessment of student's learning programs. Moon (1992). involves making judgements about While overall there is little empha sis achievements with all four elements in on content in the profiles strands, AUSTRALIA mind. some are clearly processes, while Boomer (1992) describes subject profiles others are more concerned with in the Australian context. They "are, or Students may achieve at different levels content. will be, an integrated part of the indifferent strands. A particular student " Relationship between the outcomes officially endorsed curriculum as they may also display different levels of in NSW syllabus documents and are conceived. They have arisen in achievement within different aspects the national profiles Australia out of consideration of the of the same strand. various means of assessing and Each of these issues will affect the reporting in use. " (p63) He believes Australian writers ( Boomer, 1992; technology teachers of today. We must they have grown out of " a sense of the Kennedy, 1992;McTaggart, 1991; all make an effort to be informed, make inadequacies of other approaches, Masters,1992; Reid, 1992) have debated judgements, question the changes. But mainly their effect in narrowing the the advantages and disadvantages if, as I believe, the national curriculum curriculum,skewingeffortin associated with the development of framework and profiles are hereto stay, classrooms and denying professional national profiles in Australia. They then I urge you to endeavour to assist teacher judgement The profiles agree that changes have resulted from in the smooth implementa tion. It is clear approach comes out of a strongly the notion of 'accountability' which isthat the Technology Profile will affect teacher-centred, classroom-oriented firmly on the national education agenda, the development of curriculum in understanding of how judgementand that the move towards a moretechnology education, and that works on a day to day basis in our relevant method of assessment, is a discussions on its value will continue. schools." (p64) positive one. CONCLUSION The Technology Profile may be Masters (1992) and Kenway (1992) The debate concerning national described as below: question how the present assessment initiatives in Australia, has prompted The progression of student achievement methods employed by the statesid comment from a number of respected is described over eight levels from year territories (eg New South Wales Basiceducators. Most of them are critical

AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1993 309 308 about the consultation process. Will national profiles become (ERIC document No ED 332 668) However, it is fair to say that, all States national assessment? Boomer, G (1992) The Advent of and Territories and theCommonwealth Will results be published? Standards in Australian Education have been representedduring the Is there such a thing as typical Curriculum Perspectives Vo112 (1) development and have reached progresslearning in all aspects of 61-66 agreement. It would no doubt be curriculum? Boser, R A (1991) The Implementation impossible to consult everyone who How do learning and knowledge of State Wide Curriculum Change has a stake in national curricuk.m, but processes interact? in Technology Education Research the lists studied show an expansive Wheredo the political parties stand? Report, Texas US (ERIC document network. However, the lack of What is the relationship between No ED :',14 598) involvement felt by many is a real issue. commonwealth and state power? Boyd, G (1988) The Impact of Society on Educational Technology British The support provided at the top of the It is anticipated that you, the reader, Journal of Educational Technology education heirachy is evident in the will have many other questions. Debate 19(2) involvement of the ministers and on such issues is healthy as long as the Broad foot,P (1986) Profiles and Records director generals from each State and potentially valuable aspects of the of Achievement Holt Educational Territory. The manner in which it is national initiative are not lost in the Broadfoot, P (1992) A Question of anticipated that this support will filter analysis.The importance of technology Quality: The Changing Role of down through the systems, to the education, particularly as part of the Assessment in Education regions and eventually to the schools social, political and economic agendas, Australian Curriculum Studies and classrooms is not clear at present. cannot be denied. As technology Association: ACT The notion of stumbling blocks and educators, we should accept the Brumby, J (1989) Apple for the Teacher stepping stones will no doubt come to National Technology Project, and adapt - Choice and Technology in the fore when the project is released. it to suit the needs and circumstances of Learning Report of the House of our system and school. 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AUSTRAUAN EDUCATIONAL COMPUTING, JULY 1903 311 310 Power, C ; Wood, R (1984) National Saha, J and Keeves, P (Ed) (1990) Smithers,A and Robinson,P (1992) Assessment: A Re-dew of Programs Schooling and Society in Australia: Technology inthe National in Australia, the United Kingdom Sociological Perspective Australian Curriculum The Engineering and the United States Comparative National University Press: Canberra Council Great Britain Education Review Vol 28 No 3 Savage, E, and Sterry, L, (Eds) (1990) A Stringer, B (1991) National Curriculum Curriculum (ERIC document No EJ314327) ConceptualFrameworkfor - The UK Experience Perspectives Newsletter Edition Price-Davies, P(1992) Joining theClever Technology Education A Country:Accessto"Real ConceptualFrameworkfor September 1991 6 Computers" for Disabled Students Technology Education (ERIC Toffler, A (1980) The Third Wave Pan inACEC92 Proceedings document No ED334 463) Books London Computing in Education Group of Scriven, M (1987) The Rights of United Nations Development Program Victoria, Richmond, Victoria Technology in Education: the Need (1991) Human Development Report 1991 Oxford University Press New Rainsley, Wand Hughes, P(1989) Study for Conscious-raising University of on the Developments of Technical Western Australia York and Vocational Education ina Selden, R(1991)Reform and Walton, C (1990) Critical Thinking and Humanistic Spirit: The situation Accountability in a Decentralised the Nation's Report Card: 1990 Australia The University of System: shifts in responsibility and Reflections Nevada, USA (ERIC document No ED327553) Tasmania expectations in Fasano and Winder Reid, A (1992)Accountability and (1991) Education Policy in Australia Watkins, P (1992) National Curriculum Education: The Great Profile University of Woollongong: - an OrganisationalPerspective Debate, Point and Counterpoint, Woollongong Unicorn 18 (3) 46-50 Curriculum Perspectivesl2 (1) 55- Skilbeck, M(1992) National Curriculum West, P (1991) Politics and Education in NSW 1988-91 The Australian 56 Within the OECD Unicorn 18 (3) 9- 14 Educational Researcher 18 ( 3)

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