CHINESE LANGUAGE Afterwards, an American missionary TEACHING IN group led by Mrs. Mathoon founded a Chinese-language boarding school near Wat Aroon Rajavararam (the Temple of Prapin Manomaiviboon1 Dawn), Thonburi. The establishment opened on 30 September 1852, with Mr. Abstract Kieng Kwa Sib, a teacher among the missionary group on charge of teaching functions. According to the archives of This article is about the present day the Special Schools Division, Ministry teaching and learning of Chinese in of Education, the school initially had 27 Thailand, particularly over the past male pupils. Later it grew larger in size seven to eight years. However, before and admitted girls too. Unfortunately, dealing with the state of current teaching Mr. Kieng Kwa Sib passed away in and learning, this article will present a 1860. The teacher who took over the concise historical version of Chinese running of the courses was a Thai and, language , so that understandably, adopted Thai as the readers will get a perspective and will be medium of instruction in all subjects. aware of diverse factors affecting The change in the medium of instruction Chinese teaching in the country. spelt the end of Chinese-language schools at that time. Indeed, the establishment of History of Chinese language Chinese-language schools was in teaching in Thailand abeyance for quite a long time after that. Then in 1908, the Zhonghua Huiguan According to the archives of the Association established the Chinese­ Department of Special Schools Division, language school Hua Yi in Captain Bush Ministry of Education, concerning Chinese­ Lane, off New Road, . Three language private schools, the first Chinese­ teachers arrived from China to make up language school in Thailand was founded the entire teaching staff. The school was on an island in Ayutthya Province in of immense benefit to children of the 1782. Later this school came to be diasporic Chinese community. However, known as "Ko Rian" (Class Island). the school shut down before long since Chinese was the school's single course the teachers and the operators were offering, with an enrollment of about preoccupied with the issue of revolution 200 pupils. No evidence exists as to the in China and had little time for identity of the school founder. Since instructional work. there was no government supervision of schools at that time, it is not possible to Shortly afterwards, a consortium of ascertain when the school ceased operation. Expatriate Chinese Associations, namely the Chaozhou Association, the Hainan Association, the Guangdong Association, the Hakka Association, and the Fujian Association founded the Chinese-language 1 Ph.D., Associate Professor, and Director of school Xin Min. Since most of the Asia Research Centor, school administrators were of Chaozhou University. descent, the language of instruction was

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Chaozhou. Understandably, later the educational fronts (more schools having other ethnic communities decided to been opened by European missionaries), break up the partnership so as to found a and floods of highly literate Chinese school each, where their own particular fleeing from political turmoil and dire variant was the language of instruction. economic conditions in their country The first group to withdraw was the who arrived in Thailand after 1920 Hakka Association, who founded Jin De (Coughlin 1960: 147). Besides, at that School in 1915. The other groups followed time the authorities were still lax with suit. The Guangdong Association founded the government of the school system. So Ming De School in 1914. The Fujian the practice of founding Chinese­ Association set up Pei Yuan School in language schools was widespread. 1915. The Hainan Association established Yu Min School in 1921 (Coughlin 1960: Nevertheless, following the change from 146). Thus, the several expatriate Chinese absolute to constitutional monarchy in Associations played a very significant 1932, the incumbent Thai government role in the expansion of Chinese­ sought to divert the loyalty that schools in Thailand at the outset. people had felt exclusively to the King to loyalty to the nation instead. Thus, the Apart form state-authorized schools, Chinese language schools which placed during the same period, private Chinese­ a much greater emphasis on the teaching language schools run by education­ of Chinese than on Thai flew in the face minded Chinese expatriates were springing of government policy at that time. The up in districts settled by the diasporic year 1933 saw the passing of a statute Chinese communities far and wide. For limiting the class sessions of Chinese example, the Chinese of Guangdong along with other foreign language in all descent set up the first Chinese-language schools to a possible maximum of 6 girls' school called Kun De School in hours a week out of the total number of 1917. During the 1920s the number of 28 sessions a week. Any school violating Chinese-language schools grew very this law would be closed. In fact, rapidly. In 1920, there were only about seventy-nine Chinese-language schools 30 Chinese-language primary schools. defying the regulation were forced by The year 1932, however, saw a total of the national government to close down over 200 Chinese-language primary and between 1933 and 1935 (Coughing 1960: secondary schools all told (Coughlin 146) 1960: 146-147) On 7 July 1938 a dispute broke out The dramatic increase in the number of between China and Japan at Lugou Siao Chinese-language schools early in the Bridge, leading later to war between the twentieth century can be traced to the two countries. Throughout the Sino­ following factors: the Chinese pride in Japanese war, the expatriate Chinese their own culture; patriotism, expansion of the community in Thailand; a long with ChineSe communities with ever-renewing Chinese-language schools and Chinese flow of new immigrants; expansion teachers, raised funds and sent the money of mercantile Chinese communities, to China to help defray war-related competition with European expatriates in expenses. Secret societies involved in anti­ Thailand both on commercial and Japanese activities and in boycotting

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Japanese imports were founded. The were founded. Towards the close of Thai government at that time became an 1949, there were about 450 Chinese ally to the Japanese during World War II language schools all told (Chokkajitsumpun (1939-1945). Wary of the ways in which 1998: 59). Chinese activities in Thailand might hurt Thai-Japanese relations, the government After the inauguration of the Chinese forbade the Chinese to raise money and Embassy in Bangkok on 17 September placed heavy restrictions on the Chinese 1946, high-level negotiations took place language press. In addition, the Minister concerning Chinese-language schools of Education in 1939 ordered Chinese­ initiated by the Chinese in Thailand. A language schools to teach Chinese for settlement was reached in May 1947, to only two hours a week, with the the effect that the government would adopt a remainder of the class schedule devoted lenient stance, permitting Chinese-language to Thai-language lessons. Any schools schools to teach Chinese for 10 hours a which violated the rule would have to be week out of the overall class session of closed. According to the Ministry of 30 hours a week Education's records, in 1939 Chinese­ language private schools across the However, China's political upheaval in country numbered 294. Fifty-one among 1949 spurred on more extensive operations these schools ceased operation of their on the part of the long-standing Chinese own accord. The rest were closed by the Communist Party in Thailand. The party Ministry of Education until there were members furtively used the buildings only two left in 1951 (Chokkajitsumpun on school premises and the facilities 1998: 59). The control of Chinese (=buildings) of other Chinese owned language schools during the second institutions as base of operations. World War period went down in history Consequently, the government once more as the time when Thai authorities implemented firm control of Chines­ imposed the strictest ever restrictions language school. A large number of over educational institutions. · schools went out of business and many more were closed by the authorities, so When World War II was over, China that the number of Chinese-language belonged to the victorious side, while schools was down to 177 in 1959 Thailand's status was somewhat dubious. (Sachakul 1984: 6). Between 1960 and Although not exactly lumped into the 1988 the Thai government inspected defeated camp, the country faltered, Chinese-language schools on a regular having allied itself with Japan in the basis. Permission was granted to Second World War. As a result the Chinese-owned schools for teaching Chinese expatriates in Thailand exulted Chinese only at primary level, with in the victory of their mother country Chinese-language class sessions numbering and mistakenly believed that they no 5 hours a week out of a possible weekly longer. needed to be under Thai law. All total of 30 hours. In addition, the the Chinese-language schools which had Ministry of Education adopted the policy been closed by the Thai authorities of freezing the number of Chinese­ during World War II revived. Also, new language schools. Hence there were only Chinese-language schools both in the 120 Chinese-language schools in 1988 nation's capital and in the provinces (Chokkajitsumpun 1998: 63)

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1. In the wake of the Thai financial In January 1989, the Sino-Thai Chamber crisis, companies have resorted to of Commerce, the Chaozhou Association, numerous layoffs. However, employees and people who were aware of the with knowledge of Chinese have survived important status of Chinese joined forces unscathed and have continued to thrive. to petition the Ministry of Education for It is now clear that today Chinese plays a an extension in Chinese language prominent role in Thailand commercially teaching beyond the Prathom One to and ecrnomically. Joint Sino-Thai inve&ment Prathom Four levels. In May 1989, in various areas of business has risen permission was officially granted for sharply. As a result, Chinese has become offering Mandarin from the kindergarten essential in bilateral trade relations. years through primary school (Prathom 6) as an additional foreign language 2. A number of Chinese high-ranking option apart form English. Then in dignitaries have visited Thailand. Her February 1992, the authorities fully Majesty the Queen has been to China on established Mandarin on the same basis a state visit. Besides, Her Royal as all the other foreign languages Highness Princess Sirindhorn's Chinese (English, French, German and Japanese) language study visit to Beijing University traditionally taught in Thai schools. from February to March 2001 was Moreover, permission was granted for widely covered on Thai television on a enlisting the services of native speakers daily basis. The news broadcast has of Chinese from the People's Republic served to inspire an even greater interest of China as teachers of the language, in Chinese language teaching and provided that they hold a bachelor's learning among Thai people. degree or graduate from colleges of education. Meanwhile, the Ministry of 3. Since 1998 Chinese has been another Education focused on development of foreign language option available to French German, Japanese, and Chinese Thai schoolleavers on sitting university language courses for students in senior entrance examinations. Students planning high schools. Schools began to follow to satisfy entrance requirements of these language syllabi in 1997 undergraduate programs in the humanities (Chokkajitsumpun 1998: 67-68). Since and the social sciences can opt for a then the Ministry of Education has Chinese language paper instead of sought to promote the teaching and French or German papers. Such flexibility learning of Chinese. accounts for Chinese becoming a more popular choice. Current state of Chinese language education 4. Chinese joined the WTO in 2001. As everyone knows, China is hosting t~e Olympic Game in 2008. Besides, the The study of Chinese in Thailand has year 2010 will see Shanghai playing host gained · in popularity since 1992. At to the World Expo. present, Chinese draws the largest number of learners next to English. This 5. Thailand and China initiated an dramatic surge in popularity probably agricultural produce Free Trade Area in results from the following factors: October, 2003.

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Teaching and learning Mandarin Matayom Suksa 1 through Matayom at primary and secondary levels Suksa 6, who study Chinese for 2 sessions a day, that is to say, 10 hours a Nowadays Mandarin is taught at both week, as is common practice in Chinese­ primary and secondary levels. In language schools generally. Patrapakdi Bangkok there about 100 state schools School has been in operation since the offering Chinese as a foreign language first semester of the academic year 2003. other than English. Of these, over fifty are schools under the supervision of the Teaching and learning Mandarin Department of General Education, and at tertiary level over forty are under the control of BMA (Bangkok Metropolitan Area). In Before the 1970s the academic subject of addition, there are 118 Chinese-language Mandarin was not offered at university. private schools, most of which have It is , the been in operation since well before oldest Thai university, which innovated, 1988. According to the survey carried and where preparations for offering out in 2003, these schools are located in Chinese as a major were first set in Bangkok and in 51 other provinces (see motion. This current academic year 2004 Table No.1 in the Appendix) Of all the sees a total of 32 state and private Chinese-language schools mentioned in universities across Thailand offering Table No.1, only 12 provide secondary Chinese at undergraduate level, of which education (see Table No.2 in the 10 offer Chinese as a major program Appendix) (see Table No.3 in the Appendix)

Among Chinese-language secondary Chulalongkorn University is the first and schools, Patrapakdi School is the most only Thai university to offer a graduate recent establishment. The school was (Master's degree) program in Chinese. founded by the Thailand Chapter of the The M.A. program in Chinese was Chaozhou Association in response to the inaugurated in 1996, with the first crop policy set by His Excellency the Prime of graduate students arriving in 1997. Minister, Lieutenant Colonel Dr.Taksin This program receives significant Shinawat, who, on his visit to China, had support from the Department of Chinese assured Chairman, Jing Zemin of the at Beijing University. Visiting faculty People's Republic of China of the Thai members from Beijing University teach government's commitment to embracing at Chula each semester in line with the the academic subject of Mandarin in academic co-operation agreement between secondary schools all over Thailand. The Beijing and Chulalongkorn Universities. Chaozhou Association went ahead with All graduate students are required to the construction of the school in 2002. spend two months on research leading During the preparation period, the school up to their thesis at Beijing University. collaborated with the faculty of Beijing The Chinese partner university will be University on educational management responsible for assigning faculty advisors and on syllabus development. Construction who will supervise the students' work was completed in 2003 and the during their residence in Beijing. Hence, establishment . was named "Patrapakdi it can be said that the Master's program School." The school admits students to in Chinese at Chula is thriving, thanks to

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the support of the Department of Chinese, run by the private sector. These Chinese Beijing University. To date the Chula language centers open every day, both in degree program has produced program the daylight and evening hours. The has produced 22 graduates. It is expected language programs available include a that another 6 will complete their studies series of language courses from beginners this academic year or the next. to advanced levels as well as lessons custom-tailored to individual requirements. At present the supply of Chinese Besides the numerous Chinese language language teachers in Thailand is woefully centers, several universities offer Chinese inadequate. As a result, Chulalongkorn language courses as part of community University's Faculty of Arts has sought education, serving the public outside the to forge · collaborative links with campus. They conduct Chinese language educational institution in China and classes in the evenings and at week­ Taiwan which offer graduate programs ends, so that people wishing to learn in Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Chinese but who are workplace-based 5 Language. The aim is to produce days a week can now sign up for graduates who specialize in TCFL and Chinese courses. In 1982, the Faculty of who are qualified to teach Chinese as an Arts at Chulalongkorn University became academic subject at various educational the first state institution to hold evening institutions. After some two years of programs in Chinese for the general liaison arrangements and preparations, public and has continued to do so up to an international Master of Arts Program now, with 350 people on average in Chinese as a Foreign Language was attending per year. The programs on inaugurated at the outset of the academic offer range from elementary courses for year 2004. The training of the first batch absolute beginners to classes designed of students has been facilitated by a co­ for students with some prior knowledge operation agreement with National of Chinese who wish to improve their Taiwan Normal University, under the skills. Generally speaking, such courses terms of which the Taiwanese partner are conducted by faculty members from university sends its faculty members to the Chinese Department I Division help with the teaching of three courses affiliated to the relevant university. throughout the first and second semesters. However, the academic structure at Mae Chula student must spend their third Fa Luang University is unique among semester at NTNU taking three courses. higher education institutions. In other The international program involves the words, Mae Fa Luang University is use of Chinese and English as the privileged to have the Sirindhorn languages of instruction throughout. A Language and Cultural Center as the Master's thesis is compulsory as a major unit responsible for offering Chinese component of the program. language classes to the community outside the university campus. In addition to Chinese language courses available from primary to secondary to In addition, another innovation in tertiary levels as detailed above, Chinese Chinese language education is distance language centers proliferate all over the learning via satellite television. Currently country. Bangkok alone has over 90 the only school which conducts teaching Chinese language centers sponsored and in this way is Klaikungwol School in

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Hua Hin District, Prachuab K.hiri Khan students are familiar with both types Province. Also, in 2004 Sukhothai of script. Almost all universities begin Dhammadhiraj University, an open teaching Chinese by introducing first the university as well as a distance learning traditional Chinese ideographic characters, institution, completed a series of textbooks following up afterwards with the on Chinere for Communication: Foundation simplified Chinese ideographic characters. Course I. Preparations are now under Furthermore, learning the transcription way for teaching the course by distance system should involve competence in learning method via television and both the Pinyin and the Zhuyin Fuhao radio broadcasts. Also, online Chinese systems. Currently most Chinese courses courses have become available. In 2003 focus on the traditional Chinese the continuing Education Center at ideographic characters and on the Pinyin Chulalongkorn University for the first transcription system, which prove Jess time innovated and experimented with rigorous. Incidentally, language textbooks teaching Chinese through the internet. using the traditional writing systems along with the Pinyin system are not Problems connected with present­ readily available. Consequently, there is day Chinese language teaching a shortage of suitable textbooks. and learning 2. Another very serious problem is scarcity of high-calibre teachers. In the It is clear that Chinese courses are at early nineties, a number of universities present enormously popular in Thailand, wish to initiate a Chinese program but with support from government agencies they simply could not fill up the teaching and the private sector alike. Even so, a posts, let alone the post of the head of number of problems have plagued department. With regard to the department Chinese language learning and teaching: head post in particular, the Office of Universities Bureau has stipulated 1. Currently all the six Chinese language that the head of department's minimum newspapers published in Thailand are academic qualifications should be at printed in old-style script, using traditional the level of a master's degree in the Chinese characters. However, knowledge relevant academic discipline. The crux of a single form of script is far from of the problem was the non-existence adequate. At present Thailand is the at that time of a master's program economic powerhouse of Southeast Asia in Chinese at Thai universities. Besides, and belongs to a free trade zone. The there were then as few as 10 people with country is active in maintaining strong master's degrees in Chinese from ties and commercial links with the universities abroad. To solve this problem, People's Republic of China, Taiwan, and Chulalongkorn University which enjoyed Hong Kong. Since Chinese is virtually then the distinction of having the best the lingua franca with regard to qualified faculty as befitting a flagship international trading links in this region, institution, put forward proposals to it has become necessary to learn initiate a master's degree program in both writing systems, namely both Chinese. The plan was fmally approved the traditional and simplified Chinese and the first batch of graduate students characters. As a result educational arrived in 1996. The program proves a institutions should make sure that

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success, with the support of VlSttlng Chinese as a foreign language and guest lecturers who are leading Chinese Chinese cultural studies. The experts language experts from countries such as who conducted the training program China, Hong Kong, and the USA. Of 22 included visiting specialists from recent graduates, 15 have taken up Beijing, Taiwan, and instructors from university teaching posts. Additionally, within the Division of Chinese at Chula. six master's degree students who are now writing their theses will take up The training program for teachers of their positions as university lecturers at Chinese under the auspices of the various institutions upon the completion Ministry of Education has highlighted of their degree. There are also a larger the serious pedagogical and personnel number of master's degree holders from problems. Around 80% of schoolteachers abroad. It can be said that these days the of Chinese studied the language in problem of Chinese language teacher elementary classes only. There are some shortage at university level is being who have had teaching experience in alleviated. However, the problem of other subjects, and are now taking human resource inadequacy at educational Chinese lessons with a view to becoming institutions below university status has Chinese language teachers in the future, not been solved. At present most just because Chinese is now an teachers in charge of programs leading exceedingly popular subject. It is clear to professional vocational school diplomas, that those secondary schoolteachers have as well as most secondary and primary hardly been taught the basic elements of school teachers have not had any formal Chinese grammar and phonetics. Nor schooling in Chinese, nor have they have they been exposed to the academic increased their knowledge of Chinese discipline of Teaching Mandarin as a beyond primary level. The Ministry of Foreign Language. Hence, they are at a Education is fully aware of this state of loss to correct or explain student's affairs and is keen to promote continuing mistakes. Moreover, their Chinese professional development and training of pronunciation is not exactly flawless, Chinese language teachers. Under this to put it mildly. This type of inadequacy promotion scheme, professional training is very difficult to reverse as those courses have been organized for the teachers have been used to non-standard benefit of schoolteachers free of charge. pronunciation since childhood days. Indeed the Ministry of Education requested the Chinese Division at Chula The current problem facing secondary to run such a training program for schools is one of shortage of teachers four groups of teachers, completely with a bachelor's degree in Chinese. funded by the Ministry. Seventy­ Usually, upon graduation, holders of a three teachers from about twenty­ bachelor's degree in Chinese head five secondary schools nationwide straight for work in the private sector participated in the training program. The where they can command higher duration of the program was 60 hours for compensation, often turning their noses each group. The training course focused up at teaching jobs in the process. The on the grammar and pronunciation of short training course funded by the Mandarin. Nevertheless, other areas Ministry of Education is just a strategy were also covered, for instance teaching for dealing with long-standing problems

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on an ad hoc basic, leading to only a one per each, to serve as supervisors and partial solution. mentors to Thai Chinese language teachers.

Recommendations To solve problems related to appropriate textbooks, the government should assign A shortage of high-ability teachers is a to a team of scholars the task of serious difficult calling for prompt compiling quality textbooks for use at action. As for higher education institutions, different academic levels. This is likely universities have quite successfully to be a long-term project. However, the managed to cope, primarily recruiting solution to the immediate problem of holders of master's degree in Chinese textbook shortage at secondary level is and later providing them with scholarships through a vigorous search for high­ for Ph.D. degree programs abroad quality textbooks from China or Taiwan. Alternatively, universities sometimes groom Then the government should proceed high-achieving undergraduates for teaching through appropriate channels as regards posts on the faculty that they will take up copyright matters, so that the texts could upon completion of their bachelor's be adapted and tailored to the needs of degrees. The universities will encourage Thai students. such recruits to continue their studies to master's degree and doctoral levels, so References that they can fulfill their potential in the teaching profession. Chokkajitsumpun, Pranee. 1988. Chinese Literacy Maintanance and shift in As for educational institutions below Banhgkok: Individual and Family university level, they should receive Cases. Ph.D. dissertation, University government support in the development of Hawaii. of their academic staff. The government Coughlin, Richard J. 1960. Double Identity: should support them by encouraging The Chinese in Modern Thailand. teachers to take a long study leave Hong Kong: Hong Kong University abroad for attaining academic qualifications Press. (up to bachelor's level at least). Junior Ministry of Education, Krom Wisarmnsuksa. academic staff members in particular 197 5. "Roongrian-raat phuson should be sent to China or Taiwan phaasaa chin" (Private school to improve their Chinese and/or to for teaching Chinese). Ekkasaan­ enroll in courses on Teaching and kaansuksa, Wisamansuksa 7, Learning Chinese as a Foreign Language. Bangkok. Concurrently, the government should Ministry of Education. 1999. Statistics of aim to recruit experienced Chinese Private Schools 1998. Bureau of teachers from China and Taiwan and Private Education. Bangkok. should forge collaborative linl

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Historical and Comparative Study of Chinese and Muslim Assimilation in Thailand. PhD. dissertation, UniversityofMichigan. Skinner, W. 1962. Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History. New York: Cornell University Press.

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Appendix Table 1: Chinese schools in 2003

Part of Thailand Provinces Number of Schools Bangkok 26 Kanchanaburi 1 Nakhon Pathom 4 Nonthaburi 1 Pathum Thani 5 Prachuap Khiri Khan 2 Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 3 Central Phetchaburi 1 Ratchaburi 3 Samut Prakan 1 Samut Songkhram 1 Samut Sakhon 1 Saraburi 2 Suphan Buri 2 Chanthaburi 1 Chachoengsao 3 ChonBuri 5 Eastern Nakhon Nayok 1 Prachin Buri 2 Rayong 1 KhonKaen 2 Nakhon Phanom 1 Nakhon Ratchasima 4 Buri Ram 2 Northeastern Si Sa Ket 1 Surin 3 NongKhai 1 Udon Thani 1 Ubon Ratchathani 1 ChiangRai 1 ChiangMai 1 Tak 2 Nakhon Sawan 3 Nan 1 Northern Phichit 2 Phitsanulok 1 Phetchabun 1 Phrae 1 Lampang 1 Sukhothai 4 Chumphon 1 Southern Trang 2

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Nakhon Si Thammarat 1 Narathiwat 2 Pattani 2 Phatthalung 1 Phuket 1 Ya1a 2 Ranong 1 Songkhla 3 Satun 1 SuratThani 1 Total 118

Table 2: Secondary schools offering Chinese

Province School Bangkok Sitabutbamrung School Phadungkitwitthaya School Phattharaphakdi School Nakhon Pathom Jian Hua School Chon Buri Wutthiwitthaya School Nakhon Ratchasima Jing De School Tak Ratwitthaya School Lampang Prachawit School Nakhon Si Thammarat Charoenwit School Phuket Prasatwit School Yala Zhonghua Foundation School Songkhla Srinakhon School

Table 3: Institutes at university level offering Chinese

Programs University Chinese major Chulalongkorn University Prince of Songkhla University Pattani Campus Silpakom University Srinakharinwirot University University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce University Maha Sarakham University Chiang Mai Rajabhat University Lampang Rajabhat University

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Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University Ramkharnhaeng University Business Chinese as major Assumption University Dhurakijpundit University Huachiew Chalermprakiet University Chinese as minor Yonok University Chinese as electives Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University Suan Dusit Rajabhat University Chiang Rai Rajabhat University Ratchaphat Bansomdej University

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