This dissertation has been 68-15 289 microfilmed exactly as received * BETHE, Donald Ray, 1940- SUCCESS IN BEGINNING HANDBALL AS A FUNCTION OF THE THEORY OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION. [Please note: Appendix D "Maudsley Personality Inven tory" not microfilmed at request of author. Available for consultation at the Ohio State University Library], The Ohio State University, Ph.D„ 1968 Education, physical
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan SUCCESS IN BEGINNING HANDBALL AS A FUNCTION OF THE THEORY OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By Donald Ray Bethe, B.A., M.S.
******
The Ohio State University 1968
Approved by 'WdMjH Adviser Department of Physical Education To
Barbara
Teresa
and
Karena ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to express appreciation to
Dr. Margaret Mordy for her sincere interest and helpful guidance throughout his graduate program: to Dr. Kent
Schwlrian for his assistance in the statistical design of this study; to Mr. David Snyder for teaching handball to the subjects in this study, for his helpful sugges tions, and for his keeping record of the subjects progress throughout the study; and to Mr. Joseph Willis who provided the inspiration and impetus for this study, who helped administer and score the Thematic Appercep tion Test, and who continually provided support and direction throughout the investigation. Special appreciation is extended to Dr. Charles L. Mand who, throughout the writers graduate program, challenged him to think, to go the extra step, to search for real meanings and real answers; and who had the patience and fortitude to weather this slow learners progress through a most rewarding storm. Finally, this writer will never find the words to express his appreciation to his wonderful wife for her unselfish support, encouragement, understanding and hard work. For raising a family, for shouldering his problems, and for the hundreds of hours spent typing papers, reports, and the rough and final drafts of this manuscript, the writer is lost for words.
ill VITA
April 6, 19*4-0 B o m - Santa Monica, California
1 9 6 3. B.A. , San Fernando Valley State College, Northrldge, California
1 9 6 3-1 96*4- . . . Graduate Assistant, Department of Physical Education, Syracuse University, Syracuse, Nevr York
196*4-. M.S., Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York
19 6*4—1966 . . . Instructor and Chairman of the Health and Physical Education Department, Cuyahoga Community College, Cleveland, Ohio
1 9 6 6 -1 9 6 8 . . ♦ Teaching Associate and Instructor, Department of Physical Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Physical Education Adviser: Professor Charles L. Mand
Secondary Field: Sociology Adviser: Professor Alfred C. Clarke CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ill
VITA ...... iv LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...... viii Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem . Significance of the Study I Delimitations of the Study 14 Limitations of the Study . 14 Definition of Terms . . . 16
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 19 Development of the Theory of Achievement Motivation ...... 19 The Theory of Achievement Motivation < 23 Performance Correlates of Achievement Motivation ...... 28 III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES 42 Selection of Subjects . . . . . 43 Instruments for the Theory of Achievement Motivation . . . « 45 The Success Factor in Beginning Handball ...... « . ... • 58 Methods for Analyzing the Data . 65
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA 6? Statistical Instrument ...... 68 Significance Level ...... 69 Hypotheses, Results and Discussions 70
v Chapter Page
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 95 S u m m a r y ...... 95 Conclusions...... 98 Recommendations for Future Research . . 101 APPENDIX...... 105 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 124
vi LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW T GROUPS ...... 71 2. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW Ts GROUPS ...... ?6 3. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW T_f GROUPS ...... 78 4. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN'HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW Ms GROUPS ...... 79 5. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW MAP GROUPS ...... 82
6. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR GROUPS IN THE INTERQUARTILE MAP RANGE AND UPPER-LOWER Map RANGES ...... 83 7. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW P s G R O U P S ...... 85
8 . RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW Ps x Is GROUPS ...... 86 9. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH Ks LOW Ma p AND LOW Ms HIGH GROUPS . 89 10. RANK ORDER RESULTANT T FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS GROUPS ...... 91 11. RANK ORDER PROBABILITY ESTIMATES BASED ON Ps X Is FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS GROUPS ...... 92 12. RANK ORDER PROBABILITY ESTIMATES FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS G R O U P S ...... 93 13. RANK ORDER SUCCESS SCORES FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS G R O U P S ...... 9^ 1^. RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW MODIFIED T G R O U P S ...... 101
vil LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Rating Scale for Probability of Success . 57
Charts 1. Handball Tournament Chart I ...... 60 2. Handball Tournament Chart II ...... 62
3. Handball Tournament Chart III ...... 63
viil CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
One of the major considerations in understand ing mans need to compete in sports and games is the psycho-social phenomenon of motivation. What is it that motivates a person to compete, what motivates one person more than another, and are there particular motives which are more Influential in guiding this type of behavior. Until recently, there has been a paucity of research in this area, primarily due to the fact that valid and reliable instruments have not been available. In the past decade however, the theory of achievement motivation has evolved with instruments which suggest that such behavioral analyses and com parisons are possible.^- It suggests that in competi tive situations man is primarily directed by two motives, the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid 2 failure. Both have also been considered as vital
■^-John W. Atkinson and Norman T. Feather, A Theory of Achievement Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1 9 6 6). 2 John W. Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co. , Inc., 1964), p. 2k-6.
1 elements for success in physical skills activities.^
With the development of this theory and its instru ments it is now possible to examine the theory in light of competitive sports and games participation and hopefully to conduct behavioral studies among different competitive sport activities. In selecting a competitive sports activity for examining this relationship it was decided to select an activity in which the competitive spirit is high, in which success can be readily assessed, in which subjects have not had prior experience, and in which personality studies have been at a minimum. One other consideration was to select an activity in which subjects elected to participate. Beginning handball was selected as it meets all of these require ments. The competitive spirit is high; success can easily be determined on the basis of winning or losing; students in most beginning classes have never had the opportunity to participate; and, studies dealing with the personality traits of handball players appear to be non existent. The last consideration, that the sub jects elect the activity, was assumed on the basis that
^Bryant J. Cratty, Psychology and Physical Activity (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. 185. h. Francis J. Ryan, "An Investigation of Person ality Difference Associated with Competitive Ability." In Psychosocial Problems of College Ken (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), p. 121. in the required physical education program at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, beginning hand ball at prime hours is one of the first courses to be filled. Therefore, two beginning handball classes, offered at prime times, 1:00 P.M. and 2:00 P.M. on Tuesdays and Thursdays, were chosen for this study.
One class was then selected on the basis that it had the greatest number of subjects who met the following criteria: they had never participated in handball prior to this experience, they were not varsity athletes at the University, and they have had at least one physical education class at The Ohio State University.
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to determine if success in beginning handball is a function of the theory of achievement motivation. To investigate this problem, the investigator reduced the theory into its component parts to permit greater analysis. The major assumption that success in beginning handball is a
function of the theory of achievement motivation was
tested by the null hypothesis that there is no rela
tionship between success in beginning handball and resultant achievement-motivation. k
Kore specifically, in addition to the major assumption this investigation studied the following assumptions:
1 . subjects with higher tendencies to achieve success (Ts ) are more successful in beginning handball than subjects with lower tendencies to achieve success (Ts )*
2. subjects with higher tendencies to avoid failure (T_f) are less successful in beginning hand ball than subjects with lower tendencies to avoid failure (T— f*)*
3. subjects with higher achievement motive scores (Ms) are more successful in beginning handball than subjects with lower achievement motive scores (Ms).
subjects with higher motives to avoid failure (M^p) are less successful in beginning hand ball than subjects with lower motives to avoid
failure (M^p).
5* there is a curvilinear relationship between the motive to avoid failure (MAp) and success
in beginning handball.
6. subjects with higher subjective estimates
of their probability for success (Ps) are more success
ful in beginning handball than subjects with lower
subjective estimates of their probability for
success (Ps ). 7. subjects with greater success in begin ning handball subjectively estimate their probabili
ties for success closer to fifty (5 0) percent than
do subjects who are less successful in beginning handball.
8 . subjects with high achievement motive scores and low motive to avoid failure scores are more successful in beginning handball than subjects
with low achievement motive scores and high motive to avoid failure scores.
9 . subjects with greater success in past
activities will have higher resultant achievement motive scores (T) than subjects who have experienced
less success. " '
1 0 . subjects with greater success in past activities will estimate their probability for success higher than subjects with less success in past activities.
1 1 . subjects with greater success in past activities will estimate their probability for
success closer to fifty (5 0) percent than subjects with less success in past activities.
1 2. subjects with greater success in past
activities will have greater success in beginning handball than subjects with less success in past activities. Significance of the Study
In sports and games it has been observed for many years by coaches and teachers that those who are most successful are usually highly motivated as well as highly skilled. However, in some instances in dividuals with apparently a moderate potential for success achieve great success by doing much better in the competitive situation than in practice per formances. On the other hand, there are some ath letes who never live up to their practice perform ances. 5 Examples of performances which do not follow anticipated or expected modes of behavior confront coaches and physical educators with problems that are neither easily identified nor easily remedied. Similarly, these problems are not new since one of the earliest studies on competitive temperament attempted to "seek answers to the phen omenon where one athlete does well in practice but fails in the competitive situation. "6 A recent study by F. J. Ryan, indicates that these fluctuations are-tlue In part to individual
^Francis J. Ryan, "Further Observations on Competitive Ability in Athletics." In Bryant M. Wedg (ed..), Psychosocial Problems of College Men (New Haven: Yale University Press, 195&77 123. ^Harold C. Berridge, "An Experiment in the Psychology of Competition," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 6, Supplement, 37, 1935. 7 anxieties.? However, the evidence on this point is not conslusive, W. R. Johnson has suggested that fear and anxiety are important parts of the competitive athletic situation.® Harrington and Peck in separate studies have indicated that anxiety interference Q 1 Q produces no apparent difference in performance. In another study, W. W. Karbe concluded that "high generally and specifically anxious subjects learned fewer skills after eight (8 ) lessons (swimming) but their performance equalled that of the low anxious group after sixteen (1 6) lessons.
Literature in physical education measurement and motor learning have placed a great deal of emphasis on the role and importance of motivation in
?Ryan, "An Investigation of Personality Difference Associated with Competitive Ability, p. 113* ®Warren R. Johnson, "A Study of Emotion Re vealed in Two Types of Athletic Sports Contests," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 20:72-79, March, 19^9. ^Eleanor P. Harrington, "Effect of Manifest Anxiety on Performance of a Gross Motor Skill." (Master's thesis, University of California at Berkeley, 1965)* Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8:4l, 1 9 6 6. *°Arden Peck, "The Influence of Anxiety on Volley ball Skills." (Master's thesis, University of North Carolina, 1966). Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 9 :8 9 , 1 9 6 7. ^Donald K. Mathews, Measurement in Physical Education (Philadelphia: W.^3. Saunders Co., 1968), p. 11^. the learning of motor skills.^2, 13. 1^. 15. 16. 17
However, according to Dr. Cgilvie, Professor of psychology at San Jose State College, who has done a great deal of research in the motivation of athletes,
"it (motivation) has been sadly neglected by past researchers."^ The majority of studies which have attempted to relate motivational variables to behavior in physical activity are represented in the following
Gladys Scott and Esther French, Measure ment and Evaluation in Physical Education (Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Co. ,1959), p. l^Wolfgang W. Karbe, "The Relationship of General Anxiety and Specific Anxiety Concerning the Learning of Swimming" (Doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1 9 6 6). Abstract in Completed Research. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 9:85. 198?.
l^Cratty, o£. clt., p. 8 5.
15james H. Humphrey, "Academic Skill and Con cept Development Through Motor Activity," Academy Papers. The American Academy of Physical Education, 1:33. March, 1 9 6 8. l^John Lawther, "Motor Learning at the High Skill Levels," Academy Papers. The American Academy of Physical Education, 1 ;40, March, 1 9 6 8,
l?Aile ene Lockhart, "Prerequisites to Motor Learning," Academy Papers, The American Academy of Physical Education, 1:1, March, 1 9 6 8.
■^Bruce C. Ogllvie, "Future Contribution of Motivational Research in Track," Track Technique. 13: 388, September, 19&3. examples; verbal encouragement and discouragement,-*-9 inducing anxiety during performance,2® teaching different motivational techniques,2-*- galvanic skin responses,22 incentive rewards,23 general psycho logical inventories for personality profiles.2*1' Another approach has been the psychoanalytic point of view which is well represented in a recent text
•*-9celeste Ulrich and Roger K. Burke, "Effects of Motivational Stress Upon Physical Performance," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 28:^03-^12, December, 1957* 2®Peck, op. clt. 2^Barry L. Johnson and Jack K. Nelson, "Effect of Different Motivational Techniques During Training and in Testing Upon Strength Performance," Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 3 8:6 3 0-6 3 6, December, 1967. 22Warren R. Johnson and John M. Harmon, "The Emotional Reactions of College Athletes," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 23:391-397. December, 1952. 23Gary F. Hansen, "Effect of Selected Motive- Incentive Conditions Upon Development of Strength Through an Isometric Training Program," Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 38:585-592, December, 1967. 2**W. R. Johnson, R. C. Hutton, and G. B. Johnson, "Personality Traits of Some Champion A.thletes as Measured by Two Projective Tests, the Rorschach and H.T.P.," Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 25:^8^- ^8 5. December, 195^. 10 edited by Slovenko and Knight.25 None of these studies have dealt with motivation which is intrinsic to the individual in a particular situation. How ever, recent efforts have helped to delimit some of the variables and intricacies of achievement motiv ation in competitive sports situations.27, 2 8, 29
A great deal of importance has also been attached to the implications of affective arousal in the learning process. In sports this affective arousal is sometimes referred to as desire. Lockhart suggests that this is the "...first, final and most indispensable
^Ralph Slovenko and James A. Knight, Motiva tions in Play, Games and Sports (Springfield: Charles Thomas Publisher, 196 7).
2^H. Mucher and H. Heckhausen, "Influence of Mental Activity and Achievement Motivation on Skeletal Muscle Tonus," Perceptual Motor Skills, Ik-: 217-218, 19&2. 2?oean Ryan and W. L. Lakie, "Competitive and Non-competitive Performance in Relation to Achievement Motivation and Manifest Anxiety," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, I :3^2-3^5. April, 1965. 2®Bruce C. Cgilvie, Thomas A. Tutko, and Irving Young, "The Psychological Profile of Olympic Champions - A Brief Look at Olympic Medalists," Swimming Technique, • 1:97-99. January, 19&5* 29patricia Jean Daugert, "The Relationships of Anxiety and the Need for Achievement to the Learning of Swimming," (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1 9 6 6). Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 9:82, 1 9 6 7. requirement, the sine qua non of success..."^ In football it has been said to be more Important than ability, McClelland, also concerned with sports, suggests that affective states are of primary impor tance in the controlling of overt behavior,31 in support of this Cgilvie has stated that "...the next important break through will occur when we are able to comprehend the motivational factors that contribute to...success and failure."3^
Kleinman also supports the importance of affective arousal in sports activities by suggesting that far too much emphasis is being placed upon the cognitive act in physical performance, and that the behavioral science error of petrifying the affective realm is becoming all too dangerously close. He believes that the true meaning of the act must be established through the affective phenomena of experience.33 Thus the theory of achievement motivation
3°Alleene Lockhart, "Conditions of Effective Motor Learning," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 3 8:3 6, 1 9 6 7. I 31j)avid C. McClelland, et al. , The Achievement Motive (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953)» p. 30. 32ogilvie, "Future Contributions of Motivational Research in Track," p. 388. 33seymour Kleinman, "Phenomenology - The Body - Physical Education." (Paper presented to the History and Philosophy Section, American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation National Convention, Chicago, March 21, 1966), p. 10. 12 takes on added importance as it is deeply committed to the idea that motives are learned as the result of changes in the affective states of the individual, and one of its motives, the achievement motive, is assessed on the basis of affective arousals which are elicited from thematic apperceptive cues. Recent educational and psychological litera ture have also made wide claims for the effects of motivation on learning.^' ^5» 3&, 37 Curriculum designers considering these claims are suggesting that students no longer be grouped on ability alone, but rather, be grouped by level of ability and then
D. Krumboltz (ed. ), Learning and the Educational Process (Chicago: R arid McN al 1 y— and Co. , 19^5). 35neinz Heckhausen, The Anatomy of Achievement Motivation (New York: Academic Press, 1967), pp. 132, 139. ^Patricia O'Connor, et al., "Motivational Implications of Ability Grouping in Schools." In J. W. Atkinson and N. T, Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1 9 6 6), p.
37vj, p. Robinson, "The Achievement Motive, Academic Success, and Intelligence Test Score," British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 3:98-103. 1964. ; 13 regrouped by motivational components.3®• 39. ^°» ^1
In summary, Atkinson suggests that "any type of task requiring interpersonal competition is likely to be perceived by college students as a possibility for achieving. ^ Moore states that, "for the adoles cent, competition for the sake of winning becomes a more promenent component of games."^3 Wenkart suggests that in sport the individual is constantly confronted with a competitive situation in which there is a standard of excellence.^ And Kleinman suggests that affective involvement is usually quite
38tf. J. Moore, et al., Motivational Variables in Programmed Learning TLewisburg: Bucknell Univer sity, May, 1965). p. 5. 393 . B. Sarascn, et al., Anxiety in Elemen tary School Children (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., I960), p. 232. ^0Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation. P. 3*7.
^McClelland, ojd. cit. , p. 6 6. ^2John W. Atkinson, "Towards Experimental Analysis of Human Motivation in Terms of Motives, Expectancies and Incentives." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 195&). p. 29?. ^Robert A. Moore, Sports and Mental Health (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1 9 6 6),p. 5^. ^ S i m o n Wenkart, "Sports and Contemporary Man." In R. Slovenko and J. A. Knight (eds.), Motivations in Play, Games and Sport (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 196?), p. 179. 14- high,^5 in conclusion, sports and games appear to have a unique relationship with the hypotheses and assumptions of the theory of achievement motivation.
Therefore, due to the importance of such a topic and the paucity of related research in this area there appears to be ample evidence to warrent this in vestigation.
Delimitations of the Study
This study is limited to male undergraduate students enrolled in a selected beginning handball course at The Ohio State University. It is con cerned only with the theory of achievement motiva tion as proposed by McClelland, Atkinson and
Feather,^6* ^7 and its relationship to success in beginning handball as determined by a rank order finish in a modified round robin tournament.
Limitations of the Study
1. Extrinsic motivating factors not implicit in the theory of achievement may well influence and bias the results of this study.
^Kleinman, o£. clt. ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive.
^Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation. 15 2. A homogeneous grouping in which all subjects are male undergraduate university students v;ho have never played handball, who are not varsity collegiate athletes, and who have all had at least one physical education course at The Chio State University, reduces certain population variances to such an extent that it may be impossible to obtain any significant relation ships.^
3. The literature strongly suggests that the data be considered on an ordinal scale rather than an interval scale. This obscures individual differences and may even reduce the variances so that they can not show a relationship even though one may exist.
4. The Hawthorne effect may have played a role in this study as the subjects knew that they were part of a doctoral dissertation study and thus responded with atypical perfect attendance. Indica ting that perhaps they were motivated by factors other <0 than the independent and dependent control variables.J
^®N. N. Downie and R. W. Heath, Basic Statis tical Methods (New York: Harper and Row", 1965)'V"pT"90* ^9victor H. Vrocm, Work and Motlvation (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 205.
5°Dale l . Hanson, "Influence of the Hawthorne Effect Upon Physical Education Research," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 38:724, December, 1967. 16
Definition of Terms
Achievement motivation (T). A theoretical construct for the resultant affective arousal state to act or perform in situations where performance is evaluated on the basis of a standard of excellence.
It is a function of the algebraic summation of the multiplicative factors for the tendencies to achieve success and avoid failure, (Ts +' T„f). Achievement motive (Ks). A general stable and latent characteristic with a disposition toward approaching success. Fear of failure motive (M^p). A general, stable and latent characteristic with a disposition toward avoiding failure. Incentive value to achieve success (Is ). The magnitude of potential satisfaction or the amount of pride one takes in accomplishment. It Is a situa tional factor which is dependent upon past experiences and future probabilities of success. It is considered equal to the apparent difficulty of a task and an in verse function of the subjective probability of success. Incentive value to avoid failure (If). A capacity for reacting with humiliation and shame when
one fails. It Is the magnitude of noxious elements in
an event which are deslreable to avoid. It is the 17 negative cf probability of success and functions as a negative stimulus which inhibits performance. Motive. A general, stable and latent dispos
ition to affectively respond and strive toward certain kinds of satisfaction. It defines the kind of satis faction that is sought. Motivation. The combined results of the in dividual motives which have aroused a goal directed state to act or perform. It is the algebraic sum of
the individual motives which have been engaged. Probability of achieving success (Ps). A cognitive anticipation that performance of some act will be followed by a particular positive consequence. Probability of avoiding failure (Pf). The alternate outcome to the probability of achieving
success. The anticipation that performance in a particular act will lead to failure. Resultant achievement motivation (T). See. Achievement motivation.(T). Success (s). A relative term determined by a rank order finish in a modified round robin handball tournament. Success represents those individuals who
are above the median in the rank order.
Tendency to achieve success (Ts). A positive characteristic which is the multiplicative combination
of the motive to achieve success, the probability of success, and the incentive value of success, (Ts = Ka x Ps x Is ). Tendency to avoid failure (T_f). A negative characteristic -which is the multiplicative combina
tion of the motive to avoid failure, the probability
of failure, and the incentive value for avoiding
failure, (T_f = K^p x Pf x If). CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Development of the Theory
of Achievement Motivation
The earliest studies dealing with achievement related motivation have been traced by Heckhausen to the works of two pioneers in German psychology, Narziss Ach (1910) and Kurt Lewin (1926).-*- "The former attempted to explain the achievement-related behavior of subjects,..utilizing the concept of ’determining tendency,’ the latter employing the concept of 1 quasi- need'. Following Ach and Lewin, Murray in 1938. used n Ach as the "desire or tendency to do things... as well as possible," which serves as the underlying basis for the present theory.-^ Murray’s theory of personality suggested that personality was
■^Heinz Heckhausen, The Anatomy of Achievement Motivation (New York: Academic Press, 1967), p. 1^ (Note: Heckhausen suggests an interesting note, by mentioning that Boring, a psychological historian, found a similarity between the present abbreviation "n Ach" for need achievement and N (arziss) Ach; how ever, nothing more was mentioned).
2Ibld. ^Henry A. Murray, Exploration in Personality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1938), p. l’6#.'
19 20
"a hierarchy or configuration of basic psychogenic needs or motives." His thinking represented an interesting cross section from the theoretical viewpoints of Freud, A Lewin, Tolman and Thorndike. A major implication which guided the early development of this theory was that affective arousal is one of the primary bases for motives. It had been noted that certain types of situations innately re leased diffuse and covert reactions rather than specific and overt behaviorisms, thus through addi
tional experimentation and analysis it was concluded that changes in adaptation levels In specific situa- s tions were the result of corresponding changes in an individuals affective state. Another Important development was the extension
and refining of Lewin, Sscalona and Festinger's result ant valence theory of level of aspiration.This scheme represented a specification of the interaction between personality and environmental determinants of behavior. This same interaction is witnessed in the contemporary theory with the multiplicative combinations of personality factors with situational variables.
*\john W. Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1964), p. 222.
^K. Lewin, et al., "Level of Aspiration," In J. McV. Hunt (ed.j. Personality and the Behavior Disorders Vol. 1 (New York: Ronald Press'^ 19W ) , pp. 333- 37$. 21 The initial work by McClelland and his co workers with achievement motivation began in 19^8, in an attempt to combine the clinical observation that human motivation is expressed in free-associative thought, with experimental methods of'■ manipulating and controlling the strength of motivation.^ approaching this problem they were guided by the psychoanalytic thinking of Freud that a good place to look for the effects of motivation were in fantasy.7 Thus the clinical success of Murray's Thematic Apper ception Test (TAT) encouraged them to adapt this technique for eliciting affective motivational states.® The underlying philosophical considerations for the theory of achievement motivation have been traced as far back as the Greecian principle of hedon ism which is seen in Plato’s Protagoras. 9 This suggests that people behave in ways which maximize certain types of outcomes and minimize others. This idea persists today and can be seen in the writ ings of many contemporary philosophers and psychologists.
^Atkinson, 0£. clt. , 221. 7David C. McClelland, et al., The Achievement Motive (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953). p. 107.
8Ibid. , p. 3.
^Ibid., p. 30,
10Ibid. The English philosopher John Stuart Mill suggested that "behavior is directed toward pleasure and away from pain, "I-1- William James, Freud in his early writing, Levzin and Tolman also reflect this influence, Some contemporary personality psychologists have tended to avoid the doctrine of hedonism because it was said to be circular. However, Thorndike's law of effect, Hull's principle of reinforcement, Murrays conception of personality and now Atkinsons and mcClellands theory of achievement motivation have given emperical and experimental foundations which have overcome this contention.^3 The present theory of achievement motivation reflects the doctrine of hedonism in its major assumption that achievement oriented individuals are guided by two motives, the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure. In conclusion, the theory reflects a rich historical heritage, the philosophical perspective of hedonism and an impressive background of psychological literature. Perhaps the two greatest assests of the theory of achievement motivation are that it attempts
^-Victor H. Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 9.
12Ibld.
1 3ibid.. 11. 23 to go beyond the traditional concept that reward forges a connection between a stimulus and a response and second, it has grown out of emperical studies of motivation rather than from the studying of the learn ing process from which most theories of motivation have developed."^
The Theory of Achievement Motivation
The theory of achievement motivation refers to a very limited domain of behavior, namely, achievement oriented behavior. It assumes that all individuals have acquired the capacity for affective responses to certain situations which are interpreted as motives to achieve and motives to avoid failure. That is, all persons have some capacity for interest in achievement and some capacity for anxiety about failure, and both are expressed in specific situations where it is apparent to the Individual that his performance will be evaluated in reference to some standard of excellence. The theory assumes that all motives are learned and that they develop out of repeated affective experi ences which are connected with certain types of
^McClelland, on. cit. . p. 95.
^Ibid. , 7.
^ J o h n Atkinson and Norman T. Feather, A Theory of Achievement Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 19^6), p. 328. situations and specific types of behavior. The situations are incidents in which there is competition against a standard of excellence. These situations are presumably imposed upon a child by the culture, or more particularly by his parents as representatives of the culture.^ The behavior is the actual com petition which occurs in the situation, if the indiv idual is successful the situation produces positive affect and if unsuccessful, negative affect. Thus unless there is some sign of affect over performance, it can not be certain that the individual is person ally involved.1® The achievement motive helps to produce the tendency to undertake activity and the fear of failure motive helps to produce the tendency to avoid under taking an activity. Thus we see a traditional approach- avoidance conflict; however, it is suggested that this conflict be seen as a difference between an excitatory tendency and an inhibitory tendency. Thus when a per formance is evaluated in relation to some standard of excellence, one situation may constitute a challenge
l?David C. McClelland, The Achieving Society (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co.” Inc. , I961). ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 79« 25 to achieve for one individual while to another it may pose a threat of failure. ^
The Tendency to Achieve Success The tendency to achieve success, an excita tory tendency, is the tendency to approach a task with the intent of performing well and is represented by the symbol Ts, It is assumed that the strength of the tendency to achieve success is a multiplicative func tion of three variables; a general and relatively stable personality disposition, the motive to achieve success (Ms ); and two situational factors which rep resent the immediate environment, the strength of expectancy or subjective probability that performance
of a task will be followed by success (Ps ), and the relative attractiveness or incentive value of success
(Is ). In other words, Ts » Ms x Ps x Is.^® The motive to achieve (Ks) is a relatively general and relatively stable personality character istic which an individual carries about with him from one situation to another. It is a disposition which is presumed to be latent and aroused by situational cues which indicate that some performance will be instru mental to achievement. The expectancy or subjective
^Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation. p. 328. ^Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation, p.. 2^2. 26 probability of success (Ps) is a cognitive anticipa tion that performance of some act will be followed by a particular consequence. The incentive of success (Ig) is the relative attractiveness of success for a par ticular activity and is assumed to be proportionate to the difficulty of the task (Is = 1 - Ps).
The Tendency to Avoid Failure The tendency to avoid failure, an inhibitory tendency, is represented by the symbol T_f, and functions to oppose or dampen the tendency to under take achievement oriented tasks. It is also conceived as a multiplicative function of three variables; a general and relatively stable personality disposition, the motive to avoid failure (M^p); and two situational or environmental factors, an expectancy that some act
will lead to failure (Ff), and the Incentive value of
failure for that act (If). Thus, T„f = M^p x Pf x If. 21 The motive to avoid failure (M^p) represents the Individuals capacity to experience pain in con nection with certain kinds of negative consequences and also for experiencing shame and humiliation as a result of failure. Thus FtT is ah avoidance motive In
which the individual desires to minimize pain. The subjective probability that a particular act will end
21Ibid., p. 244. /
27 in failure (Pf) is assumed, to be the inverse function of the subjective probability of success. It is there fore assumed, that Pf + P s - 1.00. The incentive value of failure (If) or the repulsiveness of failure is a noxious element which functions as a negative stimulus and inhibits performance. It is assumed to have a value equal to - Ps. The negative value of the in centive value of failure implies that the tendency to avoid failure (T-f) is also negative. This means that the tendency to avoid failure functions to oppose the tendency to achieve success which is positive. Achievement oriented activities are therefore dependent upon the conflict or difference between the tendencies to approach success (Ts) and avoid failure (T_f). When these tendencies are simultaneously aroused achievement motivation (T) occurs. Thus it can be seen that the theory is a theoretical construct based upon the algebraic summation of the individual tendencies (Ts + T_f), and is conceived as an activated state which is positive when Ts >T_f and negative when Ts motivation to occur; these are: a. the individual must be affectively aroused in a competitive situation in which there is a standard of excellence, b. he must consider himself responsible for the outcome of the 28 activity in which he has explicit knowledge of his results, c. there must be a degree of risk involved in the activity, and d. the task should be of inter mediate difficulty in which the probability of success is neither remote or obvious. Although the theory focuses primarily upon the differences between the two opposing tendencies, it also considers the importance of extrinsic motives which detract from the theory, especially when the resultant achievement-oriented tendency is negative. 22 In summary, the theory of achievement motiva tion is concerned with the stable personality vari ables of the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure, and environmental factors, the sub jective probabilities of outcomes and the incentive values for those outcomes.23 Performance Correlates of Achievement Motivation Of major importance in considering the function of achievement motivation on performance is the following atatement extracted from a study by Atkinson in A Theory of Achievement Motivation. 22Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation, p. 328. 23Heckhausen, ojo. clt., p. 29 Performance is positively related to the strength of a particular motive only when an expectancy of satisfying that motive through performance has been aroused, and when ex pectancies of satisfying other motives through the same action have not been sufficiently aroused to confound the simple relationship.2^ Therefore, it must be determined whether or not performance in a physical motor skills activity such as handball arouses an expectancy of satisfying the achievement motive and the fear of failure motive. It must also be determined as to whether or not ex- trensic motivating factors confound this simple relationship. Professor McClelland, in the early develop ment of the theory suggests that, whether the performance be grooming, playing football, landing a job, or herding sheep, it can give evidence of an achievement motive if there is affect or involvement connected with evaluation of it (doing it well, and so on).25 Thus from the following statement it might be infer red that since most people elect to participate in competitive sports situations which have built in evaluation measures, affective arousal is present. Atkinson supports this by stating that "achievement oriented persons are generally attracted to activities ^Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation, p. 14. ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 80. 30 which require the successful exercise of skills. "2^ Cratty, however, tempers this by suggesting that •'the extent to which motives may affect performance depends directly upon the point in the arousal curve at which the individual may be momentarily function ing. "2? In review of the literature on achievement motivation it is suggested that "Athletic competition situations can be considered a fairly universal achievement training experience for all males In this society."2® Simon Wenkart, a noted psychologist who has studied the existential properties of sport, states that "...achievement in sports has a unique place. In other struggles for achievement, the person is not necessarily faced with the criteria of evaluation. In sports one can not help but be aware of the measure of success or failure."29 Robert Moore, £DAtkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation, p. 3^8. 2?Bryant Cratty, Movement Behavior and Motor Learning (Philadelphia: Lea" and Febiger, 1^6?)t p. l4l. 2®John W. Atkinson, "Thematic Apperceptive Measurement of Motives Within the Context of a Theory of Motivation." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1958)» P» 6ll. 29simon Wenkart, "Sports and Contemporary Man." In R. Slovenko, and J. A. Knight (eds.), Motivations in Play. Games and Sport (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 19&777 p. 179. 31 another psychologist who has written on sport indicates that "with the coining of adolescence, we see competi tion for the sake of winning becoming a much more prominent component of games."3° He continues later in his text by stating that "being successful in sports activities becomes a manifestation of manliness in the boy beyond almost any other type of accomplish ment, "31 Dr. James Humphrey, professor of physical education at the University of Maryland supported this general theme in a recent publication by stating that, "motor activity learning ordinarily involves an in herently high level of motivation,...(due to the in dividuals) high level of interest...knowledge of results...and the competitive element."32 However, there is not as much general agree ment or support for the extent to which extrensic motives influence performance In competitive athletic situations. Dean Ryan contends that "...the nature of simple tests of physical performance provides 3^Hobert A. Moore, Sports and Mental Health (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 196 6 ) , p. 31Ibid., p. 55. 32james H. Humphrey, "Academic Skill and Con cept Development Through Motor Activity," Academy Papers. The American Academy of Physical Education, 1:33. March, 1968. 32 sufficient incentive to elicit maximal performance without additional motivation."33 This example and others like it support the notion that there is a certain degree of specificity for motives in the com petitive athletic situation.3^ However, Atkinson suggests that, "...in a competitive game, some indiv iduals seem particularly desireous of winning... while others seem only moderately interested...."35 and Sileene Lockhart states that "different incen tives elicit different effects upon motor performance. "36 Bryant Cratty in his latest book Psychology and Physical Activity, also suggests that there are ex- trensic motivational factors, "the need to affiliate and the need to achieve are both satisfied in athletic participation."37 McClelland concurs with these remarks and suggests that "affective arousal in 33rjean Ryan, "Effect of Differential Motive Incentive Conditions on Physical Performance." Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 32:87, March, 1961. 3^Cratty, o£. clt., p. 133* 35Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation, p. 7. ^Aileene Lockhart, "Prerequisites to Motor Learning," Academy Papers. The American Academy of Physical Education, 1:11, March, 1968. 3?Bryant J. Cratty, Psychology and Physical Activity (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. 170. 33 achievement oriented, situations is very specific."38 Heckhausen in ‘The Anatomy of Achievement Motivation goes so far as to say that in athletics "arousal of the achievement motive may be so strong that differ ences in potential motivation are overshadowed and evened out by the situational pressure."^9 Motivation and Success in Sports Activities The theory of achievement motivation suggests that success in a competitive situation is based upon the generally stable personality characteristics of the motives to achieve and avoid failure, and upon the situational variables of the subjective probability and the incentive value of the outcome.**'0 Cratty, in dependent of this theory of motivation supports this premise and suggests that. Success in competition is based upon the individual's general level of anxiety as well as his needs for achievement. Individuals with low levels of anxiety and high needs for achievement will usually improve their perform ance under competitive circumstances. People with a high level of anxiety and a high need for achievement will generally suffer perform ance decrements when faced with competitive circumstances. ^ 38McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 73. 39aeckhausen, o£. clt., p. 73. ^Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation, p. 2^2. ^Cratty, Psychology and Physical Activity, p. 185. 3^ Atkinson contends that "the desire to succeed is certainly heightened when one finds himself chal lenged by some competitive activity like...a tennis match, '*^2 anci Heckhausen summarizes several studies on motivation and perceptual motor tasks by indicating that success motivated subjects make fewer errors and greater gains on perceptual motor tasks during com petition than failure motivated subjects who perform better under non-competitive conditions.-Mathews makes a direct analogy for coaches and physical educators in his measurement book by stating that "the multi-letter winner may owe more to his motiva tion. ..than to any carry-over acquired from one sport , , IIII or another."^ In a psychological study, Miles supports these contentions and reports that highly motivated subjects are quicker in learning skills requiring sensorimotor coordination. ^5 in an interesting cross cultural comparison of different societies, McClelland found that "...preliterate cultures higher in need for achievement tend to play more competitive, ^Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation, p. 6. ^Heckhausen, ££* ♦ P» 132. ^Donald K. Mathews, Measurement in Physical Education (Philadelphia: V/. "Bl Saunders Co. , 1968), p. 11^- ^5g. H. Miles, "Achievement Drive and Habitual Modes of Task Approach as Factors in Skill Transfer," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 5$:l6lt 1953* individualistic games as contrasted with group and non-competitive ones. "^6 In another example he found that "the Olympic Games...were started during a period in history of classical Greece when the need for achievement was high.. . A most recent addition to the literature. Motivation in Play, Sports and Games, edited by R. Slovenko and J. knight, gives even additional support to the important impli cations between sport and motivation.^®\ Thus, there appears to be fairly convincing evidence for the notion that success in athletic com petitive situations is a function of not only indiv idual skill, societal influences and general levels of motivation, but more specifically, to the individual's need for achievement. Anxiety and Performance The theory of achievement motivation states that the motive to avoid failure, a debilitating force in performance, is equally important to the need for ^McClelland, The Achieving Society, p. 324. ^Atkinson, ’’Thematic Apperceptive Measurement of Motives Within the Context of a Theory of Motivation, p. 322. ^®Ralph Slovenko and James A. Knight, Motiva tions in Play. Games and Sports (Springfield: Charles Thomas Publisher, 1967). 36 achievement motive.^ The concept that anxiety plays an important role in the outcome of certain types of competitive activities has wide support in the liter ature. However, the notion that all anxiety is detrimental to performance does not enjoy the same theoretical and emperical support. Kane states that "...results from studies relating physical activity to major psychological dimensions such as anxiety,., differ markedly. While the weight of evidence characterizes the athlete as being...lower in anxiety, some serious investigations have not corroborated this view."50 Early studies in motor learning and athletic performance have helped to establish the importance of anxiety upon successful performances. 51« 52 How ever, they too did not agree upon the direction of the relationship or if there was a direction. ^Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation, p. 245. 5°J. Kane, "Personality and Physical Ability," Proceedings of International Congress of Sport Sciences (Tokyo: 1964), p. 2b2 j""-'' ’ 5^-Gire Eugenia and Anna Espenshade, "Relation Between Measures of Motor Educability and Learning of Specific Motor Skills." Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, physical Education, and Recreation, 13:54+, 1942. 52tfarren R. Johnson, "A Study of Emotion Revealed in Two Types of Athletic Sports Contests," Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 20:72-79. March, 1949, 37 Since the majority of evidence tends to support the theory that anxiety interferes with per formance, evidence to that effect will be presented first. S. Wenkart, F. J. Ryan, R. Alpert and R. Haber suggest that the neurotic need to win (an anxiety to do well) is liable to hamper or interfere with per formance. 53i 5^. 55 Sileene Lockhart supports this view and states that "...learning ability goes down and functional use of ability (performance) is lowered. ^ Another approach to this same idea that anxiety is noxious are positive references to out standing athletes who are relatively "conflict-free," "free from agitation," and "exhibit low levels of neuroticism."57, 58, 59 This suggests that individuals 53wenkart, or. cit., p. 1?^. 5^Francls J. Ryan, "Further Observations on Competitive Ability in Athletics." In Bryant M. Wedge (ed.), Psychosocial Problems of College Men (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958"), p. 125, 55r , Alpert and R. N. Haber, "Anxiety in Academic Achievement Situations," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 61:215, 19^0. ^Lockhart, o r . cit. , p. 10. 57prancis j, Ryan, "An Investigation of Person ality Difference Associated with Competitive Ability," In Psychosocial Problems of College Men (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), p. 120. 5®Cratty, psychology and Physical Activity, p. 20. •593ruce C. Ggilvie, "The Personality of the Male Athlete," Academy Papers, The American Academy of Physical Education, 1:51. March, 1963. 38 who are not anxious free are restricted in their per formances which are characterized by very high degree of variability.Lawther supports this contention in the learning process when he states that "...the learn er at the high skill level is less subject to dis traction. He...has a higher threshold of stress, and can direct his activity into learned patterns in spite of stress."^ In an attempt to explain these observations, Vroom in Work and Motivation, suggests two possible alternatives. One, a high level of motivation is accompanied by a narrowing of the cognitive field...and if the task or problem is a novel or difficult one, his intense motivation may lead to his ignoring relevant information. Second, a high level of motivation to attain a goal tends to be associated with anxiety or some other state which in turn impairs performance...as involun tary autonomic responses associated with anxiety could Interfere with the execution of a task.®2 On the other hand, there is evidence to suggest that perhaps anxiety does not impair perform ance. This is definitely a minority report, but it 6°Bruce c. Cgilvie, "Future Contribution of Motivational Hesearch in Track," Track Technique, 13:391. September, 1963. John D. Lawther, "Motor Learning at the High Skill Levels," Academy Papers, The American Academy of Physical Education, 1 :42, March, 1968. ^Vroom, op. cit. , p. 208. 39 does deserve mentioning. Peck, Diebl and Harrington in separate studies involving anxiety and motor per formance found that either there was no relationship or that the relationship was not slgnificant.^3. 6^, 65 Likewise, Nash, in a test of reaction time with mani fest anxiety found that there was no relationship.^6 In another study, Karbe tested the relationship of general and specific anxiety to the learning of swimming. His results indicated that "high generally and specifically anxious -subjects learned fewer skills after eight lessons but their performance equalled that of the low anxious groups after sixteen l e s s o n s 6? ^ Ar d e n Peck, "The Influence of Anxiety on Volleyball Skills" (Master's thesis. University■of North Carolina, 1966). Abstract in Completed Hesearch, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 9:89. 1967. ^Bobbie Diebl, "The Effects of Emotional Stress Upon Motor Performance of Anxious and Non-Anxious Sub jects". (Master's thesis. University of California at Santa Barbara, 1965). Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8:**4, 1966. ^Eleanor P. Harrington, "Effect of Manifest Anxiety on Performance of a Gross Kotor Skill" (Master's thesis. University of California at Berkeley, 1965). Abstract in Completed Research. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8:^-1, 1966. ^Edward l . Nash, et al. , "Effects of Manifest and Induced Anxiety and Experimenter Variability on Simple Reaction Time," Perceptual and Kotor Skills, 22:^87, April, 1966. ^Wolfgang W. Karbe, "The Relationship of General Anxiety and Specific Anxiety Concerning the Learning of Swimming" (Doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1966). Abstract in Completed Research. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recrea tion, 9:85. 1967. 40 Most recently, a concept that a curvilinear relationship exists between anxiety levels and per formance has gained wide support. This suggests that for each individual there is a facilitating and debilitating anxiety with a maximal range for a most efficient performance. The further the Individual is from this range, the less likely he is to perform at his maximum potential.^®* Howard Slusher summarizes this point of view by stating that "...sport flourishes when anxiety is increased within acceptable limitations.^ A last consideration which helps support the notion that there is a lack of unanimity in the function of anxiety on performance is reported in Cratty's Motor Learning and Movement Behavior and Slusher*s, Man, Sport and Existence. They suggest that during the activity, anxiety is lessoned and ^Bruce Ogilvie, "Model for General Psycho logical Adaptation," Track Technique, 14:428, December, 1964. ^ D e a n Ryan, "What Does Psychology Have to Cffer Coaches and Trainers?" 68th Proceedings, National College Physical Fducation Association for Men, p. 38. January 7-8, 1965. ?Ocratty, Psychology and Physical Activity, p. 78. Howard 3. Slusher, Man, Sport and Existence (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1967), p. 114, 4l often dissipates as the individual becomes thoroughly envolved with the contest and forgets his internalized fears. In summary, it can best be said that the lit erature suggests several directions, one of which is in support of the hypotheses of the theory of achieve ment motivation. An excellent concluding statement regarding this quasi relationship is reported by Cratty when he states that "the effect of anxiety level upon performance..,is a function of the amount of stress as perceived by the performer, his habitual manner of reacting to stress, as well as the complexity of the task. ?2cratty, Movement Behavior and Motor Learning, p. 163. ?3siusher, o£. cit., p. 193* .^Cratty, Movement Behavior and Motor Learning, p. 165. ------CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES The purpose of this chapter is to present the methods and procedures designed for selecting subjects; for selecting, administering and scoring the necessary instruments for the theory of achievement motivation; for determining success in beginning handball; and for analyzing the data. The experimental procedures began with the selection of subjects and the administering of tests to assess the various components of the theory of achievement motivation. A questionaire was also completed for the purpose of obtaining background information on each subject. Five weeks of handball instruction followed, at the completion of this in struction the subjects were requested to estimate their probability of success for the following modified round robin singles tournament. The tournament was completed and the subjects were placed in a rank order according to how successful they had been. This success factor was then compared with the various test scores obtained at the beginning of the experiment to see if the success in handball was in any way related to the theory of achievement motivation. h 2 Selection of Subjects Subjects for this study were randomly selected on the basis that they elected a particular activity course which was predetermined as the study group. Twenty-four students elected this class; however, all were not used as subjects as some did not meet the following criteria. The subjects must have been either freshman or sophmore male students attending The Ohio State University; they must have completed at least one physical education course at The Ohio State University; they must not have been freshman or varsity athletes at The Ohio State University; and they must not have ever played a game of four wall handball. Twenty of the twenty-four students met these requirements and were selected to participate in this study. The information for these criteria was obtained from a questionaire administered on the first day of class (see Appendix F). The subjects were not selected on the basis of skill as the literature in physical education and motor learning suggests that skill in a particular 44 activity is specific and must be learned.-1-* 2 * 3 it was therefore assumed that since none of the subjects were freshman or varsity athletes, and since none had ever played a game of four wall handball, that each subject was beginning at a relatively comparable skill level with an equal opportunity for success. A predetermined class method for selecting subjects was utilized for two purposes. One, it met at a prime time in which the majority of students would have voluntarily elected the activity. And two, it was taught by an instructor other than the investigator in an attempt to minimize the possibilities of a 4 Hawthorne effect. -^-Aileene Lockhart, "Prerequisites to Motor Learning," Academy Papers. The American Academy of Physical Education, 1:5• March, 1968. 2Bryant J. Cratty, Movement Behavior and Motor Learning (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1967), pp. 218, 225. 29b. 3Donald K. Mathews, Measurement in Physical Education (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co". , 1968), pp. 114, 124. ^Dale L. Hanson, "Influence of the Hawthorne Effect Upon Physical Education Research," Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 38:724, December, 1967. 45 Instruments for the Theory of Achievement Motivation Three Instruments were used to assess the necessary Information required in a study of the theory of achievement motivation. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), as adapted by McClelland and others, was administered to determine each sub jects achievement motive (Ms )j-* the N scale of the Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPIJ'Tr^s used to de termine each subjects motive to avoid failure (M^p);^ and, a rating scale was designed to assess each sub jects subjective estimate of his probability for success. Other necessary requirements for computing an individuals resultant tendency for the theory of achievement motivation were obtained from the subjec tive probability of success scores. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was selected to assess the need for achievement motive (Mg). It is a projective instrument designed to elicit un conscious needs for motives through imaginative (fantasy) ^David C. McClelland, et al., The Achievement Motive (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953). P. 185. J. Eysenck, The Maudsley Personality Inven- tory (London: University of London Press", 1959). 46 stories from individual responses to pictures. The method, originally designed by Murray and his co- workers^ was adapted by McClelland and his co-workers to establish an objective tool for diagnosing achieve ment motivation.®* 9 The pictures used to elicit stories were the same four used in many of the orig inal studies by McClelland and Atkinson and are the same which are recommended in the scoring manuals.1®» 11 The validity of the TAT has been difficult to assess as there is no clear criterion against which it can be determined. 12 However, its authors suggest that its validity has been established on the basis of the "experimental procedures which produced changes in imaginative responses dealing with achievement, ?Henry A. Murray, Thematic Apperception Test Manual (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1943)* ®David C. McClelland, et al., "The Effect of the Need for Achievement on Thematic Apperception." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.). Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 19$B), p. 8?. ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 107. 10Ibld.. pp. 99. 375. John W. Atkinson, Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 195*). p. 694. 12Roger Brown, "The Achievement Motive," Social Psychology (London: The Free Press, 1966), p. 473. 47 and.•.from the relationships established between n Achievement scores and behavior."^-3 Heckhausen supports this by stating that "a direct relationship between achievement motivation and TAT content may be considered an established fact."**1' Independent be havioral studies in which performance has correlated quite high with TAT scores have also supported its validity. 3.6, 3-7 Validity has also been substanti ated on the basis of construct and content analyses,3-®» 3-9 3-3McClelland, The Achievement Motive, pp. 146, 190. 3-4neinz Heckhausen, The Anatomy of Achievement Motivation (New York: Academic Press, 196?), p. 13. ^Burris P. Husman, "Agression in Boxers and Wrestlers as Measured by Projective Techniques," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 26:425, December, 1955. 3-^john W. Atkinson and Norman T. Feather, A Theory of Achievement Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc*, 1966), Chapters 12-15. 3-7Atkinson, Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. Part III, pp. 270-434. E. Carney, "Research With a Recently Developed Measure of Achievement Motivation," Perceptual Motor Skills. 21:438, 1965. *-9c. c. McArthur, "The Effects of Need for Achievement on the Content of TAT Stories: A Re-exam ination," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48:536, 1953. 48 However, evidence which suggests otherwise is also available. 22 The reliability of the TAT in assessing the achievement motive has also been difficult to estab lish. The authors suggest that it is theoretically possible to have a test which will correlate highly with a number of other measures (high 'validity1) but not with itself on a second administration (low 're liability'), if the first administration has somehow 'spoiled' the subjects for this type of test.3 However, Kagan and Moss, in studying the stability of Achievement Motive scores on three separate testings taken over a period of six years, found that all three correlations are positive and two of them 24 were significant. Difficulties in substantiating the validity and reliability for a projective instrument are expected. These difficulties are then compounded Charles P. Smith, "The Influence of Testing Conditions on Need for Achievement Scores and Their Relationship to Performance Scores." In J. W. Atkinson and N. T. Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966), P. 297. 2^Carney, o£, clt. 22L. H. Melikian, "The Relationship Between Edwards and McClellands Measures of Achievement Moti vation," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 22:298, 1958. ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, pp. 193-19^* 24 Roger Brown, "The Achievement Motive," Social Psychology (London: The Free Press, 1966), p. 43^K ^9 when attempting to assess the phenomenon of human motivation. Vrcom in Work and Motivation suggests that difficulties in measuring the amount of motivation with any degree of precision makes any very accurate determination of the nature of the functional relationship between the amount of motivation and the level of performance impossible. At best vie can measure or manipulate motivation on an ordinal scale, ie., we can specify that one level is higher than another but not how much higher it is. ^ This is also suggested by McClelland when he states that, A final note of caution should be sounded about all these systems of arriving at a total n Achievement score. None of them is constructed so as to provide an equal inter val, uniform n Achievement scale along which individual s.-can be spaced with great precision. McClelland also suggests that the TAT as a measure of the achievement motive is "not suitable for psycho diagnostic purposes but discriminates sufficiently for experimental research, providing it is used "...for purposes of group comparisons..." and not "...for purposes of precise prediction about the stand ing of individuals on n Achievement..."^ ^Victor H, Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 205. ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 150. ^D. C. McClelland, "Methods of Measuring Human Motivation." In j. W. Atkinson (ed.)f Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co. , Inc.! , 195&. p. 19* ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 19^. 50 One of the major advantages of the TAT is that it has been designed to be administered to a large group in a relatively short period of time. For this investigation it was administered on the first day of class. The methods and procedures for'4.'— administering . ..a the test paralleled those suggested in the testing manual. 2^ The instructions given to the subjects- dur ing the administration of the TAT were read and can be seen in Appendix A. The TAT consists of four 8| x 14 inch sheets of paper which are clipped together and handed to each subject. Cn each sheet there are four sets of ques tions which are equally spaced so that one quarter of the page is allowed for each answer (see Appendix B). The questions, adapted from Murray,-^0 are intended to insure complete coverage of a plot for a creative story written in response to each of four pictures that are shown for 20 seconds each. After each picture the subjects were given 4 minutes to answer the ^ sets of questions. The questions are: 1. What is happening? Who are the persons? 2., What has led up to this situation? That is, what has happened in the past? 2?Ibid.. pp. 97-1 0 6,...... 3°Henry A. Murray, Exploration In Personality (New York: Oxford University press, 1938). ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 98. 51 3. What is being thought? ’What is wanted? By whom? 4. What will happen? ’What will be done? Scoring for the achievement motive in TAT stories is an objective method which can be learned in a relatively short period of time by studying the manuals in McClelland!s The Achievement Motive3^ and Atkinson's Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society, "Reasonable reliability of scoring, over .90. can be obtained in a weeks time..."3^ "When the coefficient is above .9 0 the investigator is ready to measure the Achievement Motive in new subjects."35. 36 This in vestigator obtained a Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient of .91 with the scoring manual before going to the data in this study where he obtained a reliability correlation of .9 0 with another investi gator. The latter correlation was corrected to .99 32Ibid., pp. 107-138. ^Atkinson, Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society, pp. 179-204“ 655-735. ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 110. 35sheila Feld and Charles P. Smith, "An Evalu ation of the Objectivity of the Method of Content Analysis." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, _Action _ Zj_ and Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1958), ^Brown, o£. cit., p. 437. 52 which lends confidence to the scores achieved for each of the subjects. The objective scoring method is based "upon a behavioral sequence with descriptive catagories which elaborate many different psychological theorists who have conceptualized adjustive overt behavior,"37 Thus, it can be observed that "...the scoring involves simple classifications of response elements by objec tive criteria rather than the more complex judgments often involved in scoring TAT’s clinically.”^® This objective scoring system has been fairly well supported among those who are willing to accept content analyses ■30 h, Q from projective evaluative techniques.* The method for scoring is briefly described in Appendix C along with notes that this investigator utilized to help objectify his technique. Further elaborations Al A? may be found in either scoring manual. * 37David G. McClelland, jit al. , "A Scoring Manual for the Achievement Motive." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society (Prince ton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 193871 p^ T/9* -^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, p. 110. 3 9peid, op. c l t . ^°Brown, o£. cit., p. A3 8. ^McClelland, The Achievement Motive, pp. 107-138. A? McClelland, "A Scoring Manual for the Achieve ment Motive," pp. 179“20A. 53 In summary, a great deal.of research has been associated with the TAT as a means for assessing human achievement motives. The validity of the in strument appears to have been fairly well established; however, its reliability may have built in dlstra&tors which spoil an accurate reliability assessment. Among the many advantages of the TAT are the fact that it has a sound philosophical and psychological rationale, it has a wealth of experimental studies which support its basic tenents, and it can be administered to a large group in a single, setting. Among Its disadvan tages are Its questionable reliability and its dif ficulty in scoring. In conclusion, a recent examina tion by Smith, gives a relatively accurate assessment 6f the TAT and its relationship to the achievement motive by stating that "It would appear that n Ach scores obtained under conventional testing conditions ...are likely to be the most valid measure of achieve ment motivation."^5 The Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI) The Maudsley Personality Inventory (KPI) was selected to assess the motive to avoid failure (K^p). It Is an objective paper and pencil test designed to measure two pervasive and relatively independent ^Smith, on. clt., p. 29^. 5 k dimensions of personality, extraversion-Introversion (E) and neuoticism-stability (N). Each dimension has twenty-four items which are combined in a forty-eight item questionaire (see Appendix D). However, for this study, only the neuroticism-stability (K) scale was used to assess the individuals neurotic or anxiety tendencies. This instrument was used in place of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS) because it is much easier to administer to a large group in a relatively short period of time. The MAS has 250 items, of which 50 are designed to assess M^p, where the MPI has ^8 items, of which 2k assess M^p. Likewise, the N scale of the MPI correlates .76 (significant at the .01 level of confidence) with the 50 anxiety items of the MAS. This change is also supported by another study in which the MPI was used for the same purpose. Additional support can also be found in Buros, Mental Measurement Yearbook which states that "the N scale of the MPI can serve the same purpose as MAS with the added advantage that it is shorter, more reliable, and ^Arthur Jensen, "The Maudsley Personality Inven tory," Acta Psychologica, 1^:321, 1958. ^William l. Lakie, "Relationship of Galvanic Skin Response to Task Difficulty, Personality Traits, and Motivation," Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recrea tion, 3 8:*6‘0‘, March,' 1967. 55 has a greater body of psychological research behind lt.»^6 The validity of the N scale has been well established in studies based upon factorial dimensions, concurrent analyses, construct evaluations and per formance variables, ^ ^ The reliability of the N scale is also quite substantial, as Split-half and Kuder-Richardson estimates of item intercorrelations range between .75 and ,9 0 with the majority above .80, and test retest reliabilities range between .7 0 and The MPI was administered directly after the TAT measure on the first day of class. The directions for taking the test were read and appear in the appendix. Scoring the MPI is very objective and simple as all the items are keyed "yes" and 2 points are given for each correct response. One point is given for "?" responses. The individuals score is a ^Cscar K. Buros, (ed.). Sixth Mental Measure ments Yearbook (Highland Park: The Gryphon Press, 19&5). p. 2 9 0. ^ Ibid. , pp. 288-289. ^Robert R. Knapp, A Manual for the Maudsley Personality Inventory (San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1 9 6 2), pp. 11-14. ^9Ibld.. p. 10. 56 summation of his total points. A high score repres ents the neurotic end of a neurotic-stable continuum and such an individual is considered to have a strong fear of failure motive. Rating Scale A rating scale was designed to permit each subject the opportunity to subjectively estimate his probability of success in a handball tournament (see Appendix E). The estimate was how successful he expected to be in relation to the other members of his class. It was assessed twice, first at the begin ning of the course, on the first day of class; and second, after five weeks of instruction. Just prior to the actual tournament. It was assumed that the second estimate would be a more accurate estimate of his probability of success and that it would be less dependent upon past experiences. Atkinson suggests the use of the latter assessment for arriving at Ps on the basis "that a students knowledge of his own relative ability is one of the most important determinants of his expectancy of success, or subjective probability of success (Ps )."-^ The subjective estimates for each subjects •^^John W. Atkinson, An Introduction to Motiva- tion (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1964-), p. 25^. 57 probability of success was obtained by requesting each subject to place a mark on a line which represented a continuum from very unsuccessful to very successful (see figure 1). The mark represented his subjective estimate of how successful he thought he would be in the handball tournament relative to his fellow class mates.^ These estimates were scored by assigning discrete Integers from 0 to 20 for each of the inter vals along the continuum. The lower numbers repres enting the unsuccessful end of the continuum and the high numbers the successful end. A mark placed between two intervals was consistently given the lower value. Very Moderate Very Unsuccessful Successful i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i- 10 20 Fig. 1 — Rating Scale for Probability of Success ^Vroom, o£. clt. „ p. 22. 58 The Success Factor In Beginning Handball A modified singles round robin handball tourna ment was designed to obtain a rank order for success in handball.52 Several studies have indicated that when an activity, game or-sports skill is being evaluated, the best method is through an actual game situa tion. 53. 54, 55. 56 McCloy and Young suggest "if a test is designed to measure ability in a sport as a whole, then the criterion should be that ability" and *5? not individual skill tests of the component parts. Very little research has been completed to indicate a best or better technique for designing a ^Malcolm A. Griffith, "An Objective Method for Evaluating Ability in Handball Singles," (unpublished Master's, thesis, The Ohio State University, i9 6 0), p. 22. 5^0 . Cornish, "Handball Test," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 20:215, May, 1949. ^Griffith, o£. cit. 55jj. Montoye and J. Brotzmann, "Results of Tournament Play as Measure of Handball Ability," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 22:214-218, Kay, 1951. 5^Gary G. Pennington, et al., "A Measure of Handball Ability," Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recrea tion, 38:247-253, May, 1 9 6 7. 5?Charles H. McCloy and Norma D. Young, Tests and Measurements in Health and Physical Education'(New York: Apple t on-Cent ury-Cro ft s, Inc., 1954), p. 24l. tournament which is administratively economical in providing actual game conditions for evaluating sports skills within the framework of a regular physical education activity course.^®' ^9 was therefore, a minor problem of this investigation to design a singles handball tournament which could accurately evaluate each individuals skill level within a rela tively short period of time.^* ^ A singles tourna ment was decided since singles, competition gives a more accurate indication of the individuals ability, and also because each subjects estimated probability of success was based upon an individual assessment. A modified round robin tournament was used because it represents the best means for establishing a rank order for success, and modified because most round robin tournaments are not administratively economical in terms of time. Therefore, the following tournament, which combines elements from both a round robin tourn ament and a double elimination tournament, was developed. ^Griffith, o£. clt. ■59pennington, op. clt. 60carl E. Willgoose, Evaluation in Health Edu cation and Physical Education (New York: McGraw-Hill iBook Company, Inc. , 1961), p. 233- ^lMontoye, o]d. cit. , p. 218. 60 The tournament is initially set up in a double elimination chart (see Chart I). For this study the subjects were listed in alphabetical order and arranged so that each played one singles game twice a week for five weeks. Each game was played to eleven points with the winner needing only a one point advan tage. However, if the first server scored eleven points without his opponent having an opportunity to serve, the game was not over; the opponent was then given the opportunity of serving and possibly tying the game. If a tie occured, the entire process re peated itself. Cun 7 * 5 *3 *1 * 3 *5 67 0 Losses bye i— byo bye bjo * (If necessary) C2AET I Chart I -- Handball Tournament The tournament began in the same fashion as a double elimination tournament on Chart I. The subjects 61 (players) were listed under game 1 and paired off, as the vertical lines suggest, for their first game. The winners were placed on the horizontal lines to the right of these pairings on the "O" losses" side, and the losers were placed on the horizontal line to the left on the "1 loss" side. The second games were played with the first game winners playing each other, and the first game losers playing each other. The winners of the second game on the "0 losses" side were placed ... to the right for their third game and the losers on the "0 losses" side went to the left and were placed on the "1 loss" side. Their positions were determined by following the broken lines which were drawn from their second game to their new position for their third game. The broken lines were arranged to postpone one player from having to play another player again for a maximal period of time. Cn the "1 loss" side of Chart I, the winners of the second game were placed to the left on the horizontal line for the third game. The losers on this side were eliminated from Chart I but continued to play on Chart-IT. This process continued with the winners on the "0 losses" side continuing to go to their right, and the losers going to the "1 loss" side by following their respective broken lines. On the f,l loss" side this process also continued with the winners going to their left and the losers going to Chart II. This continued until one player remained on each side. These two played off in the same fashion as a champion ship would have been decided in a regulation double elimination tournament. 10 9 8 7 6 5 9 3 9 5 6 1 89 10 3 Losses Chart II — Handball Tournament When a player was eliminated from Chart I, he was scheduled to play his next game on the "2 losses" side of Chart II. If he was eliminated from Chart I during his fourth game, he was scheduled on Chart II, on the "2 losses" side, and at the bottom of game 5* Chart II operated in the same manner as Chart I. Winners on the "2 losses" side continued tc their right and losers went to their left on the "3 losses" side. On the "3 losses" side, the winners continued to their left and the losers were eliminated from Chart II but continued to play on Chart III. These subjects were placed on the "4- losses" side of Chart III in the same manner in which subjects were eliminated from Chart I and placed on Chart II. 10 10 4 Losses „ i. - 1 bye I 4- bye CHART III Chart III -- Handball Tournament Again, Chart III operated in the same manner, the winners on the "** losses" side continued to their right and the losers went to the "5 losses" side. On the "5 losses" side the winners continued to their left. The losers were eliminated but continued to play other losers In the same situation by following their respec- tlve broken lines. 6k This type of a tournament could have continued through a series of twenty-three charts. However, it was felt that after eight games (3 charts) a sufficient pattern had developed to enable those in their respec- ( tive areas to play-off for various tournament positions (see Appendix G), Therefore, after eight games were completed, the winners on their respective chart and sides played-off for various tournament positions. The losers, rather than going to another side or to a new chart, followed their respective broken lines to an area just below their last game and also played-off for various tournament positions. Absences during the tournament were handled in the following manner. If a subject was absent once, he made up the game he missed at the beginning of the next session; if a subject was absent twice, but not in a row, it was handled the same as one absence; if absent twice in a row, the first game missed would have been forfeited and the second game was handled the same as one absence. However, since this did not occur, there was no problem.w, 62 The advantages this tournament had over a regular round robin tournament were that the number ^One subject broke his thumb half way through the tournament; however, he remained in the study and was ranked according to his position at the time of the accident. of games required to run the tournament were tremen dously reduced; consideration was given to skill levels as winners played other winners and losers played other losers; and, a rank order was automatically established without having.to compute percentages of wins, points scored or plus points. y Methods for Analyzing the Data The resultant motivational state for the theory of achievement motivation was computed for each subject * • by adding each subjects tendency to achieve to success with his tendency to avoid failure. The tendency to achieve success was computed for each subject by con verting his TAT score to a standard score and multi plying this times his probability of success and his incentive value of success. The tendency to avoid failure was computed in the same manner by converting the subjects MPI score to a standard score and multiply ing it times his probability of falling and his incentive value of failing. The subjects were then ranked according to their resultant achievement motivation scores and divided into two groups by placing all those who ranked above the median in one group and all those who ranked below the median in the other group. The success factor (rank order tournament finish) for each subject in each group was determined and the averages between the two groups was compared. The statistical procedure for analyzing this data was the non parametric Kruskal- Wallis one way analysis of variance test.^ All sta tistical analyses were computed by utilizing these same techniques for establishing groups and analyzing the data. ^Sidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (New York: McGraw -Hill Book Company, Inc., 19), p . 18^. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OP THE DATA The purpose of this chapter is to statis tically analyze the question as to whether or not success In beginning handball is a function of the theory of achievement motivation. In brief, the theory suggests that a persons resultant motivation al state in achievement oriented situations is a function of two motivational tendencies; first, the tendency to achieve success which is derived by means of a mathematical formula which includes his motive to achieve success, his probability of success and his incentive value of success; the second, the tendency to avoid failure is derived from a mathem atical formula which includes his motive to avoid failure, his probability of failure, and his incen tive value of failure. Therefore, it will be the object of this chapter to not only consider the func tion of success in beginning handball to the result ant motivational state, but also to its component parts. 6? Statistical Instrument The Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks test was selected to analyze the data.1 It is a non-parametric statistical test which gives a conservative analysis of the data, which for this Investigation seemed highly adviseable.2 The authors of the theory of achievement motivation suggest that when performance comparisons are made on the basis of the theory, comparisons should be made on the basis of group averages rather than individual differences.^ It was also suggested that since the nature of such measurements are not precise, the data would be best represented on an h < ordinal rather than an interval scale. * J Because of these restrictions, it was decided to use the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric statistical test which conservatively assesses relationships between the averages of groups which have ranked scores. 1Sidney Siegel, Nonparametrlc Statistics of the Behavioral Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.. 1956), pp. 184-193. ^Victor H. Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc,, 196^), p. 205. 3David C. McClelland, et al., The Achievement Motive (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953). pp. 150, 19^. ^Ibid., p. 150. ^Vroom, op..clt. 69 Significance Level The nature of this Investigation suggests that an alpha level or rejection region not be established. But rather, the significance of each measurement should be left to the discretion of the reader on the basis of the reported probabilities.^ This is suggested as the conventional practice of setting levels of significance a priori may be "a serious impediment to the inter pretation of data.And also because the practical significance of these results will vary from one reader to another.® Cne additional reason for this action is that most readers will not be familiar with the H symbol used in a Kruskal-Wallis analysis and will not be able to correctly interpret the strength of the various relationships. This suggests that misunder standings may develop from the acceptance or rejection of a specific level of significance.9 Following the ^James K. Skipper, Jr., et al., "The Sacredness of .05: A Note Concerning the Uses of Statistical Levels of Significance in the Social'Sciences," The American Sociologist. 2:17. February, 1 9 6 7. ?Ibid. ®Pentti Teraslinna, "On Publishable Research Articles,” Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 38:156, March, 196 7. ^Thomas jm Duggan and Charles W. Dean, "Common Misinterpretations of Significance Levels in Sociological Journals," The American Sociologist, 3:^5. February, 196 8. ?0 reported results for each analysis, the raw data is presented in tabular form and then discussed to provide the reader greater insight into the meaningfulness of each finding. Since an alpha level was not established, the tested hypotheses are neither accepted nor rejected. Rather, the acceptance or rejection will be left up to the reader on the basis of his interpretation of the results and the discussions which suggest the possible significance for each finding. It is also suggested that since the data was conservatively anal yzed a more liberal interpretation might be in order. Hypotheses, Results and Discussions Hypotheses, assumptions, test results and discussions have been combined in this section to facilitate a better understanding of the major findings. The hypotheses have been numbered from 1 to 10, and following each hypothesis a major assumption(s) is stated. The results for each test follows and is represented by H which is the statistic used in a Kruskal-Wallis analysis.-1-0 An example of the statis tical procedures used in a Kruskal-Wallis analysis can be found in Appensix H. Each H value is followed by p 10Siegel, op, clt., p. 185. 71 which represents the critical value for the probability of H.H- A table for each test is also included to illustrate better the various relationships. Hypothesis I: there is no relationship between success in beginning handball and resultant achievement motivation(T). Assumption: subjects with higher resultant achievement motivation (T) will be more successful in beginning handball than subjects with lower resultant achievement motivation.(T). Results: H - .635* P<«50 (direction is negar tive, see TABLE 1). This result is particularly inter esting as all the subjects with T scores above the median were positive (excitatory) and the subjects below the median were negative (inhibitory). TABLE 1 RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW T GROUPS Subjects with T Subjects with T above the median below the median 2 1 4 3 5 6 10 7 12 8 13 9 15 11 16 14 18 17 20 19 Total 115 Total 95 13-Ibid. (Table of critical values of chi square), P. 249. 72 Discussion: these results indicate that in this study success in handball is not a function of the theory of achievement motivation. The literature, as presented in chapter II, suggested that in an achievement oriented situation individuals with higher resultant achievement motivation scores would be more successful. The results not only did not corroborate this; but rather, indicated a slight tendency for an inverse relationship. Reasons for this lack of agree ment are not obvious; however, there are some very plausible explanations. The authors of the theory of achievement motivation shed some excellent light on this discrepancy with the following statement. ...achievement-oriented activities are also influenced by other extrinsic motivational tendencies, which are attributable to other kinds of motive and incentive. The theory of achievement motivation focuses primarily upon the resolution of the conflict between the two opposed tendencies that are inher ent in any achievement-oriented activity... to undertake an activity...1^ The extrensic motives which may have played a role in this study are goals toward affiliation, power and prestige which are known to influence performance in ■^John vj. Atkinson and Norman T. Feather, A Theory of Achievement Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1 9 6 6), p. 3 2 8. 73 both the classroom and athletic contests.^-3. 1^. 15. J-6 Other factors which also need consideration are illus trated in the following guotes, "actual ability to function is determined by...talent, acquired abilities, special styles of functioning and temporary states of functioning, "•*•? "achievement motivation increases with socioeconomic status, but is highest among middle class males,and the Idea that "...more mature performers ,i.are more interested In individual improvement than their ranking within the group."19 It must also be noted that these results are heavily dependent upon the scores obtained from both the TAT and MPI measures. In both cases the scores -^Bryant Cratty, Psychology and Physical Activity (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., i960), p. 170. ^Elizabeth G. French, "Some Characteristics of Achievement Motivation," Journal of Experimental Psychology. 50:275. 1955. 15john F. Hall, Psychology of Motivation (Chicago: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1961), pp. 5-6. ■*-^D. Marlowe, "Relationships Among Direct and Indirect Measures of the Achievement Motive and Overt Behavior," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 23:355. 1959. / ■^Heinz Heokhausen, The Anatomy of Achievement „ Motivation (New York: Academic Press, 1967), p. 127. ■*-®L. W. Littig and C, A. Yeracaria, "Academic Achievement Correlates of Achievement and Affiliation Motivations," Journal of Psychology. 5 5 ’* 119. 19&3. 19cratty, o£. clt.. p. 78. 7b were representative of American college males. The obtained mean and standard deviation for the TAT was 5 .5 5 and b.9? which compares with findings reported by Atkinson with a mean of 6.10 and a standard deviation of **.81. 20 The obtained mean and standard deviation for the MPI was 22. *4-5 and- 8.73 which also compares qiilte favorably to a mean of 20.19 with a standard dev iation of 10.71 reported by Jensen and Knapp.^• 22 However, American college males represent a segment of the population which is already high on the continuum for achievement motivation. Thus discrepan cies among these individuals may not be as great as one might find among the general population for the same age group. A last consideration must be given to the possibility of a Hawthorne effect. Hanson states that, "the fact remains... that the Hawthorne effect can con tribute to the Improvement of physical performance."23 20John W. Atkinson, Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1958), p . 8 3 5 . ^Arthur Jensen, ’ "The Kaudsley Personality Inven- tory," Acta Psychologlca. 1**:319. 1958. 22Robert R. Knapp, A Manual for~the Maudsley Per sonality Inventory (San Diego: Educational and Indus trial Testing Service, 1 9 6 2), p. 8. 2^Dale L. Hanson, "Influence of the Hawthorne Effect Upon Physical Education Research," Research Quarterly. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 38:72**, December, 19&7. 75 This is suggested as the subjects compiled a remarkable attendance record during the study in which they knew they were participating (see Appendix A). The lack of support for the theory of achieve ment motivation has many possible reasons. In fact, this discussion might lead one to believe that a positive relationship would be completely impossible. To understand why this relationship did not occur It Is necessary to examine the theories major parts and assumptions. The following hypotheses have been designed for this purpose. Hypothesis II: there Is no relationship be tween the tendency to achieve success (Ts ) and success in beginning handball. Assumption: subjects with higher tendencies to achieve success (Ts ) will be more successful in beginning handball than subjects with lower tendencies to achieve success (Ts ). Results: H = 2.5 8 6, p<.20 (direction is nega tive, see TABLE 2). 76 TABLE 2 RANK CRDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FCR HIGH AND LOW Ts GROUPS Subjects with Ts Subjects with Tg above the median below the median 1 2 8 3 10 4- 11 5 13 6 1^ 7 15 9 16 12 18 17 20 19 Total 126 Total 8k Discussion: the results approach an accept able level, however, it is not in the expected direc tion, It was expected that a slight positive rela tionship would exist as subjects with higher tenden cies toward achievement should achieve higher levels of success. These results must be tempered by the fact that the theory suggests that the tendency to avoid failure is of equal importance in determining success. However, in this study such an inference must be more than tempered, it must be rejected. Reasons for this descrepancy have been explored in the discussion under hypothesis I; however, additional conslderations which are more explicit to this analysis can be cited. When the tendency for positive achievement motivation is great, and there is associated with this a strong tendency to avoid failure, the latter motive may fail to inhibit or dampen performance, in fact it Oil may paradoxically enhance performance. Another consideration includes the idea that the difficulty of the task was such that it did not represent an inter mediate range of difficulty. According to the authors, "... failure to find the normally expected superiority in performance of persons high in n Achievement may be do to the fact that the task is either very difficult or very e a s y . "^5 jn conclusion, it can not be assumed that a monotonic relationship exists between the strength of a goal directed tendency to achieve and performance. Hypothesis III: There is no relationship between the tendency to avoid failure (T_f) and suc cess In beginning handball. Assumption: subjects with higher tendencies to avoid failure (T„f) will be less successful in be ginning handball than subjects with lower tendencies (T_f) to avoid failure. 2^John W. Atkinson and Patricia O'Connor, "Neglected Factors of Studies of Achievement-Crlented Performance: Social Approval as an Incentive and Performance Decrement." In J. W. Atkinson and N. T. Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1 9 6 6, p. 323. ^Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation, P. 330. 78 Results: H = .755. P<*50 (direction is nega^ tive, see TABLE 3). TABLE 3 RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW T_f GROUPS Subjects with T_f Subjects with T_f above the median below the median 1 2 8 3 9 10 5 11 6 13 7 1^ 12 15 17 16 18 19 20 Total 116 Total 9^ Discussion: the results suggest that a re lationship does not exist. However, on the basis of an emperical observation of the data, the subjects with the higher motive to avoid failure (anxiety) did re ceive slightly higher success ranks. A major reason for the lack of agreement can be attributed to the notion that all anxiety is not debilitating, in some cases it may actually enhance performance. This assump- tibn was tested in Hypothesis V. Hypothesis IV: there is no relationship be tween the achievement motive (Ms) and success In begin ning handball. Assumption: subjects with higher achievement 79 motive scores (Ms ) will be more successful in beginning handball than subjects with lower achievement motive scores (Ms ). Results: H = .206, p < . ? 0 (see TABLE 4). TABLE 4 RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN, HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW Ms GROUPS Subjects with Ks Subjects with M s above the median below the median 1 2 4 3 5 6 7 9 8 12 10 13 11 14 16 15 18 17 20 1 9 .... . Total 100 Total 110 Discussion: the results support the hypothesis that there is no relationship between the achievement motive and success in beginning handball. McClelland suggests that there is no necessary connection between a high achievement motive and efficiency in perform ance, but that examples to the contrary should repres- 26 ent the exception rather than the rule. However, • Bendig in a study of the validity of the TAT, did not ^McClelland, ojd. cit. , p. 80. 80 find that subjects with high Ms scores did better in college.27 Others suggest that the temporary state in which the individual is functioning at the time of taking the TAT will alter his results.28, 29, 30 McClelland offers an explanation for these results in that the TAT may be very specific, he states that, "... Subjects may have•achievement motives which are aroused only by very specific situations."^l He continues latter in his text by stating "Thus, it may turn out that if he gives achievement stories primarily to pictures of athletic situations, that he will show high achievement motivation only in such situations."32 Another consideration takes into account the notion that "A strict, achievement oriented college course paralyzes initiative and efficiency in highly 2?a . W.. Bendig, "Comparative Validity of Objec tive and Projective Measures of Need Achievement in Predicting Students Achievement in Introductory Psychology." Journal of General Psychology, 60:23?, 1959. oQ Heckhausen, 0£. clt. 29Bryant J. Cratty, Movement Behavior and Motor Learning (Philadelphia: Lea* and Pebiger, 196? )7 P. 1^1. 3®Roger Brown, "The Achievement Motive," Social Psychology (London: The Free Press, 1966), p. *4-33. ^McClelland, oid. clt. , p. 73. 32lbld., p. 21*4-. 81 motivated students..."33 in this same vain, if there was a difference in motor ability, it is suggested that "students with high motor ability...rarely secure ad equate attention and motivation in the regular phys ical education class."3^ Atkinson supports this by stating "...only the students of average ability are likely to be very motivated to achieve In the tradi tional heterogeneous class."35 jn another vein, if the student is highly motivated and the task is a rela tively new or difficult one, his high positive motiva tion may reduce his performance through a "narrowing of the cognitive field...and an Ignoring of relevent informatlon."36 Thus there appears to be a number of excellent reasons why a relationship was not estab lished in this study. Hypothesis V: there is no relationship between the motive to avoid failure (K^p) and success in begin ning handball. 33w. J. McKeachie, "Motivation, Teaching Methods, and College Learning." In M. R. Jones (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961), p. 139* 3^m . Gladys Scott and Esther French, Measure ment and Evaluation in Physical Education (Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Co. , 1959). P- 5~- 35john W. Atkinson, "The Mainsprings of Achieve ment Oriented Activity." In J. Krumbcitz (ed,). Learning and the Educational Process (Chicago: Rand- McNally, 1965), p. 57. 36vroom, op. clt., p. 207. 82 Assumption A: subjects with higher motives to avoid failure (MAp) will be less successful in begin ning handball than subjects with lower motives to avoid failure (MAp). Results: H = .086, p < . 8 0 (see TABLE 5)* Assumption B: there is a curvilinear relation ship between the motive to avoid failure (MAp) and suc cess in beginning handball. Subjects with motive to avoid failure scores (KAp) the Interquartile range will be more successful in beginning handball than sub jects with motive to avoid failure scores (MAp) in the upper and lower quartiles. Results: H = 2.^9, p < . 2 0 (see TABLE 6). ' TABLE 5 RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL PCR HIGH AND LOW NAF GROUPS Subjects with KAp Subjects with K^p above the median below the median 1 3 U- 7 5 8 6 10 9 11 12 14 13 16 15 18 17 19 20 Total 10? Total 103 83 TABLE 6 RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR GROUPS IN THE INTERQUARTILE MAF RANGE AND UPPER-LOWER KaF RANGES Subjects with MAp Subjects with scores in the scores in the upper interquartile range and lower quartile ranges 1 2 3 5 4 8 6 10 9 11 11 11 11 12 13 14 17 18 19 20 Total 94 Total 111 Discussion: the first assumption, that sub jects with higher motives to avoid failure will be less successful in handball was not supported, TABLE 5 demonstrates that the success for the two groups were ..almost identical. F. Ryan, who has done several studies on personality differences and competitive ability supports this finding and suggests "that experi mental groups (good and bad competitors) will not be easily distinguished on the basis of manifest anxiety."37 -^Francis J. Ryan, "An Investigation of Person ality Difference Associated with Competitive Ability." In Psychosocial Problems of College Ken (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), p. 120. Spielberger In a study on manifest anxiety and academic achievement,38 and Carder, in a study with manifest anxiety and performance in college football,39 give additional support to these observations. Thus, the literature as mentioned In chapter II suggests that a monotonic relationship between anxiety and performance may not exist. This leads to a possible alternative for this discrepancy which is explored in the following assumption. Assumption B suggests that a U function or curvilinear relationship exists between anxiety (motive to avoid failure) and performance. Chapter II pres ented a substantial body of literature in support of this assumption. Even the authors of the theory of achievement motivation , recognize this possibility.^ However, the results in this study do not give this notion a great deal of support. A liberal interpreta tion of these results indicate that a slight associa tion may exist. 38c. D. Spielberger, "The Effects of Manifest Anxiety on the Academic Achievement of College Students, Mental Hygiene. ^6:^25, 19^2. 39firent Carder, "The Relationship Between Mani fest Anxiety and Performance in College Football," Master’s thesis (University of California at Santa Barbara, 1965). Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8:4^, 1966. ’^Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation, PP. 323. 335. 85 Hypothesis VI: there is no relationship between subjective probabilities of spccess (Ps ) and actual success in beginning handball. Assumption A: subjects with higher subjective estimates of their probability for success (Ps ) will be more successful in beginning handball than subjects with lower subjective estimates of their probability for success (Ps ). Results: H = 2.93. p<.10 (see TABLE ?). Assumption B: subjects with greater success in beginning handball subjectively estimate their prob ability for success closer to fifty (5 0) percent than do subjects who are less successful in beginning hand ball. Results: H = 4.55. P <.05 (direction is nega tive, see TABLE 8). TABLE ? RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW Ps GROUPS Subjects with Ps Subjects with Ps above the median below the median 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 12 5 14 6 15 7 16 11 17 13 19 18 20 Total 70 Total 140 86 TABLE 8 RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW Ps X Is GROUPS subjects with Ps x Is Subjects with P« x Is above the median below the median 8 1 9 2 10 3 11 4 13 5 14 6 15 7 16 12 1? 18 20 19 Total 133 Total 77 Discussion: the results for assumption A suggest that hypothesis VI ought to be rejected. They suggest that success in comparable past activities influence estimated probabilities for success in new activities. This, however, is contrary to the theory of achievement motivation which suggests that the relationship between expectancy of winning or doing well and actual performance is curvilinear,^ Atkinson goes to great length to support the latter assumption; his basic premise depends upon the assumption that a person is more challenged by a task ^•John W, Atkinson, "Towards Experimental Anal ysis of Human Motivation in Terms of Motives, Expectan cies and Incentives." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1953t P* 293. 8? of intermediate difficulty than by an easier and safer venture or.a more difficult and speculative one,*4,2* *4'3» ^5 The results from this study, assump tion B, support the concept that a curvilinear relation ship may exist; however, the relationship is not in the expected direction. That is, the subjects who are least successful in beginning handball tend to estimate their probability of success closer to an Intermediate range of difficulty. This discrepancy may contribute to a primary weakness in the theory. In support of the results found in this investi gation, Reitman and Williams were unable to "...confirm the theory that highly motivated subjects set moderate goals for a test and subjects with lower motivation tended to under or over estimate their prospects for success.'1^ Also, Jessor and Readlo found that the ^John W. Atkinson, An Introduction to Motiva tion (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc,, 196^), p. 2^2. ^John W. Atkinson, "Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior," Psychological Review, 6^:18, 1957. ^Atkinson, "Towards Experimental Analysis of Human Motivation in Terms of Motives, Expectancies and Incentives," p. 305. ^Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation, P« 368. ^ E . E. Reitman and C. C. Williams, "Relation ship Between Hope of Success and Fear of Failure, Anxiety, and Need for Achievement," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62:^67, 1 9 6 1. 88 relationship between probabilities of success and incentive values of success may not be inversely re lated as suggested in the theory. ^ These findings suggest that a weakness may exist in one of the major assumptions of the theory which states that Is = 1 - Ps. However, the authors of the theory are very much aware of this weakness and suggest that: There is obviously plenty of scope for future investigation of the effect of situational factors in addition to the level of difficulty on attractiveness of success and repulsiveness of failure.^® In light of these results and observations, it is strongly suggested that efforts be continued in Investigating the possible relationship among sub jective estimates of probabilities for success, incen tive values for success and performance in different activities. Hypothesis VII: there is no difference in success in beginning handball between subjects who have high achievement motive scores with low motive to avoid failure scores and subjects with low achievement motive scores with high motive to avoid failure scores. *7B . Jessor and J. Readio, "The Influence of the Value of an Event Upon the Expectancy of Its Occurence," Journal of General Psychology, 56:22?, 1957. ^Atkinson, A Theory of Achievement Motivation, p. 361. 89 Assumption: subjects with high achievement motive scores and low motive to avoid failure scores will be more successful in beginning handball than sub jects with low achievement motive scores and high motive to avoid failure scores. Results: H = ?.49, P<.01 (see TABLE 9). TABLE 9 RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH Ms LOW Ma p AND LOW Ms HIGH GROUPS Subjects with Ms above Subjects with Ks below the median and Ma p the median and Ma p below the median - -above the median 4 3 5 14 20 19 Total 29 Total 36 Discussion: the results, although beyond the .01 level, must be considered as only suggestive as the number of samples is very small and the range of scores Is quite large. However, the results do give tremendous support for the veil documented concept which suggests that the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure must be combined with equal Importance in determining resultant achievement motivation. ‘This supports the theory in that the individual motives are 90 insufficient for determining resultant successful per formance, and that the two motives combined constitute the necessary properties for overcoming their individual weaknesses. Although these results are tenuous, they per haps represent the most significant findings of this investigation. Not because of the high H and p values, but rather because of their support for one of the major assumptions of the theory of achievement motivation. « » Hypothesis VIII: there is no relationship be tween past success In similar activities and resultant achievement motivation (T). Assumption: subjects with greater success in similar past activities should have-higher resultant achievement motivation scores (T) than subjects who have experienced less success. This assumes that past success, which is based upon academic letter grades for past physical education activity courses at The Ohio State University, can represent similar past successes. Results: H = .21*1-8, p-tf.?0 (direction is nega tive, see TABLE 10). 91 TABLE 10 RANK ORDER RESULTANT T FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS GROUPS Subjects with Subjects with greater success less success 3 .. 1 5 2 10.5 7 10.5 1 0 .5 10.5 1 0 .5 1 0 .5 1 0 .5 11 1 0 .5 Ik 1 0 .5 16 19 17 20 Eotal 108 Total 101.5 Discussion: it may be that the lack of associ ation in this analysis is due to the fact that letter grades for past physical education classes taken at The Ohio State University do not sufficiently repre sent the same type of a success factor for past similar activities, However, it is assumed that the major prob lem for this lack of association is due to the weak nesses in the resultant achievement motivation scores. This has been suggested in the analyses and discussions of hypotheses I - VI. Kore explicit is the assumption that the dis crepancy lies in the computation of subjective probabili ties of success and the incentive values of success. Additional attention will be given to this concern with the following hypothesis. 92 * Hypothesis IX: there is no relationship between past success in similar activities and subjective esti mates for probability of success in a new activity. Assumption A: subjects with greater success in past activities should estimate their new probabili ties for success closer to fifty (5 0) percent than sub jects with less success in similar past activities. Results: H = 1.071^-, p < . 3 0 (direction is negative, see TABLE 11). Assumption B: subjects with greater success in similar past activities should estimate their probabil ity for success higher than subjects with less success in similar past activities. ... . Results: H = 5.123, p <.05 (see TABLE 12). TABLE 11 RANK ORDER PROBABILITY ESTIMATES BASED CN Ps x Is FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS GROUPS Subjects with Subjects with greater success less success 3 3 7 3 11 3 12.39 6 12.39 12.39 12.39 12.39 12.39 12.39 12.5 12.39 15 12.39 20 15 Total 118.06 Total 91.95 93 TABLE 12 RANK ORDER PROBABILITY ESTIMATES FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS GROUPS Subjects with ^Subjects with greater success less success 1 6 6 8.72 8.5 8.72 8 .7 2 8.72 8.?2 8.72 8.72 8.72 8.72 15 12 15 15 15 20 18 Total 97.38 Total 112.6 Discussion: the results are similar to those found when testing the relationship between subjective probabilities of success with success In beginning handball. A definite weakness appears In the theories assumption that Is = 1 - Ps where subjects who are . most successful should have estimated their probabili ties for success in an intermediate range of difficulty. Assumption B, suggests quite strongly that the relation ship is one where success breeds success and failure breeds failure. However, rather than jumping too quickly, it might be wise to check one other possibility. Does past success ralate to present or future success? Hypothesis X: there is no relationship between past success in similar activities and actual success in beginning handball. yk Assumption: subjects with greater success in past activities should have greater success in beginning handball than subjects with less success in past activities. Results: H l.?02, p < . 20 (see TABLE 13). TABLE 13 RANK ORDER SUCCESS SCORES FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS GROUPS Subjects with greater Subjects with less past success oast success 1 8 5 9.3 6 9.3 9 9.3 9.3 9.3 9.3 9.3 9.3 1^ 9.3 16 10 18 19 20 Total 87.2 Total 122.5 Discussion: a slight tendency appears to exist between these two variables. It may be that the nature of the past experiences or the means for determining success are too variable to permit a more significant relationship. On the other hand, it might be this vagueness which permits the loose association. In either case, it might be that past experience is a more significant factor in determining future success than the motivational level, at least as expounded in the theory of achievement motivation. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary The object of this investigation was to see if a relationship exists between a particular social- psychological motivational construct and performance in physical activity. More specifically, the purpose was to see if success in beginning handball is a i function of the theory of achievement motivation as expressed by McClelland, Atkinson and Feather. The theory of achievement motivation has an impressive historical heritage, a sound philosophical rationale and an extensive psychological literature to support its major premises. It suggests that all motives are learned; that performance is dependent upon a resultant motivational state which occurs as the result of the cummulative motivational tendencies which sire called into play; that achievement oriented situa tions are primarily influenced by an excitatory tendency, the need to achieve, and an inhibatory • tendency, the fear of failure; and that all motivational states are influenced by general personality disposi tions which are modified by situational variables. 95 96 A review of the literature in education, phys ical education and motor learning suggested strong implications for a relationship between the theory and possible behavioral performance corrolates in. competi tive sports and game situations. It was therefore decided to select an activity in which these theoretical implications might be tested. Handball was selected as the competitive spirit is assumed to be quite high, success could be easily determined, it was an activity which is a new experience for most college students, most students elect to participate in this activity, and personality studies in handball are definitely lacking. Subjects were selected on the basis that they were freshman or sophomore male students at The Ohio State University who had never participated In four- wall handball. They must have had at least one previous course in physical education at The Ohio State University, and they must not be freshman or varsity athletes. The resultant achievement motivational state was assessed by administering the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Maudsley Personality Inventory (KPI) and a questionaire administered on the first day of class. These instruments provided the general personality characteristics for need achievement (TAT) and fear of failure (MPI). The situational variables which modify 9? these factors were assessed by means of a rating scale in which each subject subjectively estimated his probability of success for the modified round robin handball tournament. This last procedure followed five weeks of instruction in handball and preceded the tournament. From this last instrument subjective probabilities for success and failure were computed as well as the incentive values for success and failure. At the conclusion of a modified round robin tournament success factors were determined for each subject, these were statistically analyzed with the resultant achievement motivational scores, its compon ent parts, and the hypotheses and assumptions of the theory of achievement motivation. The Kruskal-Wallis one way analysis of variance test was used for each analysis. The results Indicated that success in begin ning handball was not a function of the theory of achievement motivation. An analysis of the component parts, and the hypotheses and assumptions of the theory when tested against the success factor and against each other helped to shed greater understanding on this lack of association. Individual tests between the tendency to succeed (Ts), the tendency to avoid failure (T_f), the achievement motive (FiS), the fear of failure motive (Ma f ) an& success in beginning handball failed to yield expected, predicted and acceptable results. However, 98 support was suggested, for the assumption that subjects who have high achievement scores (Ms) and low anxiety scores (M^p) will be more successful than subjects who have low achievement scores and high anxiety scores. This result lends tremendous support to the importance of combining both excitatory and inhibitory properties when predicting performance in achievement oriented situations. Support was also suggested for the assumptions that anxiety or the motive to avoid failure has both facilitating and debilitating properties; that sub jective estimates of probabilities for success (Ps) are directly related to both past and future success; and, that the more successful subjects do not estimate their probabilities for success closer to fifty (50) percent. Each of these findings was in opposition to the suggested assumptions of the theory and may be the source of the difficulties which prevented an association between the resultant achievement motivation and success. Conclusions The major conclusion for this investigation suggested that success in beginning handball is not a function of the theory of achievement motivation. The theory makes strong implications for such an association; however, the results were unable to provide support. In 99 studying the assumptions made by the theory it was dis covered that perhaps the greatest weakness lies in the assumption that the incentive value of success is the inverse function of the subjective probability for success. The results suggest that the opposite is true, that incentive values for success are directly propor tional to the probabilities for success. Another assumption which did not receive support suggested that anxiety is always debilitating to performance. The results indicate that anxiety is not always detrimental and that it may even facilitate performance. In a further analysis of this data support is given to the concept that a curvilinear relationship exists between anxiety and performance. This suggests that a certain amount of anxiety is nec essary for a maximal performance, while too little or too much may be detrimental. Perhaps the most significant result of this study is to be found in the data which does not directly relate to the theory. Analyses which tested the rela tionship between past success and probability estimates and actual success indicate that perhaps past success is a better indicator for future success than individual motivational states. However, this can also be inter preted to suggest that a general motor ability or skill factor Is also related to success. 100 These results should not be interpreted to assume that the theory of achievement motivation has no value in acquiring a better understanding for the reasons why man participates in varying degrees in dif ferent activities. On the contrary, there is evidence which supports some of these hypotheses and assumptions in relation to successful performance in different sports and games. Among these is the hypothesis which suggests that subjects with high achievement scores and low anxiety scores will be more successful than subjects with low achievement needs and high anxiety. Thus, the contribution of the theory to the idea that excitatory tendencies and inhibitory tendencies are of equal importance in predicting success may be of great value. Furt-her support can be seen in an extrapola tion of the results in which the investigator pursued the possibility of testing resultant achievement motivation with__success in beginning handball by omit ting the incentive value factors from the tendency formulas. By omitting this element it appears that a greater balance is achieved between the personality factors and the situational variables. The formula for this modified resultant achievement motivation would be as follows: T = Ks x P s + x P_f. The results for this modification when tested against success in begin ning handball are presented in TABLE 14, 101 Results: H = 7.476, p <.01 TABLE 14 RANK CRDSR SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR HIGH AND LOW MODIFIED T GROUPS Subjects with Subjects with modified T scores modified T scores above the median below the median. 1 s 2 9 3 10 4 13 5 14 6 • 15 7 16 11 17 12 19 18 20 Total 69 Total 141 Discussion: the results are quite convincing, especially as the rationale for such an extrapolation has support in both the literature for achievement motivation as well as related literatures. This, however, is only one possible alternative, others will be suggested in the following section. Recommendations for Future Research It is recommended that additional research stud ies on the possible relationship between the theory of achievement motivation and physical activity in the form of games and sports be continued. Future studies should attempt to provide greater controls over such factors as the skill levels or motor abilities of the subjects, also over the types and amounts of past experiences in similar activities, and the types and amounts of success in past experiences. Extrensic motives ought to be considered and if possible measured. Motives such as the need for affiliation, the need for social approval, the need for recognition, and the need for power are •examples of extrensic factors which have been known to Influence the competitive athletic environment. Socio-economic background information ought to be compiled as there are strong implications for the Influences which these elements exert upon motivational tendencies. The concept that lower socio-economic sub cultures use sports and games as a means for social- economic mobility ought to be explored in relation to the theory of achievement motivation. Studies need to be Initiated to test the hypothesis that need for achievement is specific for different types of thematic apperceptive cues. Pictures depicting athletic events ought to be compared with the pictures utilized in this investigation. Additional studies are also needed to deliniate the role of anxiety and stress in competitive sports and games. What are the differences among general anxiety dispositions, anxiety or stress experienced just prior to a contest, and anxiety or stress experienced during the contest? Is anxiety both facilitating and debilitating, and if so how can the maximally desired levels be determined? 103 Different approaches need to be considered in assessing subjective probabilities of success. Levels of aspiration, adaptation levels and affective hedonic responses need to be considered when assessing both success probabilities and incentive values. Studies need to be conducted among different types of games and sports activities such as archery, bowling, tennis, swimming, and volleyball. Perhaps the most meaningful comparisons will come from studies between individual and dual activities, individual and team sports, required and elective courses and between the various levels of competition (beginning, inter mediate, advanced and varsity). Serious efforts are also needed in the area of curriculum development. Should students be classified by motivational levels rather than ability groups, should they be classified by ability first and then re classified on the basis of motivational levels, or does the traditional heterogeneous classroom provide the best learning environment. Cther considerations which ought to be examined along with the motivational tendencies in the theory of achievement motivation are such psychological phenom enons as self concepts, extroversion-introversion, and intelligence. The suggestions and recommendations in this section have been extensive by design. It is intended that the many variables which might be considered should be seen as evidence that studies in which single variables are isolated for specific analyses might be considered as highly suspect when dealing with complex multidimensional problems. APPENDIX A INSTRUCTIONS FCR ADM IH13 T ERIIJG TH3 TAT AND MPI These instructions were read to the subjects. Introduction «■"My v name is Don Bethe and I am an instructor in the Physical Education Department at. The Chic State University doing an exploratory research project for my doctoral dissertation. Hy study is concerned with an analysis of two psychological characteristics which appear to be related to athletic performance. The characteristics are an individuals creative imagina tion and attitudes. Two tests will be administered in an attempt' to assess these, the first a test of your creative imagination and the second, a person ality inventory to assess ycur attitudes. It is felt that with a greater understanding of these relationships it might be possible to improve teaching and coaching techniques and hopefully per formance. It is hoped that you will cooperate in this effort by answering all of the questions to the best of your ability. 3y doing so you would conceivably be 105 10$ malcing a valuable contribution to the teaching-learning process. Your name will be requested; however, the results will in nc way affect your standing or grade in this course. In fact, the results will net be seen by your instructor until after the course is completed and your grades have been turned in." Instructions for the TAT "Please put your name, the date and the time in the upper right hand corner of the first sheet. This is a test of your creative imagination. A number cf pictures will be projected on the screen before you. You will have twenty seconds to lock at the picture and then about four minutes to make up a story about it. Notice that there is one page fox* each picture. The same four questions are asked. They will guide your thinking and enable you to cover all the elements of a plot in the time allotted. Plan tc spend abcut a minute on each question. I will keep time and tell you when it is about time to go on to the next question for each story. You will have a little time to finish ycur story before the next picture is shown. Obviously there are nc right or wx'cng answers, so you may feel free to make up any kind cf a story about t.h.e pictures that you choose. Try to make them 107 vivid and dramatic, for this is a test cf creative imagination. Do net merely describe the picture you see. Tell a story about it. i'/ork as fast as you can in order to finish in time. hake them interesting. Are there any. questions? If you need more space for any question, use the reverse side.'1 Instructions for the fcPI "Please place your name, the date and the time in the upper right hand corner of the questionaire. Please answer each question by putting a circle round the 'Yes'or the 'NoT following the question; if you simply cannot make up your mind, encircle the r?f. V/crk quickly and do net ponder too long about the exact shade cf meaning cf each question. There are no right or wrong answers, and no trick questions. Remember to answer each question." APPENDIX B TAT The Ohio State University Print Name B&W 1114-6? Date______' Time 1. What is happening? Who are the persons? 2. What has led up to this situation? That is, what has happened in the past? 3. What is being thought? What is wanted? By whom? 4, What will happen? What will be done? 108 APP3NDIX C ! SCORING CONTENT ANALYSIS PGR THE TAT The following statements have been extracted from the original scoring manual to facilitate better understanding of the objective scoring technique. The scorer must first decide whether or not the story contains any reference to an achievement goal which would justify his scoring the sub- categories . By achievement goal is meant success in com petition with some standard of excellence. That is, the goal cf some individual in the story is to be successful in terms cf com petition with some standard of excellence. The individual may fail to achieve this goal., but the concern over competition with a standard cf excellence still enables one to identify the goal sought as an achieve ment goal. This, then, is cur generic defin ition of n Achievement.1 If such a reference exists, a point is scored and sub- catagcries are considered. Thus ...we perceive the behavioral sequence originating when an individual experiences a state of need or a motive (N). He may also be anticipating successful attain ment of his goal (Ga+) or anticipating frus tration and failure (Ga-). He may engage in activity instrumental (I) to the attainment cf his goal which may lead to the attainment cf ^David C. McClelland, et al., The Achievement Motive (New York: Apcletcn-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953). pp. 110-111. 109 110 the goal (1+) or not (I-). Sometimes his goal- directed activity will be blocked. The obstacle or block (3) to his progress may be located in the world at large (3w) or it may be seme per sonal deficiency in himself (Bp). He may ex perience strong positive and negative affective states while engaged in solving his problem, i.e., it attempting to gratify his motive. He is likely to experience a state cf positive affect (C-+) in goal attainment, or a state cf . negative affect (G-) when his goal-directed activity is thwarted or he fails. Often some one will help or sympathize with him— fnurtur- ant press (Nup)}— aiding him in his goal- directed behavior.2 v/hen each of the above catagories exist in a story it is scored a plus one. If a reference to an achievement goal does net exist then none cf the sub catagories may be scored. The individuals score is then the sum total cf all the points for the four stories. Summary of Scoring Catagories Achievement Imagery (AI) 1. Competition with a standard of excellence (quality; good, better, best). a) Doing well is actually stated as the primary concern. b) V/hen not explicitly stated: 1) Affective concern over gcal attainment, unless it is largely negative (see G-, 3)» 2) Instrument Activity indicating desire to compete (proud - carefully). c) Meeting self imposed requirements cf good per formance. - good, thorough, workmanlike job, (quality net intensity). - Instrumental Activity allows such inferences (Carefully doing). 2 Ibid., 103. Ill 2. Unique accomplishment a) "ether than daily tasks which mark personal success. b) Inventions, creations, research. c) No explicit statement about expectation cf outcome is necessary, it is implied. 3. Lens term involvement a) Success in life (as clearly stated primary go al). b) Routine tasks when definitly related to long term achievement interests. The same phrase may be scored -for AI and any ether category. But the same phrase may not be scored for ' two subcategories. Doubtful Achievement Imagery (TI) 1. Some reference is made tc achievement, but fail to meet one of the above criteria. 2. Commonplace task or solving a routine problem. 3. If doubtful about AI criteria. Unrelated Imagery (UI) 1. No reference to an achievement goal. Stated Need for Achievement (N) 1. Definite statement by one cf the characters (hopes, determined, wanting net just trying). 2. Not scored v/hen character defines need for another (can be plural). 3. N is not inferred from instrumental activity. Instrumental Activity (I) 1. Overt or mental activity by one or more charac ters indicating that something is being dene about attaining an achievement goal (thinking, planning, wondering hew). 2. +, ? cr - indicates whether the outcome of I is successful, doubtful cr unsuccessful. 3. The symbol reflects the net effects cf all the I which have occurred. U-. I statements must be independent of the original statement of the situation and the final outcome (see AI 1. b). 5. I may be successful even though the over all out come is not. 6. I in the past tense must demonstrate a striving. 112 Anticipatory Goal States (Ga+, Ga-) 1. Anticipating goal attainment or frustration and failure. 2. Both Ga+ and Ga- may be scored. 3. Ga+ - Expects invention, to work, dreams of success, imagines. 4*. Ga- - Worried, wondering, concern over outcome, expect failure (also uncertainty). 5. Ga- includes all anticipations that are not clearly positive. 6. Anticipations must be related to the goal of the story, but not necessarily by the person who is going to achieve the goal. Affective States (G+, G-) (not necessarily by the person who is attempting to achieve the goal). Positive States (G+) 1. Positive affective (emotional) states associated with goal attainment (enjoys, proud, happy, satisfied). 2. Definite objective benefits allow inference of positive affect (famous, successful, raise; out come in upper 10$). 3. G+ must be a statement above and beyond success ful instrumental activity. Negative States (G-) XT Negative affective states associated with failure (sorry, discouraged, unhappy, mad, disturbed). 2. Objective concomitants of failure and depriva tion (drunkard, scorned, outcast; outcome in lower 10$). 3. G- is not sufficient in most cases to score AI. In most cases, both G- and N must appear, or G- with a clearcut I. Botfr"G+' and G- may occur in the same story. Nurturant Press (Nup) 1. Someone aids, sympathizes with, or encourages the person striving for achievement. 2. The assistance must be toward the achievement goal. Obstacles or Blocks (Bp, Bw) 1 . Obstacles may be previous deprivation (failure). 2. Obstacles' located within the individual, score Bp (lack of confidence - education - experience, unresponsible act, personal conflict). 3. Past failures which do not interfere with the im mediate goal is still scored Bp. When the obstacle is part’ of the environment, score Bw. 113 5. When there is doubt as tc where it is located, sccre Bw, 6. Bw is scored only when the obstacle is real to the on going goal directed behavior, and not just describing the achievement goal. 7. Both Bp and Bw may occur in the same story. Achievement Thema (Ach Th) V/hen the Achievement Imagery (AI) is elaborated in such a manner that it becomes the central plot or thema of the story. When in doubt, do net sccre Ach Th. PLEASE NOTE: Appendix D "Maudsley.Personality Inventory" not microfilmed at request of author. Available for consultation at the Ohio State Unversity Library. UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS APPENDIX E Rating Scale (original on 5 x 8 index card) PRINT NAME ______Last First Place a mark on the line below to estimate how successful you expect to be in relation to the other members of this class, in the coming handball tournament. Very Very Unsuccessful Moderate Successful 118 APPENDIX P Questionaire Name______Age College Major High School Did you participate in physical education in high school?______Approximate days per week______Number of years______Did you participate in intra-mural athletics in high school?______Approximate number of years____ Did you participate in varsity athletics in high school?______Number of_years______Number of letters won Have you completed a physical education activity course at Ohio State University______Number of courses______Average grade______Have you participated in varsity athletics at Ohio State University______ Have or will you participate in varsity athletics at Ohio State University______Place a mark on the line below to Indicate the amount of participation you have had in non-school organized rec reation programs (Y.M.C.A., Boys Clubs, City Recreation, etc. ) None Moderate A great deal Place a mark on the line below to indicate the amount of success, in relation to the other members of this class, that you expect to attain in playing handball. Very Very Unsuccessful Successful Have you ever participated in a game of four wall handball? 119 APPENDIX G HANDBALL SUCCESS FACTOR flo=ai 7 6 S * 3 7 1 2 J 6 5 6 7 1 Loss ------j------I--- 0 LCSSCJS 670 “ ^CZrD^ - HZ byo bye £ = > 7 C 2 3 M . byo {if ocoosscxy) l & \ ----- 10 » S 7 6 5 « 3 6 J 6 7 8 9 10 3 Losses 2 Leases byo 10 10 5 Losses byo— .3.V" bye CSART III 120 APPENDIX H THE KRUSKAL-WALLIS ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OP VARIANCE BY RANKS TEST1 The Kruskal-Wallis test determines whether the sums of ranks from k samples are different or from the same population. In the computation of the test, each of the N observations for each sample is replaced by a rank. When ties occur between two or more scores, each score is given the mean of the ranks for which it is tied. From these sumed ranks the test can show if the k samples are actually different. The formula below is used in this computation; 12 R 2 H = - 3(N+1) N(N + 1 ) n. 1=1 J where, H = the statistic used in the Kruskal-Wallis test k = the number of samples nj = the number of cases in each (j ) sample N = nj, number of cases in all samples combined - i. u R j = the sum of ranks in each j sample (column) -k y ~ directs one to sum the k samples (columns) 3=1 When there are more than 5 cases in the various groups, that is, n j > 5, the probability associated with the occurrence of Hq values as large as an observed H may be determined i>y reference to a table of critical values of chi square. 1Sidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1956), pp. 184-193. 122 Example: RANK ORDER SUCCESS IN HANDBALL FOR .HIGH AND LOW T GROUPS Subjects with T Subjects with T above the median below the median 2 1 4 3 5 6 10 7 12 8 13 9 15 11 16 14 18 17 20 19 Total 115 Total 95 12 k R . 2 H = - 3(N + 1) N(N + 1) £ — 5L- 3=1 n J 12 2*1 H * (115)5 + . (95) 3(20 + 1) 20(20 + 1 ) 10 10 12 r H = 1322.5 + 902.5 >20t-20 L T •->] “ 3(21} H 0286 (2225.0) - 63 H = 63.635 - 63 H = .635, p < .5 0. (df = l) If there are a number of ties among the ranks, the H value should be corrected. To correct for the effects of ties, H is computed by the same formula and then divided by: T ~ n3 - n where, T s t3 - t (when t is the number of tied obser vations in a tied group.of scores) 123 N = number of observations in all k samples together T is the sum of the over all groups of ties. The effect of correcting for ties is to in crease the value of H and thus to make the result more significant than it would have been if uncorrected. In most cases, the effect is negligible. Example: RANK ORDER RESULTANT T FOR HIGH AND LOW PAST SUCCESS GROUPS Subjects with Subjects with greater success less’ success 3 1 5 2 10.5 7 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 11 10.5 lb 10.5 16 19 17 20 Total 108 Total 101.5 .21 .21 .21 ip - if + 53 - 5 1 - 1 - 1 - 60 + 120 n 3" - N 203 - 20 7980 .21 .21 = .2 1 4 8 . P < .7 0 180 1 - .0237 1 - 7980 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Atkinson, John W. An Introduction to Motivation. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1964. . Motives in Fantasy. Action, and Society. ■Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1958* . "Some General Implications of Conceptual Developments in the Study of Achievement- Oriented Behavior." In M. R, Jones (ed.), Human Motivation: A Symposium. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 19&5. PP* 3-31* ______. "The Mainsprings of Achievement Oriented Activity." In J. Krumboltz (ed.), Learning and the Educational Process. Chicago: Rand-' McNally, 1 9 ^ “ . "Thematic Apperceptive Measurement of Motives Nithin the Context of a Theory of Motivation." In J. V/. Atlcinscn (ed.), Motives In Fantasy, Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1953, pp. 596-616. ______"Towards Experimental Analysis of Human Motivation in Terms of Motives, Expectancies and Incentives." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1953, pp. 288-305. _ , and Feather, Norman T. A Theory of Achieve ment Motivation. Mew York: John Jiley and Sons, Inc., 1966. _ , and (.'Connor, Patricia. "Neglected Factors of Studies of Achievement-Criented Performance: Social Approval as an Incentive and Perform ance Decrement." In J. W. Atkinson and N, T. Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motiv ation. New York: John Nile'y and Sons, Inc., ■ 1966, pp. 299-325. 124 125 , and Reitman, ’.-/alter E. "Performance as a Function of ,Hotive Strength and Expectancy of Goal-Attainment." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1953, pp.■273-23?. Birney, R. C. "Research on the Achievement Motive." . In E. F. Borgatta and-W.- ?. Lambert (eds.), Handbook of Personality Theory and Research. Chicago: Rand McNally7 1963. Bolles, Robert C. Theory of Motivation. New York: Harper and Row, 193*7. Brown, Roger. "The Achievement Motive," Social Psy- - chology, London: The Free Press, 19^6,~ ppT ^23-476. Buros, Oscar K. (ed. ). Sixth Mental Measurements Yearbook. Highland Park: Ihe Gryphon Press, 1965. Cofer, C. M., and Appley, K. H. Motivation: Theory and Research. New York: John V/iley and Sons, Inc., 1967. Cratty, 3ryant J. Movement Behavior and Motor Learn ing. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1967". ______. Psychology and Physical Activity. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1933. ______. Social Dimension cf Physical Activity. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc., 19^7. Dcwnie, IT. M. , and Heath, R. W. Basic Statistical Methods. New York: Harper and Row, 19337* Eysenck, H. J. The Maudsley Personality Inventory. London: University of London Press, 1959. Feld, Sheila, and Smith, Charles P. "An Evaluation cf the tbjectivity of the Method cf Content Analysis." In J. N. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society, Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1953, pp."234-2^8. Haber, Ralph N. Current Research in Motivation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and V/inston, Inc. , 1966. 126 Hall, John F. Psychology of Motivation. Chicago: J, B, Lippincott Company, 19 6l. Heckhausen, Heinz. The Anatomy of Achievement Motiva tion, New York: Academic Press, 19677" Knapp, Robert H. "n Achievement and Aesthetic Prefer- ence," In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. , 1958, pp. 367-372. Knapp, Robert R. A Manual for The Maudsley Personality Inventory. San Diego: Educational and In dustrial Testing Service, 1962. Krumboltz, J. D. (ed.). Learning and the Educational Process. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1965. Lewin, K., et al, "Level of Aspiration." In J. McV. Hunt (ed.), Personality and the Behavior Dls- orders. Vol. 1. New York: Ronald Press, 1944, PP. 333-378. McClelland, David C. "Methods of Measuring Human Motiv ation." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc,, 1958, pp. 7-45. _ . Studies in Motivation. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1955. _ . The Achieving Society. New York: D. Van Nostrarid Co., Inc., 1961. ______"The Importance of Early Learning in the Formation of Motives." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society. Princeton: ST Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1958, pp. 437-452. ______, et al. "A Scoring Manual for the Achievement Motive." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.). Motives in Fantasy. Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand CoT, Inc., 1958, pp. 179"20^* ______, et al. The Achievement Motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953. ______< et al, "The Effect of the Need for Achieve ment on Thermatic Apperception." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc,, 1956, pp. 64-82. 127 McCloy, Charles H., and Young, Norma D. Tests and Measurements In Health and Physical Education. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954. McKeachie, W, J. "Motivation, Teaching Methods, and College Learning." In M. R. Jones (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 19^1, pp. 111- 142. Martire, John G. "Relationships Between the Self Con cept and Differences in the Strength and Gener ality of Achievement Motivation." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 195a. PP. 373-382. Mathews, Donald K. Measurement in Physical Education. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co. , 1968". Moore, Robert A. Sports and Mental Health. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1968. Moore, W. J. , et al. Motivational Variables in Pro grammed Learning. Lewisburg: Bucknell Univer sity, May, 19657 Murray, Henry A. Exploration in Personality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1938. ______. Thematic Apperception Test Manual. Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress, 19^3. O'Connor, Patricia, et al. "Motivational Implications of Ability Grouping in Schools." In J. W. Atkinson and N. T. Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motivation. New York: John Wiley . and Sons, Inc., 19&6, pp. 231-248. Rosen, Bernard C. "The Achievement Syndrome: A Psy- chocultural Dimension of Social Stratification." In J. W, Atkinson (ed.), Motives in Fantasy, Action and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1958. pp. 495-508. Ryan, Francis J. "An Investigation of Personality Dif ference Associated with Competitive Ability." In’Psychosocial Problems of College Men. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958V "pp. 113- 122. 128 ______. "Further Observations on Competitive Ability in Athletics." In Bryant M. Wedge (ed.). Psychosocial Problems of College Men* New Haven: Yale University Press, 195#'." PP. 123-139. Sarason, S. B., et al. Anxiety in Elementary School Children. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., I960'. Scott, M. Gladys, and French, Esther, Measurement and Evaluation in Physical Education. Dubuque: Wm. C. 3rown Co., 1959. Siegel, Sidney. Nonparametric Statistics for the Be havioral Sciences.' New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,1956. Slovenko, Ralph and Knight, James A. Motivations In Play, Games and Sports. Springfield: Charles Thomas Publisher, 1967. Slusher, Howard S. Man. Sport and Existence. Phila delphia: Lea & Febiger, 1 9 6 7 . Smith, Charles P. "The Influence of Testing Conditions on Need for Achievement Scores and Their Rela tionship to Performance Scores." In J. W. Atkinson and N. T. Feather (eds.), A Theory of Achievement Motivation. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ,1 9 6 6i pp. 277-297. Vroom, Victor H. Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964. Wendt, H. W. "Motivation, Effort and Performance." In D. C. McClelland (ed.), Studies in Motivation. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1955. Wenkart, Simon. "Sports and Contemporary Man." In R. Slovenko, and J. A. Knight (eds.), Motivations in Play. Games and Sport. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1 9 6 7, pp. 171-183* Willgoose, Carl S. Evaluation in Health Education and Physical Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961. Winterbottom, Marian R. "The Relation of Need for Achieve ment to Learning Experiences .in Independence and Mastery." In J. W. Atkinson (ed.), MotIves in Fantasy. Action and Society. Princeton: IH Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1956. PP. ^53-^78. 129 Periodicals Alpert, R. , and Haber, R, N, "Anxiety in Academic Achievement Situations," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology. 61:207-215, i96 0. Aronson, Elliot, and Carlsmith, J. M. "Performance Expectancy as a Determinant of Actual Per formance," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychol ogy , 65:178-182, September, 1962. Atkinson, John W. "Motivational Determinants of Risk- Talcing Behavior," Psychological Review. 64:359- 372. 1957. ______, and Cartwright, D. "Some Neglected Variables in Contemporary Conceptions of Decision and Performance," Psychological Reports, 14, Mono graph Supplement 5:575-590i 1964. ______, and Litwin, G. H. "Achievement Motive and Test Anxiety Conceived as Motive to Approach Success and Motive to Avoid Failure," J ournal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 60:52-63, i9 6 0. ______, jet al. "The Achievement Motive Goal Setting and Probability Preferences," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology^ 60:27-36, I960. Bendig, A. W. "Comparative Validity of Objective and Projective Measures of Need Achievement in Predicting Students Achievement in Introductory Psychology," Journal of General Psychology, 60:237-2^3. 1959. ______"Factor Analytic Scales of Need Achievement," Journal of General Psychology, 90:59-67, 1964. Berrldge, Harold C. "An Experiment in the Psychology of Competition," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 6, Supplement, 37-42, 1935. Brody, Nathan. "Achievement Motive, Test Anxiety and Subjective Probability of Success in Risk-Taking Behavior," Journal of Abnormal and Social Ps?/chology. 6 6:4l3-418. 196 3. Carder, Brent. "The Relationship Between Manifest Anxiety and Performance in College Football," Master’s thesis. University of California at Santa Barbara, 19 6 5. Abstract in Completed Research, The Amer ican Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8:44, 19 6 6. - - 130 Carney, R. S. "Research With a Recently Developed I-.eas- ure of Achievement Motivation," Perceptual Rotor Skills, 21:^33, 1965. Clark, R. A. , et. al. "Hope of Success and Pear of Failure as Aspects of Need for Achievement," Journal cf .Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53: — Ccle, D., at al. "The Relation cf Achievement Imagery Scores to Academic Performance," Journal of Ab- normal and Social Psychology, 65:200-211, 19&2. Cooper, L. and Howell, R. J. "A Reformulation cf the 'Fear cf Failure1 and 'Hope of Success’ Concepts, as Measured on McClellands Need for Achievement Test," Journal cf Social Psychology, 53:31-35. 1961. Cornish, C. "Handball Test," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 20:215. May, 19^9* Daugert, Patricia Jean. "The Relationships of imxiety and the Need for Achievement to the Learning cf Swimming." Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1966. Abstract in Completed Research, The American .Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 9:S2, 1967. Diebl, Bobbie. "The Effects of Emotional Stress Upon Kotor Performance cf Anxious and IJcn-anxicus Subjects." Master's thesis, University of . California at Santa Barbara, 1965. Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8 :^. 1966. Diggory, J. C., Riley, E. J., and Blumenfeld, R. "Estimated Probability cf Success for a Fixed Goal," American Journal of Psychology, 73:^1-55, I960. Easter, L. V., and Kurstein, B. I. "Achievement Fantasy as a Function of Probability cf Success," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 23:15^-159, 196^, Eugenia, Gire, and Sspenshade, Anna. "Relation Between Measures of Motor Educability and Learning of Specific Motor Skills," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Educa tion and Recreation, 13:5^+, 19^2. 131 Feather, N. T. "Effects cf Prior Success and Failure on Expectations of Success and Subsequent Per formance," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 3: 267-296» March, ’ 19~667 ______. "Performance at a Difficult Task in Relation .to Initial Expectation of Success, Test Anxiety and Need Achievement," Journal of Personality, 33:200-21?, 1965. ______. "The Relationship cf Expectation cf Success to n Achievement and Test Anxiety," J ournal c f Personality and Social Psychology, 1 :11S-126, 1965. "The Study of Persistence," Psychological Bulletin, 59:94-115, 1962. French, Elizabeth G. "Effects of Interaction of Achieve ment, Motivation, and Intelligence on Problem Solving Success," American Psychologist, 12:399- 400, June, 195?. ______. "Seme Characteristics cf Achievement Motiv ation," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50:232-236. 1955. Greenwald, Anthony G. "Skill and Motivation as Separ able Components of Performance," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 20:239-246, February, 19o5. Hansen, Gary ?. "Effect cf Selected Motive-Incentive Conditions Upon Development of Strength Through an Isometric Training Program-," Research Quarterly, The American Association fcr Health, Physical Education and .Recreation, 38:535-592, December, 1967. Hansen, Dale L. "Influence of the Hawthorne Effect Upon Physical Education Research," Research Quarterly, The American Association fcr Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 33:723-724, December, 1967. Harrington, Eleanor F. "Effect cf Manifest Anxiety on Performance of a Gross Motor Skill." Master's thesis, University of California at Berkeley, 1965. Abstract in Completed Research, The Amer ican Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 8:40, 1966. 132 Humphrey, James H. "Academic Skill and Concept Development Through Motor Activity," Academy Pacers, The American Academy of Physical Educa tion, 1:29-35, March, 1968. Husman, Burris P. "Agression in Boxers and Wrestlers as Measured by Projective Techniques," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and R e creation26:k21-k25, December, 1955. Isaacson, R. L. "Relation Between n Achievement, Test Anxiety, end Curricular Choices," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68’: kk7-k32, 196k. Jensen, Arthuzn "The Maudsley Personality Inventory," Acta Psychclcgica, Ik : 31^-325 , 195'3. Jesscr, R, , and Readio, J. "The Influence of the Value of an Event Upon the Expectancy of Its Occurence," Journal cf General Psychology, 56:219-228, 1957. Johnson, Barry L., and Nelson, Jack K. "Effect of Different Motivational Techniques During Train ing and in Testing Upon Strength Performance," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 33:630-636, December, 196?. Johnson, Warren R, "A Study of Emotion Revealed in Two Types of Athletic Sports Contests," Research Quarterly, The American Association fcr Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 20:72-79. March, 19k9. , and Harmon, John K. "The Emotional Reactions of College Athletes," Research Quarterly, The American Association fcr Health, Physical Educa tion and.Recreation, 23:391-397, December, 1952. ______, Hutton, R. C., and Johnson, G. B. "Personality Traits of Seme Champion Athletes as Measured by Two Projective Tests, the Rorschach and H.T.P.," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 25: k8k-kS5, December, 195^- Kagan, J., and Moss, H. A. "Stability and Validity cf . Achievement Fantasy," Journal cf Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58:'357-36k, 1959. 133 Kane, J. E. "Personality and Physical Ability," Proceedings cf International Congress of Socrt Sciences, Tclcyo: 1964,' pp. 201~203. Karbe, Wolfgang "The Relationship cf General Anxiety and Specific Anxiety Concerning the Learning cf Swimming." Doctoral dissertation, Mew York University, 1966. Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association fcr Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 9:35, 1967. Katz, F. M. "The Meaning of Success: Some Differences in Value Systems of Social Classes," Journal cf Social Psychology, 62:l4l-l^8, 1964. Keagl, Jack. "Relation cf Motor Ability and Athletic Performance in Certain Standardized Personality Measures," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 30 :^33-4^5, December, 1959. Lakie, William L. "Relationship of Galvanic Skin Response to Task Difficulty, Personality Traits, and Motivation," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 33:53-63, March, 196?. Lawther, John D. "Motor Learning at the High Skill Levels," Academy Papers, The American Academy of Physical Education, 1:36-^44, March, 1968. Lewin, K. "The Conceptual Representation and the Measure ment of Psychological Forces," Ccntributing • Psychological Theories, 1:*4-, 1933. *" Littig, Lawrence "Motivational Correlates of Proba bility Preferences," Journal of Personality, 31:^17-^27, 1963. ______, and Yeracaris, C. A. "Academic Achievement Correlates cf Achievement and Affiliation Motiv ations," Journal of Psychology, 55:115-119* 1963. Locke, Edwin A. "Interaction cf Ability and Motivation in Performance," Perceotual and Kotor Skills, 21:719-725, December, 1965. Lockhart, Aileene. "Conditions of Effective Motor Learn ing ," Journal of Health, Physical Education end Recreation, 33736-39 , 19"67. 134 ______. "prerequisites tc Kc-tor Learning," Academy Papers, The American Academy of Physical Education, 1:1-13, liarch, 1968. McArthur, C, C. "The Effects of Need fcr Achievement on. the Content cf TAT Stories: A Re-examination," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48: 532-5367 1953. McClelland, David C. "Toward a Theory cf Motive Acquisition," American Psychologist, 20:321-333, May, 1965. Handler, G., and Sarason, 3. B. "A Study cf Anxiety and Learning," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy chology, 47:16(5^175.' 1952. ______, and Sarason, 3. 3. "Some Correlates of Test Anxiety," Journal of Abnormal and Social.Psy chology, 47:HT0T, 1952. Marlowe, D. "Relationships Among Direct and Indirect Measures cf the .Achievement Motive and Cvert Behavior," Journal cf Consulting Psychology, 23:329-332, 1959. Melikian, L. H. "The Relationship Between Edwards and- McClellands Measures of Achievement Motivation," Journal cf Consulting Psychology, 22:296-293, Miles, G. H. "Achievement Drive and Habitual Modes cf Task .Approach as Factors in Skill Transfer," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55:156-162, Mitchell, J. V. "An Analysis cf the Factorial Dimensions of the Achievement Motivation Construct," Journal cf Educational Psychology, 52:179-137, T 96T. Kcntcye, H. J., and Brctzmann, J. "Results of Tournament Play as Measure of Handball .Ability," Research Quarterly, The American Association fcr Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 22:214-213, May, 1951. Hose, H. A., and Kagan, J. "Stability cf Achievement and Recognition 3eeking Behaviors from Early Child hood Through Adulthood," Journal of .Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62:504-513, 1961. 135 • Mucher, H. , and Heckhausen, H. "Influence cf Mental Activity and Achievement Metivaticn on Skeletal Muscle Tonus," Perceptual Motor Skills, 1^:217- 213, 1962. Nash, Edward L. , at al. "Effects of Manifest and Induced Anxiety and Experimenter Variability on Simple Reaction Time," Perceptual and Mctor Skills', 22:^33-^37, April, 19SV. Nicholson, W. M. "The Influence of Anxiety Upon Learning: Interference or Drive Increment?" Journal of Personality, 26:303-319. 1953. Cgilvie, Bruce C. "Future Contribution of Motivational Research in Track," Track Technique, 13:383-390, September, 1963. ______. "Model fcr General Psychological Adaptation, " Track Technique, 1*}-: **-23-^29, December, 196**-. ______. "The Personality cf the Male Athlete," Academy Papers, The .American' Academy of Phys ical Education, 1:*1-5-51. March, 1963. ______, Tutko, Thomas A., and Yeung, Irving. "The Psychological Profile of Olympic Champions - A Brief Lock at Olympic Medalists," Swimming Technique, 1:97-99. January, 1935. Olsen, Zinar .A. "Relationship Between Psychological Capacities and Success in College Athletics," Research Quarterly, The .American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 27:79-33, March, 1956. Peck, Arden. "The Influence cf Anxiety on Volleyball Skills." Master's thesis, University of North Carolina, 1966. Abstract in Completed Research, The American Association for Heaith, Physical Education and Recreation, 9:33-89, 1967. Pennington, Gary G. , et al. "A Measure of Handball Ability," Research Quarterly, The American Assoc iation fcr Health, Physical Education and Rec reation, 33: 2*{-7-253. May, 1967. Phares, S. J. "Expectancy Changes in Skill and Chance Situations," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 5^7339-3^', 1957. 136 Raphelson, A. C. , and Multon, R. V/. "The Relationship Between Imaginative and Direct Verbal Measures of Test Anxiety Under Two Conditions of Un certainty," Journal of Personality, 26:556-567, 1958. Reitman, S. E., and Williams, C, C. "Relationship Between Hope of Success and Pear of Failure, Anxiety, and Need for Achievement," J ournal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62:^65-^67, 1961. Robinson, V/. P. "The Achievement Motive, Academic Success, and Intelligence Test Score." British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. fc:98-103, 196V. Ryan, Dean. "Effect of Differential Motive Incentive Conditions on Physical Performance," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 32:83-87, March, 1 9 6 1.. ______. "What Does Psychology Have to Offer Coaches and Trainers?" 68th Proceedings, National College Physical Education Association for Men, 3^-38, January 7-8, 1 9 6 5. ______, and Lakle, W. L. "Competitive and Non-ccm- petltive Performance in Relation to Achievement Motivation and Manifest Anxiety," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. I:3^2-3^5. April, 1965. Sarason, I. G. "Test Anxiety and Intellectual Per formance," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy chology. 66:73-75/ 1963. ______. "The Affects of Anxiety and Threat on the Solution of a Difficult Task," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62:165-168, 1961. Shaw, M. C. "Need Achievement Scales as Predictor of Academic Success," Journal of Educational Psy chology, 52:282-285/ 19"6i. Shrable, Kenneth, and Stewart, Lawrence H. "Personality Correlates of Achievement Imagery: Theoretical and Methodological Implications," Perceptual and Motor Skills. Vol. 23, 1 9 6 7. Skipper, James K . , Jr., et al. "The Sacredness of ,05: A Note Concerning tTTe Uses of Statistical Levels of Significance In the Social Sciences," The American Sociologist, 2:16-18, February, 196?. 137 Spielberger, C. D. "The Effects cf Manifest Anxiety on the Academic Achievement cf College Students," Mental Hygiens, ^6:420-^4-26, 196 2. Taylor, Janet A. "A Personality Scale of Manifest Anxietyf" Journal of Abnormal and Sccial Psychol ogy, ^-8 : 235-290, 1953- ______, and Spence, Kenneth W. "The Relationship of Anxiety Level to Performance in Serial Learning," Journal of Experimental Psychology, ^4-: 61-6*4-, 195?-. Ulrich, Celesta and Burke, Roger K. "Effects of Motiva tional Stress Upon Physical Performance," Research Quarterly, The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 23: ^03-^12, December, 195?*. Weiner, 3. "The Role cf Success and Failure in the Learning of Rasy and Complex Tasks," Journal of Personality and Sccial Psychology, 3: 339-3i+^. 19 6 6. Weiss, P., et al. "Achievement Motivation, Academic Aptitude, and College Grades," .Educational Psychological Measurement, 19 : 663-666^ 1959• Reports Atkinson, Jc hn •J and O ’Connor, Patricia. Effects of Ability Grouping in Schools Related to Individ ual Differences in Achievement-Related Motiva tion: Pinal Report. Project 1283 cfCoopera tive Research Program cf the Office of Education, United States Department cf Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1 9 6 3. Unpublished Materials Dunbar, Den 3. "Good Rationale and Simple Description of McClellands Theory of Motivation." Unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, The Chic State University, 1959-1960. Griffith, Malcolm A. "An objective Method for Evaluat ing Ability in Handball Singles." Unpublished Master’s thesis, The Chic State University, i9 6 0. 138 Kleinman, Seymour. "Phenomenology - The Body - Physical Education." Paper presented tc the History and Philosophy Section. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation National Convention, Chicago, March 21, i960. Ward, F. B. "The Achievement Motive and Incentive Value for High and Lew Levels cf Achievement Success." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Chic State University, 1 9 6 3. ■