1812: The War That Saved

January 1, 2012 by Donald E. Graves

Battle of Heights

ILLUSTRATION: CANADIAN WAR MUSEUM, BEAVERBROOK COLLECTION 19970051-001

Last fall, Canadian Heritage Minister James the war, its causes, course and outcome. traded with Britain to trade with France, its allies Moore announced the federal government Therefore, a review of this “forgotten” or its conquered territories. Britain countered with would invest millions of dollars to conflict might be useful for those who would legislation forbidding ships that traded with commemorate the 200th anniversary of the like a primer on the forthcoming France to trade with Britain. The , . That celebration, he stated, commemorations. which had a large merchant marine, was caught in was an opportunity for all Canadians to take the middle of this war by decree. American pride in their history and participate “in the The origins of the War of 1812 can be found in the frustration was increased by the Royal Navy events and activities that will mark this larger conflict that had been waged by which, desperate for manpower, boarded important anniversary for Canada.” The revolutionary and imperial France against Britain American ships and impressed (conscripted) any problem is that, with the gradual since 1793. After Nelson’s naval victory at British seamen on board them. The result was that disappearance of history from school Trafalgar in October 1805 had more or less swept many innocent Americans found themselves curriculums in recent decades, many the French navy from the seas, Napoleon unwilling sailors of the King. Canadians today—particularly younger Bonaparte, the French emperor, turned to ones—have only the haziest of notions about economic warfare and prohibited ships that 1

An additional irritant between Britain and the U.S. and remained there throughout the war. As a Upper . On his orders, a small British was unrest on the republic’s northwest frontier, result, the U.S. tried to campaign in a distant and force traversed Lake Huron and forced the which was threatened by an aboriginal difficult theatre of war with untrained and poorly- surrender of the American post on Mackinac confederation under the charismatic Shawnee supplied troops who were commanded by relics of Island, a success that convinced many of the chief, . Many Americans believed that the Revolutionary War. aboriginal nations, who had remained neutral, to Britain was behind the frontier problems and, by join the British side. Shortly afterwards, Hull the spring of 1812, the U.S. was preparing for Ironically, was actually withdrew to Detroit, but it was not long before hostilities. Although Britain offered to repeal the better prepared for war than its neighbour and, Brock, having gathered every regular, militiaman maritime decrees that were harming American more importantly, it was defended by professional and warrior that he could, arrived and prepared to maritime trade, it was too late. On June 18, with soldiers and sailors. If there is one lesson for attack. Brock could do this because, at the outset the rallying cry of “Free Trade and Sailors’ modern Canadians to draw from the War of 1812, of the war, only Britain possessed a navy on the Rights!”, President declared war it is that proclaiming sovereignty is not enough; a Great Lakes, which granted him the advantage of on Great Britain. nation must be prepared to defend it and to do so mobility, and Brock made good use of it. Bluffing, requires professional armed forces. Fortunately he called on Hull to surrender Detroit and to American leaders were confident. Former competent British leadership was present and Brock’s amazement, the American general did so President Thomas Jefferson remarked that the there were almost as many British regular troops on Aug. 16, giving up Detroit and the Michigan acquisition of Canada up to the vicinity of in Canada as there were in the U.S. Army. General Territory to a British and Canadian force half his Montreal “would be a mere matter of marching.” Sir George Prevost, governor-general and strength. Brock’s victory at Detroit was the first But in its rush to war, Madison’s government had commander-in-chief, planned to give up no major success of the war and it did much to overlooked some major problems. Given the RN’s territory easily but fiercely defend only Montreal encourage the people of , who were strength, a war against Britain would have to be a and points east. His subordinate in Upper Canada uncertain that their province would remain British land war and the objective would be the British (the modern province of Ontario), Gen. Isaac territory. colonies in North America, commonly called, even Brock, favoured a more aggressive strategy and, at that time, Canada. On paper, it certainly with Prevost’s approval, began putting it into These early victories on land were unfortunately seemed a sure thing, as the U.S. had 10 times the effect shortly after war commenced. balanced by defeats at sea. In the years since population of British North America. An attack on Trafalgar the RN had become overconfident, Canada, however, would require a tremendous In July 1812, American Gen. William Hull convinced that its ships could defeat any possible logistical effort to supply armies in an area of commenced a rather timid invasion of Upper opponent. British sailors failed to realize that the primitive communications. Worse still, most of the Canada across the Detroit River. While he U.S. Navy, although very small, possessed regular American army was deployed in prepared to engage this thrust, Brock struck in the excellent warships and seamen. The result was 2 that American sailors won an impressive series of although the Americans “certainly made the magazine in the military depot at York was ignited single-ship encounters. In the first six months of greatest noise,” the warriors “did the most to prevent its contents from being captured. A boy the war, the USS Constitution captured the British Execution” and the enemy was forced back. More who witnessed the explosion, remembered that frigates Guerrière and Java; the American sloop regular troops arrived and pushed the invaders, he “heard the report, and felt a tremulous motion Wasp took her counterpart HMS Frolic; the frigate now surrounded and with no means of escape, to in the earth resembling the shock of an United States prevailed over the British frigate the edge of the Niagara River. Realizing it was earthquake; and looking towards the spot I saw an Macedonian; and the brig USS Hornet captured hopeless, the enemy commander surrendered, immense cloud ascend into the air” which was “a the British brig Peacock. Britain had not suffered and more than 900 Americans became prisoners great confused mass of smoke, timber, men, such a series of defeats at sea for more than a of war. earth” that resembled “a vast balloon.” After the century. This did much to restore morale in the defenders evacuated York, it was occupied by the U.S., which had been shaken by the defeats on The victory at Queenston Heights had a dramatic enemy for several days during which they land. effect on British North America and morale was accidentally burned the provincial parliament high when the onset of winter brought an end to buildings. In the autumn of 1812, the enemy made another active military operations. Two major invasions invasion attempt. On the night of Oct. 12, a small had been repelled and there was confidence the This was the beginning of a renewed American American army of regular troops and war would be brought to a victorious end. But offensive against British North America. On May crossed the Niagara and seized the village of Queenston Heights had been a costly victory for, 27, 1813, an invading force crossed the Niagara Queenston. Brock, who was at Fort George as Norton recorded, the grief “caused by the Loss and captured Fort George. Badly outnumbered, outside Newark (modern Niagara-on-the-Lake), of Brock threw a gloom over the sensations which British and Canadian troops withdrew to the area proceeded to Queenston with all available troops. this Brilliant Success might have raised.” of the modern city of Hamilton, but were pursued Realizing that the key to the American position by an American force commanded by generals was the high ground behind the village, he led an Canadian optimism disappeared in the spring. An John Chandler and William Winder. In the early assault against it, only to be killed. The British and intensive building program during the winter gave morning of June 6, 1813, it was attacked at Stoney Canadians fell back, waiting for reinforcements to the U.S. naval superiority on and the Creek by a smaller British force and during a hard arrive, and in the meantime a detachment of enemy was quick to take advantage of this. In late fought but confusing night action, the Americans aboriginal warriors from the Grand River nations, April 1813, American ships landed an army near managed to beat off the assault, but both led by Mohawk war chief John Norton, also known York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada. Chandler and Winder were taken prisoner. The as “the Snipe,” kept the enemy off balance. Pushing a far weaker British, Canadian and invaders retreated and, a few weeks later, another Norton remembered that his men “returned the aboriginal force before them, the invaders were enemy force was sent to capture supplies known Fire of the Enemy with coolness & Spirit” and approaching the town when the ammunition to be at John DeCew’s house near modern St. 3

Catharines, Ont. This expedition also came to an Boston on June 1 ended the series of American Canadians with his warriors and their families. inglorious end, however, on June 24 when, single-ship victories over the RN. Unfortunately, on Oct. 5, a larger American force forewarned by a housewife named , a caught up with the allied army at the Thames force of warriors surrounded the Americans and The RN now began to exert its far superior River not far from the modern city of London, forced them to surrender in what was later called strength by blockading the U.S. seaboard. Ont., and scattered it. Tecumseh was killed while the battle of Beaver Dams. After this, the invaders Privateers who put out from ports in the Maritime leading his men, but his followers managed to did not venture in strength beyond their lines at provinces assisted the King’s sailors. The most spirit his body away and bury it in a secret Fort George and the war in the Niagara became a successful of these sea raiders was the schooner location. The disaster on the Thames, however, stalemate. Liverpool Packet which took 50 prizes valued at spelled the end of British ambitions in the nearly a million 1813 dollars before being herself American northwest. The same Sunday, June 6, 1813, which witnessed captured. Other notable maritime privateers such the American defeat at Stoney Creek was also the as the brig Sir John Sherbrooke, and the schooner At about the same time, U.S. Secretary of War occasion of a glorious event in Halifax. The Retaliation took fewer prizes, but helped to John Armstrong came north to re-invigorate the evening service at St. Paul’s Church in that city depredate the American coastal trade; disrupting American war effort. He planned a two-pronged was disrupted when someone delivered the communications and, inevitably, causing higher offensive against Montreal with one army to move exciting news that a British warship was leading a prices on all types of goods. against that city from Lake Champlain, while captured American frigate up the harbour. “The another larger force would move down the St. effect was electrical,” an eyewitness remembered To the west, the war came to life again in the Lawrence in an armada of small boats. These plans and in a few minutes, the congregation had autumn of 1813, following an American victory at went awry when the army from Lake Champlain abandoned worship to run down George Street to the naval fought on Sept. 10. It was defeated at the battle of the Chateauguay, a the docks and watch as the British frigate, HMS resulted in the capture of the entire British few miles south of Montreal, on Oct. 26 and then Shannon and her prize, the frigate USS squadron on that body of water. British Major- hastily withdrew over the border. This victory was Chesapeake, slowly moved toward the naval General Henry Procter decided he could no longer earned by entirely francophone troops under dockyard. The same eyewitness recalled that maintain his position on the Detroit River and Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry. every “housetop and every wharf was crowded ordered his army to retreat east. Disgusted, his with groups of excited people” who greeted the aboriginal ally, Tecumseh, called Procter “a fat The waterborne prong of the U.S. offensive was arrivals “with vociferous cheers” and Halifax, he animal that carries its tail upon its back; but when terminated by a British and Canadian force which believed “was never in such a state of excitement affrighted…drops it between its legs and runs off.” had been trailing it down the St. Lawrence River. before or since.” The Shannon’s triumph over the The retreat commenced, however, and Tecumseh Annoyed by this irritant snapping at its heels, the Chesapeake in a bloody engagement fought off had no choice but to accompany the British and enemy turned and attacked on Nov. 11, 1813; a 4 grey, wet day. The British and Canadian troops board” who “made a fine appearance” despite the expecting to find the American naval squadron on were deployed on good defensive ground near the “worn uniforms which covered them in so much that body of water ready to support him in farm of John Crysler, but the approach of the glory” in France. On orders from London, Prevost attacking Fort George. There were no friendly sails much larger American force caused some immediately drew up plans for an offensive across in view, however, as the RN had gained trepidation in the ranks. Lieutenant John Sewell the border. momentary superiority on the lake and, in from Quebec City remembered that one of his frustration, Brown withdrew back to Chippawa to men exclaimed “there are too many, we shall all The first major move of 1814, however, was made resupply. He was followed by Drummond who, be slaughtered.” Sewell coldly told him that it by the U.S. On the night of July 3, a force under having reconnoitred the American camp, took up would be better for him to die “doing your duty, Gen. Jacob Brown crossed the Niagara River near a good defensive position on a sand hill not far than to be shot for mutiny” but, as it happened, Fort Erie and forced the surrender of that post to from the falls, close by a tree-shrouded sunken after more than two hours of costly fighting, the begin the longest and most hard-fought campaign country road called Lundy’s Lane. His troops were Americans were beaten and hastily withdrew to of the war. In contrast to previous years when cooking their dinner in the early evening of July 25 their own territory, thus ending the largest and American soldiers were manifestly not ready for when they were ordered to stand to their arms most serious American offensive against British battle, Brown’s army was well-trained and because the enemy was approaching. A few North America. commanded by relatively young officers who were minutes later American troops emerged from a combat veterans. That these men knew how to chestnut wood to the south and thus began the When the campaign season of 1814 opened, there fight became apparent two days later at the battle bloodiest battle of the war. was reason for optimism in British North America. of Chippawa, fought on July 5 when Brown In April, Britain and her allies managed to topple defeated a British army in open combat for the It went on for more than five hours into the night Bonaparte from his throne and send him into first time in the war—as he exalted to and was, as one participant remembered, “a exile. “I am much of the opinion that the rapid Washington, the victory was “gained over the struggle obstinate beyond description.” Casualties decline of their ally, Boney,” one Canadian enemy on a plain.” British senior officers agreed on both sides were heavy, including five of the six commented about the Americans, will “make the defeat resulted from “the improvement in British and American generals present who were them sing small.” British troop reinforcements discipline and the increased experience of the wounded and toward the end, some units were began to cross the Atlantic. In all, one cavalry Enemy.” commanded by sergeants. At several points, the regiment, 10 artillery companies and 33 infantry opposing armies crossed bayonets and cases of battalions—roughly 28,000 men—were sent. The Gen. Gordon Drummond, British commander in mistaken identity, with soldiers firing on their own first arrived at Quebec in late June and a local Upper Canada, shifted his headquarters to the comrades, were frequent in the darkness and journalist recorded “the extraordinary sight of a and reinforced the forces there. confusion. When the shooting died away, more number of transports with British troops on Brown, meanwhile, advanced to Lake Ontario, than 1,600 men lay dead or wounded in an area 5 about the size of two modern football fields and the feet of the attackers. Witnesses remembered few days they burned military and naval as one American remarked, it was “a Scene I hope that “a terrific explosion and a jet of flame, establishments, the legislative buildings and the may never again be witnessed by human beings— mingled with fragments of timber, earth, stone presidential mansion (not called the White House Thank God I have survived it.” At the end of the and bodies rose a hundred feet in the air.” The then) which, under the rules of war as they were action, however, Brown’s army had good cause to assault was a total failure and the cost was more understood at the time, were legitimate military claim a victory as it was in possession of the hill— than 900 men killed and wounded. targets. the high ground. Elsewhere during that bloody summer, British Success at Washington was followed by failure at That victory was thrown away, however, by the arms met with more success. In August, Gen. John Baltimore on Sept. 12 when Ross was killed while subordinate general to whom Brown, badly Coape Sherbrooke, the lieutenant-governor of making a reconnaissance of the defences of the wounded, turned over command. He ordered a Nova Scotia, launched an expedition against the city. As Baltimore was too strong to be directly withdrawal to Fort Erie where he began to border ports of , capturing Bangor, Castine attacked, the British contented themselves with a construct a fortified camp. A week later, when and Machias. During their possession of these naval bombardment of nearby Fort McHenry using Drummond arrived before the fort, he found his places British commanders continued to collect artillery and rockets. A young American lawyer, enemy in a well-entrenched position plentifully the customs and excise duties on cargoes being , was so entranced by the sight of supplied with artillery. The British general landed and, after the war, £10,000 of these gun flashes and explosion that he hastily scribbled commenced a siege, but was hampered by supply monies were put to good use to establish a poem that he later set to the music of an old problems as the British squadron on Lake Ontario Dalhousie University in Halifax. Farther to the English drinking song—its first line read, “Oh say had withdrawn into Kingston after the American south, a major expedition entered Chesapeake can you see, by the dawn’s early light” and, of naval commander had commissioned a new and Bay in an effort to draw off American troops from course, it later became the U.S. national anthem. large warship. Drummond’s supplies now had to the northern theatre. In late August a small British Despite all the fireworks, however, the British come by land and he shortly began to suffer army under Gen. Robert Ross moved on attack was rebuffed. shortages of food and ammunition. He decided to Washington and, at Bladensburg near the wager everything on a single throw of the dice and American capital, defeated a far superior The major British offensive of the war was made launched an assault during the night of Aug. 14- American force which included President James in the north on Lake Champlain. In the first days of 15. It was disastrous—the British and Canadians Madison, Secretary of War John Armstrong and September, a British and Canadian army were repulsed at several places and the only Secretary of State James Monroe. The presence of numbering just over 10,000 men and led by penetration into the enemy position, a bastion of these politicians on the battlefield may have had Prevost crossed into northern and the stone fort, was brought to a swift end by the something to do with the fact that Ross’s army advanced on the American naval base at accidental explosion of a powder magazine under occupied Washington that night. Over the next Plattsburgh. It was a confident army—as the 6 troops marched over a bridge at Champlain, N.Y., Meanwhile, along the Niagara, Gen. Gordon closely by the diplomats both nations had sent to almost on the border, the regimental bands Drummond had continued his desultory siege of the Dutch city of Ghent to negotiate a peace played “Yankee Doodle” as an insult. Brushing Fort Erie, however, a shortage of food and settlement. As autumn turned to winter, they aside militia rearguards, Prevost reached ammunition forced him to order a withdrawal. His gradually hammered out an agreement based on Plattsburgh on Sept. 6 and settled down to wait troops were preparing for this on Sept. 17 when the prewar status quo. A treaty was signed on for the British Lake Champlain squadron, whose the Americans boiled out of the fort and attacked Christmas Eve 1814, but news of that had not assistance was needed for him to take the enemy the British siege batteries. They were ultimately reached North America in early January 1815 base. The RN duly showed up on Sept. 11 and repulsed, with a loss of over a thousand men from when the final major battle took place at New immediately engaged the American squadron both sides, but Drummond withdrew to a good Orleans during which the British were repulsed guarding the entrance to Plattsburgh harbour. defensive position on the north bank of the with heavy casualties. Two months later, the U.S. After a furious action that killed or wounded Chippawa River. Ironically, at almost the same Congress ratified the Treaty of Ghent and the war nearly 250 men in both squadrons, the British time, the British squadron on Lake Ontario was over. squadron was completely defeated and captured. regained naval superiority after it commissioned Unable to take Plattsburgh without naval the warship St. Lawrence, a ship with over 100 So, what was the outcome of this “forgotten” assistance, Prevost decided to withdraw to guns and the largest warship to sail on the Great conflict? That is an easy question to answer. If Canada and the finest army Britain ever sent to Lakes. Unfortunately, she proved to be an Britain had not successfully defended her North North America turned on its heels and trudged expensive white elephant and only made one American colonies, Canada would not exist today. northward in very low spirits. As the lengthy voyage before returning to Kingston, where she The war was a defining moment in Canadian columns trudged back over the bridge at remained for the rest of her brief career. In early history, laying the foundation not only for Champlain, one British officer remembered an November, the American army in the Niagara Confederation but for the modern nation we live American calling out: “I guess as how you are not withdrew to American soil, ending the campaign. in today, independent and free, with a playing Yankee Doodle now.” Some of the officer’s A few minor skirmishes and actions followed, but constitutional monarchy, the parliamentary men “were inclined to have thrown him [the the war was substantially at an end. system, and a respect for linguistic and ethnic American] in the river but this was not done.” diversity. That surely is reason enough to not only The see-saw nature of the fighting over the remember, but commemorate the War of 1812. summer and autumn of 1814 had been followed

https://legionmagazine.com/en/2012/01/the-war-that-saved-canada/

7