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Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006

Hunting and

Colophon

Nature & Faune is an international publication dedicated to the exchange of information and practical experience in the field of and protected areas management and conservation of natural on the African continent. Nature & Faune has been in wide circulation since 1985.

Nature & Faune is dependent upon your free and voluntary contributions in the form of articles and announcements in the field of wildlife and nature conservation in the Region. For publication of articles or any further information, please contact: Nature & Faune Email: [email protected]

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Editor: M. Laverdière Assistant Editors: L. Bakker, A. Ndeso-Atanga Advisers: F. Salinas, R. Czudek, A. Yapi, P. Lowe.

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The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006

Table of contents Click on the item to be taken to that section Item Page

Editorial 3

News 4 News in the press – Africa 4 News in the press – Worldwide 7 FAO News 9

Theme: and Bushmeat 15

News 15

Special Feature 16 The Bushmeat Crisis Task Force: Roles and Resources for Conservation Collaboration Bailey, N. and Eves, H.E., 2006 Articles 18 Wild and its use in the tropical environment, Madzou, Y.C and Ebanega, M. O., 2004 18 The dependence of local people on bushmeat in the Afadjato and Agumatsa conservation Area, Ghana Owusu, E. H., Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. and Kodzo Ekpe, E., 2004 33 Sports hunting in : inventory after ten years of practice (1990 – 2000) Kidjo, F.C., Sinadouwirou, T. and Yehouenou-Tessi, J., 2001 44

Summarized articles 51 Some economic implications of in rural development Meduna, A.J. and Ayodele, I.A., 1999 51 A comparison of two population models to predict sustainable hunting levels in the National Park of Upper in Ziegler, A., 1999 51 A simple pastoralist ostrich husbandry supporting sustainable dry woodland management in Southern Kenya Odera, J.A., 2002 53 Local frog rearing trial in closed natural environment, Democratic Republic of Congo Kakule, M. P. and Paulus, J., 2001 55

FAO activities 56 West-African Bushmeat Conference, Ghana 2005 56

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Assessment of the bushmeat issues in Guinea, Guinea, 2005 58 Control of hunting activities in cross-border areas of OCFSA member countries: a study. Cameroon, , Democratic Republic of Congo, , 2005 59 International forum: Promoting the Business of Grasscutter production in West-Africa, Ghana, 2005 60

Links 61

Guidelines to authors 63

Subscription 63

Correspondence 63

Editorial Introduction to this edition The long awaited on-line edition of Nature & Faune has finally arrived in your inbox. This is the first digital copy of the journal, after being produced in hard copy since 1985. The editorial board is delighted to announce the expanded contents of the journal. In addition to research articles on African wildlife and protected areas, this journal now contains natural resources news from Africa and beyond, links to more information resources on the Internet and on FAO activities in the field. As you will observe, some articles date a few years back; notwithstanding, they contain relevant information from field practitioners. Another innovative feature is that each edition of the journal shall have a theme. For this first edition, the theme is ‘Hunting and Bushmeat’.

Hunting for wild has been at the heart of African societies for centuries. Populations are dependent upon resources which are found in the local natural environment, such as portable , fuelwood for heating and cooking, herbs for medication and from wild animals for . in the city has altered people’s way of living in many ways; water comes from taps, gas is used to cook and medicines can be bought at a pharmacy. But not everything changed: cravings for wild meat remains.

Whereas before, hunting was mainly done for subsistence by farmers and harvesting levels of wild fauna were low and local, now hunting for bushmeat has become a profession and hunters travel long distances to shoot wildlife on a large scale. The more sophisticated techniques and more professional hunters not only allow people to exploit abundant wildlife species such as grasscutters, but the large scale of the business also threatens many endangered species (see the report from Guinea by Dia). Determining sustainable hunting levels is not an easy task (see the article by Ziegler). The result is that populations of wild animals are becoming depleted, local community members have to travel further to hunt and some species are on the brink of . It is a serious threat to both food and nutrition security and conservation efforts.

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Answers to the bushmeat crisis are not easy and straightforward, and often involve a range of activities at varying levels. Some advocate that law enforcement should be strengthened and the culprits who hunt legally protected animals and/or hunt without a license should be punished; others argue that it is a matter of poverty alleviation and finding alternative sources of protein (see the articles by Madzou and Owusu). There is however another side to bushmeat and hunting - sports hunting. The article by Kidjo et al. in this edition illustrates that income from wildlife could be derived through hunting of selected species by wealthy hunters, mostly from developed countries. These hunts often have a double benefit; on one hand more money is generated for conservation and poverty alleviation programs, and on the other hand the community benefits from the meat from the hunting expedition.

Yet another development is the domestication of wildlife species (see the summaries of articles by Meduna, Odera and Kakule Mbonzo), which could provide a stable source of income and protein. Sustainable hunting for bushmeat could be seen as a means to enhance the food and nutrition security of the rural poor who rely on game meat for subsistence and also as a tool to enhance sustainable use of and wildlife resources and ultimately to protect the environment and conserve the biological diversity in the region.

It is the hope that the information provided in this issue, will contribute to the progress made toward resolving some of the intractable problems intrinsic to bushmeat and unsustainable hunting.

Back to table of contents

News News items from the press, FAO and other sources

News in the press –Africa them for diseases and then imported them into South Africa. The San Diego zoo employee arranged Congolese monkeys find new home in for the monkeys to be housed in U.S. U.S. zoos zoos to avoid them from being sold as Source: National Geographic pets. In April 2005 a South African Critics claim that the sale of the businessman phoned the San Diego zoo Congolese monkeys was not in line with with an unusual question. He wanted to CITES regulations, and these kind of know how much monkeys were worth as deals are counterproductive to pets in South Africa. The man had found conservation efforts and would only 33 monkeys of five different species in a encourage the bushmeat trade. It might bushmeat market in the Democratic give the impression that there is a market Republic of Congo. He bought the for selling live animals to institutions such monkeys, put them into quarantine to test as zoos and private persons.

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Wildlife and people in Virunga sector, and the mountain National Park, Democratic Republic are seen as an important tourist attraction, of Congo they feel it’s important to prevent further Source: Reuters, BBC, WWF of the gorillas. A recent survey of the Virunga area in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo Rhinos translocated to Zambia carried out by WWF and the Institut Source: Reuters, SADC Congolais pour la Conservation de la Under a plan of Southern African Nature (ICCN) found 17 (Okapia Development Community (SADC) to Johnstoni) tracks and evidence of its restock animals that were killed off locally presence. Due to the problems in the by poachers, 10 South African Black country, many feared that heavy poaching Rhinos (Diceros bicornis) have been had caused the animal to go extinct in this translocated to Zambia. The rhinos have park. found a new home in North Luangwa The Okapi, was first discovered in 1901 National Park. in this area, but had not been found in the In the Regional Programme for Rhino park since 1959. The Okapi also in Conservation the fourteen SADC the Okapi Wildlife Reserve in eastern DR countries will cooperate and share Congo. information and knowledge, with the aim A census by the to manage the fragmented rhino Society and the ICCN found that the populations as a metapopulation. It is number of forest elephants (Loxodonta hoped that the case of the rhino can be an cyclotis) has increased from 265 to 340 example for the regional management of during the last three years, while the other wildlife species. number of forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer Poaching to get the horns of the rhinos nanus) has gone up from 2300 to 3800. has nearly driven the Black Rhino to Conservation International and the Dian extinction in the past. The horns are used Fossey International Fund as dagger handle or as a symbol of wealth financed a project in the park, where and are also used in traditional Chinese mountain gorillas are habituated by a medicine. It is estimated that in the mid- primatologist, to prepare them for 1990s there were only 2400 rhinos left, tourism. nowadays there are around 3600. For more information, please see: Rwanda park will be fenced off to • protect SADC Regional Programme for Rhino Source: Inter Press Service Conservation http://www.rhino-sadc.org/index.cfm Government authorities will fence off Parc National des Volcans in Rwanda, Madagascar pays for reforestation where a population of the endangered through carbon credits mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) Source: Reuters, World Bank live. Local communities are said to use local natural resources such as water and In a World Bank BioCarbon Fund project pasture unsustainably. Combined with in Madagascar, around 3000 hectares of poaching, this has led to the destruction tropical rainforest shall be planted, to link of a large part of the bamboo forest. fragmented pieces of rainforest and thus Worldwide, the estimates are that there expanding the habitat for biodiversity. are only about 380 to 650 mountain Under the Kyoto protocol, 35 developed gorillas remaining. While the government countries are obliged to reach a decrease is looking to improve the Rwandan in greenhouse gas emissions by 2008-

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2012, but the system allows them to Equatorial Guinea protects 37% of invest in projects where carbon is stored. territory Newly planted store a lot of Source: Reuters carbon, because use carbon for Equatorial Guinea announced during a growth. Often, producing carbon credits conference in Madagascar in June 2006 through activities such a reforestation is that it shall set aside an area of more than cheaper then reducing the carbon 500,000 hectares of forests as protected emission from activities such as industry. area, and shall establish a $15 million In Madagascar, a hectare of new forest conservation trust fund. This decision stores 230 tonnes of carbon. Prices for means that 37% of the country shall be carbon and prospects for the future vary under protection. between 5 and 20 euros per tonne, which could provide an important influx of Angola’s ivory trade doubles financial resources for conservation Source: WWF activities. According to TRAFFIC and WWF, the For more information, please see: illegal ivory trade has doubled in Angola • World Bank BioCarbon Fund over the past 12 to 18 months. In a http://carbonfinance.org/Router.cfm?Pa survey of the curio markets in the capital ge=BioCF&FID=9708&ItemID=9708&f Luanda in June 2005, over 1.5 tonnes of t=Projects worked ivory products were found, representing the tusks of at least 300 Madagascar ‘brands’ itself as African elephants. Nearly three-quarters ecotourism destination of the ivory vendors were people from Source: Reuters the Democratic Republic of Congo, while Madagascar, famed for its unique the curios are being purchased by (Lemuriformes), is hoping to use eco- American, European and Chinese buyers. tourism to create employment and bring While Angola is the only country of the in hard currency. The country has the 37 countries harbouring African elephants second-highest levels of biodiversity in its that have not signed the CITES forests, only after Brazil. The island (Convention on the International Trade attracted 160,000 tourists in 2003, while in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and that number already went up to 230,000 Flora), WWF alleges that Angola is in 2004. failing to support the continent-wide Countries such as Kenya, which is known action plan to shut down ivory markets worldwide for its wildlife and scenery, and and stop illegal elephant poaching. Costa Rica, the Central American country For more information, please see: symbolizing nature conservation, have • TRAFFIC report ‘No Peace for already successfully exploited the concept elephants: Unregulated Domestic Ivory of creating the image, or ‘branding’ as an Markets’ eco-tourism destination. Costa Rica, for http://www.traffic.org/news/Angola.pdf example, receives 62.8 % of its Gross Domestic Product from environmental services, which includes eco-tourism. Back to table of contents Rwanda, famous for its gorillas, and Equatorial Guinea, one of the world’s ‘ hotspots’ would also be able to derive large benefits from eco-tourism activities.

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News in the press - Worldwide The country also plans to create a national agency called the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau to register and investigate Task forces to combat illegal wildlife cases. trade Source: Reuters and WildAid The Sumatran rhino Police, customs and wildlife officials from Source: Reuters and WWF the 10-nation Association of South East A protection effort was launched in late Asian Nations (ASEAN), gathered in 2005 in Borneo, Malaysia to monitor Bangkok and decided that special task Sumatran rhinos (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis forces shall be used against the multi- harrissoni) and defend them from billion dollar illegal trade in animals and poachers. A field survey last year showed plants. In December 2005 the ASEAN that there are only about 13 rhinos left in Wildlife Enforcement Network was Borneo, while the world population of launched, a cross-agency, cross-border Sumatran rhinos is estimated at around network that will target criminals and 300. It is believed that the remaining syndicates involved in the lucrative illegal rhino’s on the island are possibly too old . to reproduce. Besides that, because there The trade in endangered plants and are only a few of them they would hardly animals is now the third largest form of meet to breed. black-market trade in the world. The rhinos, also called ‘hairy rhinos’, live Southeast Asia is rich in valuable plants mostly on the Malaysian peninsular and in and animals and traffickers are linked to Sumatra. It is the only species of rhino in criminal organizations or sell their goods the Asian region which has two horns, through internet. There is a large demand and it is the smallest of all rhino species. in China from restaurants, medicine The horns are used in traditional medicine shops and private collectors. Tiger skins and can fetch high prices on the black fetch $15000 while ramin, a rare timber market. that is used to produce snooker cues can WWF is working with the Sabah Wildlife go for up to $1200 per cubic meter. The Department to protect the habitat, profits are generally large and the risk of strengthen anti-poaching efforts, and detection is low. If a trafficker is caught, monitor trade in rhino horns and the he probably gets off with a light management of protected areas to set up punishment. awareness programmes. The project uses motion-triggered cameras to capture India plans to use army to protect pictures of the Sumatra rhino. wildlife The first picture ever taken of a Sumatra Source: Reuters rhino in Borneo can be viewed at: To combat illegal smuggling of skins of http://www.panda.org/news_facts/news Indian tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) and room/index.cfm?uNewsID=72120 (Panthera pardus fusca), India is planning to amend it’s Wildlife Act to Pandas: the national treasure of China enable the army to arrest, detain and even Source: Reuters and Conservation Spotlight open fire on poachers who are evading After many not-so-successful captive arrest. India has the world’s second breeding attempts, giant pandas largest army, after China, and troops are (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) born in captivity already stationed in many border have risen to 183, up from 161 at the end locations. of 2002. The difficulty is that female

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 pandas have very short fertility periods, More attention for marine and once a year for only three days. Scientists wetlands conservation think that behavioral incompatibility Source: Reuters, Science, FAO, UNEP between male and female pandas, or In June 2006, President George W. Bush facility design that may hamper successful declared a large area of Pacific Islands and introductions, might also interfere with submerged volcanoes in North-western successful reproduction efforts. Hawaii a national monument. The area The giant panda only lives in west-China covers 362,600 km2, which is larger than and is one of the most endangered species Australia’s Great Barrier Reef Marine in the world. Habitat fragmentation poses Park. There are more than 7000 species, a serious threat to the population; 99% of of which more than 100 species are its diet consists of bamboo, so after endemic. Overfishing shall be prevented bamboo in an area has flowered and died in the area, while Hawaiians can still use off, pandas need to be able to migrate to the area for traditional purposes. other areas. The body parts of pandas are The Convention on Biodiversity aims at not used in traditional Chinese medicine. increasing the percentage of protected Snares which were set for musk deer by ocean to 10%. However, while the oceans poachers often make victims of pandas. should be managed by all nations, In the Wolong Giant Panda Reservation national jurisdiction can not regulate its and Research Centre, web cameras were exploitation and legislation is difficult to set up so that people can watch the 233 develop. Biodiversity in the sea is much pandas in the reserve. PandaCam will go more vulnerable and extensive than was live for four 20-minutes periods a day. always believed, and scientists are only If you have a fast internet connection, just discovering the diversity in deep-sea you might be able to view the pandas live, habitats. According to a leading scientific please visit: www.pandaclub.net magazine, Science, between 1987 and In June 2006, researchers from China and 2004, only 9.8% of published research on the UK used a new hi-tech method to biodiversity dealt with marine analyse DNA found in droppings of the biodiversity. There are less species of pandas. Whereas previous estimates based animals which have been domesticated on conventional techniques indicated that for 10,000 years, than there are marine there were about 1000-1500 pandas left in species brought into aquaculture after the wild, the new technique indicates that only 30 years. there could be 2000-3000 pandas. The The Global Terrestrial Observing System, method showed that there was more than which monitors and assesses wetland double the number of pandas in a specific ecosystems in order to address loss and reserve than was previously estimated. degradation, and the Ramsar Convention The researchers also found that there is on Wetlands, signed a memorandum of no evidence of inbreeding or low genetic understanding last June. The agreement diversity that could threaten the species will allow joint action relating to the long-term survival. However, the research conservation and wise use of all wetlands needs to be replicated in other areas to through local, regional and national ensure that the findings in this study were actions and international cooperation, as a correct. contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world. According to FAO, particular attention should be placed on coastal and wetlands and mangrove forests, because these are places of remarkable biological

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 productivity and intense http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/Publi population pressure. cations/Reports/Series_Reports/Reports The United Nations Environment _and_studies/default.asp Program and the World Conservation Union produced a report entitled ‘Ecosystems and Biodiversity in Deep Back to table of contents and High Seas’. The report identifies the many essential services with substantial socio-economic benefits that FAO News oceans can provide: they provide oxygen, modulate weather, drive planetary Participatory management of temperatures and chemistry, and absorb Cameroon’s mangroves substantial amounts of CO . The threats 2 Source: FAO Newsroom to oceans, such as shipping, military activities and climate change are severe, A FAO project in Cameroon entitled although fishing currently presents the ‘Participatory management of the greatest threat. The report claims that biological diversity of mangrove ’ ability to exploit has outpaced by ecosystems in Cameroon’ helped teach a far our limited understanding of what is group of immigrant Nigerian fisherfolk necessary for sustainable use. Many living in the village of Yoyo near Limbe populations of large open ocean fish how to do things differently. Besides stocks have been reduced to 10% or less providing aquatic resources such as fish of their pre-industrial levels and have and shellfish, from the mangrove driven some species to the brink of forests is used as fuelwood and charcoal, extinction. Large-scale timber is used for construction material operations further undermine the hopes and forest products are used as medicinal that oceanic resources can make a products and food. Mangroves are located substantial contribution to human food in coastal zones where population security and poverty alleviation, as most pressures are typically high, and are of these resources are currently destined frequently converted to other uses, such for markets in developed countries, and as fish-farming, agriculture, salt will soon be extinguished. production and urban development. The report calls for new marine protected However, mangroves are very sensitive areas to be set up in deep seas and deep ecosystems, with a large biodiversity, oceans. providing humans with many ecological services. It is estimated that 80% of fish For more information, please see: species spend a part of their lives in • The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands mangroves. Mangroves provide leaves for http://www.ramsar.org/ the marine food web, shelter and • Global Terrestrial Observing System breeding grounds for fish and shellfish, http://www.fao.org/gtos/ they trap silt from uphill erosion and • Convention on Biodiversity, Jakarta provide coastal protection from winds Mandate on Marine and Coastal and waves. Biological Diversity The objective of the FAO project was to http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/are assist the Government of Cameroon in as/marine/default.asp the creation of a policy and a strategy for • UNEP Regional Seas Reports and sustainable management and use of the Studies biodiversity in the mangroves, in the interest of local populations which are dependent upon the mangroves for their

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 economic activities and survival. In the Rate of forest loss in Africa second FAO project, the resources in the highest in the world mangroves were identified and their Source: FAO Newsroom potential to contribute to food security The net rate of forest loss in Africa is the and income generation was assessed. The second highest in the world, after South socio-economic situation in the area was America, while the continent leads the analyzed and the capacity of the globe in the frequency of forest fires. population and technical services to Globally, Africa suffered a net loss of manage the mangroves sustainably was forests exceeding 4 million hectares per determined. With this information, year between 2000 and 2005, according to appropriate models were proposed. Based FAO. This was mainly due to conversion upon all this information, the policy and of forest to agriculture. Forest cover strategy for sustainable conservation and went from 655.6 million hectares (ha) to utilization was defined. 635.4 million ha during this period. The local communities have been Forest fires are another major concern for sensitized to the dangers of indiscriminate Africa, mainly due to the traditional cutting of mangroves and are using a practice of using fire for conversion of more fuel-efficient type of smoking ovens forest to agriculture or grassland. The for the fish. One community member frequency of fires is particularly high in noted that where before they were using northern Angola, the southern region of twenty mangrove trees, with the new the Democratic , smoking kitchen they were using only ten. southern and the Central African Alternative income generating activities Republic. were identified, such as agroforestry, Non Despite problems, Africa has made Timber Forest product (NTFP) collection strides in terms of improving forest policy and beekeeping. Several local and and programmes. More than half of international NGO’s in the area are African countries have established new developing projects that will contribute to forestry policies and laws over the past 15 the sustainable management of the years, and two-thirds now have an active mangroves. national forestry management programme The local conservator, Kwete Fiolele, in place. But implementation and noted however that the large pressure enforcement of these measures remains upon the biodiversity is difficult to weak, mainly due to lack of financing and manage; the mangrove forest has many weak national institutions. entrances, both through land and over water, and conservation authorities lack For more information, please see: means of controlling access to the forests. • Net rate of forest loss in Africa second In January 2006 President Paul Biya highest in the world ratified the Ramsar Convention on http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news wetlands, an intergovernmental treaty that /2006/1000261/index.html provides a framework for national action • Global Forest Resources Assessment and international cooperation for the 2005 conservation and sustainable use of www.fao.org/forestry/site/fra/en wetlands, including mangroves. • 15th Session of the African Forestry For more information, please see: and Wildlife Commission (AFWC) • Conserving Cameroon’s mangroves www.fao.org/forestry/site/31085/en http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/field /2006/1000260/index.html

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FAO proposes a plan to monitor bird habitats or indiscriminate hunting of annual migrations of wild birds wildlife is scientifically and ethically Source: FAO Newsroom unjustified as a response,” one of the Many countries are concerned about the conference recommendations said. recent death of humans caused by bird A 6.8 million-dollar plan proposed by flu, which first broke out in Southeast FAO involves capturing thousands of Asia three years ago and has now spread wild birds before they migrate, testing to many countries around the world, sample birds for disease, and fitting some including African countries. Scientists are of them out with tiny backpacks weighing troubled over the question whether wild less than 50 grams each. After the birds birds spread the disease to birds and are released, the sophisticated telemetry , as they fear bird flu (or avian equipment inside the packs would track influenza) might mutate into a their every movement. A system of radio which can be spread among humans, beacons and satellites would then feed which could cause a . data into the computers of ornithologists, In late May 2006, FAO and the World ecologists, virologists and epidemiologists Organization for Animal Health (OIE) around the world. The backpacks would organized an international scientific show the migrating birds’ exact conference on avian influenza, which was whereabouts when they stop over for rest attended by some 300 scientists from and recreation on their long journeys. over 100 countries. Jan Slingenbergh, Mobile, ground-based teams would then Senior Animal Health Officer with FAO, re-test the sample birds for disease and, in explains that in Europe we know that in the case of a positive return, have a good most countries where the virus has idea of where the infection originated and appeared, it has been with the wild birds. where it might head next. In East and Southeast Asia the disease Early warning would give governments was arguably spread by a combination of and producers more time to respond to domestic and wild birds, while in Africa it potential threats – with great benefits for appeared that poultry trade and traffic the poultry industry and society at large. was essentially responsible. FAO together with the World Health H5N1 disease management would need Organization and the World Organisation to be based on improved biosecurity and for Animal Health has initiated a global hygiene at the production level, and in all early warning and response system poultry sectors, including minimizing the (GLEWS) which monitors and possibility of contact between domestic emerging transboundary diseases such as and wild birds, the conference advocated. foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, swine The conference concluded that wild birds fever, , and Rift valley fever. The do play a role in transporting the virus proposed new system, in which several over long distances, but that human Organizations – such as the Wildlife activities such as poultry production and Conservation Society, Wetlands trade are principally responsible for International, CIRAD, the French spreading the disease. The conference Agricultural Research Centre for noted that there was a basic need for International Development and others - better understanding the migration of could participate would feed into the wild birds and the associated risks of virus GLEWS system. introduction. A small part of the money to fund the The participants rejected any suggestion project is already on hand, but FAO of trying to stop the spread of HPAI by would need the help of donors and killing wild birds. “Destruction of wild governments to get it up and flying.

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For more information, please see ‘Forest health and vitality’, ‘Uses and • FAO Avian Influenza website function of forests’ and ‘Socio-economic www.fao.org/avianflu value of forests’. • 01-06 2006 Wild birds’ role in HPAI FAO worked closely with countries and crisis confirmed specialists in the design and http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news implementation of FRA 2005 - through /2006/1000312/index.html regular contact, expert consultations, • 01-06 2006 Free as a bird – or under training for national correspondents and surveillance? ten regional and subregional workshops. http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news The outcome is better data, a more /2006/1000311/index.html transparent reporting process and enhanced national capacity in data • 14-07-2006 USDA and FAO launch analysis and reporting. Animal Disease Crisis Management Center For more information, please see: http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news www.fao.org/forestry/site/fra/en /2006/1000362/index.html 15th Session of the African Forestry Global Forest Resources Assessment and Wildlife Commission 2006 - Final 2005 Report Source: FAO Source: FAO FAO has been coordinating global forest At the invitation of the Government of resources assessments every five to ten Mozambique, the Fifteenth Session of the years since 1946. The Global Forest African Forestry and Wildlife Resources Assessment 2005 (FRA 2005) Commission (AFWC) was held at the was carried out between 2003 and 2005 Joaquim Chissano Conference Centre, and involved more than 800 people, Maputo, Mozambique, from 29 March to including 172 officially nominated 1 April 2006. The session was attended national correspondents, their colleagues, by 123 delegates from 36 member an Advisory Group, international experts, countries and observer countries, and 3 FAO staff, consultants and volunteers representatives of the United Nations from around the world. Information has system. Observers from 18 been collated from 229 countries and intergovernmental and international non- territories for three points in time: 1990, governmental organizations also attended. 2000 and 2005. The guest of honour, Madam Graça FRA 2005 is the most comprehensive Machel, in her address to the assessment of forests and forestry to date, Commission, called upon African leaders not only in terms of the number of to urgently implement appropriate countries and people involved, but also in measures to halt the destruction of forest terms of scope. It examines the current and wildlife resources. She underscored status and recent trends for about 40 the obligation of the continent’s variables covering the extent, condition, leadership to ensure that its resources are uses and values of forests and other used for the common benefit of ordinary wooded land, with the aim of assessing all citizens and not just for the profit of a benefits from forest resources. The few. results are presented according to six His Excellency Tomás Mandlate, Minister thematic elements of sustainable forest for Agriculture of Mozambique, officially management: ‘Forest area and total area opened the 15th Session of the change’, ‘Characteristics of the world’s Commission. He expressed his forest’, ‘Forests and climate change’, government’s pleasure at hosting the

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 session and described current initiatives 16th session from 27 to 28 March 2006 in for community-based natural resources Maputo, in tandem with the AFWC and management and concession proposed the following recommendations management plans. The Minister addressed not only for the attention of specifically cited examples of joint FAO but also for the attention of FAO initiatives between government, local member countries from Africa. communities and the private sector, within a new policy and legal framework Recommendations for the attention of aimed at sustainable use and the FAO member countries: improvement of local livelihoods. He • Noting the role of policies and laws in concluded by expressing his full facilitating crucial aspects of wildlife confidence in the ability of the management, such as the involvement of Commission to provide FAO and communities and the private sector, the member countries with the necessary Commission urged countries to review guidance in the sustainable use of natural and, if necessary, revise wildlife resources. management policies and laws. The Conference deliberated upon the • To address the issue of human-wildlife issue of ‘Developments in international conflict, the Commission underscored the forest-related agreements and initiatives’; need for integrated and participatory land- and held a special session on use planning. ‘Implementation of sustainable in Africa’, under which it Recommendations for the attention of organized two partner panels. The first FAO: panel focused attention on ‘Accessing • The Commission noted the prevalence funds for sustainable forest management’ and severity of human-wildlife conflict in and the second carried out deliberations many African countries and under the title ‘Contributing to the recommended that FAO provide Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) information and technical advice to through regional forestry cooperation: facilitate country efforts to formulate and New Partnership for Africa’s implement strategies to prevent or Development (NEPAD) and other mitigate these phenomena and to regional and sub-regional organizations’. promote best practices. Other key issues discussed included: • The Commission recognized the ‘Progress towards sustainable forest relationship between wildlife and poverty management (in Africa): state of forests alleviation. Noting the substantial benefits and wildlife and trends in the region’; and that communities can derive from ‘Forest law compliance’. A workshop on successful and responsible ecotourism ‘Forestry, wildlife and poverty alleviation’ development, the Commission preceded this session of the AFWC, and recommended that FAO foster an its report was presented in-session. exchange of information among countries In addition, information sessions were on the required policy and legal held on the following topics during the environment to render ecotourism period of AFWC: ‘Planted forests code’, attractive for private sector investment. ‘Climate change’ and ‘Fire in the agriculture-forestry interface’, with • The Commission requested FAO to particular emphasis on activities of promote a people-centered approach in regional fire networks and voluntary its work with wildlife and conservation guidelines for wildland fire management. organizations and networks. The Working Party on the Management of Wildlife and Protected Areas held its

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Key regional issues for the attention of the sector’s inputs into achievement of the Committee on Forestry (COFO) the Millennium Development Goals The 15th session of the AFWC, among (MDGs) with an emphasis on the other key outcomes, identified key contribution of forests to poverty regional issues for the attention of the reduction and food security. The Committee on Forestry (COFO). These Commission highlighted the important included: role of the National Forest Programme • Recognizing the Committee on Facility in supporting member countries Forestry’s stated desire to see the regional in this endeavour. forestry commissions strengthened, the • Further, the Commission emphasized Commission wished to bring to the the need for strengthening the knowledge attention of COFO the renewed vitality base on implementation of sustainable of the AFWC, as demonstrated by the forest management at policy as well as growing number of inter-sessional field levels and called for continued activities in the past two years and the support from FAO to member countries record level of broad-based participation in implementing national forest at its Fifteenth Session. The inventories and assessments, covering Commission considered it particularly social, economic, environmental and noteworthy that these activities were inter-sectoral dimensions of forestry. achieved largely as a result of the • Recognizing the increasingly important commitment and contributions of the role of planted forests, the Commission member countries themselves. requested COFO to evaluate progress on • The Commission requested that future the development of the Planted Forests joint meetings of the regional bureaux Code and recommend appropriate action. held in conjunction with COFO be • Recalling the significant impact of fire strengthened in order to provide guidance on forest ecosystems in Africa, the to address priority global issues on Commission requested COFO to evaluate forests. progress on the development of the Fire • The Commission welcomed FAO’s Management Code and the Strategy to efforts to raise the political profile of Enhance International Cooperation in forest issues through the Ministerial Implementing the Fire Management Meetings on Forests. It also emphasized Code, and recommend appropriate the essential role of FAO in providing action. inputs to the United Nations Forum on • Cognizant of the global concern over Forests (UNFF) and other global illegal logging and associated illegal trade dialogues, including the development of a of forest products, the Commission non-legally binding instrument on all highlighted its request that FAO work types of forests and other instruments with CPF members to provide technical and mechanisms that enhance sustainable support to help member countries control management of forests worldwide. illegal logging and associated trade. • The Commission drew attention to its The report of the 15th AFWC, including call for FAO and other Collaborative the session documents, will be posted on Partnership on Forests (CPF) members to the FAO website: www.fao.org/forestry. continue supporting member countries in implementing progress towards sustainable forest management through Back to table of contents effective national forest programmes, which serve as a basis for coordinating

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Hunting and Bushmeat

News News related to the theme

UK- Bushmeat confiscation at airport Papua New Guinea – Bushmeat Source: The Independent, BBC hunting in Asia In 2005, airports in the United Kingdom Source: plecserv confiscated 25.000 loads of bushmeat In the Crater Mountain Wildlife from passengers’ luggage, which was 62% Management Area in Papua New Guinea, more than 2004. It is estimated that at a researcher from the Wildlife Heathrow Airport alone, five tons of Conservation Society and an meat is smuggled into Britain each year. anthropologist of Columbia University Public health experts fear that bushmeat lived and worked with hunters for over containing such as Ebola can now seven months in 2003. They report that a reach the UK, which could lead to group of hunters, often accompanied by outbreak of these diseases. dogs, sets out about once a month. Half In areas in London with large African of all kills is made by bow and arrow, communities, bushmeat of numerous catapults and other projectiles, traps are species is sold under the counter. Meat of used to capture small , while endangered species is sold for high prices; shot guns were hardly used. The research one kilogram gorillas or meat reports an average intake by the 300 is sold for approximately $560. village members of 23 g per day, or 165 g per week. US and Europe- Bushmeat in markets A very rough estimate indicates that in US and Europe populations of the interior forests might Source: Nature consume 4 to 8 million vertebrate animals At the Society for Conservation Biology annually; comprising 10 to 20 thousand meeting in June 2006, scientists presented tones of animal biomass. a study on the bushmeat markets in seven For more information, please see: cities in the US and Europe. A survey in • A.L. Mack and P. West 2005. Ten New York, London, Brussels, Paris, thousand tonnes of small animals: wildlife Toronto, Montreal and Chicago showed consumption in Papua New Guinea, a that each month in these seven cities vital resource in need of management. alone, a total of about 6000 kilograms of Resource Management in Asia-Pacific wild meat from Africa was traded. The Working Paper 61. Canberra, Resource study found that most of the meat was Management in Asia-Pacific Program, butchered and smoked, but around 27% The Australian National University. was raw, and 21% was not butchered at all. Back to table of contents

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006

Special feature Shining the spotlight on some valuable and relevant work

The Bushmeat Crisis Task Force: Roles and Resources for Conservation Collaboration Bailey, N. and. Eves, H.E., 2006

The Bushmeat Crisis Task Force (BCTF) was formed in 1999, when a group of experts came together to call for action to address the commercial bushmeat crisis in tropical Africa. Since then, BCTF has expanded to include more than 35 Supporting and Contributing Members, and more than 350 general members. Our membership includes conservation organizations, animal welfare advocates, development professionals, medical researchers, field practitioners, and government representatives.

BCTF’s Vision is to eliminate the unsustainable, illegal, commercial bushmeat trade through the development of a global network that actively supports and informs nations, organizations, scientists and the general public. BCTF’s Mission is to build a public, professional and government constituency aimed at identifying and supporting solutions that effectively respond to the bushmeat crisis in Africa and around the world.

Solving the bushmeat crisis requires multiple short-term and long-term interventions in many areas. BCTF members support actions in the field that directly address human and wildlife impacts of the bushmeat crisis. Our professional network of members works with staff to identify and analyze available information, develop consensus on solutions, produce materials to help clarify this complex issue and identify areas of collaboration potential. To further its mission, BCTF has prioritized four goals: information management, engagement of key decision makers, education and public awareness.

The primary role of BCTF staff is to manage information towards its goals listed above. Primary means of collecting and sharing information regarding the unsustainable, illegal, commercial bushmeat trade are the BCTF website (www.bushmeat.org), the Bushmeat Information Management and Analysis Program (www.bushmeat.org/IMAP) and the Bushmeat Listserv.

The BCTF Website (www.bushmeat.org) provides an excellent resource for members, key decision makers, media and the public to access the latest information related to the bushmeat issue, including numerous documents produced by BCTF on species and special issues associated with the bushmeat trade. These tools provide the support needed for long-term monitoring and trend analysis based on field efforts which will be essential to maintaining key decision maker support for addressing the bushmeat issue. Several examples are included below. The “Solutions” page (http://www.bushmeat.org/bulletin/solutions.html) features information related to key BCTF goals, including policy development. BCTF staff and Supporting Members have played an important role in official bushmeat policies including 2000 IUCN Bushmeat Resolution, the 2000, 2002 and 2004 official mandate of the CITES Bushmeat Working Group, Africa Policy Advisory Panel (APAP) Report to Department of State, and the

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Africa Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (AFLEG) Resolution. In addition, bushmeat has been identified as a key focal issue for the Forest Partnership (CBFP), a multi-national conservation and development effort. BCTF Supporting Members are also beginning to develop their own bushmeat policies (e.g. WCS and JGI).

BCTF tools are used by institutions across Africa, the U.S. and other parts of the globe to raise public awareness. We regularly work with media outlets to provide context and commentary on relevant stories. Bushmeat Fact Sheets (http://www.bushmeat.org/docs.html#factsheets) and online Information Pack (http://www.bushmeat.org/cd/index.html) provide quick-and-easy access to consensus documents created by BCTF staff and Supporting Member organizations. Topics covered include issues related to the bushmeat crisis (social ecology, , human health), species of concern (great , elephants, forest , forest antelopes, ) and affected regions (Central and , East and Southern Africa) as well as general fact sheets on BCTF efforts (Bushmeat and international collaboration, the Bushmeat IMAP). In addition, our Bushmeat Promise (www.bushmeat.org/promise) provides a way for people around the world to get involved in solutions to the bushmeat crisis.

The Bushmeat Education Resource Guide (BERG) is a comprehensive set of bushmeat education, training and outreach resources targeted at audiences in the U.S. and around the world. The BERG has been distributed to hundreds of institutions across the United States, Europe and Africa. The BERG is available online at www.bushmeat.org/BERG. Bushmeat training of field personnel has been carried out through a five-year project at the Garoua Wildlife College in Cameroon as well as planning for such programs at Mweka Wildlife College in Tanzania and Southern Africa Wildlife College in South Africa. Training resources developed at Garoua Wildlife College will soon be available for sharing with other training centers in Francophone Africa.

BCTF has created a tool for sharing the expanding set of bushmeat resources and projects: the Bushmeat Information Management and Analysis Project (IMAP). The IMAP (www.bushmeat.org/IMAP) provides users with tools to search and view bushmeat research data, create and print custom maps that include wildlife ranges and threats to populations, and link to addition information in the Research Archive and Projects Database. Over the next two years, the IMAP process will be expanded to include the Asia Wildlife Trade.

Please visit the BCTF website at www.bushmeat.org for the latest information, updates and resources on the bushmeat crisis. The BCTF Listserv shares regular updates regarding media, peer-reviewed publications, events and other information with a membership of more than 350 individuals around the world. To take part in the BCTF Listserv for professionals addressing the bushmeat crisis, please send a request to [email protected].

Back to table of contents

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006

Articles Research articles submitted to Nature & Faune

Wild game and its use in the tropical environment, Cameroon The forest in search of a balance between exploitation for survival and conservation in the Northern region of Boumba-Bek (South East Cameroon) Madzou1, Y.C., Ebanega2, M.O., 2004

Abstract A study on village hunting was conducted from July 2003 to April 2004 in South East Cameroon in the Northern outskirts of the Boumba-Bek reserve. The aim was to compare the village catches with that of poachers, and to try to measure the impact of the two types of hunting on forest wildlife, and subsequently propose realistic solutions to unsustainable hunting activities in the medium and long term in the region.

The results show that village hunters caught 450 animals, mostly comprising ungulates and , representing more than 88% of the total. Some 26% was sold whilst 74% was self-consumed and used for social exchanges. During the same period, the poachers caught 347 animals out of which more than 90% of the total sold was smoked. Antelopes and monkeys made up a greater portion of game. The comparison between products of the two types of hunting shows that even though the number of the poaching hunters’ prey is less than those of the village hunters, the former are forced to smoke the game in order to make better sales.

The poachers, aided by a network of several bushmeat agents, were able to make 19 times the amount of sales made by the villagers. Subsistence hunting together with commercial hunting has an impact on the survival of species to the extent that the actual extraction of large forest wildlife is not sustainable.

It therefore appears that tough measures must be taken. Among them, the intensification of the anti-poaching measures, promotion of alternatives to bushmeat and involvement of local communities in the management of forest biodiversity.

Key words : Hunting, game, bushmeat, poacher, species, biomass.

1 Yves Constant Madzou, Ph.D, UMR 5185 ADES/CNRS, 12, Esplanade des Antilles, Maison des Suds Université de Bordeaux3, 33607 PESSAC, France. Email : [email protected] 2 Médard Obiang Ebanega, 54, rue Permentade, 33000 Bordeaux , France. Email : [email protected]

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1. Introduction The 204.7 million hectares of forest in hosts very rich and diversified wildlife and flora (FAO, 2000). It has been protected for a long time from human activities by its geographic location far from large concentrations of human populations and has maintained its intact character until quite recently. But with the increase in the population of urban areas and the high demand for food products by urban dwellers to satisfy their nutritional needs, they have now turned to the forest, one of the terrestrial ecosystems capable of feeding a large number of people (APFT, 2001). Furthermore, with the threat resulting directly from the creation of logging camps that accommodate staff of logging companies, rural and urban dwellers have turned to the forest.

That being the case, a wide forest products supply network have been established to satisfy the demand of people living in the logging camps and surrounding towns. These inter-relationships between the town and the countryside are fraught with consequences because they do not only ensure a constant supply of products to the urban area, ensure huge profits for supply network agents, improve the quality of life of the rural dwellers through income from the sale, but they are also a factor for the depletion of resources in the producing areas.

Faced with the exploitation of forest resources through urban demand, sustainable management of forests has become a very fashionable word in recent years in most of the developing countries, especially those known as highly indebted poor countries (HIPC). Successive structural adjustment programmes undertaken by countries in the Central African region and joint initiatives in the management of rainforests in the mid 1990s, show the interest in ensuring forest ecological balance and economic development that respects environmental standards.

But in spite of the good will of these countries, governments do not have the means to do it, since Cameroon like the other countries in its region experienced 50% reduction in prices of agricultural raw materials for export in 1988 and the devaluation of the local CFA franc currency in 1994. These elements have caused a larger part of the population to live in poverty. The only resort for poor communities will therefore be the exploitation of game and its sale to large towns through informal channels (Bachuchet and Ioveva, 1999). The forest regions will be quickly besieged and the most landlocked areas like the Northern region of Boumba-Bek, an area well-stocked with game located in the district of Yokadouma (Eastern Province), will be exposed to the different actors involved such as logging companies, people in search for agricultural lands, hunters, hawkers, traders etc.

The study was conducted by direct and indirect observations throughout this region, to show the link between the population of a landlocked environment and the different parameters likely to change the local environment from the point of view of survival. One of the parameters examined is the exploitation of wild game among village and professional hunters and its use for profit purposes. In the absence of viable economic alternatives, poverty is the root of all evil. If public authorities as well as conservation and development NGOs do not take action, biological diversity and the forest ecosystems of Central Africa will not be preserved.

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2. Study areas and their characteristics: the Northern region of Boumba-Bek 2.1 Biophysical data The Northern region of Boumba-Bek is located in the north of the Boumba-Bek reserve (2º47,35 , 3º10,09 latitude North; 14°31,14 , 14°57,33 longitude East), Boumba and Ngoko sector, Yokadouma district in the Eastern Province of South Cameroon. It occupies about 2,910 km2 of land. The Northern region borders the Boumba-Bek wildlife reserve on its Southern part over an approximate distance of 60 km along 90 km of the trunk road and which is bordered by a strip of forest belonging to the logging company SIBAF, whilst in the West, North and North Western part between old Ngato and new Ngato, it divides forest concessions belonging to other companies and village communities. The region is characterised by a bi-modal equatorial climate with abundant rainfall (1,600 mm per year), average temperature around 24ºC and relative humidity ranging between 60% and 98%. The region is dominated by a mosaic of ferrous which together with the climate have led to the existence of a diversity of habitats and biogenetic diversification from insects to large mammals. Moreover, these habitats are shelter areas for the development of potential wildlife stocks.

Although only a small number of botanical inventories have been done, recent studies conducted in the Boumba-Bek and Nki sector by Ekobo (1998) recorded a census of 831 species, whilst in the neighbouring Lobéké sector, Harris (quoted by Ekobo, 1998) listed 730 species. The influence of the types of and their fertility are responsible for this distribution and for the distribution of different types of forests. Consequently, Ekobo considers it probable that flora diversity of the Nki zone in the West of the Northern region is more significant than that of Boumba--Bek. No phytogeographic study has been conducted in South-East Cameroon, but the valued works of Letouzey (1988) allowed 12 types of formations to be identified.

The fauna comprises more than thirty species of land mammals as well as birds, reptiles, insects, fish etc. which have already been counted to date. The wildlife species include the (Loxodonta a. cyclotis), forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus), leopard (Panthera pardus), bongo antelope (Tragelaphus euryceros), forest antelopes (Cephalophus spp.), primates (Gorilla g. gorilla, troglodytes, Cercopithecus spp., Colobus spp. etc.), reptiles (Crocodilus spp., Kinixys spp., gabonica and Dendroaspsis viridis) and rodents (grasscutters and ).

The density especially of macrofauna (elephant, gorilla, forest buffalo) is thought to be higher than that of the neighbouring Lobéké region for two reasons: first, certain animal populations with tourist attraction were severely decimated by contagious pluero-pneumonia during the year 1997 at Lobéké and secondly, the granting of hunting quotas does not depend on any monitoring of animal populations in the hunting safari zones.

2.2 Demography and social characteristics A population of 7239 inhabitants were counted residing within the 90 km that separate the two remotest sites, including two logging companies: Transformation Tropicale du Sud (TTS) and Société Industrielle des Bois Africains (SIBAF). The region is dominated

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 by Kounabembé and Baka natives who alone represent 67% of the total inhabitants; the population density is the lowest in Cameroon, about 2.4 inhabitants/km2.

The largest proportion of migrants resides in the two forest camps (41%-47%) and in villages close to these camps. It contributes to create a human kaleidoscope in a much marginalized region where natural potentials are no longer the subject of discussion. Socially, with the exception of logging camps, marriage and connection to family or in- laws are the main reasons for the permanent settlement of non natives in the region. In these conditions, establishing kinship and referring to genealogy are the main reasons to legitimise the rights to use the forest. Moreover, there is always a place in this type of society to include someone that one respects in a social group. Due to this fact and different types of adoption, the right to use the land and forest products are also flexible.

The age pyramid of the population studied shows that generally it is young because the intervals of less than 30 years is 74.65% of the population, whilst people above 60 years are only 3.63% of the total number. Unfortunately the population is largely uneducated; 16.14% of all the age groups are able to read and interpret texts in French, one of the two official languages mostly used in the province. This fact has an impact on understanding environmental issues and as we will discuss below, the failure to take educational problems into consideration is an impediment to achieving the overall objectives of forest biodiversity management in this region.

The remoteness of large urban centres such as Yokadouma and Moloundou and the absence of health structures coupled with the bad state of the road network have contributed to an increase in mortality rate from 22‰ in the areas with easy access to health care to more than 110‰ in the areas far from large urban towns. These difficulties lead many people to seek traditional medicine, hence the importance of the knowledge of medicinal plants and certain animals for the poor populations.

2.3 Economic activities The occupation of the local resident populations include hunting and gathering, slash and burn shifting cultivation, fishing and most especially timber exploitation which is the economic engine of the region. The production system combines slash and burn shifting agriculture, crop farms, cash-crops such as cocoa plantations and free-range small animal rearing. Hunting and gathering remain a primary occupation of the Baka Pygmies, but the trends of these last few years show that the Bakas are increasingly becoming farmers with the growing scarcity of game in some villages.

Hunting however still remains the main source of obtaining animal protein from game and represents between 15% and 20% of the production in households (Ekema, 2002; Madzou, 2002), but it has also become a means through which substantial income is obtained (Zouya-Mimbang, 1998; Madzou, 2003b). About 14% of household budgets come from the sale of game (Madzou, in preparation). The trade in food and manufacturers’ products is also practised, but it is especially done by foreigners.

3. Data collection methods A combination of the empirical methods used by Eves, 1996 and that used by White and Edwards in 2001 in dense humid forests were employed for data collection. The purpose of this approach was to provide information on game and its uses, to forecast the

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 consequences of hunting on the immediate environment and decide on actions to undertake.

Only 6 villages out of 14 in the whole region were used in the investigation. Among the two logging camps, only the camp belonging to SIBAF was studied once during the three periods respectively for 88 days (July-August, November-December and March-April). 23 village hunters were interviewed by means of a semi structured survey form. A sample of village inhabitants was reviewed and the first action was to identify the households according to pre-determined criteria (sex, age, ethnic group, main profession), then to monitor the daily activities of the people in the sample households for six days, taking into account their availability (those below 15 years were excluded). One month later, we conducted a second survey and we noted the changes in the structure of the households. Out of this, 125 households (that is 223 people questioned daily) including men and women of various ages, the majority of linguistic groups, villages and logging camps were monitored during the said periods. Some 694 meals were examined of which 237 were in the two forest camps and 471 in the villages.

The observed daily activities were: food consumed, its mode of acquisition, monetary incomes and expenses (on-going observations) etc. Generally individuals selected within the households were notified before the start of the survey. We used a standardised form titled counting catches to obtain databases on hunting in order to allow the construction of quantitative variables of catches. All batches of game in each site were identified and recorded as much as possible with the help of a local assistant. This form also accounts for the various usages of game brought in (consumption, gifts, sales). Improvised discussions with other villagers and participation in their different activities enabled the collection of missing information. Data was organised and processed with an Excel spreadsheet. Cartography was done with Adobe illustrator graphics software. We will only study data on hunting in this article. The other aspects will be the subject of other analyses in specific articles.

4. Hunting activities in the region Hunting is an important component in the local domestic economy; several quantitative studies have shown that bushmeat remains the primary source of animal protein for the majority of families in the region (from 34% to 70%). Economically, it is a significant source of income for forest dwellers. Socially, hunting is an integral part of African culture, because it does not only make up for scarcity or the absence of domestic meat in an environment little suitable for animal husbandry, but it allows the use of animal products for pharmaceutical purposes and traditional rites and ceremonies.

According to Wilkie and Carpenter (1999), only a good knowledge of the dynamics of the use of wildlife resources by human populations could ensure sustainable exploitation of these resources. Unfortunately, very little data is available on the exploitation of wildlife in the forest ecosystems of Africa (Fa et al, 1995 ; Feer, 1996 ; Redford, 1996), and even less of the impact of this exploitation on hunted animal populations (Anudu et al, 1988 ; Muchaal & Ngandjui, 1999 ; Ngandjui & Blanc, 2001). According to Redford (1996), problems relating to hunting and marketing channels for game in tropical forests still remain under-studied, which explains the fragmented data that bring about the failure of many development projects seeking to confine the wildlife

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 management to rural communities in East and Southern Africa (Gibson and Marks, 1995).

4.1 Hunting in villages As a principle in legal clauses, hunting in villages is approved upon to be for subsistence. It is used to supply food to households with the possibility of selling the surplus meat. Hunting in villages is carried out by means which are so-called traditional. Hunting methods used by hunters in the region are reported in Table 1 and it shows that one of the most frequently used methods is not selective with regard to wildlife.

Stakeholders Type of Species Hunting equipment hunting Villagers Subsistence Small and medium game Traditional traps (pits,.) Villagers Commercial Medium and large game Shotguns (C.12, traps) Poachers Commercial All species Traps, SKS, 458 mm; 10.75 mm Safari hunters Sport Medium and large game Small and big rifles

Table 1: Types of hunting instruments used in the RNBB. Source: Officials of the Water and Forests Authority, Yokadouma

Systematic counting of all game consignments in each sample site during the socio- economic survey indicates a predominance of ungulates, followed by primates which are the main game caught. The total during the three survey periods was 450 animals. Considering the weight of seizes by taking the average weight for each individual3, the equivalent biomass is 5.025 tonnes of all species combined (29 species). The breakdown of the results into different categories of seizes during the three survey periods give the results presented in figure 1.

Figure 1: Game catches by categories and survey period

3 To calculate the biomass, we have used the average weight of adult species provided by the litterature (Dounias, 1993; Malonga, 1996; Madzou, 2002; Kingdon, 1997; Ngandui et al, at press).

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The average number of individuals is distributed as follows: ungulates 66.22%, primates 22%, rodents 10.89%, reptiles and batrachians 2.22%, carnivores 2%, hyraxes 0.89% and 0.22% for birds. Ungulates constitute 79.71% in terms of biomass, ahead of primates (15.20%) and rodents (2.21%). According to Dounis (1999), this distribution shows a moderate albeit important hunting pressure. The work of Lahm (1996) and Auzel (2001) have shown that an excessive hunting pressure is manifested by the reduction in the rate of ruminants in favour of primates. From all observations, the use of cable snares has supplied most of the game (68.9%) whilst a gun was used in 25.16% of the cases, against 5.62% of captures obtained with the use of machetes and other methods (for example collecting). Most of the terrestrial species were caught with wire noose while all the primates were killed exclusively with a gun. Results to the contrary on using cable were obtained during investigations from March to April, which conferred 45% attributable to the use of guns as presented in Table 2.

Type of instrument July/ August November/ March/April December Cable snares 1265 84% 832 85% 624 37,70% Guns (C.12; 458mm...) 9 15,5% 6 15% 12 45% Others (machete, etc.) - 0,5% - 0 - 16,38% Table 2: Relative importance of hunting techniques and their yield. Source: Field surveys 2003/2004

With regard to the structure of game caught by sex by village hunters, the study shows that the proportion of male individuals is 63.5% (out of which 20% is red ) between November and December, against 35% of females in August and September. On the whole, the proportions between males and females are the same with more males when it comes to ungulates and primates.

Results obtained in the Northern region of Boumba-Bek shows that game brought to the village is generally fresh, given that visits to the traps are done the same day and the distance of the last traps are often not more than 5 km from the village. Therefore, this portion of fresh game represented 75% and 94% respectively during the first and the second periods of investigation, whilst those that are dried or smoked are only 18% and 1% respectively during the same period. The proportion of rotten or half-rotten game (consumed or abandoned in the forest) was about 2%. The animals collected alive were 4% of the total of the three periods (figure 2), mainly and tortoises.

Figure 2: Game preservation method reported by the villagers of the RNBB

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These results show that two to three animals out of four caught arrive at the village fresh, only one is smoked. This game has two destinations: • Either it is completely consumed by the hunter’s family or the person who brought it, which does not rule out a portion being shared among relations (this is often the case in these villages); • Or it is sold fresh or smoked to other villagers or retailers who are more often the so- called bayam-salam4. In this case, it often involves large game sold fresh and whole, allowing quick profit for the villagers, or often the meat is eviscerated beforehand, cut into four parts and cured or smoked. The neck, head and intestines are consumed by the family whilst the smoked parts are sold to truckers.

Table 3 shows that game consumption is the main motivation for village hunters, and represents 74% numerically (gifts and other social services are included in this percentage) Game sold is only 26% of the total of catches for the three periods.

Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 (July- August) (November-December) (March-April) Total % % Total % % Tota % % Taxonomic No. S C No. S C l No. S C Group (n) (n) (n) Ungulates 125 7 93 112 44 56 34 53 47 Carnivores 2 0 100 1 0 100 6 0 100 Primates 29 17 83 25 20 80 46 76 24 Reptiles 4 100 100 - - - 4 25 75 Insectivores - - - 4 25 75 3 25 75 Rodents 41 22 78 7 14 86 1 0 100 Birds 1 100 100 ------Hyraxes ------4 25 75 Table 3: Destination of game per category of catches (unit of game). S=sold; C= consumed

When one considers the animals sold, it is observed that primates represent 49% of sales, which means that one out of two caught is sold. Besides, although ungulates constitute 60.22% of the numbers and 79.71% of the biomass, the proportion sold is only 12% in terms of numbers, and this proportion comprises mainly large such as the Cephalophus callipygus, Cephalophus dorsalis and Cephalophus leucogaster which bring high profits.

Considering the average prices charged by the villagers in local trade, the sale of bushmeat has generated a turnover of about 184,000CFA francs (about C282). Ungulates form 72% of the profits against 24% for primates. The average monthly income per household of a hunter is estimated at 30,000 CFA francs (about €46) during the period

4 This terminology according to residents of Yokadouma comnes from Buyer-Seller used in the English speaking province of Cameroon. Bahuchet and Ioveva in ‘L’Homme et la forêt tropicale’ (1999 :545) indicate that this word comes from the Pidgin translation of Buy them, sell them.

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 when game is abundant. Higher amounts up to 100,000 CFAF (about €153) are obtained by those who only specialise in hunting, whilst during the period with low hunting activity, the average monthly income of the village hunter reduces considerably and is around 10,000 CFA franc (about €15).

4.2 Commercial hunting Commercial hunting supplies “bushmeat” to the markets. It is practised by professional hunters, holders of hunting permits or by poachers. It is carried out by means of locally manufactured or imported firearms or devices: spears, bows, arrows, traps, drugs, poisoned baits, shotguns, blow guns, explosives etc.

Unlike village hunting, commercial hunting is practised all year round in the zone inside permanent and non-permanent areas, and allows for a regular supply of bushmeat to urban households. Statistics on the amount and type of animals captured per year are unavailable to the District Department of Water and Forests of Boumba and Ngoko in Yokadouma, and this makes an assessment of the impact of hunting difficult. Moreover, commercial hunting is subject to increasingly binding regulations, hunters and game sellers are refrained from commenting, and their reticence makes it difficult to estimate the distribution of animal populations killed (age, species and sex). The meat is generally sold smoked as compared to fresh. This state of commercialised meat can be an indicator of the abundance of fauna in the producing areas. The game reaches the consumer through various means and conditions. Hidden in sacs, baskets, buckets, cartons and other containers, the product is carried on the head, on two wheelers or in a vehicle. Various middlemen come between the hunter and the consumer.

Wild game trade is practised by a multitude of stakeholders who have the common goal of making profit. In this region, the trade is practised by the members of local communities (natives) as well as by people from other areas (non-natives). Non-natives, mostly Cameroonians (Northern natives from the East and non natives or ex-workers of timber companies) make arrangements in the forest to engage pygmies, villagers and urban dwellers in their illegal activities and find the necessary means to enable them to sell the game to local retailers or transporters. These stakeholders are linked by family ties or interest and complicity, and remain somewhat united, especially in the face of repression by the District Department of Water and Forests. The trade network of wild game involves hunters, middlemen, wholesalers and semi retailers, sellers in restaurants and consumers located in urban areas.

Networks that are almost identical in organisation exist throughout the Central African forest. For example in Congo, Cameroon and Central Africa, Malonga (1996), Bahuchet and Ioveva (1999) and Fargeot and Dieval (2000) respectively, have studied the socio- economic organisation of the said networks. For the northern region of Cameroon, figure 4 summarises the place of stakeholders and the flow of wildlife products. The role played by each of the stakeholders is essential in maintaining the hunting pressure in producing areas. Downstream, restaurant owners and families settled everywhere where the human population is high. Upstream, hunters in producing areas (figure 3) together with middlemen are known by their impact on the hunting environment (Dounias, 1993).

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Forest

Hunters Game Game

Alcoholic drinks, cartons, Collectors salt, batteries, money, Bayam-salam gifts, miscellaneous, wire cables

Wholesalers

Retailer or Seller

Restaurant Operator Households City

Figure 3 : Diagram of the network of wild game trade in the study area

Restaurants and households located in the consuming cities are supplied by retail traders (hawkers or in the public market), they themselves obtain their supplies from wholesalers or collectors based in the villages or from the specialised bayam-salam. The wholesalers, like the retailers, have the same sources of supply whilst the bayam-salam and collectors collect their goods directly from the hunter-trappers. No link was observed between the village hunter, the household and the restaurant operators in the large cities. Likewise the bayam-salam rarely has relationships with restaurant operators or collectors unless there is some personal affinity between it and these actors.

The total biomass of catches and species presented in Table 4 and Figure 4 are from a study conducted on the quantity of game obtained by the commercial hunters, alongside the normal counting of game catches arriving in the village (legal village hunting). The overall results obtained from 23 hunters out of a census of 42 presented in Table 4 indicate that the commercial hunters gathered 347 species in 4 orders (5,294.79 kg) in 88 days. The most representative among them is the artiodactyls with 93% in numerical terms and 97.79 % in terms of biomass. Based on the elements in Table 4, we record that the greater part of game bought by the collectors and the bayam-salam is offered as smoked (94%) against 5% fresh and 1% live. Within the smoked category, the ribs and legs represent more than 90% of the game (Table 4).

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Identification Quantities State No. of Average Biomass observed animals weight (kg) (kg) Red * 1079 Smoked ribs 269.75 15.96 4305.21 6 Fresh ribs 1.5 15.96 23.94 C. callipygus 128 Smoked ribs 32 15.96 510.72 2 Fresh legs 0.5 3.5 1.75 3 Fresh whole 3 15.96 47.88 1 Fresh rib 0.25 2 0.5 P. porcus 2 Fresh whole 2 70.1 140.2 1 Smoked whole 1 63.09 63.09 C. dorsalis 1 Fresh whole 1 14.9 14.9 C. monticola 5 Fresh whole 5 5.9 29.5 5 Smoked whole 5 3.8 19 H. aquaticus 2 Whole 2 10.6 21.2 Monkeys (various) 18 Smoked whole 18 5 90 C. nictitans 1 Fresh whole 1 8 8 Atherurus africanus 4 Whole 4 2.6 10.4 Crocodilus niloticus 1 Live 1 8.5 8.5 Total - - 347 - 5294.79 Table 4: Quantity of poached bushmeat in the study area. (*The Red duikers group Cephalophus dorsalis, Cephalophus callipygus et Cephalophus nigrifons) Source: Field survey

Figure 4: Comparison of animal biomass originating from the two types of hunting during the three research periods.

The results show that unlike the villagers who trade more in fresh meat, the illegal hunters who have to stock-pile are forced to smoke the meat in order to preserve it for a longer time and take it over long distances. From the preceding, the manner in which the meat is presented on the market is an indication of the distance of the capture zone. Hunters who hunt deep inside the forest for commercial purposes are obliged to smoke the game in order to make their activity profitable. On the contrary, hunters who practise subsistence hunting sell the surplus of their catches in a fresh state because the hunting zones are generally at a distance that allows them to make a return trip in one day.

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When one considers the average prices per species and per part charged by the hunters, collectors and the bayam-salams in the urban consumption sites, the total of catches illegally hunted in the Northern region and meant to supply the industrial sites and the town of Yokadouma, gives an estimated turnover of about 3,543,250 CFA francs (about €5451) for the ten month period. In applying the price per kilogram for each of the species or group of species, the turnover generated by the sale is about 3,668,102,5 CFA francs (about €5643) for the ten month period.

The comparison between the village captures and that of the commercial hunters (Table 5), the final destination of the catches and the estimated high profits generated, calls for the establishment of an appropriate management method, while measuring the impact on animal biodiversity and on the whole forest ecosystem.

Type of hunt Captures Biomass Sold Value (n) (in ton) captures (F CFA) Village hunting 450 5,025 77 184 000 Commercial hunting 347 5,294 347 3 543 250 Total 797 10,319 424 3 727 250 Table 5: Profits generated by the exploitation of wildlife in the study area

The catches of poachers seem to be equal or higher than those of the villagers at different periods of the study, especially when the villagers devote themselves to farm work between March and April, to allow for production in the following year.

Illegal hunting of large mammals is the work of non-natives living in logging camps expecting a possible job, but it has also become the main activity of the natives returning to the village after failing to find employment in the city. In fact, many young people looking for easy money are supported by people living in the city, to trade in ivory and valuable hides of certain species like the Bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros), leopard (Panthera pardus) or even skin to make art objects.

From the above, it is imperative to believe that commercial exploitation of wildlife in this region will not be economically viable if it does not respect the cost of production, but it could bring in significant and regular income to residents in the long term on condition that they follow commercial channels of legal sale. Moreover, certain zones like those closer to Yokadouma, the largest town of the district, have been completely emptied of their large fauna. Hunters and other bushmeat network actors have consequently shifted their activities to the Northern region and other regions close to protected areas and timber concession to hunt the large antelopes and monkeys for the urban market.

5. Discussion and conclusion Before the year 2000, the road ended at old Maléa, and the rare public transport vehicles went only as far as Bribé village. The bad state of the road and the absence of works of art have largely contributed to the conservation of the forest diversity in the region (Madzou, 2003a), so much so that the sale of bushmeat in this period was not economically viable, but played an important social role. Under these conditions the only function of hunting was to provide the essential animal protein in households. Our

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 results show that the fulfilment of game consumption demands remains to date, the main motivation for the village community to hunt.

Beyond the food habits, hunting in the Northern region has become a realistic commercial activity within a particular context. As a matter of fact, in view of the results on game caught and sold in the Yokadouma town and the two logging camps by professional hunters, we are a long way from traditional hunting confined to a village environment. The fulfillment of consumption demands of urban centres strongly impacts the supply of game on the part of collectors and the bayam-salam who do not hesitate to take advantage of family links and/or create complex relationships with hunters in the different sites of the region. Hence the abusive use of the means to catch game by cable snares not in conformity with regulations (Table 2). The emergence of such tools is linked to the more individualistic practise of the activity and the reduction in hunting time, with a view to maximise profit.

This condition occurring in all the forest zones, as well as the unacceptable negative consequences of the rate of rotten game (about 0.5% and 30% depending on the distance of the trap and the number of visits to the traps, according to the literature) and the non- respect of the carrying capacity of the forest to support catches (currently around 14.7 kg/km2/year of all catches) are evidences of the unstable and illegal nature of the commercial hunting. Inadequate staff and insufficient means of transportation in the public service charged with the management of the whole forest ecosystem, do not facilitate adequate supervision of hunting in the area.

One therefore realises that the hunting and trade in bushmeat is increasing unabated, stimulated by different factors, such as the opening of massive forests by logging companies, movement of non-natives in search of employment, proliferation of firearms and ammunition due to non-enforcement of the law, multiplication of means of transporting wildlife products (ivory, meat, hide) etc.

Interviews with a number of bushmeat consumers and our personal observations make us believe that the people in the consuming cities are ready to eat game meat obtained from rearing, on condition that the price is equal or lower than that proposed by bushmeat sellers.

According to the new law adopted in Cameroon (Law 94 of 20 January 1994), actors in the bushmeat network shall always be considered illegal operators and the hunters as poachers. Where hunting is in accordance with the role they play in the informal sector, particular attention has to be paid to them in order to include them in the legal channels of bushmeat trade and to participate in the sustainable management of wildlife. Furthermore their inclusion in formal and legal channels could contribute to improve the tax revenue of the region and subsequently the profits can be used to fund priority projects in each of the villages associated with the wildlife reserve.

From the foregoing, it is imperative to believe, whilst remaining optimistic, that as part of the management of the Boumba-Bek reserve, the development of the Northern region will improve the harvesting of the wildlife, without excluding the collection of non- wood forest products and associated trade channels, with significant profits for all the residents who no longer have to rely on cocoa and wildlife game. In addition, zones that show signs of (such as those near Yokadouma where large antelopes

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 and monkeys are scarce) would serve as examples to create awareness among the people and local and national officials. Tough measures must be taken. Among them, the intensification of the anti-poaching efforts, promotion of alternatives to game and involvement of local communities in the management of forest biodiversity

The traditional forms of harvesting wildlife resources have guaranteed their conservation throughout the years, and did not constitute a threat to the sustainability of wildlife resources. In contrast, persistent poverty among rural and urban populations has compelled them to undertake very destructive approaches to wildlife utilization. The harsh and unsustainable method is characterized by the development of trade channels and the influx of non-residents in search of financial and materials resources from the forests. Logging operations have exacerbated the situation through forest fragmentation and the facilitating of access to the forests.

Only a well organised administration with adequate technical and financial means can put an end to poaching and illegal bushmeat trade. At the same time, the alternatives to hunting must be put in place for a better appreciation of game, so that wildlife resources will not continue to be forgotten in the valuation of the country’s national wealth. Profits from wise management of wildlife resources would help fund small village projects and also maintain and improve the road from new Ngato to old Ngato, the main axis of communication in the area.

Acknowledgements We wish to thank WWF-USA and its programme, EFN Russel E Train, the WWF- Cameroon (South East Programme) for funding this study and the technical contribution of its officials. Our gratitude also go to the researchers and the local populations who worked on data collection.

References Anudu P.A., elamah P.O., Oates J.F. (1988) The bushmeat trade in Southwestern Nigeria: A case study. Human Ecology, 16 (2) : 199 - 208. Auzel, P. (2001) Les villes en forêt : impact de l'exploitation forestière sur la gestion coutumière des ressources naturelles. La forêt des hommes. Terroirs villageois en forêt tropicale africaine. (Eds) Delvingt. Gembloux, Les presses agronomiques de Gembloux. 1: 235-251. APFT (2001) Rapport final (vol. 1 à 5) sur support CDRom. Commission Européenne. Bahuchet, S. et Ioveva, K. (1999) De la forêt au marché : le commerce de gibier au sud Cameroun. Dans "L’Homme et la forêt tropicale ". Eds. Sc. Bahuchet, S., D. Bley, H. Pagezy, N. Vernazza-Licht. (Edit) De Bergier. p. 533-558. Dounias, Edmond (1993) Dynamique de gestion différentielles du système de production à dominante agricole des Mvae du Sud Cameroun forestier. Thèse de doctorat. Université de Montpellier 2. France. 2 vol. (275p; 337p). Dounias, E. (1999) Le câble pris au piège de la conservation. Technologie du piégeage et production cynégétique chez les Mvae du sud Cameroun forestier. Dans " L’Homme et la forêt tropicale". (Eds) S. Bahuchet, D. Bley, H. Pagezy, N. Vernazza-Licht. TSEH/APFT. 281-300. 507pp”

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Ekema, V. (2002) Exploitation de la faune et durabilité des ressources forestières dans le village Gribé, région nord de Boumba-Bek (sud est Cameroun). Mémoire d'Ingénieur des Eaux, Forêts et Chasse. Dchang, Université de Dchang-Cameroun. Ekobo, A. (1998) Large mammals and vegetation surveys in the Boumba-Bek and Nki project area; Technical report. WWF/ Cameroon programme. 63p. Eves, H., & Ruggiero, R.G. (1996) Socio economic study 1996, Nouabale-Ndoki National Park, Congo. Wildlife Conservation Society. Fa, J.E., Juste, J., Perez del Val, J. et Castroviejo, J. (1995) Impact of market hunting on species in Equatorial Guinea. Cons. Biol. 9, pp. 1107-1115. FAO (2000) Situation des forêts et de la faune sauvage en Afrique. Commission des forêts et de la faune pour l’Afrique. Douzième session Lusaka (Zambie), 27 - 30 mars 2000. Feer, F. (1996) Les potentialités de l’exploitation durable et de l’élevage du gibier en zone forestière tropicale. Dans " L’alimentation en forêt tropicale. Interactions bioculturelles et perspectives de développement ". S/d. Hladik, C.M, Hladik, A., Pagezy, O., Linares, G., Koppert, J.A et A. Froment. UNESCO/MAB. ParisVol. 2. pp. 1039-1060. Gibson, C.C, & Marks, S.A. (1995) Transforming rural hunters into conservationists: an assessment of community-based programs in Africa. World Development 23(6):941–957. Kingdon, J. (1997) The kingdon field guide to African mammals. Natural World Academic Press 464pp. Lahm, S.A. (1996) Utilisation des ressources forestières et variations locales de la densité du gibier dans la forêt du nord- est du Gabon. Dans "l’Alimentation en forêt tropicale. Interactions bioculturelles et perspectives de développement ". S/d. Hladik, C.M, Hladik, A., Pagezy, O., Linares, G., Koppert, J.A et A. Froment. Vol.2. UNESCO/MAB. pp. 383-400. 1406p. Letouzey, R. (1988) Notice de la carte phytogéographique du Cameroun au 1:500000. Institut de la cartographie internationale de la végétation, Toulouse, France Madzou, Y.C. (2002) Chasse de subsistance et ses conséquences sur les populations d’ongulés dans la région nord de Boumba-Bek (Sud Est Cameroun). Mémoire de Mastère Sciences Forestières. ENGREF-Montpellier, France. 38pp. Madzou, Y.C. (2003a) Etat actuel des tendances démographique dans la région nord de Boumba-Bek (Sud Est Cameroun). Rapport de recherches WWF-jengi/UMR 5185 ADES/TEMPOS Univ. Bordeaux3 Phase 1, Vol. 2. 49 pp + Annexes Madzou, Y.C. (2003b) Démographie et socio économie des villages Zoulabot 1, Song 1, Bintom et le camp forestier TTS situés en zone forestière de la région nord de Boumba-Bek (Sud Est Cameroun). Contribution pour la conservation et le développement durable. Rapport de recherches WWF-jengi/UMR 5185 ADES/TEMPOS Univ. Bordeaux3 Phase 1, Vol. 1. 87pp. Malonga, R. (1996) Dynamique socioéconomique du circuit commercial de la viande de chasse à Brazzaville. Rapport à WCS, GEF-Congo. 42pp Muchaal P.K., ngandjui G. (1999) Impact of village hunting on wildlife populations in the Western Dja Reserve, Cameroon. Conservation Biology, Vol. 13 (2): 385 - 396. Ngandjui, G. (1998) Étude de la Chasse en vue de sa Gestion Durable: Cas du Site Sud-Est Cameroun. Rapport PROFORNAT/GTZ: 70 p. Ngandjui G., blanc Ch. P. (2001) Activités humaines et mammifères dans la réserve du Dja, Sud-Cameroun. Bois et forêts des tropiques n° 269 (3) : 19 – 29.

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Ngandjui, G., Bollé, R.K., Cheumani, N.C., Ngueguim, J.R, Nguetsop, J.D, Tsafack, E.M, Ntyam, S.C et Ondo, O.B. (2002) Etude de la chasse villageoise dans l'unité technique opérationnelle de Campo Man'an (Sud-ouest Cameroun). 18pp+Annexes. (Sous presse). Redford K. H. (1996) Chasse et conservation des espèces animales dans les forêts néotropicales. In Hladik C.M., Hladik A., Pagezy H., Linares O.F., Koppert G.J.A., Froment A., (eds). "L’alimentation en forêt tropicale - Interactions bio culturelles et perspectives de développement ".UNESCO, Paris : 401 - 423. White, L.J.T. et Edwards, A. (2001) Conservation en forêt pluviale africaine. Méthodes de recherches. Wildlife Conservation Society. ISBN 0- 9632064-5-1. 456p. Wilkie, D.S. et Carpenter, J. (1999) The impact of bushmeat hunting on forest fauna and local economies in the Congo Basin. Unpublished report, Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx. New York. Zouya-Mimbang L. (1998). Les circuits de commercialisation des produits de chasse dans le sud-est Cameroun. Rapport GTZ- PROFORNAT, MINEF-Programme de conservation et de gestion de la biodiversité au Cameroun : Composante sud-est. 63pp.

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The dependence of local people on bushmeat in the Afadjato and Agumatsa Conservation Area, Ghana Erasmus Henaku Owusu5, Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu6, Edem Kodzo Ekpe, 2004

Abstract The Mt Afadjato and Agumatsa Range is one of the globally important Bird Areas in Ghana It is currently being managed through community-based conservation actions by local people with the support of the Ghana Wildlife Society. However, as in many other Ghanaian communities the mammal fauna of the site continue to decline as a result of many factors, mainly anthropogenic in origin. We examined the dependence of local communities on wild animal resources, especially for bushmeat with specific reference to the extent to which local people depend on available mammal species for meat and, what conservation actions will be needed to help conserve the mammal fauna of the area. Collection of data was predominantly by interviews, with hunters’ groups at Gborgame, Chebi and Ahor and the only ‘chop-bar’ operator at Gborgame. Most local people from all the three villages indicated that the abundance of mammal species had decreased. However, all respondents would eat bushmeat if they had access to it and the selection of bushmeat using the Ivlev’s selectivity index was purely based on availability of any species. Furthermore, like in many other West African rural and urban communities, since bushmeat has become scarcer, it is now consumed for the simple reason that it is a traditional food. Therefore, it appears that if the Mount Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Project which is ongoing, is able to provide adequate alternatives at cheaper cost, people living in the area are more likely to reduce the pressure on the remaining wild populations to enhance recovery.

5 Ghana Wildlife Society, P. O. Box 13252, Accra-Ghana 6 WWF International, Avenue du Mont Blanc, 1196 CH Gland, Switzerland

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1. Introduction Virtually all species of wildlife whether mammals, birds, reptiles, or invertebrates serve as sources of wild meat in Ghana (Asibey, 1965, 1974, 1978, 1986; Martin, 1983; Dei, 1989, 1991; Falconer, 1990, 1992; Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1987, 1992, 1998). The most popular are the rodents and ungulates (Clottey, 1969; Asibey 1974, 1978). In some parts of the country as much as 73% of locally produced meat comes from wild animals, particularly Grass-cutters and the Giant Rat (de Vos, 1978). Grass-cutters and duikers are the most commonly consumed and approximately 62,000 Grass-cutters were sold over a six-year period in one Accra market alone (Asibey, 1978, 1986). Ntiamoa-Baidu (1987) estimated that approximately 52,500 kg of bushmeat was sold in a single market in Accra in 1985. The phenomenon is not different at Afadjato and Agumatsa Conservation Area (AACA), even though studies undertaken in the area suggest very low faunal populations (GWS, 1998; Owusu, 2001; Owusu et al, in prep).

This paper examines the dependence of local communities on wild animal resources, especially for bushmeat. Specifically we examine: the extent to which local people depend on available mammal species for meat; and, what conservation actions will be needed to help conserve the mammal fauna of the area. Finally, the use of mammals as bushmeat for local people is discussed, together with suggestions of strategies for conservation of mammal species vis-à-vis local demand on bushmeat.

2. Site description Mount Afadjato and the Agumatsa Range is an Important Bird Area (IBA) (Ntiamoa- Baidu et al, 2001) and are part of the Akwapim- Range, which constitute the highest hills in Ghana. Mount Afadjato itself is the highest mountain in Ghana at 890 m above sea level. The Agumatsa Range runs in a northeast to southwest direction between the Volta River and the Togo border (Ntiamoa-Baidu et al., 2001). The hills lie within longitude 0o 15’E and 0 o 45’E and latitude 6 o 45’ and 7 o15N. The Agumatsa Range is a distinct landmass with Wli and Tagbo waterfalls at the northern and southern borders, respectively. The study area is located in the Hohoe District, a district bordered on the east by the Republic of Togo, on the west by Kpando District, on the north-west by Jasikan District and on the south by Ho District. The study villages lie at the foot of the Agumatsa Range and include: Gbledi-Gborgame, Gbledi-Chebi, Fodome-Ahor, Wli- Afegame and Wli-Agorviefe. Together, the villages cover an area of 1172 km2. For the purpose of this study, the whole area is referred to as Afadjato and Agumatsa Conservation Area (AACA).

3. Methods 3.1 Interviews Collection of data was predominantly by interviews, which took two forms. The first was with hunters’ groups and the only ‘chop-bar’ operator, where three hours was spent with each of the groups in the three villages surveyed of Gborgame, Chebi and Ahor. The group interviews were aimed at obtaining information on the dependence of local people on mammals for bushmeat. The second form of interview was through a structured questionnaire and targeted at individuals above 15 years of age. Information provided by individuals on bushmeat off-take from the wild, was cross-checked by the ‘chop-bar’ operator based at Gborgame. She was given data sheets and assisted by a project staff to

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 record and weigh all animals sent to her by hunters. Information on density estimates was obtained from previous work (Owusu, 2001).

3.2 Data analysis The dependence of local people on mammals for bushmeat was analysed using a Chi- square test in SPSS Release 9.0. A General Linear Model was used where appropriate to determine which factors such as locality, sex, age, educational background and income level were likely to determine local peoples’ consumption of bushmeat. The Ivlev’s selectivity index (1961); (U - A) / (U + A), where, U = Utilisation and A = Availability was used to assess the species most likely to be selected by local people.

Bushmeat utilisation was calculated using two approaches: i) based on the number of people selecting a particular animal species; and, ii) the quantities expressed in terms of biomass of different species brought to the ‘chop-bar’. Since it was not possible to obtain actual quantities of bushmeat used by people, the proportion of respondents who preferred a particular species was used as a measure of utilisation. In a study undertaken by Bodmer (1995), the actual harvest from skull collections was used. The available meat in terms of biomass was obtained by multiplying the average body weight by the density of selected species (Bodmer, 1995). The weights were obtained from measurement in the local ‘chop-bar’ and where they were not available, they were taken from the literature (e.g. Clottey, 1971; Asibey, 1974; Dei, 1989, 1991; Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1997, 1998).

The value of bushmeat consumed by local people was obtained from respondents using data on the costs of the meat they had bought or for how much they would have sold the portions they normally ate. Subsequent observations of transactions on the local market and at the ‘chop-bar’ at Gborgame were used to validate the information obtained through individual interviews.

4. Results 4.1 Diversity and abundance of mammals as perceived by local people Most (79.3%) local people from all the three villages indicated that the abundance of mammal species had decreased. Moreover, the opinions held by local people did not differ (χ2 = 2.28, df = 2, p > 0.05) between villages nor between the different social groups comprising sex, age, educational background and income level (all p > 0.05).

Of those who believed mammals had decreased, the major reason given was over- exploitation (47.5%). Other reasons given were perennial bushfires and habitat destruction through shifting cultivation, and drift of animals to the interior of the forest. However, the reasons given differed (χ2 = 20.78, df = 4, p < 0.001) between respondents from the three villages. Thus more people in Chebi and Ahor supported the idea of over- exploitation, while more people in Gborgame supported the idea of bushfires and habitat loss (Table 1). The difference in opinion held by respondents concerning the decline in animal numbers did not differ between social groups.

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Village Sample Over- Bushfire and habitat Drift to interior of size exploitation (%) destruction (%) forest (%) Gborgame 38 36.8 55.3 7.9 Chebi 39 51.3 30.8 17.9 Ahor 43 53.5 11.6 34.9 Total 120 47.5 31.7 20.8 Table 1: Reasons given by local people in different villages for the decrease in abundance of mammal species.

In contrast, of those who believed mammals had increased, the major reason (62.1%) given was more food on farmlands, while fewer (37.9%) thought reduced hunting had allowed this increase. Opinions on the causes of increase did not differ (χ2 = 0.54, df = 2, p > 0.05) between respondents from the three villages or social groups (all p > 0.05).

4.2 Mammals as meat for local people Almost all (91.3%) respondents from the three villages admitted they would eat bushmeat if they had access to it (Table 2). The likelihood of people eating bushmeat if available did not differ between villages where they lived, sex, age, educational background or income level of respondents.

Village Sample size No (%) Yes (%) Gborgame 50 14.0 86.0 Chebi 50 2.0 98.0 Ahor 50 10.0 90.0 Total 150 8.7 91.3 Table 2: Response of local people on whether or not they would eat bushmeat if they had access to it.

People relish bushmeat for two main reasons. These included: that it is very tasty (47.5%) and much healthier than meat from domesticated animals (19.9%), while 32.6% attributed their relish to both reasons. However, the reasons given for peoples’ preference for bushmeat did not differ between villages or any of the social groups (all p > 0.05). On the other hand, the reasons given by the 8.7 % of respondents who would not eat bushmeat were either that they simply did not like it (63.6 %) or that they could not afford it (36.4 %). Again there was no difference in the reasons given by people who would not eat bush meet either by villages or any of the social groups (all p > 0.05).

Six species were identified by a Friedman test as being preferred by local people (Figure 1). The Grass-cutter was the most preferred species (χ2 = 370.77, df = 7, p < 0.001), followed by the duikers. The major reasons given for this preference were: common and easy to obtain (60.5%) and because they are tasty (39.5%). Most respondents who had taken bushmeat had most recently consumed Squirrel followed by the Grass-cutter (Figure 2).

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6 5 4 3 2 1 Mean rank of preference of rank Mean 0 spp. spp. B-t spp. Squirrel Monkey Giant rat Giant pocupine Grasscutter Duiker spp. Duiker Species

Figure 1: Mean rank of preference for various mammal species as source of bushmeat based on Friedman test.

1.80 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60

Log (% consumption) (% Log 0.40 0.20 0.00 Giant rat Giant Grasscutter Duiker spp. Squirrel spp. Squirrel Monkey spp. B-t pocupine Species consumed recently

Figure 2: Most recently consumed mammal species by local people.

4.3 Species selection by local people The body masses and the relative abundances of species eaten as bushmeat differed (Table 3). Whether availability was considered in terms of body mass or abundance, and when compared with utilisation measured as the percentage of local people eating a particular species, duiker showed the highest indices of selectivity (Table 3). In contrast, species of monkey were the least preferred. The log of the body mass and the log of relative abundance were both negatively correlated with index of selectivity (Figure 3). This implies that local people will hunt any animal that they come across irrespective of its size or its abundance in the wild. However, the insufficient data obtained on available meat (body mass) is unlikely to make these results conclusive.

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Availability (A) Utilization Selectivity Index* (U) (U-A)/(U+A) Body Abundance (%Preference) Body Abundance Species mass (kg) (%) mass Monkey spp. 68.9 59.6 17.1 -0.60 -0.55 Duiker spp. 4.5 3.2 76.3 0.89 0.92 Mongoose spp. 4.0 6.4 2.1 -0.31 -0.51 Squirrels 6.1 18.1 22.1 0.57 0.10 Grasscutters 18.3 8.5 95.7 0.67 0.84 Table 3: Selection of species for bushmeat based on Ivlev’s Index of selectivity. *Values between 0 and 1.0 indicate increasing positive selection for that species, and values between 0 and –1.0 indicate increasing negative selection i.e. preference being lower than availability.

a b

140 2 120 r = - 0.73, p < 0.05 r = - 0.63, p < 0.05 100 1.5 80 60 1 40

Body mass 0.5 20

0 Log (Rel. abundance) 0 -20 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Ivlevs Index of selectivity Ivlev's Index of selectivity

Figure 3 A and B: Relationship between Ivlev’s index of selectivity and (a) body mass of selected mammals (in kg) (r = -0.73, p < 0.05); and, (b) Log of relative abundance (r = -0.63, p < 0.05).

4.4 Source and means of obtaining bushmeat All bushmeat eaten in the area was either obtained from the forest on the mountain range or from the lowland forest area opposite the mountain range. Bushmeat was obtained through four main means. Most respondents (40.4%) obtained bushmeat by hunting or it by themselves. The means of obtaining bushmeat also differed (χ2 = 15.43, df = 6, p < 0.05) between the three villages. Most respondents (52.3%) from Gborgame undertook hunting or trapping, while more people from Chebi and Ahor purchased bushmeat from different sources, whether from hunters, the market or the ‘chop-bar’ (see Table 4).

Furthermore, more females (39.7%) obtained their meat from hunters and the market place (14.7%), whiles most males (49.3%) obtained it directly by trapping or hunting with guns (χ2 = 8.72, df = 3, p < 0.05). Females who indicated they had trapped or hunted (30.9%) did so either by hiring men to set traps around their farms and by buying cartridges for men to do the hunting. Other factors such as age, educational background, and income level of respondents did not affect how local people obtained their meat (all p < 0.05).

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Village Sample Purchase from Purchase from From ‘chop- Trapping size hunters the market bar’ menu and hunting (%) (%) (%) (%) Gborgame 44 20.5 15.9 11.4 52.3 Chebi 48 37.5 2.1 29.2 31.3 Ahor 49 34.7 14.3 12.2 38.8 Total 141 31.2 10.6 17.7 40.4 Table 4: Main sources of bushmeat.

4.5 Frequency of bushmeat consumption The pattern of bushmeat consumption showed that most (57.3%) respondents were irregular consumers of bushmeat, basically this group of people consumed it anytime it was available, while 32.2% consumed bushmeat almost everyday and 10.5% consumed it once in a week (Table 5). However, the pattern of consumption did not differ (χ2 = 2.07 df = 4, p > 0.05) between the three villages (Table 5). Some 30.1% of respondents had consumed bushmeat within the week preceding the survey, while 69.9% had consumed bushmeat earlier than that. This trend also did not differ (χ2 = 0.68, df = 2, p > 0.05) between the three villages.

Village Sample size Every day (%) Once a week (%) Irregular (%) Gborgame 45 28.9 11.1 60.0 Chebi 49 32.7 14.3 53.1 Ahor 49 34.7 6.1 59.2 Total 143 32.2 10.5 57.3 Table 5: Frequency of bushmeat consumption in the three villages.

4.6 Quantity and value of bushmeat consumed The average value of bushmeat consumed by respondents per person per week in all three villages was 4,024 cedis. However respondents from Gborgame consumed a greater value of bushmeat (F2, 139 = 7.83, p < 0.001) than the other villages (Figure 4). The amount of meat consumed did not differ (all p >0.05) between sex or age. However, people in the high-income group consumed more bushmeat (F2, 136 = 6.01, p < 0.01) than the average and low-income groups (Figure 5). The average weight of a smoked Grass- cutter was ca. 4.0 kg, and these were sold for 22,500 cedis on the market. Using this as an index, 1 kg of bushmeat would cost 5625 cedis. Thus, on the average the consumption of bushmeat per person per year can be estimated as 20.0 kg (ca. 112683 cedis i.e. ca. $16).

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000

week (Cedis) 1000 Consumption per per Consumption 0 Gborgame Chebi Ahor Village

Figure 4: Mean + Standard Error of bushmeat consumption per week in the three villages

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9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 per week 2000 Consumption Consumption 1000 0 Low Average High Income Level

Figure 5: Mean + SE bushmeat consumption for people in different income groups

A GLM analysis that related bushmeat consumption factors such as village, sex, age, educational background and income level of respondents was significant (F70, 139 = 2.117, p < 0.01) and explained 69.1% of the variation. The model predicted that villages where people lived, a combination of: village and income level; sex and income level; age and income level; village, age and income level; and, sex, age and income level are more likely to determine the amount of bushmeat consumed by local people (Table 6).

Variable df F Significance Corrected Model 70 2.177 0.001** Village 2 7.705 0.001** Village * Income level 4 4.388 0.007** Sex* Income level 3 3.450 0.037* Age category* Income level 3 3.179 0.019* Village*Age category*Income level 2 6.604 0.002** Sex*Age category* Income level 1 4.484 0.038* Table 6: Factors likely to determine the amount of bushmeat consumed in the three villages based on a GLM analysis. Level of significance: * = p < 0.05 ** = p < 0.01

4.7 Alternative sources of protein for local people The major sources of protein in the three villages were fish, mutton, , bushmeat and (Figure 6). Respondents indicated that of the five major sources of protein fish was the most frequently used and important as shown by a Friedman test that ranked fish as the most preferred source of protein (χ2 = 117.32, df = 4, p < 0. 001). The reason given by respondents for their preference for fish compared with other protein sources was that it was cheaper and easier to obtain.

4.5

4.0 3.5

3.0 2.5 2.0

Mean rank 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Beef Bushmeat Chicken Fish Mutton Protein source

Figure 6: Preferred protein source based on Friedman test.

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5. Discussion 5.1 Mammals as bushmeat for local people It is clear that, even though the mammal population of the AACA is very low, there is a high demand on the mammals for bushmeat by people living in the area. Some reasons given for relishing bushmeat include: a delicacy among all social classes; healthy meat because most of the species depend on herbs, which are also medicinal and lacking infection with diseases; a meat containing less fat, which is easier to store for economic reasons; and, lacking restrictions on where it can be obtained. Thus, hunting in the forest area on the mountain range does not have any village boundaries, and hunters from one village can enter the territories of other villages to hunt both during the day and at night.

The great evidence of trapping and hunting in Gborgame can be attributed to the greater availability of mammals to hunt. Even though the relative abundance of species in the two localities surveyed did not differ significantly, there tended to be more encounters at the Gborgame side of the range (Owusu, 2001). The condition of the terrain and the vegetation at the Gborgame site might also have contributed to the higher hunting/trapping pressure in this village. For example the foothills at the side of Gborgame are less undulating and less covered with dense undergrowth; in contrast, the Chebi site is the opposite, which makes trekking on the slopes more difficult.

It is evident that the pressure on mammals for bushmeat by people living in the area, like many other communities, will continue to increase as the local population grows. This will mean greater demand for limited local resources, including bushmeat. People living in the vicinity of the AACA agree that the diversity and abundance of mammals have declined, and recognise the future implications on their local livelihoods and on the ecosystem. Therefore, there is need to harvest wildlife sustainably, given the fact that the area is not under strict government protection. In a poor rural community, this may sound an ambitious goal, but this should be a starting point. However, this can only effectively be achieved when a full-scale assessment of available meat has been undertaken and hunting has quotas incorporated in management prescriptions of the AACA.

5.2 Alternative sources of protein for local people Bushmeat consumption in the AACA currently serves only as supplement and not major requirement in the diet of people living in the area since it is not available. For example, local people indicated that the most commonly used protein source in the area is fish, while bushmeat actually rated fourth on the list of most commonly used protein. As a result most people living in the area now see fish as more important than bushmeat in their meals, since it is not difficult to obtain. Thus, the consumption of bushmeat in the area seemed to be more of a chance related to diminishing supplies and not as important as fish. One respondent gave her view of the importance of bushmeat in the household meal as:

“If I get my fish everyday at a cheaper cost like it is in the fish season (July-August) I don’t need to worry myself about going to look for meat in the bush”.

Furthermore, like many other West African rural and urban communities since bushmeat has become scarcer, it is now consumed for the simple reason that it is a traditional food (Caspary, 2000). This presupposes that if the Mount Afadjato Community Forest

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Conservation Project (MACFCP) at the AACA is able to provide adequate alternatives at cheaper cost, people living in the area are more likely to reduce the pressure on the remaining wild populations to enable them to recover. Most people in the three villages suggested activities such as domestication of some selected species such as Grass-cutter and the Maxwell’s Duiker. Others have also suggested the establishment of poultry farms in the area to be managed by local people. However, it is important that a careful selection of species based on the knowledge of the species’ biology is made before such micro projects are initiated. For instance, experimental work in Ghana by Asibey (1974) and in Nigeria by Tewe and Ajaye (1982) has shown that Grass-cutters and Giant Rats can be farmed and produced in the village environment without many problems. Furthermore, the feasibility and economic viability of farming such species has been well demonstrated in Ghana (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1997), and in recent times, similar projects initiated around the Kakum Conservation Area have been very successful and could also be initiated in AACA on a small-scale, as one of the initiatives under the pilot small-scale enterprise development for local people. However, issues requiring attention include: • the development and transfer of technical knowledge (including care of animals, handling, diseases etc.) to farmers; • development of cheap production methods, including housing and feed; • establishment of a system of extension services to support farmers (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1997).

5.3 Case for conservation and management Irrespective of the level of abundance or densities of mammal species that now survive in the AACA (Owusu et al, in prep), it is clear that local communities will find it difficult to totally stop traditional hunting and alteration of wildlife habitat. Consequently, setting up management schemes in such areas will depend on acceptance of management prescriptions by the users of the resources therein. This implies that management of wildlife in the AACA should aim at considering bushmeat as food for local people and strategies aimed at combating poverty and hunger (Bodmer, 1995). Once local people recognise that their needs have been catered for in management prescriptions, there is likelihood that local people will pay adequate attention to their actions such as habitat destruction (Saunders et al., 1991; Ehrlich and Wilson, 1991; Jenkins, 1992) that negatively impacts on the long-term availability of wildlife in the area. It has also been observed that understanding local people’s preferences and actual harvest in relation to biology of game species is necessary to set up management of wildlife in tropical forests (Bodmer, 1995). In this case more work on density estimates, distribution and reproductive productivity of certain species, which are considered to be relatively common in the area, will need to be undertaken to enhance management strategies.

In addition it will be important to understand the motives underlying the selection of species by local people and for this to be incorporated into management plans. For example, Bodmer (1995), observed that if hunters or local people have active preference for a species, say Maxwell’s Duiker, and that species requires a decrease in harvests rates, then it becomes difficult to set up management regimes for that species because local people are likely to contravene restrictions that might be put in place. In contrast, if hunters or local people do not have preference for a species, such as monkeys, and mongooses, and there is the need to put management restriction on the hunting of the species, it becomes easier since there is less likelihood of local people going against management prescriptions.

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6. Conclusion Increase in human population with dwindling resources everywhere raises much concern amongst conservationists. People living closer to these resources are aware that any irresponsible actions on their part will eventually worsen their economic well being, in addition to producing an environment devoid of resources that support local livelihood. However, because there are no alternatives, they are compelled by the circumstances to exert pressure on these resources. Under such circumstances, the issue becomes more of a moral obligation on the part of people living in local communities to live in harmony with the resources upon which they depend. This can only be achieved when local fringe communities are supported with economic incentives that are linked to conservation objectives.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the staff members of the Ghana Wildlife Society, particularly, the forest guards at the Mt Afadjato Community and Mr. Isaac Olesu- Adjei, the Project Manager for their support during data collection. The co-operation of local community members of the Gbledi Traditional Area is greatly appreciated. Funding for this study was partially supported by the Royal Netherlands Embassy under the Mt. Afadjato-Agumatsa Community Conservation Project.

References Asibey, E. O. A. (1965). Utilisation of wildlife in Ghana. Ghana Farmer 9:91-93. Asibey, E. O. A. (1974). Wildlife as a source of protein in Africa south of the . Biological conservation 6: 32-39. Asibey, E. O. A. (1978). An aspect of Wildlife in the life of Farmers in Ghana. Department of Game and Wlidlife, Mimeo. Asibey, E. O. A. (1986). Wildlife and Food Security. Prepared for FAO Forestry Department, Rome. Bodmer, R. (1995). Managing Amazonian Wildlife: Biological Correlates of Game Choice by Detribalized Hunters. Ecological Applications 5: 872-877. Caspary, H. (2001). Regional Dynamics of Hunting and Bushmeat Utilisation in West Africa-An Overview. In M. I. Bakarr, G. A. B. da Fonseca, R. Mittermeier, A. B. Rylands & K. W. Painemilla (Eds.), Hunting and Bushmeat Utilisation in the African Forest; Perspectives Toward a Blueprint for Conservation Action, pp. 39-57. Centre for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International. Clottey, J. A. (1969). Wildlife as a source of protein in Ghana. Paper presented at the African Working Party on Wildlife Management, African Forestry Commission, Lome, Togo. Reprinted in Food and Nutrition in Africa, 9: 7-11 (1971). Dei, G. J. S. (1989). Hunting and gathering in a Ghanaian rain forest community. Ecology, Food and Nutrition, 22:225-243. Dei, G. J. S. (1991). The dietary habits of a Ghanaian farming community. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 22: 29-49. Ehrlich, P. R. and Wilson E. O (1991). Biodiversity studies: science and policy. Science 253: 758-762. Falconer, J (1990). The major significance of “minor” forest products. Community Forestry Note 6. Food and Agricultural Organisation, Rome. Falconer, J. (1992). People’s Uses and Trade in Non-Timber Forest Products in Southern Ghana: A Pilot Study. Report prepared for the Overseas Development Administration.

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Ghana Wildlife Society (1998). Mount Afadjato Community Forest Conservation Project. Project Document submitted to Netherlands Development Administration. Jenkins, M. (1992). Species extinction. In B. Groombridge (Ed.) Global biodiversity, pp. 192-205. Chapman & Hall, London. Martin, G. H. G. (1983). West Africa: carcass composition and palatability of some wild animals commonly used as food. World Animal Review, 53: 40-44. Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. (1987). West African Wildlife: A resource in Jeopardy. Unasylva 39: 27-35. Ntiamoa-Baidu Y., Gyamfi-Fenteng, L. J. and Abbiw, D. (1992). Management Strategy for Sacred Groves in Ghana. A report prepared for the World Bank and the Environmental Protection Council. Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. (1998). Wildlife and food security in Africa. FAO Conservation Guide 33, Rome. Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y., Owusu, E. H., Daramani, D. T. and Nuoh, A. A. (2001). Ghana. In L. D. C. Fishpool and M. I. Evans, Eds. Important Bird Areas in Africa and associated islands: Priority sites for conservation, pp 367-389. Newbury and Cambridge, UK: Pisces Publications and BirdLife International (BirdLife Conservation Series No. 11). Owusu, E. H. (2001). Community-based conservation in Ghana: the potential of the Afadjato and Agumatsa Range for ecotourism. Unpublished PhD thesis submitted to the University of Kent at Canterbury, Kent UK Saunders, D. A., Hobbs, R. J. and Margules, C. R. (1991). Bilogical consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: a review. Conservation Biology, 5: 18-32. Tewe, G. O and Ajayi S. S. (1982). Performance and nutritional utilisation by the African Giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus W.) on household waste of some local foodstuffs. African. Journal of Ecology, 20: 37-47. Vos, A. de (1978). Game as food: A report on its significance in Africa and Latin America. Unasylva, 29: 2-12.

Back to table of contents

Sports hunting in Benin: Inventory after ten years of practice (1990-2000) Kidjo7, F.C., Sinadouwirou8, T., Yehouenou-Tessi9, J., 2001

1. Introduction Tourism is a means of developing and managing wildlife. When it is well planned, tourism in all its forms, contributes substantially to the development of a region. Hunting tourism in Benin is governed by Act No87-014 of 21/09/1987 relating to the regulation of the nature and the practice of hunting in the Republic of Benin. The hunting areas in Benin have a good reputation in West Africa and offer many hunting advantages through its diverse and wide range of large wildlife species. Protected areas can thus play a major

7Ferdinand C. Kidjo : Ecologue, Chef Service Etudes et Planification au Centre National de Gestion des Réserves de Faune (CENAGREF) 8 Théophile Sinadouwirou, : Ecologue, Chef Service Ecologie au CENAGREF. 9 Jean Yehouenou-Tessi, Agronome forestier, Directeur Technique au CENAGREF

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 socio-economic role in national and even regional development through tourism. However in Benin, far from being fully explored and exploited, this potential has for some years been the subject of huge debates and prospecting studies.

After being closed for about ten years (1982 – 1990), sports hunting has been effectively re-opened in the hunting areas of Benin after a lot of studies and discussions between the managers, the developers and other conservators who have all acknowledged the commencement of wildlife stock replenishment through reliable data (Heymans et al., 1993). Ten years after the re-opening the hunt (1990 – 2000), there is still no available assessment of this activity.

This report reviews the organisation, the origin of hunters, the evolution of the numbers of hunters, the culling quotas, and the impact of hunting tourism on wildlife abundance, protection of hunting zones and the economy.

2. Organisation of sports hunting in Benin Hunting tourism is organised in the hunting zones which are part of the hunting areas. The said zones are leased to foreign or national concessionaires called “hunting guides” and hunters are then invited to take part in the sports hunting. Each hunting zone is given to a professional guide for a period determined by ministerial decision. Article 8 of the decision contract currently in force, obliges the hunting guide to give a written undertaking to: • Ensure the maintenance of tracks in the hunting zone and surrounding areas • Use local workforce, • Contribute to the fight against poaching during and after the hunting season • Endeavour to improve the nutritional status of surrounding populations by distributing part of the meat according to fixed quotas. Apart from this decision, there is no other form of contract, much less specifications, which leaves the door open to all sorts of possible shortfalls and the absence of proper supervision and monitoring of structures operated by the hunting guide. Sports hunting takes place in three hunting zones in Benin, namely Atacora, Pendjari and Djona. Those of Pendjari and Atacora are each sub-divided into two hunting zones: Porga and Batia for the first zone and Mékrou and Konkombri for the second zone. The culling quotas are allocated annually to each zone by an inter-ministerial order upon recommendation from the National Centre for the Management of Wildlife Reserves (Centre National de Gestion des Réserves de Faune, CENAGREF) which is the technical institute responsible for Protected Areas. The professional hunting guides organise advertisements through different media and communication channels on the basis of the quotas. From the month of November of each year hunting camps are prepared to receive hunters who usually arrive from the month of January. Each hunter or group of hunters stay for an average period of five to ten days.

3. Clientele During the hunting period which normally begins in January and ends in April, there are hunters of different nationalities, particularly French nationals, Americans, Germans, Italians, Spanish, Belgians and Benin citizens. The hunters are predominantly French.

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The overall number of tourists has gradually increased from one season to the other during the ten years (figure 1), going from 44 hunters during the 1990-1991 season to 125 tourists for the 1999-2000 season (Table 1).

Figure 1: Seasonal development of the number of hunters

This development is proof that the hunting zones of Benin are increasingly patronised by tourists because of the effective marketing approach undertaken by the hunting guides. It must be noted that this activity is reserved for clients who can afford to pay higher tariffs and whose numbers are not likely to increase much, since within the period of ten years the number of hunting tourists has grown by 35%.

Seasons 90- 91- 92- 93- 94- 95- 96- 97- 98- 99- To- 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 tal Number of 44 86 65 70 78 104 118 119 106 125 915 hunters Quotas 563 569 468 489 466 491 466 467 465 515 4959 Cumulative 563 1132 1600 2089 2555 3046 3512 3979 4444 4959 - Quotas Culling 83 288 112 113 127 118 154 157 186 243 1581 Cumulative 83 371 483 596 723 844 998 1152 1338 1581 - culling Table 1: Seasonal evolution of number of hunters, quotas, and culling 4. Quotas and culling In the course of the ten years of sports hunting practice, the average seasonal quota of all species combined is 495 heads (Table 1). The highest quotas, 563 and 569 heads of all species combined were observed during the first two years after re-opening, before it moved from around 470 heads in the subsequent seven years to 515 heads in 1999-2000 (figure 2). The quota was 360 heads for the 1981-1982 season, on the eve of the total closure of sports hunting (Heymans et al., 1993) and the range of species hunted was much larger since it included some species that are today banned from being hunted, such as the antelope and the elephant.

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Quotas Cullings Number of animals of animals Number

Seasons

Figure 2: Seasonal development of quotas and culling

With regard to culling, they varied between 83 and 243. An average of 158 animals is killed per season (Table 1) with a progressive average growth of 30.2 animals from one season to the next (Figure 2). Thus, the rate of culling ranges from 14.74% for a total of 44 hunters in the first season, to 47.18% in 1999-2000 for a total of 125 hunters, through an exceptional season in 1991-1992 where this rate was 77.63% for a total of 86 hunters. The average rate of culling quota in the hunting zones of Benin and over the ten seasons considered is 31.88%. The culling is thus below the quotas (Figure 2).

Besides, upon examining these figures and analysing the graphs, it appears that the rate of culling is not always linked to the number of hunters (Table 1 and Figure 3) even though visibly, the culling seems to increase with the number of hunters. In fact, other considerations linked to the movements of the animals, the quality of animal trophies, the hunters’ preferences, the very nature of sports hunting and other external pressures such as poaching must be taken into account. The number of animals killed per hunter and per safari ranges from 1 to 3, with an average culling of 1.72. It is also necessary to further promote hunting sports in the hunting zones of Benin even though the carrying capacity is not as large as visual tourism.

No. of hunters Cullings

Number

Seasons

Figure 3: Development of the number of hunters and culling

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5. Culling per species Table 2 shows that in majority of cases about 13 species of wildlife mammals are hunted in sports hunting in Benin. Among these animals, the buffalo, , Western Buffon’s Kob, antelope, , and baboons are the most hunted and constitute 77% of all the animals killed. Hippopotamus are the least hunted animals (0.5%) and buffalos are by far the most killed animals (20.68%). As a matter of fact, to kill a buffalo, one of the « Big Five » is an act of bravery and pride for the hunter.

Beyond the courage sought by the hunters, it is worthy to also note the quest for a good trophy. As a matter of fact, the most hunted species have the peculiarity of possessing a highly valued trophy, in this case, that of the antelope, a very mythical species locally, which attracts most of the great collectors to hunt in Benin.

Seasons 90- 91- 92- 93- 94- 95- 96- 97- 98- 99- To- Species 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 tal Buffalo 17 59 25 26 23 19 32 37 39 50 327 Antelope 17 38 15 20 21 9 13 17 17 26 193 Hartebeest 18 47 20 15 13 21 16 13 17 24 204 Western Buffon’s Kob 14 47 16 15 21 9 16 13 23 21 195 Bohor Reedbuck 0 2 0 0 3 9 5 7 6 10 42 Warthog 6 58 11 10 21 10 16 13 15 17 177 1 4 5 3 3 4 10 16 14 17 77 Oribi 2 2 2 0 0 3 6 10 9 18 52 Baboon 1 6 6 10 12 8 21 7 21 24 116 Hippopotamus 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 3 09 Lion 2 3 2 4 5 3 5 3 4 5 36 Bushbuck 0 8 4 3 5 10 8 9 11 18 76 Defassa 5 14 6 7 0 11 6 10 8 10 77 Total 83 288 112 113 127 118 157 157 186 243 1581 Table 2: Number of animals killed per species and per season 6. Income generated by sports hunting Hunting tourism brings about high economic returns from a small number of clients. Income from granting hunting permits, from taxes on culling and licenses collected or recycled within the national economy over the ten years of hunting is 224,506,500 CFAF (about US$449,000) out of which the amount of 61,500,000 CFAF (about US$123,000) is licence fees. This figure does not include fees relating to the operation of the camps and other charges difficult to estimate, that are linked to transport, tracking etc. This income is the main income recorded for all the hunting parks and zones which is about 60% of total income.

It must be noted that this tourism has a very limited growth capacity, it will improve the income of the CENAGREF for some time and offer some jobs to local populations and in the long run, permit co-management of the hunting zones with surrounding populations.

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7. Impact of sports hunting on wildlife, ecosystem and on the surrounding populations The search for a solution was in progress, with regards to the fluctuating results of the 2000 and 2001 census (Sinsin et al, 2000 et 2001) in three of the five hunting zones. Investigations were also ongoing as to the possible causes for the reduction in numbers of some large ungulates such as the antelope, Western Buffon’s Kob, Defassa Waterbuck etc. However, studies must be conducted to appreciate the real impact of this activity on wildlife and its habitat, on the aftermath of bullets left in the open, the impact of selective hunting of male adults, and the dynamics and eco-ethology of the species. In fact, as indicated in article 16 and annex 1 of the Law, shooting of females and the young is prohibited; therefore this practice is not in line with the natural functioning of the populations where ratio of the sexes is generally about 1, nor with optimal exploitation for meat (Sournia, 1997).

With regard to surrounding populations, the new policy in Benin since 1995, is to provide them immediate benefits and progressively include them in the management of the hunting zones. This idea which dates back to the 70s progressively integrates the new management concepts of wildlife reserves in Benin. Therefore 70% of the animal carcasses are given to the local populations. This form of sharing initiated by the Natural Resources Management Project in the mid 90s has finally been inserted in article 8 of the clauses and ministerial decision covering the appointment of hunting guides.

Likewise, it is estimated that between 2000 and 2005, the share of income from wildlife exploitation paid to the populations was 30% of total revenue. In addition to this amount of money, jobs have been created from which a fraction of the population temporarily receive substantial income.

The hunting guides provide the populations with other forms of assistance and social and cultural support that is difficult to quantify. It would also be useful to conduct a study on the economic gains of sports hunting practice to the surrounding populations in terms of development and behavioural change towards protected areas and wildlife.

8. Discussion and conclusion While waiting for the assessment of the impact of sports hunting on the different components of the ecosystems and surrounding populations, it is obvious that ten years after the re-opening of sports hunting and in spite of on-going efforts, there are still gaps in the supervision of hunting zones, which give rise to illegal and unofficial culling by poachers. This leads to the degradation of habitats through uncontrollable fires, land clearings, zoonotic diseases etc. This poses organizational and even legal problems with the texts governing sports hunting and the monitoring of the failure of hunting guides to contribute to the fight against poaching during and after the tourist season.

Besides the decision to grant hunting zones, there is no other form of contract, not even specifications detailing rights and responsibilities and exact conditions of constructions inside the concession zones. This is a serious lapse that must be addressed; the system needs to link regeneration of the stock to the actual hunting. Since the end of the 90s it has been observed that the numbers of the large wildlife species in general was beginning

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 to pick up, due to the improved surveillance system (Heymans et al, 1992; Tchabi and Zéba, 1992). It must however be noted that the surveillance system in the protected areas has experienced some flaws since then (Kidjo, 1997). Of course the deterrent role of the forestry police played by the presence of hunters is important during the tourist season, but this is still inadequate for the sustainable management of wildlife resources. It is therefore imperative to make the texts more explicit, review the leasing conditions of the hunting zones and strengthen these conditions by drawing up a clear and comprehensive plan for rehabilitating the hunting zones after each hunting season.

Although the number of hunters is increasing from one season to the next, it is appropriate to further promote the hunting zones of Benin and to review the different taxes which are the lowest in the region. Finally, this report shows that culling due to sports hunting could not pose a threat to large wildlife if all urgent steps are taken to review the leasing conditions and further stimulate surveillance teams while intensifying involvement of the surrounding populations in the management of wildlife reserves. The National Centre for the Management of Wildlife Reserves must take up this responsibility through the implementation of the National Parks Management and Conservation Programme.

Acknowledgements We wish to thank the Directorate of the ‘Centre National de Gestion des Réserves de Faune’ (CENAGREF) for enabling us to produce this article; the officers of the National Parks Directorate of Pandjari and the « W », for having contributed to the collection of different reports on the hunting seasons.

References Heymans, J.C., Oudé, P. and Kidjo, F.C. (1993) Considération sur l’ouverture de la chasse sportive au Bénin après dix années de fermeture. Evolution de la grande faune du Parc National de la Pandjari. Nature et Faune. Vol.9 N°1. pp : 12-17. Kidjo, F.C.(1997) Evaluation des effets de l’appui du PGRN à la lutte anti-braconnage durant la période de 1993 à 1997. PGRN-GTZ. Pp 44 + annexes. Sinsin, B., Saidou, A. ; Tehou, A. ; Daouda, I. H. ; Nobime, G. (2000) Dénombrement de la faune dans la Réserve de Biosphère de la Pendjari. Rapport de consultation, Projet Pendjari- GTZ/ CENAGREF/MDR. 58 p. + ann. Sinsin, B. ;Tiomoko, D. ; Tehou, A. ; Assogbadjo, A. ; Sogbohossou, E. ; Mama, A. ; Gbangboche, A. ; Yorou, S. ; Ekue, M. ; Teka, O. ; Sinadouwirou, Th. ; Toko, I. ; Yayi, A. ; et Kassa, B. (2001) Dénombrement de la faune dans la Réserve de Biosphère de la Pendjari, avril 2001. Rapport de consultation, Projet Pendjari- GTZ/ CENAGREF/MAEP. 40 p + ann. Sournia,G (1997) : Le tourisme lié à la faune et aux parcs nationaux dans les pays d’Afrique de l’Ouest et d’Afrique Centrale. Situation actuelle, potentialités réelles et fictives ; propositions, essai de stratégie et de hiérarchisation des priorités. Nature et Faune. Vol.13 N°2. pp : 30-48. Tchabi, V. et Zeba :, 1993 Etude de cas au Bénin : Etude CCE/UICN en vue de la préparation d’une stratégie pour les aires protéges africaines et la Biodiversité. : UICN/ CPNAP – CCE [37 p]

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Summarized articles Summaries of relevant articles submitted to hardcopy edition of the magazine

Some economic Implications of cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus) in rural development in Nigeria Meduna, A.J. and Ayodele, I.A., 1999

The rationale of wildlife management in West Africa is directed towards utilizing wildlife as a for the direct benefit of the local population rather than for entertainment of wealthy foreign visitors. Therefore, an integrated approach in the exploitation of wildlife resources in the rural areas should be encouraged. In Kogi State in Nigeria, the cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus) is the most hunted wildlife species in two forest zones, Eba Kampe and Igbo-Isoro. The paper evaluates the economic values of the cane rat in the light of its potential to supply protein, provide job opportunities and on the negative side could become an invasive pest to crops.

Cane rats cause damage to Rice, Cassava, Maize, Guinea Corn, Yam, Palm Tree and Bamboo. Damage done to crops ranges from 2% to 30%, with Rice and Cassava fields being most heavily affected (30 and 21% respectively).

The authors gathered information through questionnaires, interviewing of local people and by taking part in hunting expeditions. Furthermore, farms were visited to assess the damage done by the cane rat. The study showed that cane rats represent the largest share of species which are being hunted. Hunting with the use of dogs appeared to be the most effective. Kill-out percentage or carcasses dressed yearly had increased. The author argues that even though hunting gear and hunting intensity have not changed, the supply rate seems to be increasing progressively. Although many ethnic groups in Nigeria have historically hunted and preyed on cane rat population, the author reasons that due to species-specific characteristics such as high birth rate and large litter size the cane rat population is not declining. In the dry season many people shift to hunting and may earn a higher income than with farming in the wet season; and evidences abound indicating that hunting is also done complementary to farming throughout the year. Hunting of cane rat serves the dual purpose of augmenting food supply and as a pest control measure. The authors recommend cane rat farming.

A comparison of two population models to predict sustainable hunting levels in the National Park of Upper Niger in Guinea Ziegler, A., 1999

Wildlife authorities are often unable to fulfill the management goals which are both to conserve the natural resources and to meet the needs and aspirations of the local people. It is essential to determine whether hunting is still sustainable, but population models are

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 often complex and demand advanced mathematical analysis. The application of these models is time and cost intensive and hinder rapid decision making or overcharge the conservation budget.

In this study, two theoretical models are examined, the Population Growth Model (PGM) and the Population Analysis Model (PAM) to evaluate sustained hunting on Maxwell duikers (Cephalophus maxwelli) and red-flanked duikers (Cephalophus rufilatus) in a dry forest-savannah mosaic in the National Park of Upper Niger in Guinea. A game census at the market in Faranah identified 17 mammalian species, out of which 40% were Maxwell and red-flanked duikers. The total hunting zone which serves the Faranah market is estimated to cover 1900 km2. Population densities for duiker in the area were known to be 11.9 km-2 for C. maxwelli and 3.9 km-2 for C. rufilatus.

The PGM calculates annual production and is based upon the growth rate and the population density (Robinson and Redford 1991). It is assumed that annual production is highest when the population density is 60% of the carrying capacity K. Furthermore, the model considers that reproductive age is linked with longevity, hence the proportion of production that can be harvested is 60% in very short-lived species, 40% in short-lived and 20% in long-lived species. Since duikers have been hunted for a long time, it is assumed that the population density has already decreased to around 60% of the carrying capacity and the productivity has attained maximum levels. The PGM then provides a maximum sustainable harvest of 1.21 individuals year-1 km-2 for C. maxwelli and 0.37 individuals year-1 km-2 for C. rufilatus. The actual hunting level of C. maxwelli is 0.22 individuals year-1 km-2, while for C. rufilatus it is 0.62 individuals year-1 km-2. According to the PGM, C. rufilatus is over-exploited, while C. maxwelli hunting rates could still increase.

The PAM calculates population production and is based upon population density and reproductive productivity, expressed in average number of young per individual per year (Bodmer et al. 1988). Reproductive productivity can be established by investigating whether females carry fetuses, are lactating or have no reproductive activity and the sex ratio in a population. By multiplying the two parameters, an estimate is produced of production measured as individual area-1. Hunters were taking on average 0.22 individuals year-1 km-2, while production levels were at 2.08 individuals year-1 km-2, hence 10.5% of total annual production of C. maxwelli, which is probably sustainable. However, the PAM indicates an annual production for C. rufilatus of 0.3 individuals year-1 km-2, while the hunting level for this species lies at 0.62 individuals year-1 km-2. While the PAM does not indicate the proportion of production which can be harvested, it predicts a higher exploitation of C. rufilatus than the production, resulting in over-exploitation of the population.

The production yields calculated by PGM are almost three times as high as those calculated by the PAM. PGM has as advantage that it calculates the maximum sustainable hunting harvest, while the PAM generates more realistically the production yields of a game population. Both models provide a simple and relatively cheap management tool to predict sustainable harvest of game populations. The long-term control of hunting activity and the statistical analysis of its impact upon game populations are an important basis to ensure the sustainable exploitation of this .

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References Robinson, J.G. and Redford, K.H. 1991 Sustainable harvest of Neotropical forest animals. In: Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation (eds. J.G. Robinson and K.H. Redford), University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Bodmer, R.E., Fang, T.G. and Moya L.L. 1988 Primates and ungulates: a comparison of susceptibility to hunting. Primate conservation 9, 79-83.

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A simple pastoralist ostrich husbandry supporting sustainable dry woodland management in Southern Kenya Odera, J.A., 2002

Introduction The ostrich enjoys much respect among different cultures; plumes have been used for human adornment, ostrich eggs and meat as a food source and the leather can be used to make fashionable products.

This research was carried out in the framework of the Elangata Wuas Ecosystem Management Programme, with collaboration of the Centre for Biodiversity of the National Museums of Kenya and the Kenya Wildlife Service. The programme covered a total area of about 160.000 ha of semi-arid land stretching from the Rift Valley floor to the Eastern highlands, in Kajiado district in Kenya. Group ranches in the area had recently been subdivided to provide members with title deeds to individual plots. The objective was to develop a low cost ostrich husbandry as an activity that would enhance income generation capacity. The programme and research was carried out between 1993 and 1999.

General behaviour • Cocks territories extend up to 2 km2, while hens maintain a breeding home range of 6 km2. • Up to six females to one male are common, while there is one dominant female. • The female lays one egg every other day. Each female lays up to 10 eggs, each about 15cm in diameter and weighing about 1-4 kg. • Adult plumage appears between 28 and 30 months. Male birds start displaying behaviour of sexual maturity between 24 and 30 months. • The birds attained an average height of two to three meters and a maximum weight of about 140 kg for females and 150 kg for males after 25 to 30 months. • The incubation period, measured here as the period between the day that the last egg was laid and the day the first chick hatched was about 40 days. About 70% of the eggs hatch per nest.

Infrastructure The following facilities were built using locally available materials: • An of about 8 ha, subdivided into six equal sub-compartments and fenced out using barbed wire and other material;

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• One chicks house of 2,5 by 2,5 meters, made from corrugated sheets with windows covered with wire-mesh and shutters that can be closed or opened at night; • A roosting kraal for young adult and mature birds of 3 by 3.5 meters, fenced out with strong poles and barbed wire, brush wood and other material, rising to a height of 9.5 meters to obscure external view (an open view of the surrounding distracts the birds leading to restlessness)

Chicks Nests were identified and reported by community members, and after the eggs had hatched, only 30% of the chicks of each brood were captured. Previous research reports a high mortality rate and that only 0.5% reach maturity, so harvesting rate was not seen as having a significant impact on the breeding population of the birds in the area. One out of seven chicks harvested had some physical deformity due to congenital defects. At night the chicks were kept in a small ostrich house heated by charcoal burners in an attempt to maintain the room temperature at about 20°C. During the first few days after capture, very small amounts of feed were offered to avoid overfeeding. The chicks were given copped leaves of Cissus rotundifolia mixed with chick mash in a ratio of 1:2 for the first two months and increasing to 2:1 from the third month. They were fed in the mornings and afternoons and herded within the project site between concentrate feeding. To avoid compaction, oil was added to the diet once a week. Acacia mellifera leafy branches were given within the fenced . Five to six months old chicks were distributed to individual members of the participating unit. At this age, the birds did not get additional feeding, but were herded in the open woodlands along with other livestock. The birds were dewormed regularly against tape and round worms.

Food resources The experimental birds preferred grazing on lower slopes and in the biodiversity rich open to wooded grassland in the savanna. The food resources include shrubs, bushes, succulents, herbs and creepers. The most preferred food plants included: Species Parts used • Acacia mellifera leaves and flowers • Balanites aegyptiaca leaves, new shoots • Cissus quadrangularis leaves, stems and flowers • Cissus rotundifolia flowers and fruits • Cadaba farinose leaves and flowers • Heliotropium steudneri whole plant • Salvadora persica leaves, flowers and fruits • Tribollus terretris leaves, flowers and fruits The ostriches also fed on a wide range of grasses and herbs, and dead animal material was invariably taken on encounter. They also took stone particles, sand, bones and other hard material to grind the food particles. They have a low requirement for water, deriving the bulk of their water needs from plant material.

Enemies and diseases The observed enemies were lions, cheetahs, jackals, hyenas and hooded vultures. Egyptian vultures hover with a stone in the sky above an exposed nest and drop this on the eggs to crack them. Disease and parasites, particularly pneumonia and worms are important natural enemies. Ticks often attacked the birds, and in a few cases the birds were found collecting cattle

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 dung and their own droppings with their beak and applying this to ticks on themselves and fellow birds, after which the ticks died and fell off.

Economics The ostrich uses a wide range of plant species, browsing both at ground level and the higher strata, thereby minimizing competition with cattle, goats or sheep. In this project, the price for 18 months old ostriches was 150 times higher than what individuals could earn through selling eggs. Additional income was provided by the sale of brushes made from the feathers. Feathers, egg shells and ostrich oil can also be sold. The benefit provided by taking part in the programme and the reduced demand for eggs and chicks to earn some money has greatly minimized poaching.

Conclusion The study demonstrates that pastoral ostrich husbandry is a viable, low-cost sustainable income generating activity that provides on-ranch and ancillary off-ranch employment, and readily integrates with the existing livestock management system. The activity has also helped to minimize the poaching of eggs and chicks; wildlife was turned into a blooming asset in the eyes of the community.

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Local frog rearing trial in closed natural environment, Democratic Republic of Congo Kakule, M. P. and Paulus, J., 2001

The edible frog, Rana angolensis, is consumed in many tribes in Africa. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, particularly in the Bas-Congo and Bandundu provinces, this commodity is highly valued. Harvesting of the frog is still done in a primitive manner, without any measures to protect the species. One of the strategies for the protection of wild species is domestication; and the technique for frog rearing (raniculture) was developed in Brazil and in some Asian countries. This summary describes a pilot project in edible frog rearing in natural environment. The experiment was carried out in Kinshasa, from July 1998 to June 1999. It involved the setting up of infrastructure, putting in the eggs of the edible local frog and observing the reproduction cycle.

Observations of the growth of the frogs on emptying the pond after a period of nearly five months indicated that the frog, Rana angolensis, reached 10 cm in about 144 days in natural habitat. The adults of this size are suitable for consumption. It was also revealed that for the 109 individuals captured, comprising 39 males and 70 females, the average nose to cloacae size is 7.8cm with an average weight of 52 g.

A close look at the incubation and metamorphosis of Rana angolensis, revealed that the young frogs, with four claws, pulmonary respiration and without tail appeared on the 34th day after the eggs were laid. It must be pointed out that all the individuals emerging from the same batch of eggs do not end their aquatic phase of life at the same time. The

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 incubation of the eggs is done in one day, however the temperature plays an important role in the speed of the embryo development.

It is possible to breed edible frogs in Africa; to succeed however, it is important to set up the breeding firm in a humid valley, with a permanent source of water and a suitable enclosure, to ensure rapid production.

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FAO Activities Summaries of FAO activities in Africa relating to the theme

West-African Bushmeat Conference Ghana, February 2005 In February 2005, the West African Bushmeat Conference took place in Accra, Ghana. Participants from twelve West African countries were present, namely Benin, , Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, , Niger, Nigeria, , Sierra Leone and Togo. Besides, there were also representatives of UEMOA, OCSFA, Zoological Society of London (ZSL), WWF head office in Switzerland, WCS, USAID and WAPCA. Five topics were discussed during the conference: Food Security, Trade, Socio-cultural Aspects, Education and Awareness and Threatened Species. The conference recognized that although many workshops and meetings had been convened on the topic of bushmeat, a number of new considerations were added during this conference in an action-oriented spirit. The strong support at policy level was noted through the presence of the Ghanaian government and their promise to assist in implementation of the outcome of the conference. The presence of many African countries, African and Non-African NGOs and important regional and sub-regional organizations, gave an importance to the topic of bushmeat for African countries which shall probably lead to a stronger interest and political will, to effectively move into action. The participants called upon the organizers to seek further support from other UN organizations and NGOs in the follow-up to this conference and in particular the implementation of the Action Plan to tackle the bushmeat crisis in West Africa. For more information, please see: http://www.fao.org/world/regional/raf/workprog/forestry/networks/wabnconf_en.ht m

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Assessment of the bushmeat issues in Guinea Guinea, 2005 Mamadou Dia, Direction Nationale des Eaux et Forets de la République de Guinée, [email protected]

Introduction Domestic animal rearing in Guinea is inadequate to meet the needs of the populations and imported products are expensive and out of the reach of rural populations, therefore bushmeat has continued to be consumed since time immemorial to present day. Although statistics are not available, everybody agrees that bushmeat is the main source of animal protein for the rural populations. Rapid population growth, poverty and high illiteracy-rate limit practical options open to rural and urban populations with regard to sustainable management of renewable natural resources, and constitute the factors that risk wiping out the most hunted species such as primates, duikers and . In addition to subsistence hunting by poor rural populations to meet their protein needs, there is an increase in commercial hunting, driven by the lucrative bushmeat trade in urban centers. This situation had been exacerbated by wars in neighbouring countries, whose refugees live predominantly in the forest region where cattle-rearing is almost inexistent. Bushmeat trade started from other regions of the country towards the forest zone and has spilled over even into the countries in arms-conflict.

Wildlife policies and legal modalities for their implementation The first Guinean Code on wildlife management was drawn up in collaboration with FAO assistance and was adopted by Order n°007/PRG/SGG/90 of 15 February 1990. This code was quickly revised and promulgated by Law L/97/038/AN/97 of 9 December 1997. The general guidelines of this national wildlife policy are the subject of a national plan, still in preparation.

The hunting code recognizes the right of all citizens to hunt whilst respecting the prevailing rules and regulations thereof. In order to allow the animals to reproduce, the hunting period begins on 15 December each year and ends on 30 April of the following year. According to the code, it is forbidden to hunt without a permit or license issued by a competent authority. The hunting permit or license holder has the right to freely dispose of the meat or trophy of the animals he kills. The code determines the conditions and requirements the permit-holder has to fulfill and it states that every hunter must heed directives from authorized agents for the control of hunting and to appear before them whenever the need arises. The code requires the regulation of export and import of live or dead game or trophies through the issuance of a certificate of origin or health certificate.

Thus activities in protected areas and on the management of natural resources in Guinea are contained in the Action Plan, which includes the National Forest Action Plan, a 25-year outlook on the management of forest resources ; the National Action Plan for the Environment; and the Biodiversity Action Plan. In this study, surveys on hunters, traders and consumers were drawn up and carried out in markets in the villages and cities and in control barriers.

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Hunters In the villages, every man is more or less a hunter, although there are some who engage in hunting regularly and the others, occasionally. It is not rare to see hunters going camping for weeks in the bush with the aim of coming up with in large quantities to supply the markets. Some of these hunters get their supply of large ammunition (cartridges) from urban centers and supply of food commodities through the wholesalers for whom they work.

The hunting areas are concentrated near protected areas or around very distant areas that are difficult to access and have not as yet experienced human pressure. Of the 12 hunters questioned at Bendou and Faranah, majority agreed that it takes at least 15 km from the city and towards uninhabited areas to begin to see game. Hunters interviewed at Conakry said one had to travel far and camp for some weeks to obtain a good catch. The hunting methods are varied, but generally they use locally manufactured and sophisticated guns from different origins. Hunting is practiced in all seasons, despite the fact that the wildlife code permits hunting for only four and a half months in a year and no category or size of animal is spared because the mode of hunting is not selective. All the hunters interviewed admit that game is becoming rare.

Traders Those trading in bushmeat are generally women who often have suppliers. At Faranah, they have formed a bushmeat sellers’ union. There are also elderly men who are often old hunters. At Bendou, there were 6 bushmeat traders and at Faranah town, 11, at the Conakry markets, there were 25, making a total of 42. Busheat trafficking is usually done in military vehicles, which avoid all kinds of control. Supplies to village markets are done by local hunters, and markets in Faranah town get their bushmeat supply through women farmers and retailers who get their stock from the village markets. Supplies in Conakry are done by wholesalers, semi-wholesalers or retailers. Some traders confirmed that bushmeat price increase had forced many of their colleagues to abandon bushmeat trade for trade in second-hand clothings and the sale of cattle hide. Due to the limited time of the study, it was not possible to quantify the amount of bushmeat during a determined period. A restaurant operator in Conakry confirmed that he could sell more than one 20 kg bag of bushmeat in a week. Some 26 sellers interviewed in the Matoto markets said they sold a total of two to three baskets of 25 kg per day when sales are at their peak. Except the old hunter-sellers of Faranah, who affirmed that during their hunting activities, they did not kill females in gestation or young ones, the others have no knowledge about the sustainable use of wildlife or natural resources in general.

Consumers Out of 30 consumers interviewed on the subject in Conakry, 12 responded that they consume bushmeat in restaurants and 18 at home, being 40 to 60% respectively and at Faranah out of the 12 interviewed only 2 confirmed eating bushmeat in boiled form, which is about 16.7%. Moslems prefer duikers, bushbuck, and grasscutter, whilst Christians prefer primates, warthog and bush pig. Many consumers prefer bushmeat because of its usually low price; although some consume bushmeat for its therapeutic quality. In Conakry, 5 nursing mothers confirmed

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Conclusions Commercial hunting for bushmeat is a serious threat because of the methods employed (use of ammunitions firing in bursts), intensity and absence of good practices (no respect for categories of age, sex, reproductive status and hunting period). Inappropriate hunting methods do not only deplete the animal populations, it degrades the habitat, and can also pose a danger to hygiene of the bushmeat itself. Commercial transaction has become very harmful to wildlife, as it is uncontrolled and consequently does not contribute to the improvement of the wildlife sector. Some interviewees have no idea about the potentials of rearing wild animals, others hold the opinion that the rearing of grasscutters and wild geese is possible, but these lack the technical and financial means to engage in domestication and rearing of wild animals.

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Control of hunting activities in cross-border areas of OCFSA member countries: a study. Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, 2005

Yadji Bello and Philémon Selebangue, Organisation pour la Conservation de la Faune Sauvage d’Afrique (OCFSA), [email protected]

The study focused on some of the cross-border protected areas in order to identify key problems and also to capitalize on some experiences already acquired in these zones to enable other sites to benefit from them. The investigation involved four sites, namely: Trinationale de Sangha (TNS), Trinationale Dja- Odzala-Minkebe (TRIDOM), the Campo ma’an- Rio del Campo estuary and the Sudano-sahalian area of North Cameroon and South of Chad.

Observations under this study showed that the control of hunting activities in these areas is largely linked to the management of wildlife and correlatively linked to protected areas. At the present stage, general cross-border initiatives have not progressed much.

Some underlying factors responsible for the slow evolution of these cross-border initiatives include: the low political support and non-ratification of the COMIFAC treaty, inadequate financial, material and personnel resources, low participation of consumers in organization and management, low support from forest operators, increasing scope and intensity of poaching, and ignorance of the great potentials of wildlife resources. Furthermore, the absence of concerted planning (with a few exceptions) also poses difficulties.

Faced with these challenges, the authors propose some recommendations and strategies to reinforce the implementation of the treaty. It consists of the ratification of the OCFSA (Organisation pour la Conservation de la Faune Sauvage d’Afrique) treaty and signing co-operation agreements arising from it (research, anti-poaching campaign, free

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Nature & Faune Volume 21, Issue 1, 2006 movement of persons, monitoring); putting together different legislative and regulatory texts and aligning them with international conventions on the subject; preparation and approval of management and staff training. The study laid emphasis on effective funding of field activities, hence the need for more efforts in internal and external resource mobilization.

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International forum: Promoting the Business of Grasscutter production in West-Africa Ghana, December 2005 In December 2005, an international forum with over 300 participants took place in Ghana, to promote the business of grasscutter production in West-Africa. It was organized by more than 12 organizations, among which Ministry of Food and Agriculture in Ghana, le Ministère de l’ Agriculture, de l’ Elevage et de la Pêche (MAEP) in Benin, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Ghana, Institute National de la Recherche Agricole du Benin, Heifer International - Ghana, Conservation International, Grasscutter Farmers Associations in Ghana, GTZ and FAO. The objective of the forum was to exchange practical, technical and scientific experiences and information on production, processing and marketing of the grasscutter, as well as creating a platform for advocacy, sensitization and education by bringing all stakeholders together.

The following topics were discussed: policies, advocacy and education; contributions to poverty alleviation; the bushmeat crisis; market and processed products; challenges and opportunities in the grasscutter business (breeding, housing, feeding, health) and business planning and funding of projects.

By promoting the grasscutter industry, more grasscutter meat would be produced in the region, hence improving protein intake, reducing the pressure on wild animal populations and at the long run reducing meat imports.

The proceedings of the forum, including all the presentations and information made available during the forum, shall soon be finalized. Please visit: http://www.fao.org/world/regional/raf/workprog/forestry/networks/wabnconf_en.ht m for more information.

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Links A selection of links to organizations and information sources related to hunting and bushmeat

African Indaba African Indaba is primarily for professional hunters, hunter-conservationists and all interested in conservation, management and sustainable use of Africa’s wildlife resources. Hunters from around the world use African Indaba as source of information on African wildlife, its conservation and sustainable use. Detailed overviews of safari hunting in African countries are provided. http://www.africanindaba.co.za/

Ape Alliance – Bushmeat Working Group http://www.4apes.com/bushmeat/

Biosynergy Institute - Bushmeat project http://bushmeat.net/about.html

Bushmeat Working Group (BWG) CITES, Central Africa The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Conference of the Parties (COP) at its 11th meeting in 2000 decided to set up a Bushmeat Working Group (BWG). The primary objectives of the BWG are to: a) identify the scope of problems relating to bringing national and cross-border bushmeat trade into the context of a sustainable and legal process; b) identify solutions that address the bushmeat problems and c) facilitate the process of achieving solutions. The group consists of representatives from Cameroon, the , the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equitorial Guinea and Gabon. FAO provided funds to organize workshop in Gabon, DRC and Cameroon to develop Action Plans or National Strategies. At COP13 in October 2004, it was decided that the BWG had fulfilled the mandate it was given by the Conference of the Parties and that the solutions it was asked to identify are contained in the draft resolution. The group, specifically Gabon, Congo and Cameroon, continued under a new name, the BWG for Central Africa. For more information, please see: • CITES Bushmeat information site http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/bushmeat.shtml http://www.bushmeat.org/cd/cites.html

FAO-RAF West-African Bushmeat Network http://www.fao.org/world/regional/raf/workprog/forestry/networks/wabn_en.htm

IUCN http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/news/bushmeat.html

ODI - Wild meat, livelihoods security and conservation in the tropics Overseas Development Institute – United Kingdom

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This project is funded by a grant from the MacArthur Foundation, and will research the human and social dimensions of hunting for consumptive use in tropical forests, including bushmeat and the bushmeat trade. It will seek to place this in its wider context, as an important dimension of livelihoods security for poor people, often in weak states. It will provide a useful counterpoint to the dominant research on this theme, which is usually from a fauna conservation, not human livelihoods, perspective. http://www.odi-bushmeat.org/

Professional Hunters’ Association of South Africa http://www.phasa.co.za/

South African Hunters and Game Conservation Organisation http://www.sahunt.co.za/en/Home.aspx

The Institute – Bushmeat http://www.janegoodall.ca/chimps/chimps_bushmeat_a.html

Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) - Hunting & Wildlife Trade in Africa WCS’s Hunting & Wildlife Trade Program was established in response to an overwhelming threat to wildlife in tropical forests today: unsustainable hunting and trade in wild animals and their parts. WCS actively addresses the critical issue of hunting and wildlife trade in Africa with a broad portfolio of projects. Many of these projects are based in central Africa where hunting and wildlife trade pose serious threats to biodiversity. http://www.wcs.org/international/huntingandwildlifetrade/huntinginafrica

World Society for the Protection of Animals http://www.wspa.org.uk/inside.asp?cnewsID=63&campaignType=8

WWF • Bushmeat and hunting http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/africa/problems/bushmeat/index. cfm • WWF - TRAFFIC – Food for Thought http://www.traffic.org/bushmeat/

Zoological Society of London (ZSL), Institute of Zoology, UK Tropical forests carry environmental, social and economic global importance. Their decline makes their conservation a priority for ZSL. The Bushmeat Research Programme is involved in research to enhance our understanding of the bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa. • Bushmeat and forests conservation http://www.zsl.org/field-conservation/bushmeat-and-forest/ • Bushmeat Research Programme http://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/ioz/projects/bushmeat.htm

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