sustainability

Article The Productive Landscape in the Margin for the Sustainable Development of Rural Settlements: An Innovative Greenbelt for Maranjab Desert in

Mahnaz Sarlak 1 , Laura Valeria Ferretti 2 and Rita Biasi 3,*

1 Department of and Design and Ph.D. Program in Landscape and Environment, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; [email protected] 2 Department of Architecture and Design, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; [email protected] 3 Department for Innovation in Biological Agrofood and Forest Systems, Tuscia University, 01100 Viterbo, Italy * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: About two billion rural individuals depend on agricultural systems associated with a high amount of risk and low levels of yield in the drylands of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Human activities, climate change and natural extreme events are the most important drivers of desertification. This phenomenon has occurred in many regions of Iran, particularly in the villages in the periphery of the central desert of Iran, and has made living in the oases so difficult that the number of abandoned villages is increasing every year. Land abandonment and land-use change increase the risk of desertification. This study aims to respond to the research questions: (i) does the planning of green infrastructures on the desert margin affect the distribution and balance of the population? (ii)

 how should the green belt be designed to have the greatest impact on counteracting desertification?,  and (iii) does the design of productive landscape provide the solution? Through a wide-ranging and

Citation: Sarlak, M.; Ferretti, L.V.; comprehensive approach, this study develops different scenarios for designing a new form of green Biasi, R. The Productive Landscape in belt in order to sustainably manage the issues of environmental protection, agricultural tradition the Desert Margin for the Sustainable preservation and desertification counteraction. This study proposes a new-traditional greenbelt Development of Rural Settlements: including small low-cost and low-tech projects adapted to rural scale. An Innovative Greenbelt for Maranjab Desert in Iran. Sustainability Keywords: artificial groundwater recharge; cultural landscape; desertification; land-use changes; 2021, 13, 2077. https://doi.org/ multifunctional agriculture; oasification; rural-urban migration; soil degradation; traditional agricul- 10.3390/su13042077 tural practices

Academic Editor: Jacques Teller Received: 27 January 2021 Accepted: 10 February 2021 1. Introduction Published: 15 February 2021 Living in the desert margin implies the necessity to deal with several challenges in a

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral changing environment. Rural settlements must guarantee the inhabitants agriculture for with regard to jurisdictional claims in local supply, environmental quality and well-being [1], while at the same time fighting published maps and institutional affil- the phenomenon of desertification. In desert and semi-desert areas, the short rainy season iations. provides a limited opportunity for plant growth, especially food plants, and is frequently coupled with soil salinity, which is not even less dangerous for plant growth [2]. Nonetheless, traditional agriculture over centuries has developed practices that enable farmers to better manage water resources and low soil fertility [3]. Traditional agricultural systems are the result of centuries of indigenous peoples’ experience of adapting to arid Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. environmental conditions [4]. Apart from natural factors, human factors play an important This article is an open access article role in desertification [5]. With several centuries of poor management of natural resources distributed under the terms and and increasing anthropogenic pressures associated with rapid population growth, the conditions of the Creative Commons degradation of natural resources, especially vegetation, and the abandonment of rural Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// areas in favor of cities have caused the progressive advance of desertification [6]. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ In recent years, with increasing climate variability, migration [7] and urbanization 4.0/). phenomena [8], Iran has faced problems in the implementation of long-term development

Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042077 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 2 of 21

plans, as well as the failure to comply with urban development plans and rural plans [9,10]. Because of the conflicting trade and agricultural policies pursued by governments, the failure of governments to involve the people who are affected and the lack of local support, many plans to combat desertification are undermined [11]. Several strategies worldwide are being undertaken to physically counteract the phe- nomenon of desert advance, such as the green walls [12], as a tool for assuring the resilience of housing settlements together with traditional rural culture preservation and sustainable land planning. In arid and semi-arid regions, the green belt is known as the project to combat desertification and land degradation by planting trees on the edge of a desert. The /afforestation options, as the large-scale implementation activities of planting trees, are used to generate favorable atmospheric circulation patterns for enhanced precipitation and evapotranspiration favorable to the regional climate [13]. Many afforestation projects on the edge of the desert have failed [14]. For example, the project of “Forestry I” in Nigeria was designed in 1979 and it was aborted in 1984. “Seedlings survivals rate was very low. Only less than 5 percent of over 50 million seedlings distributed free of charge during the five years survived [15].” Furthermore, Joseph Stalin launched a similar effort in the 1940s, planting more than 10,000 square miles of steppe land with trees; almost all of them were dead within 20 years [16]. From the unsuccessful experiences of these projects, useful lessons have been learned for future projects. In 2007, the definition of the African was changed from a wall of trees to a great mosaic of green and productive landscapes [17,18]. Based on this new concept, various methods for creating a sustainable green landscape in desert areas have been considered and researched. Indeed, one of the most important models for achieving sustainable development in desert rural areas is to keep the population in place and preserve the settlements, together with the resilience of agriculture. It is, therefore, necessary to find solutions that involve local communities in the fight against desertification through an in-depth study on the mechanisms of desertification and the lack of water resources in the settlements on the edge of the desert. The process of recognizing, protecting, and restoring rural landscapes is a complex research field that creates a link between culture, physical environment, and ecological systems [19]. This study aims to investigate and formulate a strategic model for balancing the distribution of settlement in desert areas in addition to preserving traditional agricultural culture. This research aims to demonstrate that by using the existing agricultural potential in the region, reinforcing it, and adapting it to contemporary times through the definition of a new productive oasis, the consolidation of existing settlements, the relaunch of abandoned villages, and the creation of jobs, many migrations can be stopped and even reversed. This research, with a wide-ranging and comprehensive approach, develops different scenarios for designing a new form of green belt in order to sustainably manage the issues of environmental protection, agricultural tradition preservation and desertification counteraction.

2. Materials and Methods 2.1. The Study Site The research has been carried out in the margin of Maranjab Desert in Iran (Figure1 ). In the Maranjab desert, which is located between and Salt Lake, there is one of the complexes of sand dunes called Band-e-Rig or Rig-Boland. The sandy hills form a half- moon, from south-east to north-west, about 120 km long and 25 km wide on average. It is between 800 and 1000 m a.s.l. The Band-e-Rig hill, with a height of 100 m, is one of the most important elements in the structure of the study area (Figure1b). The study area is represented by the intersection of Aran-Bidgol county (as the administrative boundary) and Kashan watershed (as the natural boundary) (Figure2). Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21

The research has been carried out in the margin of Maranjab Desert in Iran (Figure 1). In theThe Maranjab research desert,has been which carried is located out in bethetween margin Kashan of Maranjab and Salt Desert Lake, therein Iran is one(Figure of the1). complexes In the Maranjab of sand desert, dunes which called is Band-e-Rig located be tweenor Rig-Boland. Kashan andThe Saltsandy Lake, hills there form is a onehalf- of moon,the complexes from south-east of sand todunes north-west, called Band-e-Rig about 120 kmor Rig-Boland. long and 25 The km sandywide on hills average. form a Ithalf- is betweenmoon, from 800 andsouth-east 1000 m to a.s.l. north-west, The Band-e-Rig about 120 hill, km with long aand height 25 km of wide100 m, on is average. one of the It is between 800 and 1000 m a.s.l. The Band-e-Rig hill, with a height of 100 m, is one of the Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 most important elements in the natural landscape structure of the study area (Figure3 of1b). 21 Themost study important area is elementsrepresented in the by naturalthe intersection landscape of structure Aran-Bidgol of the county study (as area the (Figure adminis- 1b). trativeThe study boundary) area is and represented Kashan watershed by the intersection (as the natural of Aran-Bidgol boundary) county (Figure (as 2). the adminis- trative boundary) and Kashan watershed (as the natural boundary) (Figure 2).

(a) (b) (a) (b) Figure 1. TheThe location location of of the the study study area: area: ( (aa)) Iran’s Iran’s topography topography map map ©www.maphill.com,©www.maphill.com ,Accessed Accessed Figure 1. The location of the study area: (a) Iran’s topography map ©www.maphill.com, Accessed on 10 April 2019; ( b) the main natural elements (including mountain, sandsand dune,dune, SaltSalt Lake)Lake) andand the theon big 10 Apriloases 2019;(green (b circles)) the main in the natural study elements area of the (including Maranjab mountain, Desert. sand dune, Salt Lake) and bigthe oases big oases (green (green circles) circles) in the in study the study area ofarea the of Maranjab the Maranjab Desert. Desert.

Figure 2. The delimitation of the study area. FigureFigure 2. 2.The The delimitation delimitation of of the the study study area. area. The presence of the sand dunes has defined a natural boundary and limit in the re- gion,The whichThe presence presence has hindered of of the the sand thesand dunesexpansion dunes has has definedof definedthe settlements. a natural a natural boundary A boundary collection and and limitof oases limit in the has in region, the been re- Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEWwhichgion, haswhich hindered has hindered the expansion the expansion of the settlements. of the settlements. A collection A collection of oases hasof oases been has formed4 beenof 21 formed in the plain between the sand dunes and the mountainous region (Figure 3). informed the plain in the between plain between the sand the dunes sand and dunes the mountainous and the mountainous region (Figure region3). (Figure 3).

FigureFigure 3. 3.The The Distribution Distribution of of Oases Oases (geographical (geographical coordinates coordinates of of oases oases received received from from Forest, Forest, Range Range and Watershed Organization F.R.W.O., map by using GIS, google earth, Photoshop). and Watershed Organization F.R.W.O., map by using GIS, google earth, Photoshop). The presence of underground water resources was the main factor for the emerging initial core of the cities and their physical growth and development [20]. Qanats are the traditional “subterranean tunnel-well” [21], whose structure is a set of two major parts: • A low-sloped underground horizontal channel from the foothills to the plain, which directs water from the groundwater table to the surface; • A series of vertical wells that are used to ventilate the horizontal channel and also remove the excavated soil during the qanat construction from the underground, as well as the repair and restoration of the qanat (Figure 4). Qanats, by transferring water from the mountain to dry areas, have played a major role in the formation and development of settlements in the desert and semi-desert areas of Iran [22]. The general landscape in the study area consists of a series of scattered oases. Each oasis consists of one village and agricultural land that expanded according to the number and quality of available water resources [23].

Figure 4. The section of qanat system and the passage of water through residential areas and farms (source: http://lbrhome.altervista.org/antichi-acquedotti-qanat-e-foggara, Accessed on 15 June 2020).

In this area, agriculture is based on family traditional farming. Due to the scarcity of water resources and poor soil quality, the extent of the farmlands is often small. Agricul- ture in this region, like in other regions in the margin of the central desert of Iran, has been performed by using water from qanats and flood irrigation [24], but today, in most cases, deep wells and drip irrigation have replaced traditional methods. Despite modern changes in lifestyle and agriculture, some special traditional farming methods are still ac- tive in this area, which, with simple but effective methods, play an important role in com- bating . So, it is an important issue to find a way to adapt and integrate local traditional practices into modern technologies [3].

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Figure 3. The Distribution of Oases (geographical coordinates of oases received from Forest, Range and Watershed Organization F.R.W.O., map by using GIS, google earth, Photoshop).

The presence of underground water resources was the main factor for the emerging initial core of the cities and their physical growth and development [20]. Qanats are the Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 traditional “subterranean tunnel-well” [21], whose structure is a set of two major parts:4 of 21 • A low-sloped underground horizontal channel from the foothills to the plain, which directs water from the groundwater table to the surface; • TheA series presence of vertical of underground wells that waterare used resources to ventilate was thethe main horizontal factor forchannel the emerging and also initialremove core of the the excavated cities and soil their during physical the growth qanat construction and development from the [20 ].underground, Qanats are the as traditionalwell as “ subterraneanthe repair and tunnel-well restoration”[21 of], the whose qanat structure (Figure is4). a set of two major parts: • AQanats, low-sloped by transferring underground water horizontal from the channel mountain from to thedry foothillsareas, have to the played plain, a whichmajor role indirects the formation water from and the development groundwater of table settlements to the surface; in the desert and semi-desert areas •of IranA series[22]. The of verticalgeneral wellslandscape that arein the used study to ventilatearea consists the horizontalof a series of channel scattered and oases. also Eachremove oasis consists the excavated of one village soil during and theagricultural qanat construction land that expanded from the underground,according to the as numberwell and as the quality repair of and available restoration water of resources the qanat [23]. (Figure 4).

Figure 4. TheThe section section of of qanat qanat system system and and the thepassage passage of water of water through through residential residential areas areasand and farmsfarms (source:(source: http://lbrhome.altervista.org/anhttp://lbrhome.altervista.org/antichi-acquedotti-qanat-e-foggaratichi-acquedotti-qanat-e-foggara, Accessed, Accessed on 15 on 15 JuneJune 2020).2020).

Qanats,In this area, by transferring agriculture wateris based from on family the mountain traditional to dry farming. areas, Due have to played the scarcity a major of rolewater in resources the formation and poor and developmentsoil quality, the of settlementsextent of the in farmlands the desert is and often semi-desert small. Agricul- areas ofture Iran in [this22]. region, The general like in landscape other regions in the in studythe margin area consistsof the central of a series desert of of scattered Iran, has oases. been Eachperformed oasis consistsby using ofwater one villagefrom qa andnats agriculturaland flood irrigation land that [24] expanded, but today, according in most tocases, the numberdeep wells and qualityand drip of availableirrigation water have resourcesreplaced [23traditional]. methods. Despite modern changesIn this in lifestyle area, agriculture and agriculture, is based some on family special traditional traditional farming. farming Due methods to the are scarcity still ac- of watertive in resources this area, and which, poor with soil simple quality, but the effective extent of methods, the farmlands play isan often important small. role Agriculture in com- inbating this desertification. region, like in otherSo, it is regions an important in the marginissue to offind the a centralway to adapt desert and of Iran, integrate has beenlocal performedtraditional bypractices using waterinto modern from qanats technologies and flood [3]. irrigation [24], but today, in most cases, deep wells and drip irrigation have replaced traditional methods. Despite modern changes in lifestyle and agriculture, some special traditional farming methods are still active in this area, which, with simple but effective methods, play an important role in combating desertification. So, it is an important issue to find a way to adapt and integrate local traditional practices into modern technologies [3].

2.2. Logical Framework Given the multipurpose scope of the research due to its interdisciplinary nature, the descriptive survey aimed to obtain a better awareness of existing conditions and to assist in the decision-making process. The adopted approach was developed in three steps:

2.2.1. Research Hypotheses and Landscape Analysis Political, social, and economic changes have a strong impact on the transformation of rural areas proximal to the desert. The processes of industrialization of large urban centers absorb the rural labor force and influence the social and cultural structure of rural heritage [25]. This affects social behavior and activity, as well as the visual rural landscape. Today, rural and agricultural landscapes are undergoing social and economic transformations [26]. Compared to traditional agricultural land management, which has been standing for centuries, the development of modern agrosystems does not seem to determine resilience [27]. With the onslaught of industrial agriculture and urbanization and with the spread of such phenomena as land-use change and agricultural land abandonment, traditional agricultural landscapes, and the related biological and cultural diversity, are rapidly disappearing [28,29]. Land-use change from rural and agricultural to urban and industrial is an unsustainable development that has increased the risk of desertification [30]. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 5 of 21

In this context, landscape and land-use changes in the study area were studied by collecting the official data and documents, which are listed in Table1.

Table 1. List of official documents.

Document/Data Year Official Sources Topography map 2017 Iran National Cartographic Center Iran’s National Geographical Aerial photo 1955 Organization Iran’s National Geographical Agricultural zones map 1974 Organization Prescription plains for drilling new 2017 Regional Water company of wells Statistical Center of Iran (available in Demographic statistics 2006–2016 https://www.amar.org.ir/, Accessed on 20 July 2018)

Furthermore, actual land use/cover was assessed through the interpretation of recorded observations by unmanned aerial photography (fly date May 2018). The research question was formulated: does a productive landscape represent a land system able to counteract desertification and strengthen settlements’ resilience?

2.2.2. Hypotheses Testing In order to confirm the hypotheses based on the effect of land-use change on the intensification of desertification, it was necessary to determine the intensity of desertifi- cation in the study area. To implement a survey method, the IMDPA model was used (Iranian Model of Desertification Potential Assessment). The basis of the IMDPA model is the MEDALUS [31] model (Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use, European commission 1999). In the MEDALUS model, 6 main factors or indicators of desertifica- tion, including soil, climate, erosion, plant cover, groundwater and management, were considered for evaluation. The IMDPA model consists of 9 criteria and 36 indices to evaluate desertification. The nine criteria include climate, geology and geomorphology, soil, vegetation, water, erosion, agriculture, socio-economic issues, industrial and civil development [32]. This model evaluates status and desertification potential simultaneously, without discriminating either of them. In order to combine indices into criteria and finally desertification risk, geometric averaging is used [33]. In this research, soil and water criteria were considered and measured. The indicators related to the soil are based on: (i) Electrical Conductivity (EC), (ii) depth, and (iii) the texture of the soil; while those related to water are based on: (i) Electrical Conductivity (EC), (ii) Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR), and (iii) groundwater level. For the study area, data were collected and analyzed and interpreted according to the IMPDA score table. A total of 14 samples of water and 18 samples of agricultural soil were collected (Figure5 ) in the study area. The information of the depth of soil was kindly provided by the Soil and Water Research Institute (http://www.swri.ir/, Accessed on 14 May 2018) and the groundwater level data were kindly provided by the Water Research Institute of Iran (https://www.wri.ac.ir/, Accessed on 16 May 2018). Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

texture of the soil; while those related to water are based on: (i) Electrical Conductivity (EC), (ii) Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR), and (iii) groundwater level. For the study area, data were collected and analyzed and interpreted according to the IMPDA score table. A total of 14 samples of water and 18 samples of agricultural soil were collected (Figure 5) in the study area. The information of the depth of soil was kindly provided by the Soil

Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 and Water Research Institute (http://www.swri.ir/, Accessed on 14 May 2018) and6 of the 21 groundwater level data were kindly provided by the Water Research Institute of Iran (https://www.wri.ac.ir/, Accessed on 16 May 2018).

Figure 5. Location of water and soil sampling in Kashan watershed (April 2018). Figure 5. Location of water and soil sampling in Kashan watershed (April 2018). ToTo collectcollect samplessamples ofof water,water, thethe wellswells werewere selectedselected accordingaccording toto thethe sizesize ofof thethe studystudy area,area, topographictopographic conditionsconditions andand basedbased onon agriculturalagricultural use.use. ElectricalElectrical ConductivityConductivity waswas calculatedcalculated byby EC-meterEC-meter andand SodiumSodium AbsorptionAbsorption RatioRatio (SAR)(SAR) waswas calculatedcalculated byby measuringmeasuring NaNa,, Ca, Mg andand using using the the formula formula (TableS1). (Table S1). The The formula formula for forcalculating calculating the theSodium Sodium Ad- Adsorptionsorption Ratio Ratio (SAR) (SAR) is: is: 𝑁𝑎 Na+ 𝑆𝐴𝑅 = SAR = q (1) 1 1 2+ 2+ (1) (𝐶𝑎 +𝑀𝑔2 (Ca) + Mg ) 2 Then,Then, eacheach waterwater indexindex was scored according to the IMDPA classificationclassification (Table2 2),), andand finally,finally, usingusing thethe followingfollowing relation,relation, the the water water criterion criterion map map was was calculated. calculated.

p3 𝑄 = 𝑄QW×𝑄= Q×𝑄W1 × QW2 × QW3 (2)(2)

QW: Qualitative water QW: Qualitative water QW1: Electrical Conductivity (EC) QW1: Electrical Conductivity (EC) QW2: Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) QW2: Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) QW3: Declining groundwater levels QW3: Declining groundwater levels Table 2. The weight of water index in the Iranian Model of Desertification Potential Assessment Table(IMDPA). 2. The weight of water index in the Iranian Model of Desertification Potential Assess- ment (IMDPA). < 1 1–1.5 1.6–2.5 2.6–3.5 3.6–4 Desertification Classes Very<1 Low 1–1.5 Low 1.6–2.5 Medium 2.6–3.5 High Very 3.6–4 High DesertificationEC (μs/cm) Classes < 250 250–750 750–2250 2250–5000 ≥Very 5000 Very Low Low Medium High SAR (meq/l) < 1 0 10–18 18–2 6 26–32 High≥ 32 Groundwater Decline (cm/year) < 1 0 10–20 20–3 0 30–50 ≥ 50 EC (µs/cm) <250 250–750 2250–750 5000–2250 ≥5000 SAR (meq/L) <10 10–18 26–18 32–26 ≥32 GroundwaterThe sampling Decline of soil was carried out at 18 points (Figure 5) of arable land in the study <10 10–20 30–20 50–30 ≥50 area, including(cm/year) farms, abandoned farms, and rangelands. Determining soil texture in this study is based on USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) classification by the Hydrometer Method [34]. Besides soil texture, the main chemical soil traits were deter- The sampling of soil was carried out at 18 points (Figure5) of arable land in the studymined area, (pH, including Ec, CaCO farms,3, N, P,abandoned K). farms, and rangelands. Determining soil texture in this study is based on USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) classification by the Hydrometer Method [34]. Besides soil texture, the main chemical soil traits were determined (pH, Ec, CaCO3, N, P, K). Then, each soil index was scored according to the IMDPA classification (Table3), and finally, using the following relation, the soil criterion map was calculated.

p3 QS = QS1 × QS2 × QS3 (3)

QS: Qualitative soil Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 7 of 21

QS1: Electrical Conductivity (EC) QS2: Soil texture QS3: Depth of soil

Table 3. The weight of soil index in the IMDPA model.

Desertification < 1 1–1.5 1.6–2.5 2.6–3.5 3.6–4 Classes Very Low Low Medium High Very High EC (ds/m) <2 2–4 4–8 8–16 ≥16 Depth (cm) >110 80–110 50–80 20–50 <20 Soil texture Clay Clay loam Loam Sandy loam Sandy

Finally, two criteria of soil and water were combined as follows:

p2 QD = QS × QW (4)

QD: Desertification sensitivity QS: Qualitative soil QW: Qualitative water The spatialization of the obtained results was integrated and processed in the ArcGIS software as an information level. The corresponding maps were synthesized using the medium geometric method, producing a final desertification map of the Kashan watershed based on the IMDPA model. Using ArcGIS, AutoCAD, and Photoshop software, the data were analyzed to determine the severity of desertification in the study area and to allow the identification of the site of the proposed strategy of intervention, the most sensible one.

2.2.3. Scenario Design The proper effectiveness of today’s decisions is fully related to future situations. “Scenario-based investigations of possible futures have been used since the middle of the 20th century to help decisionmakers cope with alternative courses of action and elements of uncertainty. Since the early 1970s, they have been increasingly used for landscape planning. Each scenario-based study is founded on assumptions of possible change” [35]. Most conceptions of scenarios share four principles: • scenarios represent a process of change over some duration; • scenarios describe situations, actions, and consequences which are contingently related; • scenarios are understood to be predictive judgments which describe what could happen, not predictions which describe what will happen, or even what is likely to happen; • scenarios organize information within explicitly defined frameworks” [35]. The probable futures of the desert margin landscape have been examined in 3 scenarios: • Scenario 1: Evolution of current conditions. In this regard, 3 very important and effective projects have been selected: (i) Comprehensive planning (2013); (ii) Tourism route planning (2011); (iii) Afforestation (combat to desertification projects through biological stabilization by planting Haloxylon trees implemented in Aran-Bidgol county, last update 2018). In the following, the main idea of each project and its effects on landscape changes are examined. • Scenario 2: Reconstruction of the past. This scenario is based on the hypothesis of the resettlement of rural areas by the preservation and restoration of existing cultural heritage, such as qanats and small settlements, together with technological innovation for water supply. • Scenario 3: New-traditional spatial configuration. This scenario is based on a landscape architecture project that implies the reorganization of the rural and agricultural landscape in the desert margin as a barrier against desertification leading to a new oasification. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

• Scenario 2: Reconstruction of the past. This scenario is based on the hypothesis of the resettlement of rural areas by the preservation and restoration of existing cultural heritage, such as qanats and small settlements, together with technological innovation for water supply. • Scenario 3: New-traditional spatial configuration. This scenario is based on a landscape architecture project that implies the reorgani- Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 zation of the rural and agricultural landscape in the desert margin as a barrier against8 of 21 desertification leading to a new oasification. In each scenario, based on the strengths, weaknesses, threats and potentials, the pos- sibleIn solutions each scenario, in terms based of landscape on the strengths,design to combat weaknesses, desertification threats and are potentials,analyzed. the possibleFinally, solutions a new-traditional in terms of landscape model of design green belts to combat consisting desertification of various are land-uses analyzed. is pro- posed.Finally, a new-traditional model of green belts consisting of various land-uses is proposed.

3.3. Results Results and and Discussion Discussion TheThe results results of of the the investigation investigation in in the the study study area area and and the the landscape landscape design design projects projects proposedproposed for for the the case case study study under under different different scenarios scenarios are are reported. reported.

3.1.3.1. Landscape Landscape Analysis Analysis TheThe research research area area is is plain plain with with a a gentle gentle slope slope from from south south to to north, north, and and as as we we approach approach thethe desert desert and and the the north, north, it it gets gets closer closer to to flat flat conditions conditions with with a a plain plain topography topography due due to to movingmoving away away from from the the foothills-mountainous foothills-mountainous area area (Figure (Figure S1). S1). ThisThis gentlegentle slopeslope and the earth’s earth’s smooth smooth terrain terrain have have provided provided a asuitable suitable ground ground for foragricultural agricultural activity activity and and oases. oases. Most Most of the of the villages villages and and cities cities are are located located in inthe the plain plain be- betweentween the the highlands highlands in in the the southwest southwest of of Aran-Bidgol county and sandsand dunesdunes ((FigureFigure6 6).). DueDue to to the the existence existence of of railways railways and and two two highways, highways, the studythe study area hasarea quick has quick access access to large to citieslarge such cities as such Tehran as Tehran and Isfahan. and Isfahan.

FigureFigure 6. 6.Location Location of of oases oases and and agricultural agricultural areas areas (map (map received received from from Iran’s Iran’s National National Geographical Geograph- Organization,ical Organization, based based on aerial on aerial photos photos 1974). 1974).

With 118 to 150 strands of qanats and with an average length of 12 km each, Aran- Bidgol encompasses over 1680 km of cavities and water tunnels below itself, which indicates the importance of the water system distribution and the use of land in the farming and livelihood activities of this territory [36]. Until 1960, excavating wells was not common in rural regions of Iran, but with the start of modernity, the digging of wells started as one of the most important sources of drinking and farming water supply in these regions [37]. In desert areas, due to the low rainfall, high temperatures, and severe evaporation, the formation of groundwater aquifers and the natural recharge of the existing groundwaters is a very slow process. In such a situation, in case the extraction of groundwater is more than its recharge, the groundwater level of the aquifers will obviously be lowered and the result will be water salinity [38]. The reason for this is that as the freshwater in the underground aquifers declines, salty water will enter the wells. The salinization of these well waters Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

With 118 to 150 strands of qanats and with an average length of 12 km each, Aran- Bidgol encompasses over 1680 km of cavities and water tunnels below itself, which indi- cates the importance of the water system distribution and the use of land in the farming and livelihood activities of this territory [36]. Until 1960, excavating wells was not com- mon in rural regions of Iran, but with the start of modernity, the digging of wells started as one of the most important sources of drinking and farming water supply in these re- gions [37]. In desert areas, due to the low rainfall, high temperatures, and severe evapo- ration, the formation of groundwater aquifers and the natural recharge of the existing groundwaters is a very slow process. In such a situation, in case the extraction of ground- water is more than its recharge, the groundwater level of the aquifers will obviously be Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 9 of 21 lowered and the result will be water salinity [38]. The reason for this is that as the fresh- water in the underground aquifers declines, salty water will enter the wells. The saliniza- tion of these well waters and using them for irrigation make the soil become even saltier. andIn these using situations, them for irrigationif the extraction make theof grou soil becomendwater even continues saltier. in In an these inappropriate situations, trend, if the extractionthe water in of deep groundwater wells will continues certainly in become an inappropriate a factor in trend,accelerating the water the desertification in deep wells willinto certainlythe farmlands become and a pastureland factor in accelerating [39]. In Iran, the desertificationafter 1976, the digging into the of farmlands the well andwas pasturelandbanned in the [39 plains]. In Iran, with after the risk 1976, of theground diggingwater of resource the well wasdecline banned such inas the Kashan plains water- with theshed risk (Figure of groundwater 7). resource decline such as Kashan watershed (Figure7).

Figure 7. Prescriptive of Isfahan’s plains for drilling the new deep well (Source: Regional Water Figure 7. Prescriptive of Isfahan’s plains for drilling the new deep well (Source: Regional Water Company ofof IsfahanIsfahan Province,Province, 2017).2017). Despite the ban on the exploitation of underground water due to the wasteful exca- Despite the ban on the exploitation of underground water due to the wasteful exca- vation of deep wells and excessive utilization, strong damage has occurred to the level of vation of deep wells and excessive utilization, strong damage has occurred to the level of groundwater so that most of the qanats have dried and the yield of old wells has fallen groundwater so that most of the qanats have dried and the yield of old wells has fallen sharply. Downstream oases gradually faced water scarcity, and people had two paths to sharply. Downstream oases gradually faced water scarcity, and people had two paths to survive: either migrating to upstream oases or excavating deeper wells. Due to the high survive: either migrating to upstream oases or excavating deeper wells. Due to the high cost of excavating deep wells and the small size of these villages, most of the villagers chose thecost migration of excavating option deep and wells settled and in the upstream small si oasesze of (Table these4 ).villages, Over time, most many of the upstream villagers villageschose the were migration changed option to cities. and settled Population in upstream growth oases analysis (Table (Table 4). Over4) also time, shows many that up- ruralstream population villages were growth changed is much to slowercities. Population than urban populationgrowth analysis growth. (Table Due 4) to also migration shows fromthat rural rural population to urban areas, growth most is much of the slower county’s than population urban population growth is growth. related toDue cities. to mi- It cangration be concluded from rural that to urban the younger areas, most population of the hascounty’s decreased population in the growth villages is (Figure related S2). to Usually,cities. It can urban be residents,concluded especiallythat the younger young people,population although has decreased coming fromin the villages, villages have(Fig- lessure S2). interest Usually, in continuing urban residents, agricultural especially activity young and people, in activities although related coming to rural from life. villages, If this trendhave less continues interest in in the continuing long run, mostagricultural of the villages activity will and be in abandoned,activities related and the to ruralrural andlife. agriculturalIf this trend landscapescontinues in are the at risklong of run, destruction most of andthe villages disappearance will be (Figureabandoned,8). and the rural and agricultural landscapes are at risk of destruction and disappearance (Figure 8). Table 4. Quantitative changes of villages and population growth in urban and rural areas of Aran- BidgolTable 4. county Quantitative (Source: changes Statistical of villages Center of and Iran). population growth in urban and rural areas of Aran- Bidgol county (Source: Statistical Center of Iran). Unit 2006 2011 2016 Village with inhabitants number 49 45 41 Village without inhabitants number 61 65 69 Urban population person 76,438 82,332 89,022 Rural population person 13,523 15,077 14,495 Total population person 89,961 97,409 103,517 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

Unit 2006 2011 2016 Village with inhabitants number 49 45 41 Village without inhabitants number 61 65 69 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW Urban population person 76,438 82,332 89,02210 of 21 Rural population person 13,523 15,077 14,495 Total population person 89,961 97,409 103,517

Unit 2006 2011 2016 Village with inhabitants number 49 45 41 Village without inhabitants number 61 65 69 Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 Urban population person 76,438 82,332 89,02210 of 21 Rural population person 13,523 15,077 14,495 Total population person 89,961 97,409 103,517

Figure 8. The rural landscape that is changing to an urban landscape (Taher-Abad, 2019, photo obtained by an unmanned aerial vehicle).

Due to the process of urbanization and industrialization, the agricultural landscape has undergone drastic changes [40] (Figure 9), so that the area of farmland has been dras- tically reduced (Table 5).

Figure 8. The rural landscape that is changing to an urban landscape (Taher-Abad, 2019, photo FigureTable 8.5. QuantitativeThe rural landscape changes thatof the is cultivated changing surfac to an urbanes (in hectares) landscape over (Taher-Abad, time (Source: 2019, Organiza- photo obtained by an unmanned aerial vehicle). obtainedtion Agriculture by an unmanned Jahad Isfahan, aerial www.ag vehicle).ri-es.ir, Accessed on 21 August 2019). 2001 2006 2011 2016 DueDue to to the the process process of of urbanization urbanization and and industrialization, industrialization, the the agricultural agricultural landscape landscape Farming areas 10,227 11,004 10,397 8181 hashas undergoneundergone drasticdrastic changes [40] [40] (Figure (Figure 9),9), so so that that the the area area of offarmland farmland has has been been dras- tically reduced (TableOrchards 5). 1180 1561 2305 2256 drasticallyThe total reduced area of (Tableirrigated5). agriculture 11,407 12,565 12,702 10,437 Table 5. Quantitative changes of the cultivated surfaces (in hectares) over time (Source: Organiza- tion Agriculture Jahad Isfahan, www.agri-es.ir, Accessed on 21 August 2019).

2001 2006 2011 2016 Farming areas 10,227 11,004 10,397 8181 Orchards 1180 1561 2305 2256 The total area of irrigated agriculture 11,407 12,565 12,702 10,437

FigureFigure 9. 9.Changes Changes in in agricultural agricultural areas: areas: (left) (left) based based on on an an aerial aerial photo photo of of 1955, 1955, received received from from Iran’s Iran’s NationalNational Geographic Geographic Organization; Organization; (right) (right) based based on on google google map map 2019. 2019.

Table 5.TheQuantitative agricultural changes activities of the that cultivated are in surfaces this area (in can hectares) be divided over time into (Source: two main Organization groups: Agriculture Jahad Isfahan, www.agri-es.ir, Accessed on 21 August 2019).

2001 2006 2011 2016 Figure 9. Changes in agricultural areas: (left) based on an aerial photo of 1955, received from Iran’s Farming areas 10,227 11,004 10,397 8181 National Geographic Organization; (right) based on google map 2019. Orchards 1180 1561 2305 2256 The total area of irrigated agriculture 11,407 12,565 12,702 10,437 The agricultural activities that are in this area can be divided into two main groups:

The agricultural activities that are in this area can be divided into two main groups: • Traditional or subsistence farming in the form of family farming, where the main crops are barley (Hordeum vulgare), wheat (Triticum spp), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and melon (Cucumis melo); • Semi-modern or commercial farming in the form of cooperative farming, where the main crop is pistachio (Pistacia vera). Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 11 of 21

• Traditional or subsistence farming in the form of family farming, where the main crops are barley (Hordeum vulgare), wheat (Triticum spp), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and Due to changesmelon in the (Cucumis cultivated melo area); of main crops (Table6), it can be concluded that traditional agriculture• Semi-modern has declined, or commercial and commercial farming agriculture in the form has of cooperative increased. farming, where the main crop is pistachio (Pistacia vera). Table 6. Quantitative changes of the cultivated area (in hectares) of each main crop over time (Source: Due to changes in the cultivated area of main crops (Table 6), it can be concluded that Organization Agriculturetraditional Jahad agriculture Isfahan, has www.agri-es.ir declined, and, Accessed commercial on 23 agriculture August 2019). has increased. Area (ha) CategoryTable 6. Quantitative Main changes Crop of the cultivated area (in hectares) of each main crop over time (Source: Organization Agriculture Jahad2001 Isfahan, www.agri-es.ir, 2006 2011Accessed on 23 2016 August 2019).

Barley 4000 4235 4700Area (ha) 3600 Cereals Category Main Crop Wheat 19002001 1525 2006 1400 2011 800 2016 Plants used in industry CottonBarley 1148 4000 1018 4235 850 4700 500 3600 Cereals Wheat 1900 1525 1400 800 Alfalfa 700 350 600 919 ForagePlants used in industry Cotton 1148 1018 850 500 Forage corn 342 541 540 300 Alfalfa 700 350 600 919 Forage Cantaloupe 680 1169 1055 668 Kitchen garden Forage corn 342 541 540 300 MelonCantaloupe 385 680 347 1169 350 1055 177 668 Kitchen garden PistachioMelon 1100 385 1198 347 2065 350 1581 177 Orchards OlivesPistachio 30 1100 123 1198 -2065 - 1581 OrchardsPomegranate Olives -30 97123 235 - 195 - Pomegranate - 97 235 195

The disappearanceThe disappearance of traditional of agriculturetraditional agriculture is a warning is a warning because because the traditional the traditional ag- agricultural landscapesricultural managedlandscapes under managed the influence under the of influence local knowledge of local knowledge and culture and have culture have similar properties:similar they properties: have production they have cycles production that have cycles little that input, have little they input, are ecologically they are ecologically and economicallyand sustainable,economically theysustainable, bring together they bring a variety together of a speciesvariety andof species structures and structures in in time and place,time and theyand place, create and sustainable they create cycles sustainable through cycles effective through recycling effective measures recycling [41], measures and they are also[41], associated and they are with also special associated and with unique special qualities, and unique such qualities, as health, such purity as health, of purity ecosystem, peaceof ecosystem, and originality peace [and27]. originality The traditional [27]. The agricultural traditional landscape agricultural is landscape a result of is a result the survival andof continuitythe survival of and agricultural continuity activities of agricultural that have activities created that a have valuable created cultural a valuable cul- heritage—a heritagetural heritage—a that needs protectionheritage that and needs transfers protecti toon future and generations.transfers to future Research generations. on Re- traditional agriculturesearch on shows traditional that mostagriculture indigenous shows that modes most of indigenous production modes exhibit of production a strong exhibit foundation anda base,strong which foundation leads toand the base, creation which of leads a landscape to the creation with stable of a landscape vital cycles with [42 stable]. vital There arecycles valuable [42]. examples of traditional agriculture in the study area (Figure 10) that needs to be moreThere activated are valuable and protected, examples suchof traditional as rainfed agriculture agriculture in the on study sand dunesarea (Figure 10) of the desert. Itthat is based needs onto be a traditionalmore activated technique and protected, of using such underground as rainfed agriculture water without on sand dunes the need to digof athe well desert. or even It is based a channel. on a traditional In fact, underground technique of using water underground is directly usedwater without in agriculturethe without need to any dig facilities. a well or even In this a channel. traditional In fact, agricultural underground system, water the is directly roots used in agriculture without any facilities. In this traditional agricultural system, the roots of the of the plants grow and reach the underground water, so they are not directly irrigated plants grow and reach the underground water, so they are not directly irrigated (Figure 11). Additionally, it is an excellent example of combating desertification by using (Figure 11). Additionally, it is an excellent example of combating desertification by using abiotic windbreak (Figure 12). abiotic windbreak (Figure 12).

Figure 10.Figure Traditional 10. Traditionalagricultural agriculturallandscapes: (a landscapes:) rose garden; ( a(b)) rose the farm garden; pits on (b) sand the farmdunes; pits (c) polyculture; on sand dunes; (d) pista- chio orchards.(c) polyculture; All photos taken (d) pistachio in 2018. orchards. All photos taken in 2018. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21 SustainabilitySustainability2021 2021, 13, ,13 2077, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 2112 of 21

FigureFigure 11.11. Growing steps steps from from seeding seeding to to crop crop (cantaloupe): (cantaloupe): (a) (sketch;a) sketch; (b) (photosb) photos taken taken from from March Figure 11. Growing steps from seeding to crop (cantaloupe): (a) sketch; (b) photos taken from toMarch July 2018.to July 2018. March to July 2018.

(a) (b)

Figure 12. Agriculture as a method to combat desertification: (a) sketch of the farm pits on a sand dune and traditional(a )water management; (b) dried plants as an abiotic windbreak(b) (April 2018).

FigureFigure 12. Agriculture 12. Agriculture as a method as a method to combat to combat desertification: desertification: (a) sketch (a) sketch of the offarm the pits farm on pits a sand on a sand dune and traditionalPolyculture water is one management; of the important (b) dried features plants of astraditional an abiotic agriculture, windbreak while(April unifying, 2018). duneeliminating and traditional crop diversity water management; and species (diversityb) dried plantsand the as andiversity abiotic windbreakof land farms (April are 2018). the main attributes of industrial agriculture. Wherever there is no diversity, the ecosystem PolyculturePolyculture is one is of one the of important the important features features of traditional of traditional agriculture, agriculture, while while unifying, unifying, eliminatingfaces a riskcrop of diversityinstability and [28] .species In addition diversity to environmental and the diversity problems, of with land the farms destruction are the eliminatingof traditional crop agriculture diversity and and the speciesmigration diversity of farmers and to thecities, diversity new jobs of are land needed. farms The are the main attributes of industrial agriculture. Wherever there is no diversity, the ecosystem mainestablishment attributes of offactories industrial and the agriculture. expansion Whereverof industrial there zones is are no some diversity, of the the most ecosystem im- faces a risk of instability [28]. In addition to environmental problems, with the destruction facesportant a risk land-use of instability changes [28in ].the In study addition area to (F environmentaligure 13). The main problems, industrial with areas the destructionin the of traditionalofstudy traditional area agriculture are agriculture listed below and andthe (Table migration the 7). migration of farmers of farmers to cities, to cities, new newjobs jobsare needed. are needed. The The establishmentestablishment of factories of factories and the and expansion the expansion of industrial of industrial zones are zones some are of some the most of the im- most portantimportant land-use land-useTable changes 7. The changes in main the industrial instudy the studyarea units (F area[43].igure (Figure 13). The 13). main Themain industrial industrial areas areas in the in the studystudy area areaare listed are listed below below (Table (Table 7). 7). Name Establish Date Product Area (ha) Kavir Steel Company 2000 Rebar, wire rod 45 Table 7. The main industrial units [43]. Sabahi-Bidgoli Industrial Machine-made , chemicals and hygienic material production, home 1990 400 Name Town Establish Date dishes and appliances manufacturing Product units, and motor pumps making units Area (ha) Kavir SteelHelal Company Industrial Estate 2000 2003 Machine-made Rebar, carpets, wire textile, rod knitting industries 5745 Sabahi-Bidgoli Industrial Machine-made carpets, chemicals and hygienic material production, home 1990 400 Town dishes and appliances manufacturing units, and motor pumps making units Helal Industrial Estate 2003 Machine-made carpets, textile, knitting industries 57 Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 13 of 21 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

Figure 13. Industrial zones. Figure 13. Industrial zones. 3.2. The Severity of Desertification in the Study Area Table 7. The main industrial units [43]. The desertification severity was assessed through the determination of water and soil quality traits. The results Establishof the water quality assessment are reported in Table S1. Name Product Area (ha) The soil quality of arableDate land in the study area (including active farms, abandoned farms,Kavir Steelrangelands) Company was analyzed 2000 based on United Rebar, States wire Department rod of Agriculture 45 (USDA) classification by the HydrometerMachine-made Method and carpets,using the chemicals soil texture and triangle. The resultingSabahi-Bidgoli texture was mainly from sand tohygienic sandy-loam material (Figure production, 14) (Table home S2). 1990 400 Industrial Town dishes and appliances manufacturing units, and motor pumps making units Helal Industrial Machine-made carpets, textile, 2003 57 Estate knitting industries

3.2. The Severity of Desertification in the Study Area The desertification severity was assessed through the determination of water and soil quality traits. The results of the water quality assessment are reported in Table S1. The soil quality of arable land in the study area (including active farms, abandoned farms, rangelands) was analyzed based on United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) classification by the Hydrometer Method and using the soil texture triangle. The resulting texture was mainly from sand to sandy-loam (Figure 14) (Table S2). By combining the two criteria of water and soil, a map of sensitivity to desertification was produced in GIS software (Figure 15). By comparing the desertification sensitivity map and the situation of large industries such as Kavir Steel Company, as well as changes in the agricultural and rural landscape, an increase in urbanization phenomena, the expansion of cities and the correctness of the research hypothesis can be confirmed. In fact, in the south of the study area, there is a collection of small villages, and their small traditional agricultures exist without significantFigure 14. The land-use result of change, the soil texture while thetest. northern part of the study area, as it was explained (see Section 3.1), is known as a developed area due to the existence of large industries, cities and commercialBy combining agriculture. the two criteria However, of water the and sensitivity soil, a map of of desertification sensitivity to desertification in the northern zonewas produced is more severe in GIS than software in the (Figure undeveloped 15). zone. So, on the same climatic conditions, land-use change is one of the most influential factors in reducing or increasing the risk of desertification in the study area. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

Figure 13. Industrial zones.

3.2. The Severity of Desertification in the Study Area The desertification severity was assessed through the determination of water and soil quality traits. The results of the water quality assessment are reported in Table S1. The soil quality of arable land in the study area (including active farms, abandoned Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 farms, rangelands) was analyzed based on United States Department of Agriculture14 of 21 (USDA) classification by the Hydrometer Method and using the soil texture triangle. The resulting texture was mainly from sand to sandy-loam (Figure 14) (Table S2).

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

FigureFigure 14.14. TheThe resultresult ofof thethe soilsoil texturetexture test.test.

By combining the two criteria of water and soil, a map of sensitivity to desertification was produced in GIS software (Figure 15).

FigureFigure 15. 15.Classification Classification of of sensitivity sensitivity to to desertification. desertification. Arrow, Arrow, the the study study area. area.

BasedBy comparing on these findings,the desertification this research sensitivity focuses map on the and more the situation problematic of large area, industries which is thesuch area as aroundKavir Steel the small Company, settlements as well of as Noush changes Abad in and the Aranagricultural Bidgol, and to find rural a sustainable landscape, modelan increase for combating in urbanization desertification. phenomena, In this the way, expansion three scenarios of cities and have the been correctness suggested. of the research hypothesis can be confirmed. In fact, in the south of the study area, there is a 3.3.collection Probable of Future small ofvillages, Landscape and in their Three small Scenarios traditional agricultures exist without signifi- 3.3.1.cant land-use Scenario 1:change, Evolution while of the Current northern Conditions part of the study area, as it was explained (see SectionThe 3.1), first is scenario known as is baseda developed on existing area due long-term to the existence plans in of the large study industries, area and cities the analysisand commercial of their strengths agriculture. and However, weaknesses. the sensitivity of desertification in the northern (I)zoneIn is “Comprehensivemore severe than planning-2013”,in the undeveloped the remotezone. So, villages on the havesame been climatic completely conditions, ig- land-usenored. change The distanceis one of fromthe most main influential urban centers factors and in reducing related services or increasing is reinforcing the risk aof desertificationmigration in process the study from area. small villages to cities (Table4; Figure S3). In this way, a largeBased part on these of the findings, county willthis beresearch abandoned, focuses and on thethe entiremore problematic population ofarea, the which county is the areawill around be concentrated the small insettlements a small area. of Noush The abandonmentAbad and Aran of Bidgol, land, as to afind global a sustain- prob- able lemmodel with for environmental combating desertification. implications, In increases this way, the three risk ofscenarios land degradation have been andsug- gested.desertification [44].

3.3. Probable Future of Landscape in Three Scenarios 3.3.1. Scenario 1: Evolution of Current Conditions The first scenario is based on existing long-term plans in the study area and the anal- ysis of their strengths and weaknesses. (I) In “Comprehensive planning-2013”, the remote villages have been completely ig- nored. The distance from main urban centers and related services is reinforcing a migration process from small villages to cities (Table 4; Figure S3). In this way, a large part of the county will be abandoned, and the entire population of the county will be concentrated in a small area. The abandonment of land, as a global problem with environmental implications, increases the risk of land degradation and desertifica- tion [44]. (II) “Tourism routes planning -2011” aims to increase revenue for the region’s indige- nous people through tourism. Seven tourist routes, which often start from mountain- ous areas in and end at Maranjab Caravanserai in Aran-Bidgol county, are designed (Figure S4). Despite its many advantages and strengths, this project also has its weaknesses. Many tourists must enter the area in autumn and spring, which will damage the environment and vegetation of the area. In addition, tourists’ favorite pastimes, such as skiing on the sand, safaris, and car racing on sand Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 15 of 21

(II) “Tourism routes planning -2011” aims to increase revenue for the region’s indigenous people through tourism. Seven tourist routes, which often start from mountainous areas in Kashan county and end at Maranjab Caravanserai in Aran-Bidgol county, are designed (Figure S4). Despite its many advantages and strengths, this project Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21 also has its weaknesses. Many tourists must enter the area in autumn and spring, which will damage the environment and vegetation of the area. In addition, tourists’ favorite pastimes, such as skiing on the sand, safaris, and car racing on sand dunes, increasedunes, increase . soil erosion. Another Another criticism criticism of the project of the is project its disregard is its disregard for other culturalfor other potentialscultural potentials as tourist as attractions. tourist attractions. (III)(III) Finally,Finally, we we evaluated evaluated the the “Afforestation “Afforestation plan”. plan”. According According to UNCCD to UNCCD (United (United Nations Na- Conventiontions Convention to Combat to Combat Desertification), Desertification), “Afforestation “Afforestation is the plantingis the planting of trees of or trees forest or coverforest oncover land on whichland which historically historically did not did containnot contain forests forests”[45” ].[45]. In In Iran, Iran, the the project project of of biologicalbiological stabilizationstabilization ofof sandsand dunesdunes beganbegan inin 1963. 1963. ForFor the the first first time, time, it it was was tested tested onon thethe sandsand dunesdunes nearnear Abuzeid-AbadAbuzeid-Abad city,city, in in Aran-Bidgol Aran-Bidgol county, county, and and it it had had great great successsuccess [[46].46]. TheThe project,project, originallyoriginally intendedintended onlyonly forfor thethe establishmentestablishment ofof sand sand dunes,dunes, hashas expandedexpanded overover timetime asas aa green green belt. belt. The The main main aims aims are: are: soil soil stabilization, stabilization, increasingincreasing shadeshade andand soilsoil moisture,moisture, reducingreducing soilsoil erosion,erosion, windbreakwindbreak functionfunction [47[47].]. Today,Today, thisthis projectproject is underway underway even even near near the the qanats qanats (Figure (Figure 16). 16 Because). Because of the of deep the deepand extensive and extensive “roots “ rootsof trees of that trees can that intensify can intensify the tunnel the tunnel crumbling crumbling of qanats of qanats” and” cause and causeirreparable irreparable damage damage to this to valuable this valuable cultural cultural heritage, heritage, “the qanat “the qanatmasters masters do not do recom- not recommendmend planting planting the trees the” trees [48].”[ 48].

FigureFigure 16. 16.Zones Zones of of biological biological stabilization stabilization by by planting planting Haloxylon Haloxylon trees trees (GIS (GIS information information received received in in 2019 from the department of natural resources and watershed management of Aran-Bidgol 2019 from the department of natural resources and watershed management of Aran-Bidgol county). county). Based on the first scenario evaluation, severe landscape changes will occur at the expense of smallBased villages on the and first family scenario farms. evaluation, Furthermore, seve there increaselandscape in migration,changes will traditional occur at knowl- the ex- edgepense oblivion, of small the villages increase and in barren family lands farms. and Furthermore, the lack of recharge the increase groundwater in migration, aquifers tradi- will resulttional in knowledge soil and water oblivion, erosion the and increase the intensification in barren lands of desertification and the lack phenomena.of recharge ground- water aquifers will result in soil and water erosion and the intensification of desertification 3.3.2.phenomena. Scenario 2: Reconstruction of the Past The second scenario is based on the resettlement of rural areas by the preservation and3.3.2. restoration Scenario 2: of Reconstruction existing cultural of heritage.the Past It would be possible to try to create a new directionThe ofsecond migration scenario from is upstream based on oases the resettl to downstreamement of rural oases areas (reverse by the migration) preservation and provideand restoration opportunities of existing for villagers cultural to heritage. return to theirIt would homeland be possible by reactivating to try to create agriculture. a new Itdirection is important of migration to note from that diggingupstream new oases wells to downstream is not allowed oases in this(reverse county migration) (Figure 7and). Therefore,provide opportunities as a first step, for the villagers water requiredto return forto their agriculture homeland in secondary by reactivating oases agriculture. should be suppliedIt is important from a sourceto note other that thandigging deep new wells. well Today,s is not one allowed of the sources in this ofcounty water (Figure supply is7). waterTherefore, reuse, as and a first several step, studies the water are required being performed for agriculture to facilitate in secondary wastewater oases treatment should be supplied from a source other than deep wells. Today, one of the sources of water supply is water reuse, and several studies are being performed to facilitate wastewater treatment and reduce its costs. “In arid and semi-arid areas recycling of water may have a greater impact on future usable water supply than any of the other technologies aimed for increasing water supply. Treated sewage water can be used for irrigation, industry, recharge of groundwater, and in special cases, properly treated wastewater can be used for municipal supply” [49]. By injecting treated Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 16 of 21

and reduce its costs. “In arid and semi-arid areas recycling of water may have a greater impact on future usable water supply than any of the other technologies aimed for increasing water supply. Treated sewage water can be used for irrigation, industry, recharge of groundwater, and in special cases, properly treated wastewater can be used for municipal supply”[49]. By injecting treated municipal and industrial wastewater into the upstream areas, it is expected that the aquifer will be recharged and the qanat system will be reactivated. This scenario implies the problem of dealing with the quality of agricultural soil. The results of soil analysis indicate high salinity in sandy soils (Table S2). With proper water and soil management, and the simultaneous use of innovative technology and indigenous knowledge, it would be possible to refunctionalize agriculture and counteract immigrated villagers, on the assumption of rebuilding the villages which are at present destroyed or not livable. Positive feedback would be: the interruption of water extraction through deep wells, recharging groundwater aquifers, water quality control, and the protection of qanats against destructive factors. By contrast, huge initial investments would be required.

3.3.3. Scenario 3: New-Traditional Spatial Configuration The new configuration of rural and agricultural landscapes in scenario 3 tries to take into account the integrated landscape management approach [50,51] and accordingly addresses the needs of the rural community, such as health and welfare, as well as cultural and natural values of the landscape. Scenario 3 is based on the reorganization of the rural and agricultural landscape as a barrier against desertification by oasification and creating new oases in the area with a high sensibility to desertification. Oasification is an approach to overcome desertification hazards, “which is implemented by land use and environmental management and engineering measures to reach desert and oasis landscape sustainability” and “the oasification process improves the condition of soil and water, increases the vegetation cover, and provides the habitats for wildlife and human beings”[52]. To achieve this aim and present future patterns, landscape zones were identified based on geomorphology, vegetation, land use and traditional management, according to the following definition: “Landscape zones are a framework for displaying the current status and they are a tool for presenting future landscape narratives [53].” Three main homogeneous zones were determined for oasification and spatial configu- ration using new-traditional methods (Figure 17): 1- Traditional agricultural areas on the sand dunes, as a multifunctional agriculture space of high potential for agri-tourism; 2- The axis that connects urban areas to remote villages, as a suitable area to insert: (a) the new oases for a better distribution of the population, and (b) a green barrier in the form of a multifunctional productive landscape; 3- The cultural and historical areas composed of the abandoned villages and qanats, as a neo-traditional landscape divided into three parts: (a) phytodepuration ponds to recharge the aquifer (low-tech and low-cost); (b) the qanat area as a cultural heritage to be preserved and integrated with technological innovation (e.g., photovoltaic park); the replacement of abandoned villages and degraded agricultural land with land-uses less sensitive to water quality (e.g., cultivation of specific plants for foraging, grazing). The resulting landscape masterplan design is reported in Figure 18. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 17 of 21

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 17. Landscape zonation in the study area. 18 of 21 Figure 17. Landscape zonation in the study area.

FigureFigure 18. LandscapeLandscape design design masterplan masterplan of Scenario of 3. Scenario 3. This scenario will allow the connection of natural and cultural capital [54] by creat- ing, at the same time, an innovative and complex green belt consisting of: • Multifunctional agriculture; • Productive green windbreaks instead of Haloxylon afforestation (afforestation lim- ited only to places where a windbreak function is necessary); • Eco-friendly new oases (water treatment and watershed management projects; re- search farms, eco-camping, solar farms); • A regenerated economy (industries related to agriculture and animal husbandry, in- dustries related to indigenous knowledge (e.g., in the study area, handmade carpets have a long history, so relevant industries such as dyeing and spinning are justified)). An agro-eco-tourist route connects all components of this neo-traditional greenbelt (Figure 18). Therefore, in this proposal, the green belt will be a set of land uses that interact with each other and are managed following the integrated landscape management approach. The proposed green belt is a unified system of small-scale projects, most of which are funded and implemented with the participation of local society and in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [55].

Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 18 of 21

This scenario will allow the connection of natural and cultural capital [54] by creating, at the same time, an innovative and complex green belt consisting of: • Multifunctional agriculture; • Productive green windbreaks instead of Haloxylon afforestation (afforestation limited only to places where a windbreak function is necessary); • Eco-friendly new oases (water treatment and watershed management projects; re- search farms, eco-camping, solar farms); • A regenerated economy (industries related to agriculture and animal husbandry, industries related to indigenous knowledge (e.g., in the study area, handmade carpets have a long history, so relevant industries such as dyeing and spinning are justified)). An agro-eco-tourist route connects all components of this neo-traditional greenbelt (Figure 18). Therefore, in this proposal, the green belt will be a set of land uses that interact with each other and are managed following the integrated landscape management approach. The proposed green belt is a unified system of small-scale projects, most of which are funded and implemented with the participation of local society and in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [55].

4. Conclusions The inharmonious development of the landscape eliminates its special distinctive features and creates a gap between people and their past. The urbanization process not only tears up the agricultural and semi-natural landscapes to pieces, but it also eliminates the mosaic diversity of traditional landscapes. Today, rural and agricultural landscapes are shrinking all over the world due to the threat of uncontrolled urban and suburban expan- sion and agriculture abandonment. Consequently, new groups enter the landscape who do not have enough awareness of traditional practices; therefore, the sense of belonging to the landscape is reduced and participation in landscape management also reduces. The derived desertification increases poverty and migration. In arid and semi-arid regions, the long-term results of afforestation projects show that they are actually increasing environmental degradation, with ecosystems deteriorating. From 2007, instead of a wall of trees, a new concept of green belt was launched, which consists of a mosaic of sustainable land management approaches to provide long-term solutions for restoring landscapes and improving livelihoods. The study area represents an emblematic case of the phenomenon described above: an area on the edge of the desert, with a system of abandoned oases characterized by agricultural organization, settlement and the use of traditional agricultural resources that have undergone the influences of industrialization and are in decline due to the advancement of the phenomenon of desertification. Faced with this condition and the various possible intervention alternatives such as maintaining the current trend or a vernacular attitude of restoring important traditional systems, this study proposes an original intervention that combines the knowledge of tradition with the opportunities of contemporary research, and outlines a possible and repeatable strategy. The proposed scenario is to create a new traditional green area that includes small low-cost and low-tech projects adapted to the rural scale. It is expected that with the realization of this idea, rural-urban migration will decrease, and with the establishment of immigrants in new oases, rural and agricultural areas will be developed sustainably with the participation of local people. Due to maintaining the population balance in the region and containing the population of cities, the management of urban services will also be improved, thus the main stakeholders of the project, in addition to villagers and farmers, also include urban residents. Furthermore, with the increase in multifunctional agriculture, it is expected that this will ensure food security and quality, improve environmental conditions, and reduce the need for industrial jobs. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2077 19 of 21

The proposed method of analysis and the adopted approach for an ecological land- scape design represent a pilot methodology suitable to be applied in other situations, transforming it into a strategy to limit the progress of desertification.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1 050/13/4/2077/s1, Table S1: Summary of water quality test; Table S2: Summary of soil quality test; Figure S1: The topography of the county Aran-Bidgol; Figure S2: Age-gender-pyramid of Aran-Bidgol county; Figure S3: Service facilities’ spheres of influence evaluation; Figure S4: Proposed Tourist routes to Maranjab Desert. Author Contributions: R.B. and M.S. conceived the research design; M.S. collected and processed the empirical data, masterplan, and software; R.B., L.V.F. and M.S. carried out the literature analysis, interpreted the empirical results of the research, and wrote the whole manuscript; all photos credit: M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in the article and supplementary material. Acknowledgments: Ph.D. research (Ph.D. program in Landscape and Environment) co-funded by Sapienza, University of Rome (Italy). The authors would like to thank Fabio Di Carlo for support during the Ph.D. program. Mahnaz Sarlak is grateful to all Iranian institutions and all persons that helped her to collect the data. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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