International Journal of Vehicle Structures & Systems Volume 7 Issue 4 ISSN: 0975-3540 (Online) | 0975-3060 (Print) Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
CONTENTS
Finite Element Simulation of Knuckle and Strut Arm Column Assembly for Automotive Steering System 128 N. Gnanasekar, R. Thirumurugan and S. Madhusuthanan; INDIA
Effect of Catalytic Coatings on the Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics of Spark Ignition Engines 132 P. Sakthivel, N. Nedunchezhian and P. Ponnusamy; INDIA
Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process Based Optimization of Rear View Mirror Design Parameters for Blind Spots 136 Reduction in Heavy Transport Vehicles P. Pitchipoo, D.S. Vincent, N. Rajini and S. Rajakarunakaran; INDIA
Development of Closed Cell Metallic Foams for Automotive Crashworthiness 141 D. Noorullah, S.S.M. Nazirudeen, A. Mukesh and V. Karthik; INDIA
Performance Evaluation of Compression Ignition Direct Injection Diesel Engine on Dual Fuel Mode with Mango Oil 145 Methyl Ester Biofuel A. Kumaraswamy and B.D. Prasad; INDIA
Performance and Emission Analysis of Bioethanol Diethyl Ether Fuelled Compression Ignition Diesel Engines 149 S. Janakiraman and T. Lakshmanan; INDIA
Wet Sliding Wear Optimization of Gray Cast Iron using Taguchi Technique 154 S. Ananth, J.U. Prakash, T.V. Moorthy, P. Hariharan, R. Magendran and A.R. Sivanesh; INDIA
Laboratory Scale Testing of Thermoelectric Regenerative Braking System 157 P. Sevvel, I.S.S. Thangaiah, S.M. Mukesh and G.M. Anif; INDIA
Vibration Characteristics of Journal Bearing with Various Damping Materials 161 T.N. Babu and D.R. Prabha; INDIA
Effect of Graphene Filler Content on Mechanical Strength and Hardness for Goat Hair Fibre Reinforced Epoxy 165 Composites J. Jayaseelan, P. Palanisamy, K.R. Vijayakumar and A. D.M. Vinita; INDIA
Experimental Investigation of Sisal, Coir and Sugarcane Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites 169 P. Gurusamy, L.C. Bestall and J.A. Pandian; INDIA
Proof of Concept Fabrication of Multi-axis Pneumatic Mechanism for Dumpers 172 P. Sevvel, V.N. Kannan, S. Parameshwaran and M. Kumar; INDIA
Friction Stir Processing and Mechanical Testing of SiC-Al2O3 and B4C-Al2O3 Particulates Reinforced Aluminium Alloy 175 Composites P. Gurusamy, J.A. Pandian and L.C. Bestall; INDIA
Journal Masthead: Subscription fees: Frequency: Quarterly (Feb., May, Aug., Nov.) The annual subscription fees (2013-15) for the online (ISSN Editorial: A. Kalyani and Md. Basheer 0975-3540) or print (ISSN 0975-3060) version is as follows: Publications Manager: S. Lalitha India – Individual 2800, Institutions 7500; Subscriptions Manager: V. Hamsapriya ` ` Publisher: MechAero Foundation for Rest of World – Individual ` 4500 (£ 60), Institutions ` Technical Research & Education 14400 (£ 192). Excellence - MAFTREE. Institution subscription fees for the online version includes up to Address: 4 Padmavathy Nagar, 5 I.P addresses. The subscription fee for the “print and online New Perungalathur, Chennai, version” is 1.60 times of the online version’s subscription fees. 600063, Tamil Nadu, India. The subscription fee for the print version includes packaging & Tel.: +91 44 22743082 postage charges. Each subscriber has to register online at Email: [email protected] www.maftree.org/eja and quote his/her user ID along with the payment to activate the subscription. The subscription fees Indexing: should be paid in advance. MAFTREE accepts the subscription This Journal is indexed by Elsevier Scopus, EI Compendex, fees via PayPal (in GBP) through www.maftree.org/eja. Current Contents, Scrius, CiteSeerX, Google Scholar, Subscription fees can also be paid by Demand Draft (in Indian CiteULike, IndexCopernius, Transportation Research Rupees) drawn on “MechAero Foundation for Technical Information Services, Mechanical & Transportation Research & Education Excellence”, payable at Chennai, India. Engineering Abstracts, and Indian Citation Index.
International Journal of Vehicle Structures & Systems ISSN: 0975-3540 (Online) | 0975-3060 (Print) | Available online at www.maftree.org / ej a
Special Issue on Technological Advances in Mechanical Engineering (TAME-15) – Editorial Forward
Dept. of Mech. Engg., Vel Tech High Tech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. College, Chennai, India organized National Conference on Technological Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, during 20th August 2015. The conference provided an opportunity to various academicians, industrialists and researchers from India to understand recent technological advances in various specializations of Mechanical Engineering. As recognition of the high standard set by the conference, the “International Journal of Vehicle Structures & Systems (IJVSS)” has proposed to bring out a special issue of selected papers from the conference. They requested me to be the guest editor and rigorously review the papers and bring them to the level of publication in an archival Journal. It gave me an immense pleasure working with IJVSS Editorial Board to get this work to a satisfactory completion. I am thankful to the Editors of IJVSS, Prof. Anindya Deb from the Indian Institute of Science and Dr. Vijayakumar Sahadevan of GKN Aerospace, who are responsible for this special issue.
I thank all the speakers, moderators and delegates whose contributions made TAME2015 a successful event. My special thanks go to the members of the conference committee whose involvement and their supports are seriously appreciated. I am grateful to our Founder & Chairmen Prof. Dr. R. Rangarajan, Principal, Vice- Principal, Head of the planning department, Head of the department, Staff members and Students of VelTech High Tech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engineering College, Chennai, India for all their help and support without which this event could not have taken place.
I trust the current effort by IJVSS in bringing out this special issue will help scientific community in dissemination of knowledge worldwide.
Dr. K. Umanath
Guest Editor for the Special Issue – TAME-15
Dept. of Mech. Engg., VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. College, Chennai, India.
ii
Gnanasekar et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 128-131 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.01 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Finite Element Simulation of Knuckle and Strut Arm Column Assembly for Automotive Steering System
N. Gnanasekara, Rama Thirumuruganb and S. Madhusuthananb aDept. of Mech. Engg., P.A. College of Engineering and Technology, Pollachi, Tamilnadu, India Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected] bC-DAT, Dept. of Mech. Engg., Dr. Mahalingam College of Engineering and Technology, Pollachi, Tamilnadu, India
ABSTRACT: Steering knuckle is one of the important parts in the vehicle steering system. Under certain operating conditions, the knuckles reliability threatens the safety of people and vehicles directly. At emergency braking condition, mostly strut arm and steering arm have maximum deflection in steering knuckle when it is subjected to various load cases. In this work, finite element analysis of the spheroid graphite (SG) iron strut arm of steering knuckle with strut mount assembly was carried out to predict its deflection under static load. The analysis result was compared with that of the experimental results to put forward directions to optimize the shape and material selection.
KEYWORDS: Steering knuckle; Finite element analysis; Spheroid Graphite iron; Static analysis
CITATION: N. Gnanasekar, R. Thirumurugan and S. Madhusuthanan. 2015. Finite Element Simulation of Knuckle and Strut Arm Column Assembly for Automotive Steering System, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 128-131. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.01
The wheel rod is connected to the steering parts and 1. Introduction the strut arm assembly with suspension system from one In motor vehicles, the mechanical parts are subjected to side and the wheel hub assembly from the other side. It different load cases during their service life. Steering has complex connections and tolerates a combination of knuckles are very crucial component of the vehicle’s static and dynamic loads during its service period. These steering and suspension system. This has to deflect as forces are transferred to chassis through the strut arm, much as possible before it fails due to unexpected loads. steering and lower arm assemblies. Therefore, Since knuckle is made up of cast iron, the deflection displacement and stress analysis of these arms are study for the given load is very important. Geometric essential for knuckle to satisfy it’s functional as well as optimization of the knuckle has been investigated safety requirements [2]. The steering knuckles are through finite element (FE) analysis to reduce the usually manufactured using forged steel, cast aluminium, weight. Failure of steering knuckle component leads to and cast iron. The durability of these materials and the loss of orientation of the vehicle [1]. The steering manufacturing processes were studied and reported that knuckle component acts as a junction between the the durability of forged steel was superior to the other steering, wheel hub assembly and suspension system. two materials. Nowadays, spheroid graphite (SG) iron is Steering knuckle system consists of a strut arm at the mostly used in the commercial automobile sector to top, lower control arm at the bottom and a steering arm manufacture the steering knuckle [3]. on the side as shown in Fig. 1. The experimental methods are costly and time consuming process to predict the performance of steering knuckle component when compared to other methods. Hence, researchers are looking for new methods like FEM, statistical tools and optimization codes to study the performance. A statistical method was used to predict the failure probability of steering knuckle parts to replace the testing time [4]. A probabilistic design method was approached to bring the improvement in the product fatigue life prediction and structural reliability [5]. The optimum casting design of knuckle was proposed through detailed stress analysis by using urethane models [6]. The steering-arm portion undergoes repeated bending loads during the vehicle’s movement and it leads to failure because of bending Fig. 1: Steering knuckle component fatigue condition. Through simulations and experiments,
128 Gnanasekar et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 128-131 it was found that aluminium metal matrix composite nonlinear and it is important to investigate the contact knuckles could safely replace SG iron and optimized the between two bodies. The FE model developed using strut arm region using genetic algorithm for minimum Hypermesh package is imported into ANSYS software. bending stress and deflection [7]. It was reported that the In contact analysis, various components are replaced by fatigue and impact behaviour were improved by titanium pilot nodes that are connected to the steering knuckle. carbide particulates in aluminium matrix when compared Hub bolt hole centreline is fixed in all degrees of with conventional materials [8]. freedom with pilot node while the loading is applied to Linear analysis can provide most of the information the strut joints through struts. It provides accurate results about the behaviour of a structure and can be a good in the strut arm region [9]. A node to surface contact is approximation for many analyses. It is also the basis of established between the strut mount and strut arm of nonlinear analysis in most of the cases. In this work the steering knuckle. The lower control arm is fixed in all strut arm region was analyzed for maximum deflection directions. The established contact elements are with strut mount assembly under static loading using displayed in Fig. 3. experiment and FE methods. The results of FE analysis were compared with experimental results to put forward directions for improvements in design.
2. Numerical analysis methodologies 2.1. FE Modelling The geometric model of the steering knuckle designed in CATIA was imported into the Hypermesh software to clean up the geometry and generate the mesh with size control, curvature and proximity options in order to generate a reasonable quality mesh. In this study, three dimensional 10-Node Tetrahedral SOLID 187 Structural elements are used for meshing steering knuckle because of its quadratic displacement behaviour. The steering knuckle is discretized into 65,257 elements with 1,08,083 nodes. Three dimensional 8-node structural Fig. 3: Contact and target surfaces model with strut mount SOLID 185 element is used for meshing strut mount assembly because of its linear displacement behaviour. The strut In this analysis TARGET 170 element is used at the mount is discretized into 17,915 elements with 28,101 nodes of strut mount surface to transfer the force to strut nodes. Fig. 2 shows the discretized FE model of steering arm of the steering knuckle. To create a contact between knuckle and strut mount assembly. In this study, the surfaces of the strut mount and strut arm, CONTACT steering knuckle strut arm is modelled with SG iron 175 element is used. The internal multipoint constraint material property. The strut mount is modelled with steel (MPC) approach is combined with certain bonded and no property. The material properties are given in Table 1. separation contact definitions to define various contact assemblies and kinematic constraints. The internal MPC approach can overcome the drawbacks of the traditional contact algorithms and other MPC tools which are available in ANSYS software. 2.3. Structural analysis with actual loading conditions Structural analyses of a steering knuckle with strut mount assembly for two static load cases as given in Table 2 are carried out by assuming linearly elastic behaviour of the components and material. In this analysis, the static load is applied at the end of the strut mount assembly at a distance of 300mm from the centre Fig. 2: FE model of steering knuckle with strut mount assembly axis of hub hole. These two loading cases are referred from the experimental procedure. Table 1: Material properties Table 2: Load cases Material Property SG Iron Steel Young’s Modulus 172 GPa 210 GPa Load Type Direction of load Load (kN) Poisson’s ratio 0.29 0.3 Case 1 X-Axis towards the brake caliper arm 17.5 Density 7.10 mg/m3 7.80 mg/m3 Case 2 X-axis towards the steering arm 12
2.2. Contact between strut arm and knuckle 3. Experimental procedure The contact has been established between the strut In this study, the steering knuckle with strut mount mount and strut arm of steering knuckle component in assembly is tested for static behaviour of SG material. order to transfer the force. Contact problem is highly The hydraulic actuator (Instron) is used in this testing
129 Gnanasekar et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 128-131 with a capacity of 25 kN. The steering knuckle mounted on a dedicated fixture with its hub hole is shown in Fig. 4. The static load cases are applied to the strut arm of steering knuckle through the strut mount column.
Fig. 7: Deformation of strut arm column assembly for load case 2 from FEA result
Fig. 4: Static test setup The maximum deformation is obtained at same strut mount column end in the experimental result which is 4. Results and discussion compared with FEA result as presented in Fig. 8. The deformation of strut arm column assembly is linearly The results of static analysis for the two load cases are increased for given load cases which are matched well reported in this section using numerical method and with experimental results. experimental method. For Case 1 loading condition, the maximum deformation is predicted at the end of the strut mount column in FE analysis as presented in Fig. 5. The maximum deformation is obtained at same strut mount column end in the experimental result which is compared with FE analysis result as presented in Fig. 6. The deformation of strut arm column assembly is linearly increased for the given load cases which is matched well with the experimental results. For Case 2 loading condition, the maximum deformation is predicted at the end of the strut mount column of steering knuckle from FE analysis as shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8: Comparison of load vs. deformation value for load case 2
5. Conclusions The strut arm column of steering knuckle is analyzed with strut mount assembly using experimental method. The experimental method is very expensive to analyze the performance of the steering knuckle component. In this study, the FE model was developed to evaluate the behaviour of a strut arm column of the steering knuckle component for SG iron material with the same boundary conditions as used in the experimental setup. The FE Fig. 5: Deformation of strut arm column assembly for the load case analysis result was compared with experimental results 1 from FEA result for two load cases. From this comparison, FE analysis results were closely matched with experimental result for both load cases. The FE analysis models and procedure are good enough for further analysis of steering knuckle to find out its structural performance under different loading conditions and it can reduce the number of prototypes and testing of steering knuckle components.
CITATION: The authors thank the management of Dr Mahalingam College of Engineering and Technology, Pollachi, Tamil Nadu, India and M/s Sakthi Auto Components Limited, Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India for their support
for carrying out this work. Fig. 6: Comparison of load vs. Deformation value for load case 1
130 Gnanasekar et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 128-131
REFERENCES: [7] S. Vijayarangan, N. Rajamanickam and V. Sivananth. [1] G.K. Triantafyllidis, A. Antonopoulos, A. Spiliotis, S. 2013. Evaluation of metal matrix composites to replace Fedonos and D. Repanis. 2009. Fracture characteristics of spheroidal graphite iron for a critical component steering fatigue failure of a vehicle’s ductile iron steering knuckle, knuckle, Materials and Design, 43, 532-541. J. Failure Analysis. and Prevention, 9, 323-328. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.07.007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11668-009-9245-y. [8] V. Sivananth, S. Vijayarangan and N. Rajamanickam. [2] F. Pingqing, Z. Bo and Q. Long. 2011. The analysis on 2014. Evaluation of fatigue and impact behavior of destruction forms of steering knuckle, Proc. Third Int. titanium carbide reinforced metal matrix composites, Conf. Measuring Tech. & Mechatronics Automation, Materials Science & Engineering Part A, 597, 304-313. Shanghai, China. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icmtma. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2014.01.004. 2011.740. [9] R.L. Jhala, K.D. Kothari and S.S. Khandare. 2009. [3] M. Zoroufi and A. Fatemi. 2006. Experimental durability Component fatigue behaviors and life predictions of a assessment and life prediction of vehicle suspension steering knuckle using finite element analysis, Proc. Int. components: A case study of steering knuckles, Proc. Multi Conf. Engineers and Computer Scientists, Hong IMechE Part D, J. Automobile Engg., 22c0, 1565-1579. Kong. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/09544070JAUTO310. [4] E.A. Azrulhisham, Y.M. Asri, A.W. Dzuraidah, N.M. Nik EDITORIAL NOTES: Abdullah, A. Shahrum and C.H. Che Hassan. 2010. Edited paper from National Conference on Technological Evaluation of fatigue life reliability of steering knuckle advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August using Pearson parametric distribution model, Int. J. 2015, Chennai, India. Quality, Statistics and Reliability, Article ID. 816407. [5] R. D'Ippolito, M. Hack, S. Donders, L. Hermans, N. GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., Tzannetakis and D. Vandepitte. 2009. Improving the VelTech HighTech Dr Rangarajan Dr Sakunthala Engg. fatigue life of a vehicle knuckle with a reliability-based College, Chennai, India. design optimization approach, J. Statistical Planning and Inference, 139, 1619-1632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. jspi.2008.05.032.
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131 Sakthivel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 132-135 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.02 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Effect of Catalytic Coatings on the Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics of Spark Ignition Engines
P. Sakthivela,b, N. Nedunchezhianc and P. Ponnusamya aDept. of Mechanical Engg., Surya Engg. College, Erode, Tamilnadu, India bCorresponding Author, Email: [email protected] cDept. of Automobile Engg., Institute of Road and Transport Technology, Chithod, Tamilnadu, India
ABSTRACT: This study discusses the effect of copper, nickel and chromium coating on the spark ignition engine performance, emission and combustion characteristics. The maximum brake thermal efficiency for copper coated engine is about 5% higher than standard engine at full load and about 4% higher than the standard engine at 2800 rpm. Nitrogen oxides emission for catalytic coated engine is 7% to 20% higher than standard engine at full load. It was observed that carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emissions of standard engine were higher than catalytic coated engines at all loads. Copper coated engine has the lowest hydro carbon emission. Catalytic coated engines have 6% to 12% higher cyclinder pressure when compared to the standard engine. The crank angle of heat release values and combustion parameters indicate that a faster heat release occured for catalyst coated engines. Similarly combustion duration of standard engine is higher than that of catalytic coated engines. Catalytic coatings increase the pre-flame reactions which lead to better and faster combustion.
KEYWORDS: Spark ignition engine; Catalytic coatings; Emission control; Brake thermal efficiency; Heat release rate
CITATION: P. Sakthivel, N. Nedunchezhian and P. Ponnusamy. 2015. Effect of Catalytic Coatings on the Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics of Spark Ignition Engines, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 132-135. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.02
catalytically activated spark ignition engine were 1. Introduction determined for different catalysts and their performances The operation of internal combustion engines results in were compared. the emission of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matters. 2. Materials and methods The actual concentration of these pollutants varies from The performance parameters, emission and combustion engine to engine, mode of operation and is strongly characteristics of catalytically activated spark ignition related to the type of fuel used. Various emission control engine studies were conducted on an air-cooled, vertical, technologies exist for internal combustion engines, naturally aspirated, stationary, four stroke, spark ignition which can offer substantial reductions in pollutants. single cylinder engine with a displacement volume of However, depending on whether the engine is run on 197 cc, compression ratio of 4.5:1 and with a power rich stoichiometric air fuel ratio, the targeted emissions output of 2.28 kW at 3000 rpm. In this work, vary depending up on the levels of control. Lean mixture experiments were conducted in the speed range of 2200 is one of the promising method for reducing emissions rpm to 3000 rpm. The engine is coupled with an eddy and improving fuel economy in spark ignition engines. current dynamometer (20 kW) for loading. The fuel flow The problems associated with lean combustion in rate was measured using gravimetric system. The engines are increased the cyclic variation of combustion, exhaust emissions were measured using AVL make gas reduced power output, difficulty in starting, erratic analyzer. The in-cylinder pressure was measured with combustion and misfire[1]. Among different available the help of pressure transducer, which was flush methods, catalytic activation offers a simple and mounted into cylinder head and the corresponding crank effective solution. Cenk et al [2] have done detailed angle position was obtained by crank angle encoder. experimental work to compare the catalytic activation of 8 metals and found out that platinum and copper showed 3. Results and discussion better performance [3]. Number of researchers have undertken detailed analysis of catalytic combustion. 3.1. Performance study This study aims to select a best non-noble metal The catalytic coated engines were evaluated for catalytic coating material for coating over the piston top performance characteristics at maximum load and speed and cylinder head in four-stroke spark ignition engine. from 2000 rpm to 3000 rpm. The results of engine Their emission and combustion characteristics of performance, emission and combustion data for both
132 Sakthivel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 132-135 standard and catalyst engine were discussed in the standard engine at full load. Maximum NOx emission in following sections. The brake thermal efficiency vs. load the case of copper, chromium and nickel was higher than was shown in Fig. 1. It was found that the brake power standard engine at 2500 rpm. The reason for the increases with increase in brake thermal efficiency[4]. increased NOx is the higher heat release rate inside the The maximum brake thermal efficiency found were combustion chamber because of increased in-cylinder 25.12% for copper, 23.85% for chromium, 21.31% for temperature due to catalytic reaction. nickel and 20.03% for standard. The brake thermal efficiency of standard engine is slightly higher for initial loads up to 0.9 kW and then catalytic coated engine shows better brake thermal efficiency. The maximum brake thermal efficiency for Copper coated engine is about 5% higher than the standard engine. For other catalytic coatings like chromium and nickel, the maximum brake thermal efficiency were 3.8% and 1.28% higher than that of standard engine Fig. 2 shows the difference in specific fuel consumption with brake power. The fuel consumption of the standard engine varies from 0.791 kg kW-1 hr-1 at low load to 0.374 kg kW-1 hr-1 at full load. For copper coated engine, it varies from 0.802 kg kW-1 hr-1 at low load to 0.298 kg kW-1 hr-1 at full load. It was observed that specific fuel consumption varies from 0.836 kg kW-1 hr-1 at low load Fig. 3: Variation of NOx emission with brake power -1 -1 to 0.314 kg kW hr at full load for chromium and HC emissions were formed as the unburned fuel that nickel coating respectively. cannot penetrate effectively[6]. Unburned HC is a measure of combustion inefficiency[1]. Engine exhaust gases contain a wide variety of HC compounds. Olefins, acetylene and aromatics present in the exhaust gases were partially converted into paraffins. The difference in HC emission with brake power for various coatings is shown in Fig. 4. Copper coated engine has the lowest HC emission when compared to other catalysts. At full load, the HC emission for copper coated engine is appreciably reduced to 130 ppm compared to the standard engine. These improvements are mainly due to catalytic activation of the charge leading to better oxidation of the HC.
Fig. 1: Variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power
Fig. 4: Variation of HC with brake power When the fuel does not burn completely, the carbon
in the fuel converts into CO which is a measure of Fig. 2: Variation of specific fuel consumption with brake power combustion in-efficiency. This emission is toxic and 3.2. Engine emission study must be controlled. Fig. 5 shows the variation of CO with brake power. The CO emission of standard engine The NOx was formed due to oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen at higher temperature inside the combustion is higher than other catalytic coated engines at full load. chamber. Nitric monoxide and nitrogen dioxide were This may be attributed to reduced in-cylinder grouped together as NOx emissions [5]. The variation of temperatures. Carbon dioxide (CO2) serves as a heat NOx emission with brake power is shown in Fig. 3. NOx absorbing agent during the combustion and reduces the emission in the case of copper is 165 ppm higher than peak temperature in the combustion chamber. Fig. 6 depicts the variation of CO2 emission with load for
133 Sakthivel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 132-135 standard and catalytic coated engines. The CO2 emission 3.3. Combustion study varies from 11.1% at low load to 12.3% at full load for Fig. 8 shows the variation of cylinder pressure with standard engine. The amount of CO2 produced by crank angle at full load for standard and various catalytic standard engine is higher than catalytic coated engine at coated engines. The cylinder pressure obtained at full all loads. load indicates higher value for 14.874 bar (copper),
14.416 bar (chromium), 14.089 bar (nickel) and 13.274 bar (standard). Higher values of cylinder pressure indicate faster combustion rate. Improved combustion is obtained as a result of charge activation process in the presence of the catalyst. Catalytic coated engines have higher cylinder pressures compared to the standard engine. Fig. 9 shows the rate of heat release with respect to crank angle. Faster heat release occurs for copper coated surface. Maximum heat release occurs for copper (17.372 kJ-1m-3 deg-1) at 21° crank angle, chromium (16.18 kJ-1m-3 deg-1) at 29° crank angle, nickel (16.106 kJ-1m-3 deg-1) at 29° crank angle and standard surface (15.725 kJ-1m-3 deg-1) at 32° crank angle.
Fig. 5. Variation of CO with brake power
Fig. 8: Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle
Fig. 6: Variation of CO2 with brake power Fig. 7 shows the variation of exhaust gas temperature with brake power for standard and catalytic coated engine at 2500 rpm. It is observed that the exhaust gas temperature increases with load because more fuel is burnt to meet the power requirement. For standard engine, the exhaust gas temperature showed marginally low, at all the loads compared to catalytic coated engine. At maximum load the exhaust gas temperatures were 273 °C (standard), 300 °C (copper), 282 °C (chromium) and 280 °C (nickel).
Fig. 9: Variation of heat release rate with crank angle The variation in cylinder pressures from cycle to cycle is a fundamental combustion problem for spark ignition engine. This originates during the initial flame development period and propagates into the turbulent combustion period. Fig. 10 shows the variation of cylinder pressure for different catalytic coatings. The average cylinder pressures of catalytic coated engine were 14.947 bar, 14.525 bar, 14.209 bar and 13.404 bar for copper, chromium, nickel and standard surface, respectively. This is due to faster combustion process of catalytic coatings. The variation of cylinder peak pressure with respect to speed for different catalytic Fig. 7: Variation of exhaust gas temperature with brake power coated surface is shown in Fig. 11. Catalytic coated
134 Sakthivel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 132-135 engines have higher cycliner peak pressure compared to coatings increases pre-flame reactions which lead to the standard engine. Fig. 12 shows the maximum heat better and faster combustion. NOx emission for catalytic release rate with respect to speed decreases with increase coated engine is 7% to 20% higher than standard engine in speed. The maximum heat release rate for copper at full load. This higher NOx emission may be due to coated surface was 18.497 kJ m-3 deg-1 at 2200 rpm and higher temperature of combustion chamber. CO 16.342 kJ m-3 deg-1 at 3000 rpm. For the tested engine emission of standard engine is higher than catalytic speeds the maximum heat release occurs for catalytic coated engine at full load which may be attributed to coated surface when compared with standard engine at reduced in-cylinder temperatures. The amount of CO2 all speeds. This is due to higher cylinder pressure for produced while using standard surface is higher than catalytic coated engine and also efficient combustion catalytic coated engine at all loads. Copper coated with catalytic activity. engine has the lowest hydro carbon emission when compared to other catalysts. The higher temperatures enhance combustion, and stimulate oxidation reactions throughout the expansion. As a result, unburned HC are completely oxidized. This is due to increase of flame speed with catalytic activity. Catalytic coated engines have 6 % to 12 % higher cyclinder pressure compared to the standard engine. Higher values of pressure indicate a faster combustion for catalytic coated engines. The crank angle of heat release values and combustion parameters indicate that a faster heat release occur for catalytic coated engine. The combustion duration of standard engine is higher than that of catalytic coated engines. Catalytic coatings increases pre-flame reactions which lead to better and
faster combustion. Fig. 10: Cyclic variations of cylinder pressures REFERENCES: [1] P. Ponnusamy. 2015. Investigation of emission characteristics over catalytic coated surface with EGR in SI engine, Int. J. Emerging Trends in Engg. and Development, 4(5), 67-74. [2] C. Sayin, K. Uslu and M. Canakci. 2008. Influence of injection timing on the exhaust emissions of a dual-fuel CI engine, J. Renewable Energy, 33(2), 1314-1323. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2007.07.007. [3] G.A. Karim and M.G. Kibrya. 1986. Variations of the lean blowout limit of a homogeneous methane-air stream in the presence of a metallic wire mesh, ASME Transactions, 108(3), 446-449. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3239927. Fig. 11: Variation of max. cylinder pressure with engine speed [4] M.V.S.M. Krishna and K. Kishor. 2008. Performance of copper coated spark ignition engine with methanol- blended gasoline with catalytic converter, J. Scientific and Industrial Research, 67(7), 543-548. [5] K.Narasimha, M.V.S.M. Krishna, P.V.K. Murthy, D.N. Reddy and K. Kishor. 2011. Performance of copper coated two stroke spark ignition engine with gasohol with catalytic converter with different catalyst, Int. J. Applied Engg. Research, 2(1), 205-218. [6] P. Ponnusamy, R. Subramanian and N. Nedunchezhian. 2011. Experimental investigation on performance, emission and combustion analysis of a four stroke SI engine with various catalytic coating, European J. Scientific Research, 63(2), 182-191.
Fig. 12: Variation of maximum heat release rate with engine speed EDITORIAL NOTES: Edited paper from National Conference on Technological 4. Conclusions Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August 2015, Chennai, India. The catalytic coated engines showed lower fuel consumption compared to the standard engine at full GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., loads. Among the catalysts, the lowest specific fuel VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. consumption is achieved for copper coating. Catalytic College, Chennai, India.
135 Pitchipoo et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 136-140 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.03 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www. maftree.org/eja
Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process Based Optimization of Rear View Mirror Design Parameters for Blind Spots Reduction in Heavy Transport Vehicles
P. Pitchipooa, D.S. Vincentb, N. Rajinic and S. Rajakarunakarand aDept. of Mech. Engg., P.S.R. Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India aCorresponding Author, Email: [email protected] bTamil Nadu State Transport Corporation Ltd., Thiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, India cDept. of Mech. Engg., Kalasalingam University, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India dDept. of Mech. Engg., Ramco Institute of Technology, Rajapalayam, Tamil Nadu, India
ABSTRACT: While driving, blind spot is a key phenomenon related to the visibility of the driver. Blind Spots play a vital role in road accidents. Reduction of blind spot area is very much required to reduce the accidents. In this paper, an attempt is made to overcome the problems of blind spot by optimizing the design parameters used in the rear view mirror design of heavy transport vehicles. The blind spot of the existing body structure was studied in a public transport. First the area of blind spot of the existing body structure was studied and then the optimal design parameters are ranked by Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (FAHP). FAHP was also used to determine the weights of the design parameters and ranking of the vehicle body structures though a case study.
KEYWORDS: Heavy transport vehicle; Blind spots; Rear view mirror; Fuzzy analytical hierarchy process
CITATION: P. Pitchipoo, D.S. Vincent, N. Rajini and S. Rajakarunakaran. 2015. Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process Based Optimization of Rear View Mirror Design Parameters for Blind Spots Reduction in Heavy Transport Vehicles, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 136-140. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.03
1. Introduction Statistics revealed that most of the road accidents were happened due to vision related problems of the driver. Good driver visibility results in safer road traffic [1]. A blind spot in a vehicle is the area around the vehicle that cannot be directly seen by the driver when he is seated. The heavy vehicle drivers can’t see some areas on the roadway in the front, rear and on either sides of the vehicle. Front side blind spots are influenced by many Fig. 1: Area of the blind spot design criteria such as vehicle body structure, human anthropometric data, road geometry and driver seat Rear view mirrors reduce some area of the blind design. Amongst the main factors to be considered, the spots behind the driver and on either sides of the heavy driver seat design was identified as important factor. vehicle. Adjustment of mirrors/positioning for larger While designing the driver’s seat, the distance between field-of-view will be helpful in reducing the blind spots. seat back rest to windscreen glass attracts major The distance between the driver and the pillar or frame importance to reduce the blind spots. structure to the left and right sides of the front body A large blind spot in the rear or sides of the heavy structure, driver eye sight height while he is in the driver vehicle can completely hide a portion of seat from the platform, and the centre height of the pedestrian/motor-cycle or even a full vehicle. Blind spots mirror from the ground level are important while hide the road to verify them before making manoeuvres considering the installation of mirrors. Cho and Han [2] such as turning, reversing, changing lanes and stated that the vision of the driver is the most vital factor overtaking other vehicles. This places the driver in a for an unusual driving situation. Burger [3] analyzed the risky situation resulting sometimes in untoward incidents rear vision systems in 12 passenger vehicles and 3 trucks and accidents. Blind spots exist in a wide range of under actual driving conditions and predicted the critical vehicles such as cars, trucks, motorboats and aircraft. zone in the rear side of the vehicle using expert’s Fig.1 shows the area of the blind spot pertinent to a opinion. Ayres et al [4] assessed the safety aspects heavy transport vehicle. In this paper, the blind spots on during the usage of rear view mirrors and analyzed the either sides of the driver while driving is considered. research issues involved in the design of rear view
136 Pitchipoo et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 136-140 mirrors. The rear view mirrors may not be related with process [14] with fuzzy concept. Based on the opinion of any significant accident prevention as they are not the decision maker, the evaluation criteria are compared. consistently used by all the drivers while driving. The ranking of the criteria used for evaluation was Moreover, major accidents were caused when the target collected. Based on that the criteria matrix was formed vehicle appears in the driver’s blind spot during lane using 9-point scale of relative importance and Triangular change or crowded urban travelling and the driver has Fuzzy Number (TFN) as given in Table 1. not carefully observed the approaching vehicle using the Table 1: TFN based on Saaty’s 9-point scale rear and side mirrors. Pardhy et al [5] introduced the concept of computer Verbal judgment or preference Scale TFN graphics display driven by differential global positioning Extremely preferred 9 9, 9, 9 system as a virtual mirror. This display was intended to Very strongly to extremely preferred 8 7, 8, 9 be used as a rear or side view mirror in automobiles or Very strongly preferred 7 6, 7, 8 trucks. Kojima et al [6] proposed a vision support system Strongly to very strongly preferred 6 5, 6, 7 called "Navi View" as visual assistance for safe driving. Strongly preferred 5 4, 5, 6 Llaneras et al [7] developed driver interface criteria for a Moderately to strongly preferred 4 3, 4, 5 rear obstacle detection system and evaluated various Moderately preferred 3 2, 3, 4 interface approaches for presenting warning information Equally to moderately preferred 2 1, 2, 3 to drivers. Fuzzy logic based intelligent blind spot Equally preferred 1 1, 1, 1 detecting system was presented by Qidwai [8]. In this system, several ultrasonic sensors were used to monitor The pair wise comparison matrix is called criteria the chosen blind spots in a vehicle. Hughes et al [9] matrix, Xcri as follows, discussed the use of electronic vision systems in X cri a i j ; i l, j m (1) vehicles. The benefits of using wide-angle lens camera th th systems to minimize the vehicle’s blind-zones were where, aij is the pair wise comparison of i and j criteria described. The application of RFID and Bluetooth and m is the number of alternatives. This was converted technology in the blind zone area reduction was into fuzzy original matrix using TFN prescribed by Alias proposed by Lakshmi and Banu [10]. et al [15] which is also shown in Table 1. The fuzzy Kim et al [11] studied the surface flow around an number in a fuzzy set can be represented by, automotive external rear view mirror and explained the F x, Fx,x R (2) visualizations over the mirror housing surface and the where F is fuzzy set, x is fuzzy number, R is x driver side vehicle skin. Computer based simulation was also used to detect and warn the objects present within and µF(x) is a continuous mapping from R in the the blind spots in automobiles [1]. Bao et al [12] interval [0, 1]. A TFN expresses the relative strength of developed a fuzzy logic based TOPSIS decision model each pair of elements in the same hierarchy and denoted for road safety using performance index by incorporating as TFN (M) = (l, m, u) where l m u in which l is the experts’ opinions. This approach effectively taken smallest possible value, m is the most promising value experts’ linguistic expressions into account in the current and u is the largest possible value in a fuzzy event. The index research. TOPSIS was used for evaluation of road triangular membership function of M fuzzy number can safety measures focused on road users, vehicles, road be described in Eqn. (3). Then the fuzzy original matrix infrastructure, and comprehensive measures by using a is normalized using Eqn. (4). survey. An intelligent decision support system using an 0 x l improved hierarchical fuzzy TOPSIS model was developed to evaluate the road safety performance in x l m l l x l A x f x (3) European countries [13]. The experts’ knowledge was u x u m m x u incorporated in the proposed model. 0 x u From the literature review, it is evident that the parameters involved in the design and installation of rear Ni j ai j Tj (4) view mirror should be in the optimal conditions to where aij is the cell value of ith row and jth column in the overcome the problems of blind spots on either sides of m the vehicle. The aim of this work is to optimize the blind fuzzy original matrix, i l, j m and Tj i1`ai j . The spots for heavy transport vehicles by optimizing the weights were calculated by converting fuzzy numbers design parameters used for the design and installation of into crisp values by using defuzzification technique. In rear view mirrors. To achieve this, fuzzy logic based this study, the centroid method was used for decision model is developed. The developed model is defuzzification as given in Eqn. (5). validated by a case study conducted in the transport n n k i k corporation of Tamil Nadu, India. Weights Wi i1mli O i1mli (5) i1 i1 2. Model development where k is the number of rules, Oi is the class generated In this paper the weights of the criteria and the ranking by rule i (from 0, 1, …. L-1), L is the number of classes, of the vehicle body structures are determined by Fuzzy n is the number of inputs and mli is the membership grade of feature, l, in the fuzzy regions that occupies the Analytical Hierarchy Process (FAHP). FAHP is th developed by integrating Saaty’s analytical hierarchy i rule.
137 Pitchipoo et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 136-140
Since the pair wise comparison matrix is formulated distance between the driver and the right side of the body based on human judgment, it is must to ensure that the pillar or frame structure (A), the distance between the values collected are acceptable values. The Consistency driver and the left side of the body pillar or frame Ratio (CR) is calculated using, structure (B), the distance of driver’s eye right height CR CI RI (6) from the platform (C) and the distance between the centre of the rear view mirror and the ground level (D) where RI is random indices for criteria size ‘m’ and CI is are identified as the influencing criteria for the design the consistency index which is determined using, and installation of rear view mirror in heavy vehicle. The data of influencing criteria for the design of driver seat max m CI (7) are given in Table 3. After the data were collected, the m 1 comparisons of criteria were obtained from the transport where φmax is the maximum eigen value and m is the corporation as given in Table 4. number of criteria. RI was approximated by Saaty [14] which is given in Table 2. If the CR is < 0.10, the Table 3: Influencing criteria for the design of driver seat decision maker's pair wise comparison matrix is Vehicle type A (cm) B (cm) C (cm) D (cm) acceptable. Then all the alternatives are compared IS 36 178 122 242 together using Saaty’s 9-point scale (Table 1). Based on OS1 34 181 123 240 each criterion, the pair wise matrix for alternatives are OS2 34 182 123 224 developed. This matrix is converted into fuzzy matrix OS3 34 177 119 204 using the fuzzy numbers given in Table 1. Then the fuzzy matrix is normalized using Eqn. (4) to formulate Table 4: Crisp original matrix fuzzy normalized alternative matrix. From this, the A B C D weights of the alternatives based on each criterion are A 1 2 5 3 computed. Finally overall priority matrix is determined B 1/2 1 4 2 using, C 1/5 1/4 1 1/4 D 1/3 1/2 4 1 O Cmn Wi (8) where Cmn is the weights of the alternative ‘m’ for The crisp matrix is converted into fuzzy matrix criterion ‘n’. From the overall priority, the highest value using TFN in Table 1. The fuzzy criteria matrix is shown is selected as the best alternative. in Table 5. The normalized fuzzy criteria matrix is given Table 2: Random indices in Table 6. The consistency ratio for this proposed FAHP model is calculated using Eqn. (6) and is found as 0.091 m RI m RI m RI m RI which is less than 0.1. So this model is acceptable. After 1 0 4 0.90 7 1.32 10 1.49 checking the consistency, the weights of the criteria are 2 0 5 1.12 8 1.41 11 1.51 determined using Eqn. (5) and shown in Table 6. Next 3 0.58 6 1.24 9 1.45 12 1.58 all the alternatives are compared with each other based on all selected criteria which are shown in Table 7. Then 3. Case study these fuzzy matrixes are normalized and shown in Table To prove the effectiveness of the proposed model, a case 8. Finally the overall priority is determined using Eqn. study is conducted in a transport division located in the (8). From the overall priority the best alternative is southern part of India. At present, four different types of selected. Table 9 depicts the overall priority for all the vehicle bodies are used in that division. They are, body alternatives. OS3 vehicle has the highest FAHP score built in the same organization (in-sourcing - IS) and followed by OS2, OS1 and IS body built vehicles. three out-sourced (OS1, OS2 and OS3) bodies. The
Table 5: Fuzzy criteria matrix A B C D
A 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 B 1.000 0.500 0.333 1.000 1.000 1.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 C 0.250 0.200 0.167 0.333 0.250 0.200 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.333 0.250 0.200 D 0.500 0.333 0.250 1.000 0.500 0.333 3.003 4.000 5.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Table 6: Fuzzy normalized matrix A B C D Weights
A 0.364 0.492 0.571 0.300 0.533 0.662 0.364 0.357 0.353 0.462 0.480 0.488 0.459 B 0.364 0.246 0.190 0.300 0.267 0.221 0.273 0.286 0.294 0.231 0.320 0.366 0.281 C 0.091 0.098 0.095 0.100 0.067 0.044 0.091 0.071 0.059 0.077 0.040 0.024 0.075 D 0.182 0.164 0.143 0.300 0.133 0.074 0.273 0.286 0.294 0.231 0.160 0.122 0.210
138 Pitchipoo et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 136-140
Table 7: Fuzzy alternative matrix IS OS1 OS2 OS3
IS 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.250 0.200 0.167 0.250 0.200 0.167 0.250 0.200 0.167 OS1 4.000 5.000 5.988 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 OS2 4.000 5.000 5.988 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
BasedA on OS3 4.000 5.000 5.988 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 IS 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.500 0.333 0.250 0.250 0.200 0.167 2.000 3.000 4.000 OS1 2.000 3.003 4.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 OS2 4.000 5.000 5.988 0.500 0.333 0.250 1.000 1.000 1.000 6.000 7.000 8.000
BasedB on OS3 0.500 0.333 0.250 0.250 0.200 0.167 0.167 0.143 0.125 1.000 1.000 1.000 IS 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 0.500 0.333 0.250 OS1 0.500 0.333 0.250 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.250 0.200 0.167 OS2 0.500 0.333 0.250 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.250 0.200 0.167
BasedC on OS3 2.000 3.003 4.000 4.000 5.000 5.988 4.000 5.000 5.988 1.000 1.000 1.000 IS 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.500 0.333 0.250 0.200 0.167 0.143 0.111 0.111 0.111 OS1 2.000 3.003 4.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.250 0.200 0.167 0.111 0.111 0.111 OS2 5.000 5.988 6.993 4.000 5.000 5.988 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.167 0.143 0.125
BasedD on OS3 9.009 9.009 9.009 9.009 9.009 9.009 6.000 7.000 8.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Table 8: Normalized alternative matrix IS OS1 OS2 OS3 Score
IS 0.077 0.063 0.053 0.077 0.063 0.053 0.077 0.063 0.053 0.077 0.063 0.053 0.064 OS1 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.312 OS2 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.312
BasedA on OS3 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.312 IS 0.133 0.107 0.089 0.222 0.178 0.150 0.073 0.046 0.032 0.154 0.188 0.211 0.156 OS1 0.267 0.322 0.356 0.444 0.536 0.600 0.585 0.691 0.756 0.308 0.313 0.316 0.509 OS2 0.533 0.536 0.533 0.222 0.179 0.150 0.293 0.230 0.189 0.462 0.438 0.421 0.408
BasedB on OS3 0.067 0.036 0.022 0.111 0.107 0.100 0.049 0.033 0.024 0.077 0.063 0.053 0.074 IS 0.250 0.214 0.182 0.250 0.300 0.334 0.250 0.300 0.334 0.250 0.192 0.158 0.259 OS1 0.125 0.071 0.045 0.125 0.100 0.083 0.125 0.100 0.083 0.125 0.115 0.105 0.102 OS2 0.125 0.071 0.045 0.125 0.100 0.083 0.125 0.100 0.083 0.125 0.115 0.105 0.102
BasedC on OS3 0.500 0.643 0.727 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.577 0.631 0.553 IS 0.059 0.053 0.048 0.034 0.022 0.015 0.027 0.020 0.015 0.080 0.081 0.082 0.058 OS1 0.118 0.158 0.190 0.069 0.065 0.062 0.034 0.024 0.018 0.080 0.081 0.082 0.109 OS2 0.294 0.315 0.333 0.276 0.326 0.369 0.134 0.120 0.107 0.120 0.105 0.093 0.265
BasedD on OS3 0.530 0.474 0.429 0.621 0.587 0.555 0.805 0.837 0.859 0.720 0.733 0.742 0.686
the blind spots in automobiles, Int. J. Computer Science Table 9: Overall priority score Issues, 10(1), 453-456. A B C D Overall Score [2] Y.H. Cho and B.K. Han. 2010. Application of slim A- IS 0.029 0.044 0.020 0.012 0.105 pillar to improve driver’s field of vision, Int. J. OS1 0.143 0.143 0.008 0.023 0.317 Automotive Technology, 1(4), 517-524. http://dx.doi.org/ OS2 0.143 0.114 0.008 0.056 0.321 10.1007/s12239-010-0063-8. OS3 0.143 0.021 0.042 0.144 0.350 [3] W. Burger. 1974. Evaluation of innovative passenger car and truck rear vision system, SAE Paper 740965. 4. Conclusion [4] T. Ayres, L. Li, D. Trachtman and D. Youn. 2005. Passenger-side rear-view mirrors: Driver behavior and This paper discussed the elimination of blind spots in the safety, Int. J. Industrial Ergonomics, 35(2), 157-162. sides and rear of the heavy vehicle which is an important http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2004.05.009. aspect of road safety. An intelligent multi criteria [5] S. Pardhy, C. Shankwitz and M. Donath. 2000. A virtual optimization model was proposed in the reduction of mirror for assisting drivers, Proc. IEEE Symp. Intelligent blind spot area in heavy transport vehicle. FAHP was Vehicles, Michigan, USA. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ivs. used to determine the weights of the influencing criteria 2000.898351. and the best alternative was also selected. In the [6] K. Kojima, A. Sato, F. Taya, Y. Kameda and Y. Ohta. developed model fuzzy concepts were combined with 2005. Naviview: Visual assistance by virtual mirrors at AHP. The model was tested by a case study and the blind intersection, Proc. IEEE Intelligent Transportation effectiveness of the model was proved. Systems, Vienna, Austria. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/itsc. 2005.1520120. REFERENCES: [7] R.E. Llaneras, C.A. Green, R.J. Kiefer, W.J. Chundrlik Jr., O.D. Altan and J.P. Singer. 2005. Design and [1] H. Hatamleh, A.M. Sharadqeh, M. Alnaser, O.Alheyasat evaluation of a prototype rear obstacle detection and and A. Abdel-Karim. 2013. Computer simulation to detect
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driver warning system, Human Factors, 47(1), 199-215. [13] Q. Bao, D. Ruan, Y. Shen, E. Hermans and D. Janssens. http://dx.doi.org/10.1518/0018720053653901. 2012. Improved hierarchical fuzzy TOPSIS for road safety [8] U. Qidwai. 2009. Fuzzy blind-spot scanner for performance evaluation, Knowledge Based Systems, 32, automobiles, Proc. IEEE Symp. Industrial Electronics & 84-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2011.08.014. Applications, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. http://dx.doi.org/ [14] T.L. Saaty. 1990. How to make a decision: The analytic 10.1109/isiea.2009.5356356. hierarchy process, European J. Operations Research, [9] C. Hughes, M. Glavin, E. Jones and P. Denny. 2009. 48(1), 9-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0377-2217(90)9005 Wide-angle camera technology for automotive 7-I. applications - A review, Intelligent Transport System, [15] M.A. Alias, S.Z.M. Hashim and S. Samsudin. 2009. Using 3(1), 19-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/iet-its:20080017. fuzzy analytic hierarchy process for southern Johor river [10] S. Lakshmi and R.S.D.W. Banu. 2010. Efficient ranking, Int. J. Advanced Soft Computing Applications, realisation and rendering of images in blind zone, J. 1(1), 62-76. Computer Engg., 1(1), 1-5. [11] J.H. Kim, B.H. Park and Y.O. Han. 2011. Surface flow EDITORIAL NOTES: and wake characteristics of automotive external rear-view mirror, J. Automobile Engg., 225(12), 1605-1613. http:// Edited paper from National Conference on Technological dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954407011411377. Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August 2015, Chennai, India. [12] Q. Bao, D. Ruan, Y. Shen and E. Hermans. 2010. Creating a composite road safety performance index by a GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., hierarchical fuzzy TOPSIS approach, Proc. Int. Conf. VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. Intelligent Systems and Knowledge Engg., Hangzhou, College, Chennai, India. China.
140 Noorullah et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 141-144 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.04 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Development of Closed Cell Metallic Foams for Automotive Crashworthiness
D. Noorullaha,b, S.S. Mohamed Nazirudeene, A. Mukesha,d and V. Karthika,c aDept. of Metallurgical Engg., Government College of Engg., Salem, Tamilnadu, India bCorresponding author, Email: [email protected] cEmail: [email protected] dEmail: [email protected] eDept. of Metallurgical Engg., PSG College of Tech., Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: Metallic foams with controlled porosity are an emerging class of ultra-lightweight materials that are receiving increased attraction in automobile, military and other commercial applications. Metal foams exhibit high stiffness to weight and strength to weight ratios, and thus offer potential weight savings. They also have the ability to absorb high amounts of energy during compressive deformation for efficient crashworthiness. In the present work, closed cell aluminium metallic foams were produced through liquid state processing by using calcium as viscosity modifier and titanium hydride as blowing agent. The porosity content of the foam was 88 %. The pores are differently sized and uniformly distributed. The cell wall microstructure was studied using optical microscope. The compressive response of the foam was studied at different percentage of deformation using uni-axial compression testing machine.
KEYWORDS: Metallic foam; Aluminium; Compression test; Microstructure; Pore collapse
CITATION: D. Noorullah, S.S.M. Nazirudeen, A. Mukesh and V. Karthik. 2015. Development of Closed Cell Metallic Foams for Automotive Crashworthiness, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 141-144. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.04
high thermal conductivity [2]. Aluminium metal foam 1. Introduction materials, which can be fabricated into a variety of Numerous research works are on-going towards the functional geometries, offer significant performance development of ecological technologies for automotive advantages for weight-sensitive applications. The vehicles manufacturing. One of the major problems of properties of the metal foams strongly depend on the this century is depletion of natural fossil fuel resources pore structure. The processing method and conditioning and the increasing air pollution due to exhaust emission decide the size, shape, volume fraction and spatial from automotive vehicles. These problems can be distribution of pores in metal foams. The metal foams overcome by reducing the weight of the vehicle thereby can be produced by different routes, such as liquid state lowering the rate of fuel consumption. The reduction in processing, solid state processing, electro-deposition and consumption and emissions remains the greatest vapour deposition [2]. In liquid state processing, molten technological challenge for the automotive industry. metal is processed into a porous material either by Reducing weight by 100 kg leads to a fuel savings of foaming it directly or by using a polymer foam. Finally, by casting the liquid metal around solid space to hold 0.35 l/100 km and 8.4 g CO2/km with gasoline engines if taking into account an adjustment of the gear shifting filler materials followed by further processing to form without a change in elasticity and acceleration values the pore space. One further possibility is to melt powder due to the lower weight [1]. The exhaust emissions from compacts containing a gas blowing agent. motor vehicles can be minimized by reducing their fuel Ultra-lightweight aluminium foams possess unique consumption. Fuel consumption can be improved by microstructural characteristics and physical properties increasing the thermodynamic efficiency of the engine. which make them attractive for automotive applications. Significant gains can also be achieved by reducing the The aluminium metal foams were produced by using weight of the vehicle and its aerodynamic drag. To variety of blowing agents [3-5] such as titanium hydride achieve a weight reduction high performance materials (TiH2), zirconium hydride (ZrH2), calcium carbonate are required. Materials with high specific stiffness and (CaCO3) and dolomite CaMg(CO3)2. TiH2 is the strength properties allow the production of highly commonly used blowing agent because of its better efficient lightweight load bearing structures. foaming ability. In the present work, aluminium metal Foams and other highly porous materials with a foams have been produced through liquid state cellular structure are known to have many interesting processing route using TiH2 as blowing agent. The combinations of physical and mechanical properties, compressive deformation behaviour of the aluminium such as high stiffness in conjunction with very low foam are characterised by experimental tests followed by specific weight or high gas permeability combined with close examination of their microstructures.
141 Noorullah et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 141-144
2. Materials and methods 3. Results and discussion The pure aluminium bars have been heated to a 3.1. Material density & microstructure analysis temperature of 700°C in a stir casting furnace. As a The foam was characterized in terms of its density, cell viscosity modifier, 1.5% of pure calcium tablets were morphology and cell wall microstructure. Fig. 3 shows added to the melt and stirred for 3 minutes. The viscosity the section photography of polished foam specimens of the melt continuously increases, owing to the used for density, microstructural and compressive formation of calcium oxide (CaO), calcium-aluminium response measurements. Some of the pores are appearing oxide (CaAl2O4) or Al4Ca inter-metallics which thicken as interconnected with other pores, whereas some of the liquid metal. Then 1.6% of TiH2 was added as them are appearing as closed pores. The pores are blowing agent and stirred for 3 minutes. The blowing distributed uniformly throughout the space and agent releases the hydrogen gas in hot viscous liquid, differently sized. The pores are irregular in shape. Table which facilitates the formation of foam. The stirring and 1 shows the density of the produced Al metallic foam. additions were carried out in the crucible which is Relative density is calculated as the ratio of density of maintained at 700°C. The stirring speed was maintained foam over theoretical density of aluminium. The at 150 rpm. After stirring, the crucible was taken out of theoretical density of aluminium as 2.7 g/cm3 was used the furnace and allowed to cool. Fig. 1 and 2 show the for relative density calculation. The porosity content of as-cooled and cut section of the produced Al metallic manufactured foam is around 88%, which makes the foam respectively. foam lighter in weight. The produced foams are closed
cell type and can float over water.
Fig. 1: Photograph of the Al metallic foam as-produced
Fig. 3: Section view of Al metallic foam polished Table 1: Density of Al metallic foam
3 3 Weight, g Volume, cm Density, g/cm Rel. density 3.4501 9.8294 0.35 0.12
The cell morphology of the Al metallic foam was studied using stereo microscope and shown in Fig. 4. The Al foam shows structural in-homogeneous and imperfection. In-homogeneous in the structure was
characterized by varied pore size and wall thickness. The Fig. 2: Photographs of the Al metallic foam-cut section measured pore sizes were in the range of 1.3 to 2.1 mm. The produced aluminium foam was sectioned into In addition to in-homogeneous, morphological defects dimensions of 22×22×19 mm3 and 30×30×25 mm3. The like cell wall fracture and buckling in the cell walls are density of the foam was calculated by weighing the also appearing in the stereo micrograph. Few pores are sample in A&D digital balance with an accuracy of 0.01 interconnected to the inner pores. Very small size pores mg and measuring the dimensions of the sample using also appear in the structure but their sizes have not been vernier callipers. The cell morphology was viewed and measured owing to lesser quantity. The cell wall captured using stereo microscope. The specimens were microstructure of the Al foam has been studied under metallographically polished and etched using 5% optical microscope and shown in Fig. 5. The hydrofluoric acid solution to reveal the cell wall microstructure clearly shows a network of Al-Ca-Ti microstructure under optical microscope. The specimen eutectic (dark) in the aluminium matrix [6]. The with 30×30×25 mm3 dimension was loaded in uni-axial aluminium matrix shows fine grain structure which compression testing machine in 30 mm direction to study promotes plastic deformation instead of brittle failure of the compressive response of the foam. the cell walls under compressive load.
142 Noorullah et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 141-144
Fig. 7: Al metallic foam specimen after the compression test
5
4
Fig. 4: Stereo microscopic image of Al foam 3
2 Nominal(MPa) Stress
1
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Nominal Strain (%) Fig. 8: Compressive stress vs. strain curve of Al foam There was an enlargement in the lateral side of the foam after the compression test. The sequence of deformation events occurred during compression of Al metallic foam has been shown in Fig. 9. The deformation
is largely concentrated in cells close to the bottom Fig 5: Al foam cell wall microstructure (x100 magnification) surface of the sample. The large pore shown in the Fig.9 3.2. Compressive behaviour is probably triggered this localization by generating The compression test specimen before and after the uni- some stress concentration in adjacent areas. It can be axial compressive loading (70% deformation) is shown seen that cells subsequently deformed in shear, spreading in Fig. 6 and 7 respectively. The compressive stress vs. outwards from the large pore. As deformation strain curve of Al foam is shown in Fig. 8. The progressed, co-operative collapse occurred. Some of the compressive stress vs. strain curve shows a stress pores failed in shear, which leads to the lateral expansion maximum, corresponding to the onset of global collapse in the sample. The in-homogeneous in the height of the of the pores, followed by a load softening region to a sample in the left and right side of the sample may plateau, at which successive bands of pores collapse. attributed to the large quantity pores compaction in the Beyond the deformation plateau, the stress rises steeply right side compared to left. as complete compaction commences. The compressive response of the present Al metallic foam matches with the trend reported by Markaki and Clyne [6].
0% deformation 20% deformation
30% deformation 40% deformation
Fig. 9: Sequence of deformation events in Al foam under Fig. 6: Al metallic foam specimen before the compression test compressive load
143 Noorullah et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 141-144
4. Conclusions [3] H. Fathi, E. Emadoddin and A. Habibolah. 2012. Manufacture of aluminum closed-cell foam by ARB The closed cell aluminium metallic foams were process using CaCO3 as the blowing agent, Iranian J. successfully produced through liquid state processing Materials Science and Engineering, 9(3), 40-48. route. The produced Al foam contained almost 88% of [4] V. Kevorkijan, S.D. Skapin, I. Paulin, B. Sustarsic and M. porosity. An addition of 1.5% calcium (viscosity Jenko. 2010. Synthesis and characterisation of closed cells modifier) and 1.6% of titanium hydride (blowing agent) aluminium foams containing dolomite powder as foaming resulted in good quality foam with uniformly distributed agent, Materiali in Tehnologije, 44(6), 363-371. pores throughout the casting. Cell morphology showed [5] J. Lázaro, S. Eusebio and M.A. Rodríguez-Pérez. 2014. that the in-homogeneous in cell size and cell wall Alternative carbonates to produce aluminium foams via thickness as well as imperfections in the structure. The melt route, Procedia Materials Science, 2(4), 275-280. cell wall contains aluminium matrix of fine grains, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mspro.2014.07.557. which imparts ductility to the cell walls which lead to [6] A.E. Markaki and T.W. Clyne. 2001. The effect of cell increased load softening region in the stress strain curve wall microstructure on the deformation and fracture of which is an important characteristic required for aluminium-based foams, Acta Materialia, 49(9), 1677- automotive crashworthiness. 1686. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6454(01)00072-6.
REFERENCES: EDITORIAL NOTES: [1] M.W. Andure, S.C. Jirapure and L.P. Dhamande. 2012. Edited paper from National Conference on Technological Advance automobile material for light weight future - A Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August review, Int. J. Computer Application, 1, 15-22. 2015, Chennai, India. [2] J. Banhart. 2001. Manufacture, characterisation and application of cellular metals and metal foams, Progress GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., in Materials Science, 46(6), 559-632. http://dx.doi.org/10. VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. 1016/S0079-6425(00)00002-5. College, Chennai, India.
144 Kumaraswamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 145-148 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.05 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Performance Evaluation of Compression Ignition Direct Injection Diesel Engine on Dual Fuel Mode with Mango Oil Methyl Ester Biofuel
A. Kumaraswamya and B. Durga Prasadb aDept. of Mechanical Engg., Sri Venkateswara College of Engg., Chennai, India Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected] bDept. of Mechanical Engg., JNTU College of Engg., Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India
ABSTRACT: In this study, Mango seed Oil Methyl Esters (MOME) that is produced by base catalyzed transesterification method has been chosen as a bio-fuel. Experiments were conducted with fuels of known cetane number at various loads on a single cylinder, constant speed, air-cooled, four stroke, and direct injection vertical diesel engine with rated power of 4.4 kW. All experiments were conducted at injection pressures 200 bar. For the same engine, the performance, combustion and emission analysis was carried out for various blends(20% and 100%) of MOME, diesel with grain alcohol(ethanol 0.1pre-mixed ratio) on dual fuel mode. When the engine was operated with 20% of MOME and 0.1 pre-mixed ratio, the brake thermal efficiency was found to be very much closer to the BTE obtained with neat diesel due to more calorific value and more heat release rate during combustion. It is also observed that at this blend, Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon monoxide (CO) and smoke density emissions were found to be less than that of diesel whereas NOx emissions were slightly more than that of diesel.
KEYWORDS: Dual fuel engine; Grain alcohol; Mango seed Oil Methyl Esters; Compression Ignition Direct Injection engine
CITATION: A. Kumaraswamy and B.D. Prasad. 2015. Performance Evaluation of Compression Ignition Direct Injection Diesel Engine on Dual Fuel Mode with Mango Oil Methyl Ester Biofuel, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 145-148. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.05
diesel fuel decreased by 6.2% and 5.8% respectively. Lin 1. Introduction et al [4] studied the effects of 8 kinds of Vegetable Oil India is one of the major countries in the world which is Methyl Ester (VOME) in an unmodified DI diesel engine importing petroleum products to meet its fuel to investigate the effects of VOME on the DI diesel requirements. Commercial fuel imports are mainly in the engine performance, exhaust emissions, and combustion form of crude oil and natural gas. With improved characteristics. The use of VOME fuels in a diesel awareness of environmental concerns caused by air engine achieved the same engine power output as an pollution, it is important that fuel generation and usage is engine run on diesel. Increase in BSFC relative to diesel environmental friendly too. A number of researchers was reported due to the lower calorific value of VOME have used biodiesel derived from edible oils, non-edible fuels. The VOME fuels have higher cetane number and oils, used cooking oils and animal fats as alternative thus can provide better ignition quality. Higher viscosity fuels for diesel engines. Rao et al [1] have carried out and higher oxygen content of VOME fuels also yield transesterification process of used cooking oil using an better air-fuel mixing. Increased oxygen availability of alkaline catalyst. The combustion, performance and VOME during combustion process improves the emission characteristics of used cooking oil methyl and combustion. It was reported that the use of VOME fuels its blends with diesel oil are analyzed in a Direct in a diesel engine reduced exhaust gas temperature, Injection (DI) Compression Ignition (CI) engine and smoke and total hydrocarbon (HC) emissions with a compared with the baseline diesel fuel. marginal increase in nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. Balusamy et al [2] have investigated methyl ester of Pandey et al. [8] investigated on biodiesel as an Thevetia Peruviana seed oil and blended with diesel fuel oxygenated fuel containing 10% to 15% oxygen by and tested in naturally aspirated single cylinder diesel weight. Using biodiesel can help to reduce the world’s engine at 1500 rpm. Brake thermal efficiency increases dependence on fossil fuels and has significant with increasing brake power (BP) for all fuels. At environmental benefits. The reasons for these maximum load, BSFC of B20 (3.4%) and B100 (10.3%) environmental benefits using biodiesel instead of the are higher than that of diesel fuel due to higher density conventional diesel fuel reduces exhaust emissions such and viscosity of the fuel blends. Keskin et al [3] have as the overall life circle of carbon dioxide (CO2), showed that the cotton oil biodiesel fuel blends in a particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur single cylinder DI diesel engine. Power output and toque oxides (SOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and of engine with blends of cotton soap stock biodiesel and unburned HC significantly.
145 Kumaraswamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 145-148
Conventional technologies for reciprocating IC This paper presents an in-depth study of engines are broadly divided into CI and spark-ignition performance analysis and their impact on engine (SI) engines. In CI engines, air is compressed at emissions and their characteristics, when using MOME pressures and temperatures at which the injected liquid and its blends. The use of MOME results in a decrease in fuel fires easily and burns progressively after ignition. UBHC (unburned HC), CO and particulate emissions Whereas, SI engines (Otto engines) that runs according and gives brake thermal efficiency comparable to diesel. to the Beau de Rochas cycle, the carburetted mixture of But using MOME leads to increased NOx emissions air and vaporised fuel (high octane index) is compressed when compared to diesel. under its ignition point and then fired at a chosen instant by an independent means. In a dual-fuel engine, both 2. Experimental setup and procedure types of above combustion coexist together, i.e. a The tests are conducted in a single cylinder, 4.4 kW, carburetted mixture of air and gaseous fuel or any other constant speed (1500 rpm), four-stroke, naturally secondary fuel is compressed like in a conventional aspirated, air-cooled diesel engine loaded with an diesel engine. The compressed mixture of air and electrical swinging field dynamometer. Fig. 1 shows the secondary fuel does not auto-ignite due to its high auto- schematic diagram of the experimental set-up. AVL 615 ignition temperature. Hence, it is fired by a small liquid Indimeter system is used to get the cylinder pressure vs. fuel injection which ignites spontaneously at the end of crank angle data using piezoelectric pressure transducer compression phase. The advantage of this type of engine (AVL GH12D) and angle encoder (AVL 364). The is that, it uses the difference in flammability of the two pressure transducer works on piezoelectric principle for fuels used. Again, in case of lack of secondary fuel, this measurement of in-cylinder pressure. The AVL angle engine runs according to the diesel cycle by switching encoder set is suitable for both test bed and in vehicle from dual-fuel mode. The disadvantage is the necessity operation and uses a sensor for measurements of angle to have liquid diesel fuel being available for the dual- within a resolution of 0.1°-1° crank angle. This angle fuel engine operation [5]. encoder works on the optical function based on a slot Banapurmath et al [6] conducted an experiment on a marked optical disk and utilizes the reflection light single cylinder, four-stroke, DI, water-cooled CI engine principle. The master disc has one track with 720 pulses operated in single fuel mode using Honge, Neem and for the angle information which has trigger pulse Rice Bran oils. In dual fuel mode combinations of information per revolution for synchronization purposes. producer gas and three oils were used at different The angle information is transmitted by light pulses from injection timings and injection pressures. Dual fuel mode the encoder through an optical cable to an emitter- of operation resulted in poor performance at all the loads receiver-electronic. The ignition delay period, cylinder when compared with single fuel mode at all the injection peak pressure, angle of occurrence of cylinder peak timings tested. The brake thermal efficiency improved pressure and heat release rate can be obtained from marginally when the injection timing was advanced. pressure vs crank angle diagram. Decreased smoke, NOx emissions and increased CO emissions were observed in dual fuel mode for all the fuel combinations compared to single fuel operation. Mango is a non-edible oil available in huge surplus quantities in India. Annual production of mango oil in India is estimated to be around 5,00,000 tons. Generally as a non-edible oil, it has been used in lamps for lighting purpose in rural areas. 80% yester yield is possible in transesterification of mango oil with alcohol. India has a shortage of edible oil, so bio diesel programmer is centered around non edible vegetable oils for feed stock diversification and utilization of currently available local resources, non-edible sources like neem, karanja, mahua, sal etc. should be scientifically investigated for efficient biodiesel production and engine utilization[7]. Henceforth, Mango Seed Oil Methyl Ester (MOME) has been chosen as a viable alternate fuel for diesel engine. The properties of fuels used are listed in Table 1. Table 1: Fuel properties Fuel Diesel MOME Ethanol Specific gravity 0.8296 0.8951 0.789 Fig. 1: Experimental setup Kinematic viscosity (cSt) 2.57 5.6 1.09 AVL 415 Variable Sampling Smoke meter is used to Flash point (deg C) 53 168 12.77 measure the smoke density in the exhaust. AVL 444 Fire point (deg C) 59 174 13.5 exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure HC, CO and Pour point (deg C) -8 0 - NOx emissions. Exhaust gas temperature is measured Net Calorific value (MJ/kg) 44.68 40.874 26.95 using K type thermocouple. The engine is allowed to Cetane number 51 52 7 warm up till steady state conditions are reached. Engine Density(kg/m³) 830 883 789 speed, fuel consumption rate, exhaust emissions (HC,
146 Kumaraswamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 145-148
CO, and NOx), smoke Intensity, pressure vs crank angle Fig. 3. shows the variation of exhaust gas diagram and exhaust gas temperature are measured at temperature against BP. A marginal reduction in exhaust various BP outputs. At each BP output, the engine is gas temperature is noticed throughout the engine operated for 15 min to attain steady-state conditions. The operation in the dual fuel mode of operation. The early experiment is repeated with different blends of MOME. start of combustion and rapid combustion in pre-mixed Standard injection timing of 23.4 s before TDC is used combustion phase lower the heat release rate in diffusion for all tests. Measurement errors and uncertainties in the combustion phase. Therefore the early finish time of heat experiment are important to establish the accuracy of release rate during the diffusion combustion phase is the results. The pre-mixed fuel ratio is determined by taking reason for low exhaust gas temperature in dual fuel the ratio of pre-mixed energy to total energy supplied to operation. The variation of NOx emission with BP is the cylinder. Table 2 gives the test engine specifications. shown in Fig. 4. It increases for MOME operation in comparison to diesel operation. The early start of Table 2: Engine specifications combustion and favorable condition for combustion Parameter Value promote better combustion and rise in the peak pressure Make Kirloskar during combustion, and it increases the NOx formation Model TAF 1, DI air-cooled in MOME mode of operation. BoreStroke (mm) 87.5×110 Compression ratio 17.5:1 Cubic capacity 661 cc Rated power 4.4 kW Rated speed 1500 rpm Start of injection 23.4ºbTDC Connecting rod length 220 mm Injection Pressure 200 bar
3. Results and discussions In the current work experiments were conducted on a diesel engine with Ethanol as the inducted fuel and diesel/MOME oil as the injected fuel. All the tests were conducted at a constant rated speed of 1500 rpm in a single cylinder, four stroke, air cooled, DI diesel engine.
Diesel flow rate, air flow rate, Ethanol flow rate, exhaust gas temperature, oxides of nitrogen, smoke, HC and CO Fig. 3: Variation of exhaust gas temperature with BP levels were recorded to study the performance and emissions. Experiments were conducted in the following dual fuel modes to study the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of the engine: (i) Diesel (ii) Diesel and Ethanol. (iii) 20% MOME and Ethanol and (iv) 100% MOME and Ethanol. The variation of brake thermal efficiency against BP for the tested fuels is shown in Fig. 2. 100% MOME and Ethanol blend improves the efficiency marginally at rated power compared to Diesel and Ethanol blend operation but it is lesser than diesel operation.
Fig. 4: Variation of NOx with BP Fig. 5 shows the comparison of smoke emissions with BP. A marginal reduction in smoke emission throughout the engine operation can be noticed. The advancement and higher rate of pre-mixed combustion reduces the smoke emission in dual fuel mode of operation compared to diesel and ethanol blend operation but it is higher than diesel operation. Fig. 6 shows the variation of HC emission against BP. 100% MOME and ethanol shows the better combustion with less HC content with increase in BP. The variation of CO emissions against BP is shown in Fig. 7. The CO Fig. 2: Variation of brake thermal efficiency with BP emission shows the similar results as HC emission.
147 Kumaraswamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 145-148
As the percentage of MOME in the blend increases there is a decrease in brake thermal efficiency. CO, HC and particulate emissions for MOME and its blends are found to be lower at all BP outputs compared to diesel. As percentage of MOME in the blend increases there is a corresponding decrease in emissions. Considering the tradeoff between particulate and NOx emissions, 20% MOME blend provides an optimum solution with brake thermal efficiency comparable to diesel.
REFERENCES: [1] G.L.N Rao, S. Sampath and K. Rajagopal. 2007. Experimental studies on the combustion and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with used cooking oil methyl ester and its blends, Int. J. Applied Fig. 5: Variation of smoke with BP Science Engg. and Technology, 4(2), 64-70. [2] T. Balusamy and R. Marappan. 2007. Performance evaluation of direct injection diesel engine with blends of Thevetia peruviana seed oil and diesel, J. Scientific and Industrial Research, 66(12), 1035-1040. [3] A. Keskin, M. Guru, D. Altiparmak and K. Aydin. 2007. Using of cotton oil soapstock biodiesel-diesel fuel blends as an alternative diesel fuel, Renewable Energy,33(4),553- 557. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2007.03.025. [4] B. Lin, J.H. Huang and D.Y. Huang. 2009. Experimental study of the effects of vegetable oil methyl ester on DI diesel engine performance characteristics and pollutant emissions, Fuel, 88(9), 1779-1785. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.fuel.2009.04.006. [5] C. Mansour, A. Bounif, A. Aris and F. Gaillard. 2001. Gas-diesel (dual-fuel) modeling in diesel engine environment, Int. J. Thermal Sciences, 40(4), 409-424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1290-0729(01)01223-6. Fig. 6: Variation of HC with BP [6] N.R. Banapurmath, P.G. Tewari, V.S. Yaliwal, S. Kambalimath and Y.H. Basavarajappa. 2009. Combustion characteristics of a 4-stroke CI engine operated on Honge oil, Neem and Rice Bran oils when directly injected and dual fuelled with producer gas induction, Renewable Energy, 34(7), 1877-1884. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.renene.2008.12.031. [7] L.B. Singh. 1960. The Mango (Botany, Cultivation and Utilization). Leonard Hill, London, UK. [8] R.K. Pandey, A. Rehaman, R.M. Sarviya and S. Dixit. 2010. Automobile emission reduction and environmental protection through use of green renewable fuel, Hydo Nepal, 7, 64-70. [9] J.B. Heywood. 1998. Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals, Mc Graw Hill, New York, USA.
Fig. 7: Variation of CO with BP EDITORIAL NOTES: Edited paper from National Conference on Technological 4. Conclusions Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August 2015, Chennai, India. The present work was performed to determine applicability of Mango Seed Oil Methyl Esters and their GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., blends with ethanol in diesel engine on dual fuel mode. VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. Performance and emission characteristics were displayed College, Chennai, India. with ethanol 10% as pre-mixed fuel. MOME and its blends can be used without any major modification in diesel engines. The brake thermal efficiency of MOME and its blends is found to be lower at all BP outputs compared to diesel fuel.
148 Janakiraman et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 149-153 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.06 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Performance and Emission Analysis of Bioethanol Diethyl Ether Fuelled Compression Ignition Diesel Engines
Sugavanam Janakiramana and Thangavelu Lakshmananb aDept. of Mech. Engg., Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected] bDept. of Mech. Engg., S.A Engg. College, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
ABSTRACT: Experimental investigations were carried out in a single cylinder, four stroke, air cooled direct injection (DI) diesel engine, fuelled with bioethanol diethyl ether blend, adopting the fumigation technique. Bioethanol produced by the fermentation of cooked rice blended with 25%, 50% and 75% of diethyl ether was used as an alternative fuel in this investigation. With the help of a fuel vaporiser and a microprocessor controlled injector, bioethanol was fumigated at 0.20, 0.40, 0.60 and 1.2 kg/h flow rate in the suction. The results of the combustion, performance and emissions of the engine, running with the bioethanol fumigation, were compared with those from the diesel fuelled operation. The results indicated that, at full load, the bioethanol fumigation exhibited an overall longer ignition delay of 2–3 CA for all the flow rates in comparison with diesel. Bioethanol fumigation at the flow rate of 0.48 kg/h gave a better performance and lower emissions than that of other flow rates. The maximum brake specific nitric oxide and smoke emissions were found to be lower, by about 24.2% and 25% in the bioethanol fumigation, compared to that of diesel operation at full load.
KEYWORDS: Rubber; Bioethanol; Homogeneous charge; Combustion; Emissions; Performance
CITATION: S. Janakiraman and T. Lakshmanan. 2015. Performance and Emission Analysis of Bioethanol Diethyl Ether Fuelled Compression Ignition Diesel Engines, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 149-153. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.06.
rating needs to be improved with additives to initiate 1. Introduction combustion[6]. Since major power plant used in the Internal combustion (IC) engines continue to dominate transport sector is diesel engine, large quantities of diesel many fields like transportation, agriculture and power can be saved by operating the engine on bioethanol, as generation. Though diesel engines offer advantages of there is already shortage of diesel. One of the major high thermal efficiency they exhibit problems of high challenges of diesel engine development is simultaneous nitrogen oxides and smoke emissions[8]. Simultaneous reduction of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate control of these emissions continues to be a challenge[9]. emissions[8]. In order to overcome these problems Thus there is a need to find suitable alternatives to investigations are in progress for new combustion conventional hydrocarbon (HC) fuels and combustion process namely Homogeneous Charge Compression techniques, which can reduce pollution levels, especially Ignition (HCCI) to achieve lower NOx and particulate for compression ignition engines. Promising alternative emissions[8] [5] [6]. A wide range of alternative fuels fuels for IC engines are natural gas, liquefied petroleum can be used in diesel engines using HCCI concept. In the gas, hydrogen, biogas, alcohols and vegetable oils[10]. HCCI engine premixed charge of fuel and air is Even very lean mixture of these fuels can be burned in compressed and allowed to self ignite[8]. This has air and in addition they have low hydrogen to carbon advantages in terms of NOx and smoke emissions in ratio[2]. Thus very low emissions are possible when they comparison to diesel engines. In order to broaden the are used in IC engines. One of the major alternative HCCI operating range of these high octane fuels an sources especially for transport sector is ethanol which is ignition promoter such as diethyl ether (DEE) can be produced in large quantities in some of the developing added to the fuels[5]. Amongst other things to control countries. ignition timing, the motivation for using fuel blends is to Commercially two manufacturing methods of lengthen combustion duration and to lower the intake ethanol are available, namely natural and synthetic. The temperature, thereby expanding the operating natural method involves the fermentation of window[9]. carbohydrates i.e., sugarcane molasses at controlled In this work, a single cylinder, direct injection (DI), temperature by addition of selected yeasts[4]. The air cooled, diesel engine was modified to work in the ethanol produced by this natural method is simply HCCI mode with Bioethanol-DEE blend as the inducted referred as Bioethanol. The synthetic method generally primary fuel and diesel as the secondary injected fuel for involves the hydration of ethylene to ethanol. If ignition[9]. An electronically controlled inlet port bioethanol is used as an alternative to diesel the cetane injection system was employed to inject bioethanol-DEE
149 Janakiraman et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 149-153 in to the intake port. This system includes a sensing Exhaust emissions such as HC, CO, NOx from the arrangement for detecting the intake valve opening, and engine are measured with the help of QROTECH, QEO- control circuits to inject the correct quantity of fuel 402 gas analyzer. The specification is given in Table 2. blends during the intake stroke. Tests were conducted This analyzer is configured to perform a measurement by with an electronically controlled bioethanol injection applying Non Dispersive Infra Red (NDIR) method for system and the results were compared with base line analyzing CO and HC and electrochemical method for diesel fuel. analyzing NOx. In the NDIR analysing method, a flashing lamp which flashes the infrared rays is attached 2. Experimental setup and procedure at one end of the sample cell and at the other end a detecting sensor is attached so that it can detect the A single cylinder, four stroke, air cooled, DI diesel component of a gas and then calculate the gas density. engine developing 4.4 kW at 1500 rev/min, was The electrochemical method measures the gas density by modified for port injected HCCI operation. The technical using the quantity of oxidation and reducing reaction of data of the engine specifications are given in Table 1. the gas. HC and NOx are measured in ppm and CO in % The schematic of the experimental set-up is shown in by volume. Smoke intensity is measured with help of Fig. 1. An orifice meter was used to measure air Bosch smoke meter whose specifications are given in consumption of the engine with the help of U tube Table 2. Bosch smoke meter usually consists piston type manometer. The time taken for a fixed quantity of fuel sampling pump as a smoke level measuring unit. A filter consumed by the diesel engine is indicated on the panel, paper of diameter 50mm was used to collect smoke measured with the help of stopwatch. Chromel alumel samples from engine, through smoke sampling pump for thermocouple in conjunction with digital temperature measuring Bosch Smoke Number (BSN). indicator was used for measuring the exhaust gas temperature. The surge tank fixed on the inlet side of the Table 2: Bosch smoke meter specifications engine maintains a constant airflow through orifice Parameters Specifications meter. A water-cooled piezoelectric pressure transducer Measuring item CO, HC, CO , O , λ, AFR, NOx is used for cylinder pressure measurement. By coupling 2 2 Measuring method CO, HC, CO2-NDIR method the surface mounted pressure transducer to a charge Repeatability Less than ± 2 % amplifier, a voltage signal supplied to the cylinder Response time Within 10 seconds pressure was obtained. From the charge amplifier, the CO- 0.00 to 9.95 % & 0.01 % output signal transferred to DL750 Scope reader and HC- 0 to 9999 ppm & 1 % then it was transferred to the computer to analyse the Measuring range & CO2 - 0.0 to 20.0 % & 0.1 % data to obtain the pressure-crank angle and heat release resolution AFR-0.0 to 99 & 0.1 rate diagrams. For the measurement of cylinder pressure λ - 0 to 2 & 0.001 with respect to the position of the crank, a magnetic O2 - 0.0 to 25 % &0.01 % pickup was used. The pickup generates a signal to locate Sample collecting quantity 4 - 6 L / min the TDC point. A mild steel projection was fixed on the Warming up time About 2 - 8 minutes flywheel and whenever this comes closer to the pickup, Power consumption About 50 W it produced voltage reading that located at TDC. Smoke BSN 0-10 Table 1: Engine specifications 3. Injection of bioethanol blends Parameters Specifications A premixed port fuel injector was mounted in the intake Rated power 4.4 kW at 1500 rpm system to prepare the homogeneous bioethanol blend-air Bore 87.5 mm mixture[7]. The engine was started with diesel and after Stroke 110 mm starting, the ECU is connected to battery to give voltage Injection timing 23 deg bTDC to port fuel injector to inject the bioethanol blend fuels. Injection pressure 200 bar The quantity injected by the port fuel injector is Compression ratio 17.5:1 collected in burette. The tests were carried out up to 5 Method of cooling Air cooled minutes. The measured quantity indicates the
consumption of bioethanol blend. The Bioethanol blend was supplied into the engine intake port through port fuel injector as shown in Fig. 2. The diesel flow rate was reduced by increasing bioethanol blend flow by the adjusting injection controller in ECU, until the engine reaches the rated speed of 1500 rpm[2]. After the steady state conditions were reached, fuel consumption, exhaust gas temperature, cylinder pressure trace, particulate strapped, NOx, CO, unburnt HC and smoke were 1. Intake value, 2. Diesel DI injector, 3. Exhaust valve, 4. Premixed fuel recorded by running the engine at a constant speed at injector, 5. Exhaust gas analyser, 6. Charge amplifier, 7. Data acquisition, 8. different loads. After the measurements, bioethanol Crank angle encoder, 9. Dynamometer, 10. Diesel fuel tank, 11. Fuel blend supply was decreased by disconnecting the ECU injection pump, 12. Flywheel, 13. Flow meter for Diesel HCCI mode, 14. Bioethanol fuel control valve, 15. Pressure sensor, 16. Bioethanol-DEE from the battery and consumption of diesel flow was blend fuel tank, 17. Engine, 18. Electronic control circuit (ECU) increased, so that the rated speed of 1500 rpm is reached. Fig. 1: Experimental setup The engine was allowed to run for at least 5 minutes at
150 Janakiraman et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 149-153 no load condition. The measured engine parameters are kg/h flow rates. The increase in HC emissions at full properly timed and controlled by ECU. load is due to the premixed charge occupying the crevice volumes where flame will not able to propagate[5]. The other factor is due to the lower temperature inside the combustion chamber[1]. The gas layer near the cylinder wall region may contain a larger concentration of HC, which is left unburnt due to wall quenching effect of ethanol which results in higher HC emissions[8]. Fig. 5 shows that the variation of CO emissions with load exhibits similar trend as that of HC emissions. The CO emissions from bioethanol-DEE fuelled engine were higher at full load, when compared to the baseline diesel operation[3]. The concentration of CO emissions varies from 0.032 % at 0.4 kg/h, 0.04 % at 0.6 kg/h and 0.045 % at 0.8 kg/h of bioethanol-DEE operation at full load compared to 0.02 % for baseline diesel operation. The increase in CO emissions at full load in bioethanol-DEE
operation is due to the premixed mixture in the cylinder Fig. 2: Photograph showing port fuel injector is very lean and hence the flame will not able to propagate[8]. 4. Results and discussions 120 The results obtained from the experimental Diesel investigations of bioethanol-DEE combustion are Ethanol-DEE 0.8 kg/hr discussed in this chapter. The experimental investigation 100 Ethanol-DEE 0.6kg/hr includes the study of performance, combustion and Ethanol-DEE 0.4kg/hr emission characteristics of ethanol-DEE. The results 80 were compared with baseline diesel. The variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power for various 60
flow rates of bioethanol-DEE is shown in Fig. 3. It can HC, ppm be seen that at 75% of full load, the brake thermal 40 efficiency was found to be 28% for diesel, 30% for 0.4 kg/h, 32% for 0.6 kg/h and 35.6% for 0.8 kg/h flow rates 20 of bioethanol-DEE operation. The increase in brake thermal efficiency was due to better vaporisation, homogeneous mixture of the port injected bioethanol- 0 DEE blended fuel, which ignites automatically by the 0 2 4 early combustion of DEE[3]. BP, kW 40 Fig. 4: HC Emission vs. Brake power 0.07 Diesel Ethanol-DEE 0.4 kg/hr 30 0.06 Ethanol-DEE 0.6 kg/hr Ethanol-DEE 0.85 kg/hr 0.05 20
BTE, % BTE, 0.04 CO % CO Diesel 0.03 10 Ethanol-DEE 0.4kg/hr Ethanol-DEE 0.6kg/hr 0.02 Ethanol-DEE 0.85kg/hr 0 0.01 0 1 2 3 4 5 BP, kW 0 Fig. 3: Brake thermal efficiency vs. Brake power 0 1 2 3 4 5 The variation of unburned HC emissions with brake BP, kW power is shown in Fig. 4. The unburned HC emissions Fig. 5: CO Emission vs. Brake power vary from 20 ppm at low load to 48 ppm at full load for It can be observed from Fig. 6 that NOx emission is baseline diesel operation[5]. For bioethanol-DEE 2050 ppm at full load with neat diesel fuel operation. operation at full load the HC emissions varies from 66 Bioethanol-DEE operation results in lower level of NOx ppm at 0.4 kg/h, 70 ppm at 0.6 kg/h and 73 ppm at 0.8 emissions compared to diesel, ranging from 1900 ppm at
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0.4 kg/h, 1800 ppm at 0.6 kg/h and 1610 ppm at 0.8 kg/h temperature. The reduction in exhaust gas temperature is flow rates at full load. The reduction in NOx emission due to the reason that ethanol has a higher latent heat of when operated on bioethanol is about 24% to 30% at vaporisation which reduces the temperature[6]. The different loads, compared to diesel operation. The variation of heat release rate with load for bioethanol- increased vaporisation of ethanol results in lower DEE operation is shown in Fig. 9. For the case of diesel combustion temperature which is associated to the operation, premixed, diffusion and late combustion reduction of NOx emission[3] [6] [8]. The largest phases were observed[2]. In the case of bioethanol-DEE attraction of the HCCI combustion is its potential to operation, two peaks can be seen. The appearance of significant reduction in NOx emissions[8]. Generally, larger peak corresponds to the main combustion. The smoke is nothing but solid soot particles suspended in smaller peak that appears like a bump corresponds to a gaseous exhaust gases. The variation of smoke level with pre-flame reaction before the start of main combustion. brake power is shown in Fig. 7. The smoke intensity is The maximum heat release rate of 82 J/CA at 0.8 kg/h found to be lower at all loads for bioethanol-DEE for bioethanol-DEE flow rate was obtained during high operation compared to diesel. For diesel operation, it temperature region whereas for diesel operation it was varies from 1.2 BSN at no load to 3.8 BSU at full load 75 J/CA. The increase in heat release rate was due to whereas for bioethanol-DEE, it varies from 0.8 BSU at the longer ignition delay of bioethanol-DEE[2] [6] [8]. no load to 2.4 BSN at full load for the flow rate of 0.8 kg/h. This is due to low carbon/hydrogen ratio which makes the engine clean and free from the formation of 550 soot[1]. 2500 450 Diesel Ethanol-DEE 0.4 kg/hr Ethanol-DEE 0.6 kg/hr 350 2000 Ethanol-DEE 0.8 kg/hr
250
1500 (degree EGT C) Diesel 150 Ethanol-DEE 0.4 kg/hr 1000 Ethanol-DEE 0.6 kg/hr Nox,ppm Ethanol-DEE 0.85 kg/hr 50 0 2 4 500 BP, kW Fig. 8: Exhaust gas temperature vs. Brake power 0 100 0 2 4 Diesel base line BP, kW Ethanol-DEE 0.4kg/hr 75 Fig. 6: NOx Emission vs. Brake power Ethanol-DEE 0.8kg/hr Ethanol-DEE 0.6kg/hr 5 Diesel 50 4 Ethanol-DEE 0.4 kg/hr Ethanol-DEE 0.6 kg/hr 25 3 Ethanol-DEE 0.85 kg/hr 0 Heat releaseHeat rate (J/CA) 325 375 425 2
-25 Smoke, BSNSmoke, 1 Crank angle (degrees) Fig. 9: Heat release rate vs. Crank angle 0 The variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle 0 1 2 3 4 5 is shown in Fig. 10. At full load the peak pressure is BP, kW about 72 bar in baseline diesel operation and with Fig. 7: Bosch Smoke Number vs. Brake power bioethanol-DEE operation it varies from 75 bar at 0.4 kg/h, 77 bar at 0.6 kg/h and 80 bar at 0.8 kg/h of The variation of exhaust gas temperature with load bioethanol-DEE flow rate. The maximum percentage is shown in Fig. 8. The exhaust gas temperature varies increase in peak pressure is 8% at 0.8 kg/h flow rate. The from 450C at 0.4 kg/h, 470C at 0.6 kg/h and 480C at ignition delay for bioethanol-DEE operation is advanced 0.8 kg/h of bioethanol-DEE flow rate compared to by 6 for 0.4 kg/h, 7 for 0.6 kg/h and 8 for 0.8 kg/h of 500C for diesel at full load. It can be observed that the bioethanol-DEE flow rates. The increase in peak difference between diesel and bioethanol-DEE operation pressure in bioethanol-DEE operation is due the longer at low loads is less than 10% due to lower charge ignition delay compared to diesel operation[1] [3] [5].
152 Janakiraman et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 149-153
[3] C. Cinar, O. Can, F. Sahin and H.S. Yucesu. 2009. Effects of premixed diethyl ether (DEE) on combustion and 90 Diesel exhaust emissions in a HCCI-DI diesel engine, Applied 80 ethanol-DEE 0.4kg/hr Thermal Engg., 30(4), 360-365. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.applthermaleng.2009.09.016. 70 Ethanol-DEE 0.6kg/hr ethanol-DEE 0.8 kg/hr [4] D. Ganesh, G. Nagarajan and M.M. Ibrahim. 2008. Study 60 of performance, combustion and emissions characteristics 50 of diesel homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) combustion with external formation, Fuel, 87(17- 40 18), 3497-3503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2008. 30 06.010. [5] J.H. Mack, D.L. Flowers, B.A. Buchholz and R.W. Pressure, barPressure, 20 Dibble. 2005. Investigation of HCCI combustion of 10 diethyl ether and ethanol mixtures using Carbon 14 tracing and numerical simulation, Proc. Combust. Inst., 0 30(2), 26934-27000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci. 280 380 480 580 2004.08.136.
Crank angle, deg [6] J.H. Mack, R.W. Dibble, S. Mosbach and M. Kraft. 2006. Simulating a homogeneous charge compression ignition Fig. 10: Cylinder pressure vs. Crank angle engine fuelled with a diethyl ether-ethanol blend, SAE Technical Paper 2006-01-1362. 5. Conclusions [7] L. Xing, H. Yuchun, Z. Linlin and H. Zhen. 2006. The experimental investigations carried out indicate that Experimental study on the auto ignition and combustion it is possible to operate HCCI engine smoothly over the characteristics in the HCCI combustion operation with entire range of load with bioethanol-DEE blended fuel ethanol/n-Heptane blend fuels by port injection, Fuel, 85(17-18), 2622-2631. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel. with certain modifications depending upon the 2006.05.003. technique. Brake thermal efficiency of bioethanol-DEE fuelled engine is higher than that diesel due to better [8] M. Yao, Z. Zheng and H. Liu. 2009. Progress and recent trends in homogeneous charge compression ignition combustion of bioethanol in the hotter environment engines (HCCI) engines, Progress in Energy and created by the early ignition of DEE. Ignition delay of Combustion Science, 35(5), 398-437. http://dx.doi.org/10. bioethanol-DEE fuelled engine is longer than the diesel 1016/j.pecs.2009.05.001. which may be due to higher latent of vaporisation of [9] X. Lu, L. Ji, L. Zu, Y. Hou, C. Huang and Z. Haung. ethanol. CO and HC emissions are more in bioethanol- 2007. Experimental study and chemical analysis of n- DEE fuel blend use than diesel operation. NOx Heptane homogeneous charge compression ignition emissions are less for bioethanol-DEE than diesel as a combustion with port injection inhibitors, Combustion and result of higher vaporisation and reduction in cylinder Flame, 149(3), 261-270. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. temperature. Smoke is lesser for ethanol-DEE compared combustflame.2007.01.002. to diesel due to soot free combustion. [10] Z. Chen, M. Konno, M. Oguma and T. Yanai. 2009. Experimental study of CI natural gas/DME homogeneous charge compression ignition engine, SAE Technical Paper REFERENCES: 2001-01-0329. [1] A. Megariris, D. Yap and M.L. Wyszynski. 2008. Effect of inlet valve timing and water blending on bioethanol HCCI combustion using forced induction and residual gas EDITORIAL NOTES: trapping, Fuel, 87(6), 732-739. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. Edited paper from National Conference on Technological fuel.2007.05.007. Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August [2] A. Tsolakis, A. Megaritis and D. Yap. 2008. Application 2015, Chennai, India. of exhaust gas reforming in diesel and homogeneous compression ignition (HCCI) engines fuelled with GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., biofuels, Energy, 33(3), 462-470. http://dx.doi.org/ VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. 10.1016/j.energy.2007.09.011. College, Chennai, India.
153 Ananth et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 154-156 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.07 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Wet Sliding Wear Optimization of Gray Cast Iron using Taguchi Technique
S. Anantha, J. Udaya Prakashb, T.V. Moorthyc, P. Hariharanc, R. Magendrand and A.R. Sivaneshd aDept. of Industrial Engg., Jawahar Engg. College, Chennai, India Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected] bDept. of Mech. Engg., Vel Tech Dr. RR & Dr. SR Tech. University, Chennai, India cDept. of Manufacturing Engg., Anna University, Chennai, India dDept. of Manufacturing Engg., CSI College of Engg., Ketti, Nilgiris, India
ABSTRACT: This paper details the investigation of wear characteristics of gray cast iron under dry, SAE15W40 and SAE20W40 oil lubricated sliding conditions. The effects of applied load, sliding speed and sliding distance on the specific wear rate of gray cast iron were studied using pin-on-disc wear testing machine. The experimental data were analyzed by using the robust technique of Taguchi’s orthogonal arrays. The specific wear rate was analyzed using signal to noise ratio and analysis of variance.
KEYWORDS: Gray cast iron; Specific wear rate; Taguchi technique; Signal to noise ratio; Analysis of variance
CITATION: S. Ananth, J.U. Prakash, T.V. Moorthy, P. Hariharan, R. Magendran and A.R. Sivanesh. 2015. Wet Sliding Wear Optimization of Gray Cast Iron using Taguchi Technique, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 154-156. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.07.
Design of experiments (DoE) is an extremely powerful 1. Introduction statistical method. It consists of series of tests in which Gray Cast Iron (GCI) is one of the most important input variables can be changed and data are collected in materials which are often used in automobiles. GCI is an the same run. The Taguchi technique is devised for inexpensive material and it is readily available. Some process optimization and identification of optimal engineering applications of GCI are cylinder linear, combination of the factors for a given response. This pressure plate, diesel engine components, flywheel, and technique creates a standard orthogonal array to engine blocks. It has excellent engineering properties accommodate the effect of several factors on the target such as high tensile strength, vibration damping and value and defines the plan of experiments [5, 6]. good thermal stability. Fabrication of GCI is simple and Adhesive wear is defined as the transfer of material from most economical. Its specific characteristic includes one surface to another during relative motion as a result excellent casting, no freezing contraction and low of localized bonding between contacting surfaces. melting point. The property of GCI depends on volume Particles that are removed from one surface are either fraction and graphite morphology. The addition of permanently or temporarily attached to the other surface. silicon into GCI improves the wear resistance [1]. Adhesive wear occurs when surfaces slide against each According to Obidiegwu [2], addition of periwinkle shell other and the pressure between the contacting asperities into GCI has influence on its mechanical properties. The is sufficiently high enough to cause local plastic result suggests that carbon, manganese and silicon deformation. Hardness of a material determines the real contents decrease with increasing amount of the area of contact between asperities of contacting periwinkle shell. The hardness was found to decrease materials. Asperity hardness is considered to be more while the tensile strength increased. According to Prasad important than bulk hardness [7, 8]. [3], the sliding wear behaviour of GCI was tested for Based on literature review, there is little evidence both dry and lubricant conditions at different ranges of that the use of principles such as DoE for optimising the sliding speed and applied pressure. The result suggests sliding wear characteristics of GCI. In this paper, the that when graphite particles were added to the oil wear characteristics of GCI under dry, SAE15W40 and lubricant, it caused further reduction in wear rate. This is SAE20W40 oil lubricated sliding conditions. The effects due to enhanced properties of more stable lubricant film of applied load, sliding speed and sliding distance on the formation when graphite is added. specific wear rate (SWR) of GCI were studied using pin- Chwala et al [4] discussed about the comparison on-disc wear testing machine. Taguchi’s orthogonal between stainless steel 304 and GCI in which the wear arrays were used to analyse the experimental results. The parameter was tested at varying sliding speed and SWR was analyzed using signal to noise (S/N) ratio and applied loads. The result suggested that the wear analysis of variance (ANOVA). parameter of GCI was lesser than the stainless steel 304.
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2. Experiments rank was allotted. Load is the most influence parameter in the wear rate followed by sliding speed and sliding The test specimen of GCI grade 200-250 was casted as a distance. This was derived by the following response disc with the dimensions of 55mm (OD)6mm (ID)10 graph procedure. mm (thickness). The EN31 carbon steel counter face was prepared and hardened to get cylindrical pins of 6mm Table 2: Experimental results diameter and 60mm length. DoE helps to investigate the Sliding Sliding Load, SWR x 10-5 S/N for effects of input variables of wear parameter to give Speed, S Distance, Condition L (N) (mm3/Nm) SWR optimal values of an output response. The L27 (m/s) D(m) orthogonal array was selected based on the DoE 15 0.5 300 L0 2.63 -8.40 according to the standardization and degrees of freedom. 15 0.5 600 L1 0.88 1.11 The chosen applied load, sliding speed and sliding 15 0.5 900 L2 1.42 -3.05 distance and their levels are given in Table 1. Condition 15 1.0 300 L1 13.23 -22.43 L0 represents the dry sliding wear test. Conditions L1 15 1.0 600 L2 1.97 -5.89 and L2 represent the wet sliding under SAE15W40 and 15 1.0 900 L0 0.59 4.58 SAE20W40 lubricated oil respectively. The S/N ratio 15 1.5 300 L2 21.37 -26.60 purely depends upon the quality characteristics. The 15 1.5 600 L0 3.53 -10.96 “smaller is better” quality type is chosen for SWR of 15 1.5 900 L1 0.77 2.27 GCI. The room temperature of 33-35C was maintained. 30 0.5 300 L0 7.94 -18.00 The pin-on-disc tests were conducted as per ASTM G 30 0.5 600 L1 0.58 4.73 99-05 standard. The experiments were conducted for 30 0.5 900 L2 0.73 2.73 both dry and lubricated conditions. Two different grades 30 1.0 300 L1 1.15 -1.21 of oil such as SAE15W40 and SAE20W40 were 30 1.0 600 L2 4.19 -12.44 selected. EN31 steel pin was used to determine the wear 30 1.0 900 L0 466.52 -53.38 parameter which was held stationary in vertical position 30 1.5 300 L2 21.60 -26.69 and pressed against the disc of GCI performing rotary 30 1.5 600 L0 339.99 -50.63 motion. The pin was cleaned before and after the 30 1.5 900 L1 3.38 -10.58 experiments with acetone to remove the contaminants. 45 0.5 300 L0 0.77 2.27 Weight of the specimen before and after the experiments 45 0.5 600 L1 0.15 16.48 was measured using analytical balance that had 45 0.5 900 L2 1.53 -3.69 0.0001gm of least count. A constant flow of liquid oil 45 1.0 300 L1 0.88 1.11 was allowed to flow on the disc performing rotary 45 1.0 600 L2 2.63 -8.40 motion and tests were carried out. 45 1.0 900 L0 1698.31 -64.60 Table 1: Process parameter and their levels 45 1.5 300 L2 0.33 9.63 45 1.5 600 L0 81.42 -38.21 Load, Sliding speed, Sliding distance, Level Condition 45 1.5 900 L1 0.66 3.61 L (N) S (m/s) D (m) 1 15 0.5 300 L0 Mean S/N ratio were plotted on the basis of wear 2 30 1.0 600 L1 parameter and are shown in Fig. 1. The effect of load on 3 45 1.5 900 L2 SWR is less influential than the combined effect of load and L1 condition during the calculation of pooled error. 3. Results and Discussion This demonstrates that the sliding under SAE15W40 oil The pin-on-disc wear tests were conducted to study the lubricant condition gives the optimal wear rate than the effect of process parameters over the output response SAE 20W40 oil lubricant condition. The effect of sliding characteristics. The experimental results were analysed distance on SWR is less influential than the condition. using L27 orthogonal array that has 27 rows The presence of hard crystal structure, acts as sharp corresponding to the number of experiments with 13 asperities on the surface of the GCI specimen. Initially at columns and 3 levels. The S/N ratio of the response short sliding distance, hard crystal which protrudes out characteristics for each variable at different levels were of the GCI surface has suppressed this effect and calculated from the experimental data. In this study all reduced the contact area between the disc and the pin. the designs, plots and DoE analyses have been carried This in turn increases the wear rate and the friction. As out using Minitab statistical software. SWR is calculated the sliding distance increases, these asperities get as per the standard formula and their S/N ratios are compacted due to the forced oil circulation between the obtained using “smaller is better” criterion. The sliding surfaces and become blunt, thereby increases the experimental results for SWR and their S/N ratios are contact area between the sliding surfaces. This improves given in Table 2. the wear rate, under long sliding distance. The SWR decreases with increase in sliding speed. When sliding at 3.1. Analysis of Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratio high speed, the material gets oxidized due to increase in Based on the parameter influence, the rank has been temperature over the contact surface. This leads to the generated as per Taguchi technique as shown in Table 3. forming of Mechanically Mixed Layer (MML). As the The difference between two highest values in each speed increases, this MML will act as the lubricant column gives the delta value of corresponding between the two surfaces and thereby decreases the parameter. According to the descending delta value, the sliding wear rate.
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Table 3: Response table for S/N ratio of SWR 5. Conclusions Load, L Sliding speed, Sliding Level Condition In this paper, sliding wear characteristics of GCI were (N) S (m/s) distance, D (m) evaluated experimentally using pin-on-disc wear test 1 -7.7059 -0.6457 -10.0351 -26.3688 followed by DoE and Taguchi techniques. From the 2 -18.3849 -18.0736 -11.5791 -0.5460 analysis, the following conclusions were drawn: 3 9.0900 -16.4615 -13.5667 -8.2660 Lubricant condition has the highest statistical Delta 10.6789 17.4279 3.5316 25.8229 influence on the wet sliding wear of the GCI Rank 3 2 4 1 (29.81%) followed by the interaction of load and condition (19.55%), sliding speed (15.72%) and the interaction of load with sliding distance (15.56%). The pooled error of the ANOVA is 6.41% for the factors showing 90% confidence level.
REFERENCES: [1] J.O. Agunsoye. 2013. Effect of silicon additions on the wear properties of gray cast iron, J. Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engg., 1(2), 61-67. http:// dx.doi.org/10.4236/jmmce.2013.12012. [2] E.O. Obidiegwu. 2010. Influence of Periwinkle shell addition on mechanical properties of gray cast iron, Int. J. Multidisciplinary and Current Research, 2(6), 1116-1118. [3] B.K. Prasad. 2006. Sliding wear response of a cast iron Fig. 1: Response graphs for S/N ratio of SWR under varying test environment and traversal speed and pressure condition, Wear, 260(11), 1333-1341. http://dx. 3.2. Analysis of Variance doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2005.09.017. The ANOVA of S/N data is carried out to identify the [4] K. Chawla, N. Saini and R. Dhiman. 2013. Investigation significant variables and to quantify their effects on the of tribological behaviour of stainless steel 304 and gray response characteristics. The most optimal settings of cast iron rotating against EN32 steel using pin on disc process variables in terms of mean response, SWR, are apparatus, IOSR J. Mechanical and Civil Engineering, established through ANOVA as given in Table 4. 9(4), 18-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/1684-0941822. Condition is the most contributing factor as 29.81% [5] R. Ipek. 2005. Adhesive wear behaviour of B4C and SiC followed by the interaction of load and condition as reinforced 4147 Al matrix composites (Al/B4C-Al/SiC), shown highlighted in Table 4. Pooled error is 6.41%, J. Material Processing Technology, 162-163, 71-75. which shows that the optimization holds good. [6] K. Krishnaiah and P. Shahabudeen. 2012. Applied Design of Experiments and Taguchi Methods, PHI Learning Table 4: ANOVA for SWR Private Limited, New Delhi. Sum of Mean sum Source of F0 Contribution [7] M.K. Surappa. 2003. Aluminium Matrix Composites DOF squares of squares variation b/error a/total Challenges and Opportunities, Sadhana, 28(1&2), 319- (a) (b) 334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02717141. L 2 607 303.50 3.57 5.72% [8] J.U. Prakash, T.V. Moorthy and S. Ananth. 2014. S 2 1667.4 833.70 9.81 15.72% Fabrication and sliding wear behaviour of metal matrix C 2 3162.4 1581.20 18.61 29.81% composites, Applied Mechanics and Materials, 612,157- LS 4 765.1 191.28 2.25 7.21% 162. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM. LD 4 1650.2 412.55 4.85 15.56% 612.157. LC 4 2073.4 518.35 6.10 19.55% RE 8 679.9 84.99 - 6.41% EDITORIAL NOTES: TOTAL 26 10607.5 - - 100.00% Edited paper from National Conference on Technological Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August 4. Confirmation Experiment 2015, Chennai, India. Experimental results are analyzed for identifying the GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., optimum parameters. From Fig. 1 and response Table 3, VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. the factors at level L1, S1, D1 and C2 that is College, Chennai, India. corresponding to load 15 N, sliding speed 0.5 m/s, sliding distance 300 m and lubricant condition L1 are the optimum process parameters for obtaining minimum
SWR. These optimum parameters are used to conduct the confirmation experiment and SWR prediction using Taguchi technique. The predicted and experimental values of SWR for these optimal sliding parameters for GCI are -13.52510-5 mm3/Nm and -9.31210-5 mm3/Nm respectively.
156 Sevvel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 157-160 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.08 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Laboratory Scale Testing of Thermoelectric Regenerative Braking System
P. Sevvela, I.S. Stephan Thangaiahb, S. Mars Mukesh and G. Mohammed Anif Dept. of Mechanical Engg., Magna College of Engg., Redhills, Chennai, India aCorresponding Author, Email: [email protected] bEmail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: Thermoelectric Regenerative Braking System (TERBS) employs an energy recovery mechanism by utilizing the energy conversion at the time of braking in an automobile to generate electricity accordingly. During braking, the kinetic energy of the disc rotor which is transformed into heat energy is recovered using a Thermoelectric Generator (TEG). A comparison of performance between air and water cooled heat sink is made and then the optimum way of cooling is selected for the TERBS. A customized TEG module with water cooled heat sink is designed. The experimental results are analyzed for optimum performance. TERBS evidently increased the life of a battery.
KEYWORDS: Braking system; Thermoelectric generator; Heat sink; Electric vehicle
CITATION: P. Sevvel, I.S.S. Thangaiah, S.M. Mukesh and G.M. Anif. 2015. Laboratory Scale Testing of Thermoelectric Regenerative Braking System, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 157-160. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.08
1. Introduction 2. Customized TEG module with water To overcome the increasing demand for fossil fuels and cooled heat sink other global warming crisis made by the commercial Sivabalan [1] and Ramade et al [2] found that TEG can internal combustion engine vehicles, opting for electric be used to produce power using the exhaust waste heat or hybrid vehicle is the preferred solution amongst other from IC engines. The graphical representation of options. But the problem with these vehicles is related to working principle of TEG is shown in Fig. 1. The recharge the battery, e.g. several hours with a 120 volt reasons for inefficiency of this system were: household outlet and 1-4 hours with a 240 volt charger. The process slows down the kinetic energy of A quick charge takes approximately 30 minutes to exhaust gas which may cause back pressure. achieve 80% capacity. The distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to charge are the most influencing TEG gets easily damaged due to high temperature. factors. In order for the vehicle to run on electrical Improper cooling leads to severe failure of TEG. power, the car alternator produces a considerable amount The exploded view of TEG model designed using CREO of electric power. The vehicle also performs the action of 2.0 software is shown in the Fig. 2. TEGs are capable of braking in order to generate some electricity which is converting the heat directly into electrical energy using widely known as Regenerative Braking System (RBS) “Seebeck effect”. TEGs are the peltier devices that are that is purely mechanical. The reasons for inefficiency of optimized for power generation. The performance this system are: specification of the SP1848-27145 TEG is given in the The friction brake is a mandatory back-up in the Table 1. In order to get sufficient output voltage, a very event of a RBS, which drops out at lower speeds. high seebeck co-efficient is needed. This problem is solved in some commercial devices by putting more Lot of moving parts and completely mechanical. elements in parallel and fewer in series. They are Most cars with RBS have power generation only economical only at a high temperature and proper heat some of the wheels (as in two-wheel drive cars). sink must be provided for effective performance. In this paper, Thermoelectric Regenerative Braking System (TERBS) is proposed to recover the wasted heat energy by braking to generate some electricity. First a customized Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) module with water cooled heat sink is designed and tested for its performance. Then this TEG module is assembled into a fabricated TERBS on a laboratory scale set up. Experimental results of generated voltage for various temperature gradients during braking are presented along with conclusions. Fig. 1: Working principle of the TEG
157 Sevvel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 157-160
where the cooled water is accumulated and is pumped continuously by a small pump. A temperature sensor is placed at the component’s hot side so that it cuts off the power supply for the pump after reaching the minimal temperature. The control switch for the pump depends on the temperature sensor. A displacement sensor is placed at the hand brake which attaches the component by hydraulic action to the disc.
Fig. 2: Illustration of TEG design Table 1: Performance specification of SP1848-27145 TEG Temp. gradient (°C) Volts (V) Current (mA) 20 0.97 225 40 1.8 365 60 2.4 469 80 3.6 558 100 4.8 669
The heat initiated in the disc rotors during braking is fed to the TEG module by either tangible or intangible system. Constant feeding of heat helps to increase the Fig. 3: Illustration of heat generation in a cast iron disc rotor efficiency of the module (i.e., generate more voltage). The modes of heat transfer [3] involved are convection (during vehicle running) and conduction (during rest). It achieves the heat transfer with the help of steam of cold water that flows inside the heat sink. The heat transfer, q, by conduction as per Fourier’s law is given by, q k AdT d x (1)
Where k is thermal conductivity of the material, A is heat transfer area, dT is the temperature difference across the Fig. 4: Exploded views of customized TEG (left) & heat sink (right) material and dx is the material thickness. The heat transfer, q, by convection as per Newton’s law of cooling is given by, q hcAdT (2) Where hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, A is heat transfer area, dT is the temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid. The TEG module is designed in the shape of ‘C’ where the heat generated is extreme [4-5] in the disc rotor as shown in the Fig. 3. The exploded view of the customized model of TEG and its water cooled heat sink Fig. 5: Performance of air & water cooled heat sinks are shown in Fig. 4. The TEG module was designed to concentrate on the entire disc area where the friction and heat will be more without disturbing the caliper. The 3. Design, fabrication and test of TERBS experiments were undertaken using TEG module series TERBS is employed with a view to produce the amount SP1848-27145. Fig. 5 shows the comparison of the of electric power such that by the vehicle propel itself performance of the TEG (16cm2) with air and water without depending on the external sources. The TERBS cooled heat sinks for selection and optimization of the works by both conduction and convection. When the best suited heat sink. The water cooled heat sink is best disc is heated during braking in a running vehicle, the suited for better performance. heat is transferred by convection to the hot side of the The TEG module and water cooled heat sink are TEG [6]. After a long running duration, the disc will be fastened together and treated as a single component. The at a peak temperature. When the hand brake is applied component is connected to the lower end of the shock after stopping the vehicle, the displacement sensor absorber of the wheel by a small hinged extension rod to attaches the component to the disc and now the heat is account for the wheel movement during irregularities in transferred by direct conduction. The pump will run even road surface. The component is placed very close to the after turning off the engine. The power supply is cut off disc so that it does not make any disturbances to the disc by the temperature sensor which senses the attainment of rotation and thus no drag force is created. The heat sink minimum temperature required for a TEG to work. Fig. receives the water from the bottom of the radiator tank 6 shows the flow process of the TERBS.
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Fig. 6: Flow chart of the working process of TERBS Fig. 7 shows the CREO model of the detailed Fig. 8: Photograph of the fabricated model of TERBS setup TERBS laboratory test setup and a photograph of the fabricated system is shown in Fig. 8. An AC motor was used to generate the acceleration in the disc which is mounted on its output shaft and a caliper was placed at the right position to initiate the braking operation with the aid of a hand lever. The acceleration and deceleration of the disc was continued for a period of time. After attaining a considerable state, the TEG module along with the water cooled heat sink is manually made to touch the heated surface. The voltage is measured by the multimeter which is connected to the TEG terminals. The results obtained from the laboratory scale experiments are analysed. Fig. 9 depicts the performance Fig. 9: Performance of custom TEG module SP1848-27145 (96cm2) of the custom designed TEG module of 96 cm2 which is the measured area with respect to the design. It can be 4. Conclusions seen that the custom model TEG can generate voltage of 12V (which is the exact car battery voltage) with a Experimental results show that the custom modelled temperature difference of 40°C. TEG module is capable of producing nearly 12V which is the optimum value of an automobile battery. This is based on the performance of a TEG attached to just one wheel. Thus, TERBS can generate almost all the electricity the vehicle needed for its travel by summing up the entire four wheels’ contribution. An ultra- capacitor may be used to accumulate the charges before recharging the battery in order to avoid fluctuations. Thus, the TERBS can potentially convert the vehicle self-propelling without any external influence. The attachment width will be of the exact width of the caliper around the disc. Thus, the attachment does not require any modification except the hinged joint to the shock absorber.
REFERENCES: [1] K. Sivabalan. 2014. Fabrication and analysis of thermo electric generator for power generator, Proc. External Students Symp., 12-13 September 2014, Villupuram, Tamilnadu. [2] P. Ramade, P. Patil, M. Shelar, S. Chaudhary, S. Yadav and S. Trimbake. 2014. Automobile exhaust thermo- Fig. 7: Isometric view of TERBS setup electric generator design and performance analysis, Int. J. Emerging Tech. and Advanced Engg., 4(5), 682-691.
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[3] F. Talati and S. Jalalifar. 2009. Analysis of heat EDITORIAL NOTES: conduction in disc brake system, Heat Mass Transfer, 45, Edited paper from National Conference on Technological 1047-1059. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00231-009-0476-y. Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August [4] H. Singh and H. Shergill. 2012. Thermal analysis of disc 2015, Chennai, India. brake using COSMOL, Int. J. Emerging Technologies, 3(1), 84-88. GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., [5] P.K. Zaware, R.J. Patil and P.R. Sonawane. 2014. Design VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. modification and optimization of disc brake rotor, Int. J. College, Chennai, India. Research in Engg. & Advanced Technology, 2(3), 1-4.
[6] J. Henderson. 1979. Analysis of a Heat Exchanger- Thermoelectric Generator System, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colorado.
160 Babu et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 161-164 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.09 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Vibration Characteristics of Journal Bearing with Various Damping Materials
T. Narendiranath Babua and D. Rama Prabhab aSchool of Mech. and Building Sciences, VIT University, Vellore, India Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected] bSchool of Electrical Engg., VIT University, Vellore, India
ABSTRACT: This paper presents an overview of the vibration problems which are experienced in running journal bearing. High vibration levels in machinery and components are usually undesirable as they often generate excessive noise and can lead to cyclic fatigue damage. The drive to reduce component mass, particularly in the aerospace and automotive industries, makes items more susceptible to vibration problems. In addition, many new high strength/high stiffness designs rely on ‘single piece’ welded metallic or fibrous composite constructions that have very little inherent damping. Damping materials have long been used to reduce vibration levels - examples vary from optimized constrained layer dampers on aircraft panels to bitumen spread on the underside of a metallic kitchen sink. Initially, most damping materials used were polymers with viscoelastic characteristics. In this work, a bearing testing apparatus is used for experimental studies to obtain displacement, velocity and acceleration from a journal bearing. Journal bearings are widely used to support the shaft of industrial machinery with heavy loads, such as compressors, turbines and centrifugal pumps. Vibration as a consequence of improper damping materials in journal bearing results in economic loss and creates high safety risks. So, it is necessary to reduce vibrations by selecting appropriate damping materials to the journal bearing and to achieve cost benefits to industry. Plywood, fibre, butadiene rubber and mud flap rubber was used to dampen the vibrations in the journal bearing. From the results, it is shown that the mud flap rubber possesses very good damping characteristics for journal bearing applications.
KEYWORDS: Journal bearing; Speed; Displacement; Acceleration; Damping material; Rotating machineries
CITATION: T.N. Babu and D.R. Prabha. 2015. Vibration Characteristics of Journal Bearing with Various Damping Materials, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 161-164. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.09
the introduction of extra damping to the critical 1. Introduction components, usually by incorporating friction devices. In The properties of damping materials vary considerably a gradient polymer material, the mechanical properties with operating temperature and frequency, the range in such as the Young’s modulus and the damping factor which effective damping can be achieved is narrow vary at least along one direction, usually the thickness if (often less than a 40°C range). In the last two decades, the materials are used as a coating. The variation of the research community has shown considerable interest properties can be either discrete or continuous. Discrete in the damping that can be achieved using a variety of so gradients are produced by applying several layers of called smart materials that couple mechanical behaviour polymer that are successively increasing in stiffness. with electrical or magnetic fields applied to them [1-2]. Different proportions of the same chemical components These materials can be used to reduce vibration levels in are used to vary the properties for each layer [5]. In either passive or active mode and have been used in principle, any desired property distribution can be conjunction with traditional damping materials to achieved in this way. In fact, the time required to increase their effective range. The primary problem is produce the necessary number of layers is usually the that of resonance, where response levels under dynamic limiting factor. loading can be 100 or 1000 times greater than the levels A more satisfying approach is to produce a truly resulting from static loading of the same magnitude. continuous gradient of material properties in one step These resonances can be caused by steady and non- using, for example, a diffusion process. For materials oscillatory forces being applied to a rotating disc. Their produced in this way, the shape of the material property prediction and observation from measurement under distribution is dictated by the physics of the process. running conditions are essential capabilities for the Linear and exponential gradients have been produced in machinery dynamics engineer [3-4]. this way. The primary area of application for a gradient Additional problems can arise if instabilities are material is damping coating. The advantage of using a encountered, either from aerodynamic sources (flutter) gradient material over a uniform one can be illustrated or from rotor dynamics. In all cases where severe using a simulation that compares the performance of a vibrations are encountered, they must be controlled by family of polymers individually with that of a gradient
161 Babu et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 161-164 coating that combines their properties. For a coating, the 3. Results and discussion damping performance depends on its loss modulus (i.e. The shaft was rotated at various speeds such as 600, 800, the imaginary part of the complex modulus). The 1000, 1400 rpm to measure the speed, velocity and damping achieved when uniform and gradient coatings acceleration of the journal bearing. Various damping based on this polymer family are applied to a vibrating materials are used for the journal bearing vibration structure [6-9]. It is clear that the effect of the gradient suppression. Three trials, T1, T2 and T3, were taken to coating is to extend the range of useful damping obtain the mean value using vibrometer. Table 2 to 4 considerably. In this work, a bearing testing apparatus is give the experimental results for damping materials used used for experimental studies to obtain displacement, as mud flap rubber, plywood, butadiene rubber and fibre velocity and acceleration from a journal bearing. respectively. The average accelerations for the cases of Plywood, fibre, butadiene rubber and mud flap rubber plywood and fibre sheet as a damping material are close was used to dampen the vibrations in the journal bearing. to one another. When compared to mud flap rubber, From the experimental results, the best damping material plywood and fibre sheet, vibrations are more when is selected for vibration suppression in journal bearings. butadiene rubber was used as a damping material. 2. Damping materials & test rig setup Table 2: Results for mud flap rubber sheet Mud flap damper at speed (rpm) The damping properties of a material represent its Results Trials capacity to reduce the transmission of vibration caused 1400 1000 800 600 T1 0.094 0.065 0.028 0.026 by the mechanical disturbances to a structure. The Max. T2 0.096 0.069 0.032 0.029 following materials were used to obtain the acceleration Disp. T3 through experimental set up. Table 1 shows materials (mm) 0.098 0.070 0.029 0.026 used and their properties with damping ratio. The Mean 0.096 0.068 0.030 0.027 T1 0.045 0.032 0.019 0.024 developed test rig has three subsystems namely Min. T2 0.043 0.035 0.017 0.026 mechanical system, an electrical control system and a Disp. T3 measurement system. The mechanical system has the (mm) 0.047 0.033 0.018 0.022 ability to simulate typical bearing operating conditions. Mean 0.045 0.033 0.018 0.024 T1 4.8 4.2 1.5 2.2 The electrical control system allows the mechanical Max. T2 4.6 4.0 1.9 2.0 subsystem to be controlled for different tests. The Velocity T3 measurement system allows both operating conditions of (mm/s) 5.0 4.4 1.7 2.4 the data and the dynamic response data of the test Mean 4.8 4.2 1.7 2.2 T1 3.2 3.7 1.3 1.7 bearing which was recorded for the vibration analysis. Min. T2 3.0 3.8 1.0 1.5 The vibrometer is placed over the journal bearing to Velocity T3 measure the acceleration. Fig. 1 shows experimental (mm/s) 3.4 3.6 1.6 1.3 setup to collect the data. Mean 3.2 3.7 1.3 1.5 T1 8.6 5.4 4.5 3.9 Max. Table 1: Materials and its properties T2 8.8 5.9 4.1 3.7 Accel. T3 Damping Young’s modulus Density Damping (mm/s2) 9.0 5.8 4.3 3.8 material (GPa) (kg/m3) ratio Mean 8.8 5.7 4.3 3.8 Mud flap rubber 0.04 1600 0.03 T1 6.5 5.0 3.6 2.4 Min. Plywood 12.4 615 0.001 T2 6.6 4.8 3.3 2.2 Accel. T3 Butadiene rubber 2.0 1000 0.05 (mm/s2) 6.7 5.2 3.6 2.6 Fibre 4.8 1246 0.07 Mean 6.6 5.0 3.5 2.4
Table 4 shows the experimental results from trials - T1, T2, T3 and average readings for normal journal bearing without any damping material at various speeds such as 600, 800, 1000 and 1400 rpm. Large vibrations are generated due to absence of damping material and values of the average acceleration are higher than that of mud flap rubber sheet, butadiene rubber sheet, plywood sheet and fibre sheet. From the results, it can be seen that as the experiment progressed on normal journal bearing without damping material, the contact between the shaft and the bearing increased and higher frequency components appeared. These components got their peak values near the middle of the time axis where the maximum contact was reached. This increased frequency is due to the combination of sub harmonics and inter-
harmonics for mechanical looseness. This looseness was Fig. 1: Experimental set up developed due to absence of damping material in the journal bearing.
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Table 3: Results for plywood sheet and butadiene rubber sheet Plywood sheet damper at speed (rpm) Butadiene rubber damper at speed (rpm) Results Trials 1400 1000 800 600 1400 1000 800 600 T1 0.039 0.035 0.032 0.033 0.050 0.063 0.053 0.128 T2 0.037 0.032 0.031 0.034 0.049 0.062 0.057 0.127 Max. Disp. (mm) T3 0.041 0.033 0.032 0.035 0.051 0.064 0.055 0.129 Mean 0.039 0.033 0.032 0.034 0.050 0.063 0.055 0.128 T1 0.032 0.025 0.020 0.027 0.040 0.024 0.026 0.075 T2 0.034 0.027 0.019 0.027 0.042 0.023 0.026 0.077 Min. Disp. (mm) T3 0.033 0.026 0.021 0.027 0.041 0.025 0.025 0.073 Mean 0.033 0.026 0.020 0.027 0.041 0.024 0.026 0.075 T1 5.6 3.6 3.4 1.7 5.0 4.8 2.2 3.5 T2 5.4 3.7 3.5 1.9 5.4 4.7 2.3 3.7 Max. Velocity (mm/s) T3 5.8 3.5 3.3 1.8 5.2 4.9 2.4 3.6 Mean 5.6 3.6 3.4 1.8 5.2 4.8 2.3 3.6 T1 4.3 3.3 2.8 1.6 4.9 3.3 1.8 3.0 T2 4.8 3.2 2.9 1.8 5.1 3.2 1.9 3.2 Min. Velocity (mm/s) T3 4.4 3.4 3.0 1.7 5.0 3.1 2.0 2.8 Mean 4.5 3.3 2.9 1.7 5.0 3.2 1.9 3.0 T1 10.5 7.5 6.4 6.4 12.4 9.4 7.8 5.7 T2 10.6 7.9 6.2 4.1 12.0 9.3 7.6 5.3 Max. Accel. (mm/s2) T3 10.7 7.7 6.3 4.3 12.2 9.2 8.0 5.5 Mean 10.6 7.7 6.3 4.9 12.2 9.3 7.8 5.5 T1 10.1 7.2 5.9 4.0 11.3 8.8 7.0 5.2 T2 10.3 7.3 5.8 3.8 11.1 8.9 7.4 4.7 Min. Accel. (mm/s2) T3 10.2 7.4 6.0 3.9 11.2 8.7 7.2 4.6 Mean 10.2 7.3 5.9 3.9 11.2 8.8 7.2 4.8
Table 4: Results for fibre sheet and normal bearing without damper Fibre sheet damper at speed (rpm) Bearing without damper at speed (rpm) Results Trials 1400 1000 800 600 1400 1000 800 600 T1 0.07 0.018 0.015 0.016 0.105 0.050 0.047 0.025 T2 0.074 0.018 0.016 0.015 0.104 0.060 0.048 0.029 Max. Disp. (mm) T3 0.072 0.018 0.019 0.017 0.106 0.070 0.046 0.023 Mean 0.072 0.018 0.017 0.016 0.105 0.060 0.047 0.026 T1 0.055 0.013 0.014 0.012 0.083 0.034 0.027 0.014 T2 0.054 0.017 0.016 0.099 0.087 0.033 0.026 0.018 Min. Disp. (mm) T3 0.056 0.015 0.016 0.01 0.085 0.032 0.025 0.016 Mean 0.055 0.015 0.015 0.040 0.085 0.033 0.026 0.016 T1 4.8 2.0 1.4 1.7 4.9 2.0 1.4 1.1 T2 4.6 1.9 1.3 1.9 4.6 1.9 1.6 1.3 Max. Velocity (mm/s) T3 5.0 2.1 1.5 1.8 5.0 2.1 1.5 1.2 Mean 4.8 2.0 1.4 1.8 4.8 2.0 1.5 1.2 T1 4.5 1.6 1.3 1.6 4.2 1.9 1.2 1.0 T2 4.4 1.8 1.2 1.8 4.4 1.8 1.4 1.2 Min. Velocity (mm/s) T3 4.9 2.0 1.4 1.7 4.3 2.0 1.3 1.1 Mean 4.6 1.8 1.3 1.7 4.3 1.9 1.3 1.1 T1 10.2 6.0 4.1 2.8 24.3 18.8 13.0 12.5 T2 10.0 6.2 4.2 2.9 24.2 18.9 13.3 12.1 Max. Accel. (mm/s2) T3 10.4 6.1 4.0 3.0 24.5 18.7 13.0 12.3 Mean 10.2 6.1 4.1 2.9 24.3 18.8 13.1 12.3 T1 9.6 5.5 3.6 2.6 21.8 16.9 12.4 10.0 T2 9.7 5.3 3.8 2.6 21.5 16.8 12.3 10.1 Min. Accel. (mm/s2) T3 9.6 5.7 3.7 2.6 21.6 16.9 12.4 10.5 Mean 9.6 5.5 3.7 2.6 21.6 16.9 12.4 10.2
acceleration is 8.8 m/s2. When compared to other 4. Conclusion materials such as plywood sheet, butadiene rubber sheet, fibre sheet, mud flap sheet shows good performance. The performance of the various damping materials for Hence, the mud flap rubber is recommended to use as a journal bearing vibrations was studied. The experimental damping material for journal bearing in order to reduce results show that the average velocity for mud flap the excessive vibrations. rubber sheet material is 4.8 m/s and the average
163 Babu et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 161-164
REFERENCES: [6] C. Christopoulos and A. Filiatrault. 2006. Principles of [1] M. Sola and M.A. Jette. 2009. Analytical and Passive Supplemental Damping and Seismic Isolation, experimental study of embedded damping elements in IUSS Press, Pavia. composite, Proc. 16th Int. Congress on Sound and [7] M. Prabhakaran and C. Sivakandhan. 2011. Analysis of Vibration, Krakow, Poland. mechanical properties and free vibration response of [2] R. Chandra, S. Singh and K. Gupta. 1999. Damping composite laminates, Int. J. Mech. Ind. Engg., 1, 84-89. studies in fibre-reinforced composites: A review, Compos. [8] T.P. Mohan, M. Ramesh Kumar and R. Velmurugan. Struct., 46, 41-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0263-8223 2006. Thermal, mechanical and vibration characteristics (99)00041-0. of epoxy-clay nano composites, J. Mater. Sci., 41, 5915- [3] L. Tenek, E. Henneke and M. Gunzburger. 1993. 5925. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0278-2. Vibration of delaminated composite plates and some [9] Y. Hong, X.D. He and R.G. Wang. 2012. Vibration and applications to non-destructive testing, Compos. Struct., damping analysis of composite blade, Mater. Des., 34, 98- 23(3), 253-262. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0263-8223(93) 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2011.07.033. 90226-G. [4] K. Dovstam. 1995. Augmented Hooke's law in frequency EDITORIAL NOTES: domain: A three dimensional, material damping formulation, Int. J. Solids Struct., 32(19), 2835-2852. Edited paper from National Conference on Technological http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0020-7683(94)00269-3. Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August 2015, Chennai, India. [5] J. Lai and K. Young. 1995. Dynamics of graphite/epoxy composite under delamination fracture and environmental GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., effects, Compos. Struct., 30, 25-32. http://dx.doi.org/10. VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. 1016/0263-8223(94)00017-4. College, Chennai, India.
164 Jayaseelan et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 165-168 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.10 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Effect of Graphene Filler Content on Mechanical Strength and Hardness for Goat Hair Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Composites
J. Jayaseelana,c, P. Palanisamya, K.R. Vijayakumara and A. Dhanam Maria Vinitac aMech. Engg. Dept., Advanced Research Institute, Dr. MGR Educational and Research Institute University, Maduravoyal, Chennai, India bCorresponding Author, Email: [email protected] cNational Centre for Nano Science and Nano Tech., University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, India
ABSTRACT: Graphene when mixed in small quantity to host matrix like epoxy improves the mechanical, thermal and electrical properties. Fabrication of natural composite is made with goat hair as fibre with 37.5% fibre content by weight and graphene filled epoxy as matrix to enhance the properties. In the process of composite fabrication, five layers of goat hair fibre is sandwiched using resin by compression moulding method. Four composite specimens respectively epoxy with no Graphene content and 0.25% to 0.75% Graphene filled epoxy matrix are tested for tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength and hardness. The mechanical properties of the four composite specimens are analysed. The experimental test results have demonstrated that graphene filled epoxy matrix reinforced with goat hair fibre specimens had better mechanical properties than composite with no graphene content.
KEYWORDS: Goat hair fibre; Graphene; Epoxy matrix; Nanomaterials; Mechanical strength; Hardness
CITATION: J. Jayaseelan, P. Palanisamy, K.R. Vijayakumar and A. D.M. Vinita. 2015. Effect of Graphene Filler Content on Mechanical Strength and Hardness for Goat Hair Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Composites, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 165-168. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.10
smooth, wear resistant, soft, elastic, low-cost and 1. Introduction available in plenty [4]. Even though goat hair is used for Composite material consists of two or more chemically many applications not much attention and work has been distinct constituents on a micro scale with a defined tried out in composite applications. Disposal of goat hair interface separating them. One or more discrete phase is in tannery process is a perennial problem. When embedded in a continuous phase to form a composite. graphene is added in minute quantity with epoxy matrix, The discontinuous phase made of fibre is usually harder it improves the mechanical performance, thermal and stronger than the continuous phase and is called the conductivity, electrical conductivity and permeation reinforcement, whereas the continuous phase made of barrier properties of a range of composites [6]. resin is termed as matrix. There is increase in demand In comparison with carbon nanotubes, graphene for environmental friendly materials such as natural fibre exhibits potential advantage of low cost, high surface composites to replace the traditional fibre (i.e. carbon, area, ease of processing and safety [7], excellent thermal glass and aramid fibre) composites [1, 2, 5, and 12]. The conductivity [8] and strong mechanical strength [9]. reasons are: biodegradability, less emissions to the Gouda [10] has studied the effect of adding 0.2% multi- atmosphere, abundant, renewable, availability and can be walled carbon nano tubes (MWCNT) and graphene on produced at low cost in many parts of the developing the mechanical properties of glass carbon epoxy hybrid world. In recent years, composite materials have found composite by varying fibre content. They concluded that increasing applications in construction, aerospace and modulus of elasticity was increased by 10 to 15% and automotive industries due to light weight, improved also sustained greater loads, flexural strength was strength, corrosion resistance, controlled anisotropic decreased by adding graphene fillers, impact strength properties. However, there is a growing demand to and hardness were increased by 37% and 12.34% improve on composite materials with reduction in the respectively in case of composite made with graphene cost of manufacture [3]. and MWCNT respectively. Delamination and fibre Goat hair is a natural fibre extracted from the goat breakage are minimal by adding graphene and MWCNT hide. Goat hair has got potential mechanical properties fillers. Fibre pullout is seen in tensile and flexural like length varying between 30 to 120mm, bulk density loadings, but with impact load there is less fibre pullout. between 1.10 to 1.25 gm/cc, diameter between 80 to 105 These factors influenced the authors to study the hybrid microns, tensile strength between 80 to 110 MPa, goat hair fibre composite by varying the graphene nano moisture absorption around 7%, and elongation at shear filler content in the epoxy matrix. between 30 to 60%, bio-degradable, eco-friendly,
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2. Test specimens preparation Table 1: Composition of composite specimens Goat hair fibre Epoxy matrix Graphene filler The present investigation has been carried out with Specimen compression moulded composite specimens with various (% weight) (% weight) (% weight) proportions of graphene content. Graphene, a fluffy, very Composite 1 37.5 62.50 0 light weight powder is a nano powder generated from Composite 2 37.5 62.25 0.25 graphite by chemical exfoliation method. Its diameter in Composite 3 37.5 62.50 0.50 x and y dimensions are between 10 to 20 microns and Composite 4 37.5 62.75 0.75 thickness in z direction is between 3 to 6 microns. Its purity is between 96 to 99%. Average number of layers 3. Results and discussion is between 3 to 6. Thermal conductivity is 3000 W/mK, 3.1. Tensile test very high surface area between 323 to 600m2/g, bulk density is 0.241 gm/cc, high aspect ratio is about 1000, Tension testing is a fundamental materials science test in tensile strength is more than 5GPa and tensile modulus is which a specimen is subjected to a controlled tension more than 1000GPa. Graphene layers are entirely until failure [13]. Composite specimens are tested for disassociated ensuring good dispersion and ease of tensile strength as per ASTM D638-03 test standard. handling while enhancing the performance [17]. Goat Figs. 2(a) and (b) show the tensile test results of all four hide is purchased from a goat slaughter house. Within 10 specimens. The tensile strength and elastic modulus are hours of slaughter, the goat hide is soaked in boiling given in Table 2. It is observed that addition of graphene water for two minutes and goat hair is pulled out from has a positive effect of enhancing the tensile strength and hide manually. Goat hair fibre is washed thoroughly tensile modulus of composite. This result is in agreement many times in warm water, then using mild detergent with the work done by Gouda [10] and [18]. and dried. It is washed again with acetone and finally washed in warm water, then dried in sunlight. Dried goat hair is manually separated and inspected for presence of foreign particles. Dust free goat hair is measured using weighing scale and prepared as layers manually. Each layer of goat hair fibre measures 10 grams. Five layers of goat hair, as shown in Fig. 1(a), are used to fabricate the composite specimens. Epoxy resin is the most widely used material due to its prevalent mechanical and thermal properties even at elevated temperatures and low shrinkage after curing and great synthetic safety. LY556 Epoxy and HY951 hardener are used as matrix material with a mixing ratio of 10:1 by weight [11]. The epoxy matrix of 62.5% by Fig. 2(a): Load vs. Displacement weight is used. The platen before moulding is shown in Fig. 1(b). Graphene of 0.25% to 0.75% by weight is added to epoxy and then mixed thoroughly by mechanical means to get uniform distribution. Graphene filled epoxy and hardener is mixed in the ratio 10:1 and composite is fabricated using compression moulding. Moulds measuring 360mm360mm10mm are used for composite fabrication by compression moulding. Mould set is placed in the compression moulding press under a pressure of 105 bar and left undisturbed for 36 hours and then the finished composite plate, as shown in Fig. 1(c), is released from the mould. Table 1 shows the composition of fibre and graphene filled epoxy matrix for the fabricated composite specimens. Fig. 2(b): Stress vs. Strain Table 2: Ultimate strength and Young’s modulus of composites Ultimate strength Young’s modulus Specimen (MPa) (MPa) Composite 1 33 515 Composite 2 37.2 581 Composite 3 40 625 Composite 4 36 562 Fig. 1: (a) Goat hair layer; (b) Goat hair layer reinforced epoxy; (c) Compression moulded composite specimen 3.2. Flexural test
Flexural strength is defined as the material’s ability to resist deformation under load. Flexural test is conducted as per ASTM D790 standard. The transverse bending
166 Jayaseelan et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 165-168 test is the most frequently employed test, in which a indicated directly on the dial gauge of the instrument. specimen having either a circular or rectangular cross- From Table 5, it is observed that addition of graphene section is bent until fracture using a three point contact enhances the hardness of composite. The mechanical technique [14-15]. From flexural test results as shown properties of graphene filled epoxy reinforced with goat Fig. 3 and Table 3, it is observed that addition of hair fibre composites are found to increase with increase graphene enhances the flexural strength and flexural in graphene content upto 0.5%. The reason for this trend modulus of composite. Composite 1 has got the least may be attributed to the possible hydrogen bonding flexural strength (2.30MPa), whereas Composite 2, 3 and between the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups of graphene 4 show better tensile strength than Composite 1. Upto with that of epoxy resin system. Beyond 0.5% graphene 0.75% graphene addition, a marginal increase in flexural content, marginal drop in tensile, impact, interlaminar strength is observed. properties are noted. It may be due to possible agglomeration at high graphene content. Table 5: Hardness of composite specimens Diff. with Specimen Hardness (HRL) Composite 1 Composite 1 52.3 - Composite 2 65.6 +25.4% Composite 3 79.2 +51.4% Composite 4 82.9 +58.5%
3.5. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) SEM image has been captured for Composite 1. SEM images with 150 and 500 magnifications are shown in Figs. 4(a) and (b). It is observed that there are no voids Fig. 3: Flexural load vs. Displacement left, epoxy distribution is uniform, compaction is good, Table 3: Flexural strength of composite specimens fibres are randomly distributed evenly and also bonding of goat hair with epoxy is good. Flexural strength Diff. with Specimen (MPa) Composite 1 Composite 1 2.3 - Composite 2 2.76 +20% Composite 3 2.91 +26.5% Composite 4 3.14 +36.5%
3.3. Impact test The charpy impact test is carried out as per ASTM D256 standard. The charpy v-notch test is a standard high strain rate test which determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is a measure of composite materials notch toughness and acts as a tool to study temperature- dependent ductile-brittle transition. From impact results, as shown in Table 4, it is observed that addition of Fig. 4(a): SEM image of Composite 1 specimen, 150 magnification graphene enhances the impact energy of composite. It is observed that, up to 0.5% graphene addition, the impact energy has increased. At 0.75% Graphene, the impact energy has dropped. Table 4: Impact energy of composite specimens Diff. with Specimen Impact Energy (J) Composite 1 Composite 1 0.7 - Composite 2 0.85 +21.4% Composite 3 1 +42.8% Composite 4 0.75 +7.1%
3.4. Hardness test
Hardness test is carried out at room temperature as per ASTM D2240 using durometer hardness tester [16]. A Fig. 4(b): SEM image of Composite 1 specimen, 500 magnification 1/4" ball indenter of the tester is pressed into the material under hand pressure on the knob which is at the top of the instrument. The hardness of the specimen tested is
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4. Conclusions [7] M. Segal. 2008. Selling graphene by the ton, Nat. Nanotech, 4, 611-613. Addition of graphene nano particle with epoxy matrix, [8] A.A. Balandin, S. Ghosh, W.Z. Bao, I. Calizo and D. upto 0.50%, reinforced with goat hair fibre has improved Teweldebrhan. 2008. Superior thermal conductivity of the mechanical properties of composite like tensile single-layer Graphene, Nano Letters, 8, 902. strength, flexural strength, impact strength and hardness. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl0731872 However at 0.75% graphene addition, a reduction in [9] C.X. Lee, D. Wei and J.W. Kysar. 2008. Measurement of tensile strength, impact strength and a marginal increase the elastic properties and intrinsic strength of monolayer on hardness and flexural strength were observed. By graphene, Science, 321, 385-388. http://dx.doi.org/10. adding graphene upto 0.5%, the tensile strength was 1126/science.1157996. increased by 18%, flexural strength was increased by [10] P.S.S. Gouda. 2013. Effects of multi walled carbon 21%, impact strength was increased by 30%, and nanotubes and graphene on the mechanical properties of hardness was increased by 34%. hybrid polymer composites, Adv. Mat. Lett., 4(4), 261- 270. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: [11] Czichos and Horst. 2006. Handbook of Material Measurement Method, Springer, Berlin. The authors express sincere thanks to Er. A.C.S. Arun Kumar, Dr MGR. Educational Research Institute [12] J. Mussig. 2010. Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymers in Automotive Interior Applications, John Wiley & Sons. University, Chennai and its management and faculties for providing opportunity to do this research work. [13] A.M. Marc and C.K. Kumar. 1998. Mechanical Authors also thank Dr. P. Aravindan, Dr. P. Palanisamy Behaviour of Materials, Prentice Hall. and all the colleagues at Advanced Research Institute for [14] D.H. Pahr, F.G. Rammerstorfer, P. Rozenkrans, K. their guidance, suggestions, inputs, support and Humer and H.W. Weber. 2002. A study of short-beam- shear and double lap shear specimens of glass encouragement throughout this research. fabric/epoxy composites, Composites Part B, 33, 125-
132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1359-8368(01)00063-4. REFERENCES: [15] K.T. Kedward. 1972. On the short beam test method, [1] D. Chandramohan and K. Marimuthu. 2011. A review on Fibre Science and Technology, 5, 85-95. http://dx.doi.org natural fibers, Int. J. Research and Review in. Applied. /10.1016/0015-0568(72)90001-2. Science., l8(2), 194-206. [16] ASTM D2240: Standard Test Method for Hardness. [2] S. Choudhry and B. Pandey. 2012. Mechanical behaviour [17] W.C. Buong and N.A. Ibrahim. 2012. Graphene of polypropylene and human hair fibres, Int. J. nanoplatelets as novel reinforcement filler in poly (lactic Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 2(1), 118-121. acid)/epoxidized palm oil green nano composites, [3] M.M. Thwe and K. Liao. 2003. Durability of bamboo- Mechanical Properties, Int. J. Molecular Science, 13(9), glass fibre reinforced polymer matrix hybrid composites, 10920-10934. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms130910920. Comp. Sci. Tech., 63(3-4), 375-387. http://dx.doi.org/ [18] J. Jayaseelan, P. Palanisamy and K.R. Vijayakumar. 10.1016/S0266-3538(02)00225-7. 2013. Design fabrication and characterisation of nano- [4] S. Negahdari and M. Salehiranian. 2012. The survey on tubes reinforces epoxy carbon fibers, Int. J. Applied quantity and quality of hair produced by goats under fars Research, 3(2), 228-231. province conditions, J. Applied Animal Science, 2(1), 27- 32. EDITORIAL NOTES: [5] M.S. Sreekala, J. George, M.G. Kumaran and S. Thomas. 2002. The mechanical performance of hybrid phenol- Edited paper from National Conference on Technological formaldehyde-based composites reinforced with glass Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August and oil palm fibres, Comp. Sci. Techno., 62, 339. 2015, Chennai, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(01)00219-6 GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., [6] F.H. Gojny, M.H.G. Wichmann, B. Fiedler, W. Bauhofer VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. and K. Schulte. 2005. Influence of nano-modification on College, Chennai, India. the mechanical and electrical properties of conventional fibre-reinforced composites, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 36, 1525-1535. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.02.007.
168 Gurusamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 169-171 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.11 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Experimental Investigation of Sisal, Coir and Sugarcane Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites
P. Gurusamya, Leo C. Bestall and J. Arun Pandian Dept. of Mech. Engg., Jaya Engg. College, Chennai, India aCorresponding Author, Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: The natural fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composites can be used both in industrial applications and in research field. These polymer matrix composites are low cost, renewable and completely or partially recyclable. In this study, hand layup method has been used with the combinations of coir, sisal fibre and sugarcane skin to fabricate composite specimens for tension, compression and flexural strength tests. From the test results, the sisal fibre composites have shown the promising tensile and compressive strengths. Further, it is also shown that the sugarcane fibre has good flexural strength compared to sisal and coir fibre reinforced polymer composite specimens.
KEYWORDS: Natural fibres; Epoxy resin; Polymer matrix composites; Flexural strength; Sugarcane fibre
CITATION: P. Gurusamy, L.C. Bestall and J.A. Pandian. 2015. Experimental Investigation of Sisal, Coir and Sugarcane Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 169-171. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.11
sugarcane fibres reinforced with epoxy matrix and then 1. Introduction tested to characterise their mechanical strengths. Polymer can be defined as a long molecular structure Sisal is a hair like material similar to pieces of made of many units where the basic units are made of thread. Fibre is extracted by a process known as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Polymers are produced decortication where leaves are crushed and beaten by from raw materials such as petroleum, natural gas and rotating wheels set with blunt knives. Sisal fibre is derivatives of fossil fuel [1]. Generally, petro chemicals traditionally used for rope, twines and many other uses. for polymer synthesis are produced on large scale from Coir is a natural fibre extracted from the husk of an important substance known as naphtha [3]. From coconut. It is found between the hard internal shell and naphtha, other olefins are produced such as ethylene, outer coat of coconut with thick walls made of cellulose propylene, benzene and toluene [1-4]. Ethane is a [5]. This is used for making finer brushes, string rope component of natural gas that produces ethylene. Once and fishing nets. Sugarcane is commonly used as a bio the polymer materials are synthesised, they are fuel and in the manufacture of pulp and in building channelled in to major consuming industries such as, materials, and it often used as a primary fuel source in textiles and paints, or to highly diverse processing the sugar mills [1]. The amount of cellulose presents in sectors producing commercial products in construction, the natural fibres is listed in Table1. The mechanical packaging, automobile, agriculture, furniture and properties of natural fibres are listed in Table 2. The electrical appliances [6-8]. natural fibres with higher cellulose content have higher Now a days, natural fibres have attracted the values in tensile strength and Young’s modulus [8]. attention of many researches due to their merits such as Table 1: Cellulose content in selected natural fibres light weight, eco-friendly, strong, fully biodegradable, abundantly available, renewable and low cost. Compared Fibre type % Cellulose to glass, carbon and aramid, natural fibres are light in Sisal 65.5 weight [6]. Natural fibres can be classified into three Coir 19.9-36.7 main categories: vegetable fibres, animal fibres and Sugarcane 28.3-55 mineral fibres. Natural fibres derived from plant-based Table 2: Mechanical properties of natural fibres fibres are preferred as reinforcement by the automotive Tensile Young’s industry for structural applications due to their high fibre Density Elongation Fibre type strength modulus (g/cm3) (%) strength properties [5-12]. These types of natural fibres (MPa) (GPa) can be used to reinforce both thermosetting and Sisal 1.3-1.6 1.9-15 400-700 8.5-40 thermoplastic resin matrices. Thermosetting resin such Coir 1.2-1.6 14-30 170-230 3.0-7.01 as epoxy, polyester, polyurethane and phenolic are Sugarcane 1.1-1.6 6.3-7.9 170-350 5.1-6.2 commonly used in composites requiring higher performance applications [2-3, 13]. In this paper, natural fibre composites are fabricated using coir, sisal and
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2. Specimen preparation and test setup failure. A typical tensile test speed of 2 mm/min is used. A strain gauge is used to determine elongation and Hand layup moulding is used to fabricate the natural tensile modulus. In compression test, the loading fibre composites. The base plate is fixed inside the frame introduces the compressive force into the specimen for fabrication. The natural fibre and 50% resin hardener through shear at the wedge grip interfaces. The load mixture are used for moulding process. The roller is used transfer differs from the procedure in test method ASTM to impregnate the fibre with resin. Another layer of resin D695. The photographs of specimens post-test are shown and reinforcement is applied until a suitable thickness is in Figs. 5 to 7. Respective strengths determined by post- achieved. Table 3 gives the dimensions of the fabricated processing the load vs. displacement data are plotted in test specimens and their test standards. Respective Figs. 8 to 10 respectively for flexural strength, tensile photographs of specimens before testing are shown in strength and compressive strength. Sugarcane fibre Figs. 1 to 3. Fig. 4 shows the arrangement of three point reinforced composite has the highest flexural strength bending test. The flexural test specimen is placed on two when compared with other fibre reinforcements. Sisal supports with a span of “L” and the actuator is applying fibre reinforced composite has the highest tensile and the force “P” at the mid-span. The maximum flexural compressive strengths when compared with other fibre strength (σ) of the specimen is obtained using, reinforcements. dP 48EI 3 (1) d w0 L Where E is Young’s modulus, I is the second moment of inertia and w0 is the displacement at the mid-span.
Table 3: Dimensions of the testing samples Tests Dimensions (mm) Test standard Fig. 5: Sisal fibre reinforced epoxy specimens after test Flexure 2503010 3-point bending Tension 2503010 ASTM D3039 Compression 252525 ASTM D5467
Fig. 6: Coir fibre reinforced epoxy specimens after test
Fig. 1: Sisal fibre reinforced epoxy specimens before test
Fig. 7: Sugarcane fibre reinforced epoxy specimens after test Fig. 2: Coir fibre reinforced epoxy specimens before test
Fig. 3: Sugarcane fibre reinforced epoxy specimens before test
Fig. 8: Flexural strengths of natural fibre composites
Fig. 4: Three point bending test setup Fig. 9: Tensile strengths of natural fibre composites
3. Results and discussion Testing for flexural, tensile and compressive strengths for the fabricated sisal, coir and sugarcane fibre reinforced composite specimens were carried out using respective test standards as per Table 1. For tension test, the specimens are placed in the grips of a Universal Test Machine at a specified grip separation and pulled until Fig. 10: Compressive strengths of natural fibre composites
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4. Conclusions [9] W. Paul, I. Jan and V. Ignaas. 2003. Natural fibres: Can they replace glass in fibre reinforced plastics, Compos The natural fibre composite manufactured by hand lay- Sci. Technol., 63, 1259-1264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ up process provides an opportunity of replacing existing S0266-3538(03)00096-4. materials with a higher strength, low cost, alternative [10] S. Kalia, K. Thakur, A. Celli, M.A. Kiechel and C.L. eco-friendly natural fibres. From this experimental Schauer. 2013. Surface modification of plant fibres using investigation, sisal fibre reinforced epoxy composites environment friendly methods for their application in have shown the promising results for tensile and polymer composites, textile industry and antimicrobial compressive strengths. It is also shown that the activities, J. Environ. Chem. Engg., 1(3), 97-112. sugarcane fibre reinforced epoxy composites have good [11] S. Harish, D.P. Michael, A. Bensely, D.M. Lal and A. flexural strength compared with sisals and coir fibre Rajadurai. 2009. Mechanical property evaluation of reinforcements. natural fibre coir composite, Mater. Charact., 60(1), 44- 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2008.07.001. REFERENCES: [12] S. Joseph. 2002. A comparison of the mechanical properties of phenol formaldehyde composites reinforced [1] A. Bledzki. 1999. Composites reinforced with cellulose with banana fibres and glass fibres, Compo. Sci. based fibres, Prog. Polym. Sci., 24(2), 221-227. http://dx. Technol., 62(14), 1857-1868. http://dx.doi.org/10. doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6700(98)00018-5. 1016/S0266-3538(02)00098-2. [2] A. Pogosian, K. Hovhannisyan and A. Isajanyan. 2013. [13] C.W. Chin and B.F. Yousif. Potential of Kenaf fibres as Polymer Friction Transfer (FT). In, Q.J. Wang, Chung Y- reinforcement for tribological applications, Wear, 267(9- W, Editors, Encyclopaedia of Tribology, SE-820, 10), 1550-1557. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2009. Springer US, 2585-2592. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978- 06. 002 0-387-92897-5_820. [14] N. Singh, B.F. Yousif and D. Rilling. 2011. Tribological [3] K.D. Sears. 2001. Reinforcement of engineering th characteristics of sustainable fibre-reinforced thermoplastics with high purity cellulose, Proc. 6 Int. thermoplastic composites under wet adhesive wear, Conf. Wood Fibre Plastic Composites, Madison, USA. Tribol. Trans., 54(5), 736-748. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ [4] M. Brahmakumar, C. Pavithran and R.M. Pillai. 2005. 10402004.2011.597544 Coconut fibre reinforced polyethylene composites effect [15] N.S.M. El-Tayeb. 2008. Tribo-characterization of natural to natural waxy surface layer of the fibre on fibre/matrix fibre reinforced polymer composite material, Proc. interfacial bonding and strength of composites, Compos. IMechE. Part J, J. Eng. Tribol., 222(7), 935-946. Sci. Technol., 65, 563-569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
compscitech.2004.09.020. [5] R.M. Mizanur and A.K. Mubarak. 2007. Surface EDITORIAL NOTES: treatment of coir (Cocosnucifera) fibres and its influence Edited paper from National Conference on Technological on the fibers’ physico-mechanical properties, Compo. Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August Sci. Technol., 67, 2369-2376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. 2015, Chennai, India. compscitech.2007.01.009. [6] N.S.M. El-Tayeb. 2008. A study on the potential of GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., sugarcane fibres/polyesters composite for tribological VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. applications, Wear, 265, 223-235. http://dx.doi.org/10. College, Chennai, India. 1016/j.wear.2007.10.006.
[7] M. Sakthivel and S. Ramesh. 2013. Mechanical properties of natural fibre (banana, coir, sisal), Polymer Composites, 1(1), 1-6. [8] R.M. Sheltami, I. Abdullah, I. Ahmad, A. Dufresne and
H. Kargarzadeh. 2012. Extraction of cellulose nano crystals from Mengkuang leaves (Pandanus tectorius), Carbo-hydr. Polym., 88(2), 772-779. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.carbpol.2012.01.062.
171 Sevvel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 172-174 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.12 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Proof of Concept Fabrication of Multi-axis Pneumatic Mechanism for Dumpers
P. Sevvela, V. Nirmal Kannanb, S. Parameshwaran and Mohan Kumar Dept. of Mech. Engg., Magna College of Engg., Redhills, Chennai, India aCorresponding Author, Email: [email protected] bEmail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: At many building sites there isn’t sufficient space to manoeuvre the dumper in various directions to discharge the material to the front and side ways. In such situations, there is a growing demand of multi-axis articulated dumpers. This work deals with the fabrication of scale down prototype of three way dropping dumper wherein the dumper is operated using pneumatic tilting mechanism. There are three hydraulic cylinders which are operated by motor and gearbox to tilt the dumper body in all three directions. To maintain optimum efficiency of pneumatic system, the pressure drop between generation and consumption of compressed air is kept very low. Based on the initial prototype and tilting trials, it is demonstrated that this multi-axis system can be fully implemented in large scale. Further, the proposed pneumatic system can be automated with additional control system replacing the socket-pin arrangement to change the tilt directions with minimum human intervention.
KEYWORDS: Modern dumper; Pneumatics; Compressor; Multi-axis articulation; Mining material handling
CITATION: P. Sevvel, V.N. Kannan, S. Parameshwaran and M. Kumar. 2015. Proof of Concept Fabrication of Multi-axis Pneumatic Mechanism for Dumpers, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 172-174. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.12.
located underside in a scissor like pattern. Pulling the 1. Introduction beams close together automatically elevated the dump A dumper is a vehicle designed for carrying bulk body. Elevating the dump body allowed the free flow of material, often on construction or building sites. A material by gravity along chutes and for some distance dumper is usually an open 4-wheeled vehicle with the from the truck. The side dumper mechanism dumps the load skip in front of the driver. The skip can be material either in right or left plain of the trailer articulated to dump the load. A towing eye is fitted for according to the buyer’s need and specification. These secondary use as a site tractor. Modern dumpers [1] have side dumpers were not really produced in large quantity payloads of up to 10 tonnes and usually steer by since their frame design was so expensive. articulating at the middle of the chassis (pivot steering). At many building sites there isn’t sufficient space to They have multi-cylinder diesel engines, some turbo manoeuvre the dumper in various direction also there are charged, electric start and hydraulics for tipping and some sites wherein the material is supposed to be steering and are more expensive to manufacture and discharged in all the three directions – front, left and operate. A rollover protection frame may be fitted over right sides of the skip without moving the vehicle in any the seat to protect the driver if the dumper rolls over. direction. This work deals with the fabrication of Some dumpers have falling object protection as well. laboratory scale prototype of three way dropping dumper Lifting skips are also available to discharge materials wherein the dumper is operated hydraulically. There are above ground level. In the 1990’s dumpers with swivel three hydraulic cylinders which operates the dumper in skips, which could be rotated to tip sideways, became all three directions. These hydraulic cylinders are popular, especially for working in narrow sites such as operated by motor and gearbox. Being a proof of concept road works. Dumpers are the most common cause of fabrication, low weight materials are handled in this accidents at construction sites. One of the problems with project. The dumper is constructed using various dumper is the time and energy for setting the heavy materials like MDF, aluminium sheet, universal joint, dumper in proper direction to dump the material. solenoid switches, dump body and pneumatic piston. Hydraulics were incorporated into truck mounted dump bodies relatively early on, for example, Robertson 2. Fabrication of prototype dumper Steam Wagon had a hydraulic hoist that received power A small scaled down prototype of the dumper is from the truck‘s engine or an independent steam engine. fabricated to demonstrate the working principles of In 1907, Alley & McLellan developed another hydraulic pneumatic mechanism as a proof of concept. Pneumatic dump body that was power-driven by steam. The ability rams [2], driven by compressed fluid (air), are mounted of dump trucks to deliver rapid unloading capabilities under the dumper body to tip the dump box on a three resulted in the development of hopper type dump body. way basis, either to the left or right side or to the front. The dump body was elevated with struts and beams
172 Sevvel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 172-174
The chassis structure is prepared using mild steel rod of hollow square with outer dimension of 1515mm and an inner thickness of 4mm. The structure is 370mm in length and 250mm in width. The wheel base is kept as 30 mm. The height of chassis is 210mm from wheel centre. The wheels are offset 4mm from the chassis. This avoids slipping or sliding of vehicle during dumping action. To mount the pneumatic cylinder and the solenoid switch, two cross members were provided under the frame [3]. A steel plate of dimension 220205mm is used for the cylinder mount with a holding clip of 18mm diameter with a 14mm diameter hole at the centre of the plate. The pneumatic cylinder is attached to this clip with a help of Halen’s key. The solenoid switch is fitted with ordinary screws on the other cross member of dimension 220705 mm. The graphical representation of the arrangement of various components is shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 4: Photographic views of the successfully fabricated innovative multi axis pneumatic dumper The direction of dumper articulation is controlled by socket pin arrangement [3] which can be changed manually by the user. This socket joins the chassis and dumper body together. The photograph of fabricated multi-axis pneumatic dumper is shown in Fig. 4. The tilt mechanism uses the stored energy of fluid (compressed air) to action the pneumatic cylinder. Before operating the prototype, checking of connections are mandatory because leakages may lead to false operation of the setup. Once everything is set, the side of the dumper in the tilt direction is locked using ball and socket pin system. Once the pin is set in its place, the solenoid Fig. 1: CAD model of multi-axis dumper – Chassis and mounts valve releases the air from the compressor to flow in to the cylinder and performing the dumping action in the The dumper body comprising the floor and three previously set direction. After completing the dumping articulated side doors is fabricated using aluminium action, the frame is brought back to its place by the self- sheet of 1mm thickness. The dimension of the floor is weight of the dumper body. The frame can be hold in its 370250mm. The dimensions of the side and front doors tilt position if required until the solenoid valve is are 35020mm and 25020mm respectively. These reversed. The frame movement is restricted to a doors are joined to the floor by simple bolt and nut predetermined angle in side axis dumping action when arrangement at the top [4]. The universal joint is fitted at compared to the front axis dumping in order to prevent the bottom of the platform such that its hole will the slipping or flipping of the trailer by the dumping load perfectly align with the pneumatic cylinder as shown in itself. The photographs of the dumper discharging Fig. 2. In order to eliminate the damp force in the material in the front axis and side axis are shown in Fig. dumper body, the shaft on one side of the universal joint 5 and 6 respectively. is welded with the platform such that the damping force travels from the vehicle body to the wheel [5-6].
Fig. 2: CAD model of dumper body and its universal joint Fig. 5: Photograph showing dumper discharging front ways
173 Sevvel et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 172-174
demonstrate its functioning as proof of concept. The solenoid valve based engagement and disengagement of pneumatic rams has proved the efficient working of dumper to discharge the payload to the front, left and right sides. As this concept saves time and energy as well this may leads to efficient working in tighter manoeuvring space such as at mining and dam construction sites.
REFERENCES: [1] D.F. Wood. 2001. Dump Trucks, Motor books Int. [2] R.S. Khurmi. 2005. Textbook of Machine Design, 14th Edition, S. Chand & Company Ltd. [3] R.K. Bansal. 2010. A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, Laxmi Publications. [4] M.H. Tsai, C.N. Cheng and M.C. Shih. 2006. Design and control for the pneumatic cylinder precision positioning under vertical loading, American Society for Precision Engg. Proc. 21st Annual Meeting, Monterey, California. [5] Double-Axle Agricultural Trailer - Three-Side Dumper: Fig. 6: Photograph showing dumper discharging side ways T680, Operation & Maintenance Manual, Pronar, Poland. Before integrating this innovative multi-axis tilt [6] Y. Xi, W.B. Meter and H. Feng. 2013. Mine Multi-shaft mechanism using pneumatic rams in actual dumper, Dumper, Chinese Patent, CN 202986920 U. further studies such as the use of shock absorption for [7] G. Shinde, P. Tawele and L. Raut. 2014. Design and pneumatic action and detailed calculation of required development of 3-way dropping dumper, Int. J. Emerging torque based on the payload weight and dumper body Tech. and Adv. Engg., 4(9), 766-775. space [7] must be performed. The tilt angle in the side axes is restricted such that the vehicle stability is not EDITORIAL NOTES: compromised. However, the objective as proof of Edited paper from National Conference on Technological concept of this new multi-axis tilt mechanism has been Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August demonstrated well and tested many times for the 2015, Chennai, India. repeatability of tilt as well as retraction of tracks. There were no noticeable disruptions in repeatable operation of GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., the pneumatic system. VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. College, Chennai, India.
3. Conclusions An innovative pneumatic based multi-axis tilt mechanism for heavy duty dumper has been designed and then fabricated as a scaled down prototype to
174 Gurusamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 175-178 ISSN: 0975-3060 (Print), 0975-3540 (Online) International Journal of doi: 10.4273/ijvss.7.4.13 Vehicle Structures & Systems © 2015. MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence Available online at www.maftree.org/eja
Friction Stir Processing and Mechanical Testing of SiC-Al2O3 and B4C-Al2O3 Particulates Reinforced Aluminium Alloy Composites
P. Gurusamya, J. Arun Pandian and Leo C. Bestall Dept. Mech. Engg., Jaya Engg. College, India aCorresponding Author, Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: This paper details the friction stir processing (FSP) and mechanical behaviour of hybrid composite materials. Boron carbide (B4C), silicon carbide (SiC), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) particulates are reinforced with aluminium alloy (LM25) to fabricate hybrid composite specimens via FSP. The effect of FSP parameters such as tool rotational speed, traversing speed, groove width and micro hardness was investigated. Scanning electron microscopy analysis has shown that B4C, SiC and Al2O3 particulates are dispersed well into the Aluminium alloy matrix. Mechanical test results have shown that the tensile strength and Vickers hardness of FSP aluminium alloy with B4C and Al2O3 particulates are better than FSP aluminium alloy with SiC and Al2O3 particulates.
KEYWORDS: Friction stir processing; Boron carbide; Silicon carbide; Metal matrix composites; Mechanical testing; Hardness
CITATION:
P. Gurusamy, J.A. Pandian and L.C. Bestall. 2015. Friction Stir Processing and Mechanical Testing of SiC-Al2O3 and B4C-Al2O3 Particulates Reinforced Aluminium Alloy Composites, Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 175-178. doi:10.4273/ijvss.7.4.13
1. Introduction Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) can be processed using liquid state processing, semi-solid processing and powder metallurgy. In MMC, the matrix binds the reinforcements together. Good wetting is an essential condition for the generation of bond between the particulate reinforcements without failure. Friction stir process (FSP) is a solid state technique which has the ability to modify micro structures and provide improved properties over conventional processing technologies. FSP is used recently in aerospace, automotive, marine and railroad industries along with various applications. Fig. 1: Aluminium alloy filled with reinforcement Friction stir processing is most commonly used with aluminium alloys [1-4]. Aluminium alloy exhibits extremely poor resistance to seizure and galling [4]. Experimental [5-7] studies of FSP were undertaken by many researchers. FSP is a process in which a rotating tool is driven into a desired weld seam and traverses across the length of the seam to form a solid joint, where as no melting of the work piece occurs in friction stir Fig. 2: FSP tool with pin welding process. First the tool without pin traverses along the groove to forge the reinforcement particles as The material flow behaviour in FSP is shown in Fig. 1. Then, the tool with the pin, as shown in predominantly influenced by the profile and dimensions Fig. 2, may moved along the desired line to cover the of the FSP tool and process variables. Sun and Fujii [8] region. Due to the friction between tool and work piece, fabricated Cu-SiC particulates MMC using FSP in one the work piece tends to soften and then plasticizes the and two passes. The joints processed after two passes composite materials introduced along the groove. During have resulted in a particle-rich and free region formed in this FSP, the materials undergo plastic deformation the stir zone. The particle rich region has a refined grain resulting in the improved grain structure. FSP aims to structure due to the SiC particulates. Barmouz et al [9] modify the microstructure of a single work piece or fabricated Cu-SiC particulates MMC using FSP with multiple work pieces. 5nm and 30 nm SiC particulates. FSP of copper with SiC particulates has increased the percentage of elongation
175 Gurusamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 175-178 and decreased the tensile strength compared to the base in the nugget zone for all hybrid composites made by metal. When there are a minimum of three materials, it is FSP. The rotating tool gave sufficient heat generation called as hybrid composite. LM25 aluminium alloy is and a tangential force to distribute the reinforcement considered as the base matrix material. In this paper, particulates to flow towards the wider area [13]. From hybrid composites are fabricated using aluminium oxide the SEM image at the stir zone for Al-B4C/Al2O3 (Al2O3) with boron carbide (B4C) and silicon carbide composite, as shown in Fig. 5, it is observed that the (SiC) particulates as the reinforcement materials. bonding of carbide particles and solid lubricant with Mechanical tests are carried out to investigate the tensile surrounding matrix depicts any interfacial reactions. strength, micro hardness using Vickers test and particulate dispersion into matrix using scanning electron microscope (SEM).
2. As-received and FSP specimens Aluminium alloy plate of 1605034mm is machined out of blank using a vertical milling machine. Then, a slot of 1601.42mm is made at the middle of the top surface using wire cut electrical discharge machining. The machining is carried out as two aluminium alloy bar specimens. In order to produce as-received composite specimens, Al2O3 particulates were contrived in the groove. The groove has to be made in the advancing side which is 1mm away from the centre line of the tool rotation on the aluminium plate [10]. The top surface of Fig. 3: FSP of hybrid composite during tool traverse the groove was closed with a FSP tool without pin to prevent the escaping of Al2O3 from the groove. In the next stage, the FSP tool is plunged with the pin into the plate to stir the material along with the reinforcement to produce the MMC. The specimens were clamped to the backing plate using bolts. Then, FSP is followed for joining up of the aluminium alloy. The base material used in the FSP is 16070mm aluminium alloy LM25 and conforms to British Standard 1490. The reinforcement particles which have effect on the wear and mechanical properties were identified as SiC, B4C and Al2O3 [11, 12]. A square groove was made with dimensions of 10mm width and 3mm depth tangent to the pin in the advancing side, which is 1mm far away from the centre line of the tool rotation on the aluminium Fig. 4: Finished FSP specimen alloy LM25 plate. Various mixer ratios of SiC, B4C and Al2O3 particulates reinforcements are packed in the groove. The groove opening was initially closed by means of the tool without pin to avoid the escapement of reinforcement particles from groove. Tool travelling speed of 40 mm/min, axial force of 5 kN and tool onward tilt angle of 2.5 along the centre line were used in the FSP. The experiments were carried out on a vertical milling machine. The schematic of aluminium alloy plate for FSP with tool traverse is shown in Fig. 3. The finished FSP specimen is shown in Fig. 4. The SEM analysis was also utilized for measuring the reinforcement particles size and worn morphology of surface hybrid composites. After FSP, micro structural inspections were carried out at the cross section of the nugget zone of surface hybrid composites normal to the FSP direction. Before taking SEM images, the surface is Fig. 5: SEM microstructure of processed composite mechanically polished and etched with Keller’s reagent. The size of the nugget zone is normally equal to the size 3. Mechanical testing of the rotating pin, width and depth of 8mm and 3.5mm The tension test specimens were taken from the surface respectively. The SEM of Al-B C/Al O , Al-SiC/Al O 4 2 3 2 3 hybrid composites normal to the FSP direction and made in rpm surface hybrid composites and as-received as per ASTM E8 standard by using wire cut electrical aluminium alloy were analysed. The particles of SiC, discharge machining to the required dimensions. The B C and Al O were observed to be dispersed uniformly 4 2 3 tensile test is carried out to the pin normal to the FSP
176 Gurusamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 175-178 direction. Tension tests were performed at room than the melting temperature. Lowering the tool temperature using the FSP composite and as-received rotational speed and the feed rate has resulted in poor Aluminium alloy specimens. FSP used the rotational and distribution of B4C, Al2O3 and SiC particles. The traverse speeds of 1400 rpm and 40 mm/min increase in groove width did not affect the distribution of respectively. Table 1 gives the comparison of tensile B4C, Al2O3 and SiC particles in a significant manner. strengths for as-received and aluminium alloy reinforced From the SEM analysis, it is observed that the particles with SiC-Al2O3and B4C-Al2O3 specimens. It is seen that were distributed uniformly throughout the matrix. The the combination of Aluminium alloy with B4C-Al2O3 tensile strength and hardness are high for FSP materials. specimen has higher tensile strength than the base metal. The tensile strengths of the FSP Aluminium alloy with REFERENCES: SiC-Al O specimens were reduced as compared to the 2 3 [1] Z.Y. Ma, S.R. Sharma and R.S. Mishra. 2006. Effect of B4C-Al2O3 specimens. The presence of hard SiC multiple-pass friction stir processing on microstructure particles enhances the hardness and consequently and tensile properties of a cast aluminum-silicon alloy, reduces the elongation of specimen. Moreover, the Scr. Mater., 54, 1623-1626. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. presence of SiC particles could restrict the grain scriptamat.2006.01.010. boundary sliding. [2] P. Cavaliere and P.P. De Marco. 2014. Friction stir Table 1: Tensile strength (MPa) of hybrid composite specimens processing of a Zr-modified 2014 aluminium alloy, Mater. Sci. Engg. A, 462, 206-210. http://dx.doi.org/10. LM25 with LM25 with Specimen 1016/j.msea.2006.04.159. SiC-Al O B C-Al O 2 3 4 2 3 [3] F.C. Liu, Z.Y. Ma and L.Q. Chen. 2009. Low- 1 153 200 temperature superplasticity of Al-Mg-Sc alloy produced 2 250 240 by friction stir processing, Scr. Mater., 60, 968-971. http: 3 260 280 //dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2009.02.021. 4 240 290 [4] L.B. Johannes, I. Charit, R.S. Mishra and R. Verma. 2007. Enhanced superplasticity through friction stir Micro hardness tests were carried out at the cross processing in continuous cast AA5083 aluminum, Mater. section of nugget zone of surface hybrid composites Lett., 464, 351-357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea. normal to the FSP direction. Samples were tested with a 2007.02.012. load of 15g and duration of 15 sec using a Vickers [5] Z.Y. Ma, R.S. Mishra and F.C. Liu. 2009. Superplastic digital micro hardness tester. Vickers hardness test behaviour of micro-regions in two-pass friction stir specimen of 15×5×10 mm dimensions is shown in Fig. processed 7075Al alloy, Mater. Sci. Engg. A, 505, 70-78. 6. The physical quality of the indenter and the accuracy http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2008.11.016. of the applied load as per ASTM E8 must be controlled [6] G. Buffa, L. Fratini, S. Pasta and R. Shivpuri. 2008. On in order to get the correct results. After the load is the thermo-mechanical loads and the resultant residual removed, the two impression diagonals are measured, stresses in friction stir processing operations, CIRP Ann. usually to the nearest 0.1-μm with a filer micrometre to Manuf. Technol., 57, 287-290. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016 obtain averaged Vickers hardness (HV). Table 2 gives /j.cirp.2008.03.035. the comparison of micro hardness test results for as- [7] Y. Morisada, H. Fujii, T. Nagaoka and M. Fukusumi. received and aluminium alloy reinforced with SiC- 2006. Effect of friction stir processing with SiC particles Al O and B C-Al O specimens. Reduction in hardness on microstructure and hardness of AZ31, Mater. Sci. 2 3 4 2 3 Engg. A, 433, 50-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea. for FSP specimens may be due to remarkable softening 2006.06.089. which occurred during FSP. The micro hardness is high [8] Y.F. Sun and H. Fijji. 2011. The effect of SiC particles for B4C-Al2O3 reinforcement. on the microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded pure copper joints, Mater. Sci. Engg. A, 528, 5470-5475. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea. 2011. 03.077. [9] M. Barmouz, P. Asadi, M.K. Besharati Givi and M. Taherishargh. 2011. Investigation of mechanical properties of Cu/SiC composite fabricated by FSP: Effect of SiC particles' size and volume fraction, Mater. Sci. Fig. 6: Micro hardness sample Engg. A, 528, 1740-1749. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. msea.2010.11.006. Table 2: Vickers hardness (HV) of hybrid composite specimens [10] A. Devaraju, A. Kumar and B. Kotiveerachari. 2013. LM25 with LM25 with Specimen Influence of rotational speed and reinforcement on wear SiC-Al2O3 B4C-Al2O3 and mechanical properties of aluminium hybrid 1 110 160 composites via friction stir processing, Mater. Des., 45, 2 115 155 576-585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.09.036. 3 80 135 [11] R.I. Essam, T. Makoto, S. Tishiya and I. Kenji. 2010. 4 105 160 Wear characteristics of surface-hybrid-MMCs layer fabricated on aluminum plate by friction stir processing, 4. Conclusions Wear, 268, 1111-1121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wear. 2010.01.005. The primary research on FSP focuses on aluminium [12] S. Soleymani, A. Abdollah-zadeh and S.A. Alidokht. alloys. FSP forces material flow at the temperature lower 2012. Microstructural and tribological properties of
177 Gurusamy et al. 2015. Int. J. Vehicle Structures & Systems, 7(4), 175-178
Al5083 based surface hybrid composite produced by EDITORIAL NOTES: friction stir processing, Wear, 278-279, 41-47. http://dx. Edited paper from National Conference on Technological doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2012.01.009. Advances in Mechanical Engineering TAME 2015, 20 August [13] A. Devaraju and A. Kumar. 2011. Dry sliding wear and 2015, Chennai, India. static immersion corrosion resistance of aluminum alloy 6061-T6/SiCp metal matrix composite prepared via GUEST EDITOR: Dr. K. Umanath, Dept. of Mech. Engg., friction stir processing, Int. J. Adv. Res. Mech. Engg., VelTech HighTech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engg. 1(2), 62-68. College, Chennai, India.
178 CALL FOR SUBSCRIPTIONS The International Journal of Vehicle Structures and Systems (IJVSS) is a quarterly journal and is published by MechAero Foundation for Technical Research & Education Excellence (MAFTREE), based in Chennai, India. MAFTREE is engaged in promoting the advancement of technical research and education in the field of mechanical, aerospace, automotive and its related branches of engineering, science, and technology. IJVSS disseminates high quality original research and review papers, case studies, technical notes and book reviews. All published papers in this journal will have undergone rigorous peer review. IJVSS was founded in 2009 and is available in Print (ISSN 0975-3060) and Online (ISSN 0975-3540) versions. The prime focus of the IJVSS is given to the subjects of modelling, analysis, design, simulation, optimization and testing of structures and systems of the following: • Automotive vehicle including scooter, auto, car, motor sport and racing vehicles; • Truck, trailer and heavy vehicles for road transport; • Rail, bus, tram, emerging transit and hybrid vehicle; • Terrain vehicle, armoured vehicle, construction vehicle & Unmanned Ground Vehicle; • Aircraft, launch vehicle, missile, airship, spacecraft and space exploration vehicle; • Unmanned Aerial Vehicle and Micro Aerial Vehicle; • Marine vehicle, ships, yachts and under water vehicles. IJVSS is currently indexed in Elsevier Scopus, EI COMPENDEX, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts Mechanical & Transportation Engineering Abstracts, Index Copernicus, CiteSeerX, ProQuest Engineering Journals, ProQuest Illustrata, Indian Citation Index, EBSCO Host, Google Scholar, OAI Harvester, and TRB - Transportation Research Information Service. Our application for indexing with ISI Web of Science is in process with Thomson Reuters. MAFTREE is a member of Publishers International Linking Association and IJVSS is fully compliant with CrossRef DoI: 10.4273/ijvss citation linking. This will give our papers worldwide access and recognition.
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