Social Work Skills for Organizing and Leading Task Oriented Groups

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With this format and our HomEd audio programs, the Chapter continues its goal of ensuring that social workers, including those with mobility or other impairments, are able to meet their continuing education requirements. This course of 10,000 words meets the current Massachusetts Board of Registration’s requirements for 1.5 CEs and is appropriate for social workers at all licensure levels. If you have comments, concerns or other questions please e-mail [email protected] or call 617-227-9635 x17. Social Work Skills for Organizing and Leading Task Oriented Groups

By Lee Staples PhD, MSW

ocial workers frequently may be vision; the ability to attract and retain ac- My own experience indicates that many Scalled on to organize, staff, or lead tive members; a strong emphasis on lead- leaders and organizers worry much more non-therapeutic task oriented groups. ership development; a functional, dem- about accomplishing tasks than developing It is helpful to gain macro social work ocratic structure; participatory group good group processes. This can turn people knowledge and skills for recruiting new processes; and the capacity to achieve off. Community groups only have the par- participants, developing leadership, con- goals and objectives. tial commitment and involvement of their ducting effective meetings, engaging members, who have other things to do than in productive decision-making process- participate in an array of meetings, activ- es, and managing intra-group conflict. Group Products and Processes ities, events, and actions. It is critical that Social workers also should be famil- community members feel important, need- iar with member, leader, and staff roles, Essentially there are two things to con- ed, and part of something special. Solidarity as well as both product and process di- sider when assessing the development and spirit are more than pleasant byprod- mensions of working groups. This home- and maintenance of community groups: ucts of group involvement. Maintenance study course is designed to provide ba- the outcomes or products of collective and development do not turn solely on sic knowledge and methodological skill action and the processes by which tasks what the group accomplishes. It is equal- building in these areas. Much of this ma- are accomplished - what is produced and ly important how members perceive their terial has been adapted from my book on how those results are achieved. Clearly leaders in action and how they see them- grassroots community organizing, Roots the two affect one another. Successful selves contributing. To Power (Praeger, 2004). Therefore, task groups tend to have a high level of mem- A community group is more than its mis- oriented groups in community settings ber satisfaction. When many community sion statement, formal structure, budget, are highlighted, and the term “commu- members are involved in planning, car- by-laws, and track record of success. It nity organizer” can be used interchange- rying out, and assessing actions and ac- is also the informal shared assumptions, ably with “macro social worker.” Many, tivities, success is more likely. Actions, perceptions and expectations of its mem- if not most, of the principles, methods meetings, and other events need to be bers, the values they hold, the ways they and techniques discussed below also are both effective and enjoyable. People par- go about doing things. This is the organi- applicable to working groups that operate ticipate best when there are both tangi- zational culture that helps form a commu- within human service organizations and ble and psychological rewards; they need nity group’s identity. Ultimately, people’s agencies, but I will maintain a focus on to achieve a degree of success on the commitment depends on how they actual- community based task groups throughout group’s goals and objectives, while also ly experience real involvement. Most or- this course. The most successful groups experiencing personal recognition, en- ganizational work takes place in small task will have a combination of strengths, in- hanced self-esteem, and stronger connec- groups. These settings can provide excel- cluding a shared, compelling mission or tions to other community members.

Learning Objectives

1. To develop macro social work 2. To learn about methods and 3. To gain knowledge about group knowledge and skills for organizing, techniques for recruiting new composition, contracting, culture, leading, staffing or participating in participants, developing community and conflict, as well as methods task oriented groups. leadership, and conducting successful for developing and maintaining an large meetings. ethos of participatory democracy.

lent opportunities for discussion, strategic analysis, consciousness Often these elements never are formally discussed and may not raising, action research, planning, decision-making, recruitment, even be noticed, until violated. However, group culture is very real leadership training, community education, negotiating, lobbying, and can be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, these taken for and evaluation. A few basic guidelines for effective small group granted norms usually will be within the “comfort zone” of regu- products and processes follow. lar in-group members, making participation pleasant and enjoyable. On the other hand, the manner in which a group operates may Composition, Contracting and Culture. create severe or subtle barriers for non-members who potentially might join. These “outsiders” may take away the unintention- The configuration of working groups will (or at least should) vary al message that the group is a relatively closed system, controlled from task to task. Core activists often will be involved simultane- by a circle of insiders. Given the need for community groups to at- ously with several committees or subgroups; and the same peo- tract new activists, this phenomenon can be a serious problem. It ple may play very different roles in the various groups, depending is critical that all committees and task forces be perceived as open, on their interest in the business at hand, available time, expertise, inclusive and welcoming of newcomers. and interpersonal relationships with other members. When tasks are simple and straightforward, existing research shows that five to seven people is the optimum size for effective problem-solving, Nevertheless, putting this principle into practice can be challeng- while twelve to fifteen participants are preferable for more com- ing. Increasingly, the United States is becoming a more multicul- plex problems (Bakalinsky, 1984). Since community groups typ- tural society. At one time, the concept of “community” was vir- ically attempt to involve lots of people on most aspects of their tually interchangeable with “neighborhood.” Certain geographic work, sub-committees of five to seven people can be used creative- areas were closely identified with particular ethnic groups. In ly to gain efficiency, when overall committees become unwieldy. many major cities, when a person referred to the Irish, African American, Polish, Puerto Rican, or Italian “communities,” s/he Half a century of research dating back to Redl (1942) clearly has also would be talking about a distinct piece of turf. Now, eth- demonstrated that it is best to avoid having only one group mem- nic communities typically transcend any one neighborhood, and ber along descriptive characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender, the area in which a community organization operates may have a age category, sexual orientation, and other relevant variables. The plethora of different groups. reason for this rule of thumb is the tendency for such individuals to be marginalized, tokenized, or scapegoated in these situations. The growth of multiculturalism is healthy and positive, but may To the extent that there is a degree of control over the composi- require special efforts for groups to establish cultures that action of working groups, organizers and leaders should be sensitive tively embrace ethnic diversity. Significant differences may ex- to this potential problem and simply should take steps to recruit at ist between ethnic groups on many of the variables listed above, least one more group member sharing the particular characteristic. such as the best times and places to hold meetings; the relative Group composition should be reflective of the larger community, importance of punctuality; whether and when to have food (be- taking full advantage of the multiple perspectives that can be con- fore, at, after, never) and what to serve; whether or not to allow tributed by a diverse membership. children in meetings; behaviors and styles of interacting; and so forth. A policy or pattern that is agreeable to one group may Once a work group is created, it is essential for its members to turn off others. agree on its basic purpose, priorities, parameters, and policies. “Contracting means reaching an agreement about why a group ex- These decisions and practices tend to be established by the folks ists, how long it will exist, what will be expected of the members, in attendance at the initial meetings. Hearing no objections, they how and whether the group will be structured formally, what will consciously or unconsciously may begin operating in a particular be expected of a staff person (if there is one), what a group’s rela- manner conveying a clear sense of style and substance that may be tionships will be with other groups and the organization that spon- inviting or off-putting to potential members, depending on vari- sors it (if there is such an organization), which outcomes should be ables such as race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, or considered successes and which as failures, and often other mat- age. While the development of group culture is inevitable and has ters as well” (Ephross & Vassil, 2005; Shulman, 2001; Schwartz, many benefits, including the fostering of cohesiveness, it is essen- 1976). Essentially, contracting is the process of establishing mutu- tial that the most influential members be sensitive to the messages al expectations among all participants. being communicated. It is important to get these basic issues out on the table at an early stage, clarifying the task group’s charge, structure, and rela- Task group culture should be seen as a work in progress, rather tionship to other parts of the larger community group. The way than a finished product. There should be a conscious effort to es- that this group actually operates will become clearer over time. tablish an inclusive culture that recognizes, validates, and cele- Committees, task forces and boards develop their own organiza- brates diversity. Yet, it also is essential to establish sufficient cohe- tional cultures, ranging from meeting times and places, attention sion for the group to hang together and jell. Ideally, team building to punctuality, food at meetings, childcare, participant and staff will take place, a sense of “we-ness” will develop, and the mem- roles, use of formal agendas, behavior in meetings, manner of in- bers will experience a measure of pleasure and pride as partici- teraction, gender and age dynamics, style of chairing, acceptable pants, but not at the expense of identification with and loyalty to levels of conflict, decision-making processes, note taking, length the overall grassroots community group. of meetings, and follow through on assignments. Decision-making. quet or doing a raffle. Some mechanism in only limited commitment to decisions. would be needed for making a decision. Nevertheless, they help avoid “win-lose” The act and art of making good group de- Expecting the chairperson to make a uni- situations in which defeated parties become cisions is a prime example of the need to lateral decision as the group’s official lead- alienated and disengaged. The operative balance task effectiveness with participa- er clearly isn’t acceptable, and certainly a guideline for most small working groups tory democratic processes. An inefficient vocal minority shouldn’t be allowed to rail- holds that it usually is preferable to reach process usually produces a less than sat- road through a decision by yelling the loud- consensus whenever possible, perhaps fol- isfactory decision; but a “rush to judg- est. Ideally, the group would decide either lowed by a formal vote whenever it is use- ment” almost guarantees a product that by voting or through consensus. ful to have an “official” decision. When will not be widely and deeply embraced. consensus is not feasible, compromises Community groups should develop sound may be less divisive than “all or nothing” and sensitive operating procedures that are Voting is the quickest and surest way to votes, although individual circumstances relatively consistent across all committees get a clear decision. A formal vote may will dictate the optimal decision-making and task forces. be necessary for official policy decisions, such as raising the membership dues, join- method. In all instances, the goal is an informed, wise decision made through an in- Community members will make better de- ing a coalition, endorsing a piece of legis- clusive, participatory process. cisions when problems are approached lation, changing by-laws, or electing offi- systematically and analytically. The first cers. Voting may be the best mechanism for step in the process should be defining reaching decisions and moving the group Members and Leaders. forward when fundamental disagreements the situation clearly and agreeing on the A group’s members can be conceptualized task at hand. For instance, the fundrais- exist. Often, it is the only means to break a logjam when different factions refuse to as being arranged in a series of concentric ing committee might be meeting to decide circles. At the center are the top leaders what to do next. One member might argue budge on a particular position. But, there also are liabilities, since someone clearly and activists. The next circle includes sec- that the group should make an overall plan ond-line leaders and the most solid mem- for raising its total of $15,000. Another will lose; and the losers may become angry or withdrawn, failing to commit them- bers who get involved in a majority of ac- might want to focus on doing an event in tivities. Together, these two sets of people the next month that could raise $2,500. A selves to the majority decision or plotting to even the score with adversaries. As a result, form the “core.” Next would come peo- third might be concerned with involving ple who seldom take roles of responsibil- more members in the committee’s work. a less than enthusiastic mandate for the decisions made by voting may be in place. ity or leadership but who identify with and A fourth might want to plan a good social participate in most meetings and events. event that concentrated more on building Succeeding circles would encompass those spirit and solidarity than raising big mon- Consensus eliminates this problem, be- who take part sporadically and may or may ey. At the outset, the group would have to cause everyone agrees, and hopefully, feels not consider themselves active members. prioritize its goals and agree on the prob- good about the decision. This helps insure If you prefer a more linear model, think of lems to be tackled. high commitment and follow-through on members as distributed along a continuum responsibilities. Frequently, a consensus of commitment. Group involvement corre- Next, it would make sense to list the var- develops quite naturally as group members lates highly with an individual’s positive ious alternatives from which the commit- discuss and debate various courses of ac- experiences through meaningful roles in tee could choose. Using the “brainstorming tion. A formal vote may or may not be re- participatory, action-oriented meetings and technique,” all options could be listed with- quired, but in such situations, it is almost activities. Opportunities for more responsi- out evaluating their individual merit. This an after thought. However, when a group bility and work can be built into all activi- helps get all the possibilities out on the ta- employs consensus to resolve more com- ties, actions, and events - sort of a “leader- ble without getting bogged down in discus- plex or controversial issues, a major time ship ladder” for new members to climb. sion of any one point. Let’s assume that the commitment may be required, so that ev- committee has decided to plan an event that eryone’s views can be expressed fully and Small group members should be willing could involve lots of members as workers agreement is reached. There is a danger of to take responsibility, contributing their while raising at least $2,500. Suggestions becoming bogged down in endless debate knowledge, abilities, and skills as needed. include a carnival, banquet, raffle, auction, and developing an orientation that is “more Good participation entails sharing ideas, dance, ad book, and a car wash. talk than action.” The opposite phenome- decisions, work, and credit with one anoth- non, identified as “groupthink” by Janis er to mesh into a team effort. Participants After all alternatives have been listed, eval- (1972), may occur when participants get need to get the message that their opin- uations can begin. The car wash and dance caught up in the excitement of a premature ions are valuable and their help is appre- might be rejected quickly by the group as consensus, suspend their critical thinking, ciated. Nevertheless, new people should being unable to yield the targeted amount and fail to challenge the momentum of a not be overwhelmed with work at their of money. The ad book might be deferred dominant, but flawed decision. first sign of interest. They need to- estab to the annual convention, while the auc- lish mutual confidence and trust with oth- tion and carnival might be seen as too am- A variation of consensus is the compro- er members. Someone needs to provide bitious for this particular group at this time. mise, where no one party gets entirely what them training, support, and feedback for After weighing all pros and cons, the op- it wants, but everyone feels that s/he can their efforts. Essentially, they should be tions might be narrowed to holding a ban- support the decision. Compromises sel- phased in around their own self-interests dom satisfy many people and often result and strengths, actively involved in non-threatening group discus- At any point in time, many different group dynamics are at work. sion, and constructively encouraged to take on more responsibili- Ephross and Vasssil (2005) have developed a particularly useful ty at a reasonable pace. concept that they call “quadrifocal vision,” which calls for “simultaneously focusing on individual group members, on sub- Leaders can play a key role in drawing new people in and improv- groups, on the group as a whole, and on the place of the group in ing group processes. Rather than asking general questions, they the organization of which it is a part” (p.126). The authors make a can make a point of seeking personal opinions from different indi- convincing argument that none of these four levels should be ig- viduals without unduly putting them on the spot. Techniques such nored, and that the different elements will move periodically from as brainstorming can protect individual member’s ideas from re- the background to the foreground and then back again. Leaders, ceiving immediate judgmental assessments. Instead of scolding staff, and experienced group members all need to be aware of these their colleagues for lack of participation and failure to take re- dynamics and should act accordingly. sponsibility, leaders can make constructive suggestions for needed tasks and possible people to take responsibility for them. Where For instance, it is important to be sensitive to individuals who may apathy exists, smaller subgroups may be formed to help stimu- be shy, disaffected, angry, or preoccupied with personal concerns. late more active involvement. Leaders can provide active listen- Subgroups always are present and fall on a continuum from sup- ing, constructive feedback, advice, and support; they can serve as portive of the leadership, through indifferent and detached, to out- role models, mentors, and coaches, engaging the membership by right hostile aggregations. Members of the working group may be different means and methods. in multiple subgroups concurrently, based on factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, age, disability, kinship In a classic study, Robert Bales (1970) identified two distinct types or friendship networks, homeowner/tenant status, political orien- of leadership roles in task oriented groups: instrumental (product) tation, occupation, education, geography, and a host of other di- leaders who manage the movement forward to accomplish con- mensions. Obviously, it is essential to be attuned to the group as crete goals and objectives, and socio-emotional (process) lead- a whole, and it is critical to never lose sight of how the working ers who are concerned with members’ feelings, perceptions, atti- group fits into the larger GCO. tudes, opinions, and subjective experiences. Bales found that both types of leadership were crucial components of productive, stable Conflict. groups, but that one person seldom filled both roles. My personal experience certainly bears this out. Typically, one or two peo- It also is generally healthy to allow group conflicts and disagree- ple take primary responsibility for making sure that a group stays ments to surface naturally. Maintaining too rigid control and sup- on point, gets through the agenda, makes the requisite decisions, pressing all controversy only proves counterproductive in the long assigns responsibilities for tasks outside the meeting, and starts run. Usually things work out best when there is open discussion of planning its next steps. And very often, other folks bring a card for differences and conflict is normalized. Power struggles, factions, someone who’s out sick, remember another member’s birthday, hidden agendas, and disputes are inevitable; competition may in- help sooth hurt feelings when tempers flare, or reach out to a new- crease at different stages of the group’s growth. comer who hangs back. This phenomenon certainly underscores Leaders need to help the group work through such difficulties, the rationale for multiple forms of leadership and shared models maintaining fairness and evenhandedness in the process. While for exercising it. there may be internal problems, it generally is important to keep divisions “in-house,” rather than “airing the dirty laundry” of the Frequently, leaders’ task and process functions will blend, as when group in the general community, where such problems may ham- they clarify, reframe, synthesize, summarize, expand on the ideas per recruitment and be exploitable by opponents. Resolving these of others, or help make the connection to what previously was conflicts requires a good sense of timing. At times, nothing should said. Sometimes they must take the initiative and lead by exam- be done, while in other cases, quick, assertive intervention will be ple, modeling behavior and standards for their followers. In other necessary. Too often there is a tendency to focus on the personal- instances, they should enable, facilitate, and allow different peo- ities of the key actors, rather than on their self-interests and struc- ple to show the way. While their own knowledge and opinions will tural positions. As the saying goes, “Where you stand is where you be key, they should take care that others don’t simply defer to their sit.” Leaders may be called on to mediate disputes, offer compro- views. Ownership and investment will be furthered when a range mises, reframe “win/lose” disagreements, or otherwise reduce bad of different people get to play an active role. The best leaders will feelings and defuse explosive situations. These are difficult tasks improve group process by constantly attempting to motivate and requiring active listening, interactive skills, consensus building, energize their colleagues to do more. sensitivity and honesty.

Leaders also must be able to deal with problematic members whose Successful resolution will be more possible with good communi- behavior threatens the group process. Aggressive, dominating peo- cation and ample opportunities for feedback. Whether it be writ- ple, ideologues, and extremists need to be handled firmly but fair- ten information via newsletters, fact sheets, agendas, and minutes, ly and prevented from controlling the group. Folks who tend to or word of mouth contact through phone trees, door-knocking, talk too much, stray off the point, or gossip about their colleagues house-meetings, and building captains, good communication is need to be centered and focused. Those who negatively block dis- essential. It helps build knowledge, trust, commitment, and soli- cussion or disrupt it by clowning can not be allowed to undermine darity. The group’s plans are tested and modified most effectively overall progress. And members should not be permitted to turn the when the leadership actively seeks and receives significant feed- group into their own personal platform for presenting individual back from the membership. More importantly, feedback gives problems, insecurities, interests, and pet peeves. rank and file members a sense of their importance and power. It builds ownership and control at the most them. Talent is critical, but so is the mesh- Developmental Methods. basic level. Community members are able ing of individual egos and abilities into a By building on people’s existing strengths, to play a direct role in determining their team identity that transcends any one per- it is more likely that their first leadership own future, which is the essence of the or- son. Groups work the same way. Some experience will be positive and reinforcing. ganizing process. people may be stars of sorts, charismati- Then, at a later point, they can be challenged cally leading public actions. Others may to take on new roles and responsibilities, Leadership Development play a more limited, less visible role, pro- stretching their talents and capabilities. A viding commitment and energy for a host number of techniques can be used to de- of critical internal tasks. All need to work velop the abilities, skills, and confidence Power flows from large numbers of orga- together, sharing responsibility, work, and of emerging leaders. Involvement in re- nized people acting together. Leaders give credit, functioning as a team in pursuit of cruitment activities is a particularly helpful meaning and direction to that collective ac- common goals. activity, because small scale interactions tion, capturing the essence of the hopes, (home or office visits, one-on-ones, knock- fears, and demands of community mem- While there is a wide range of leadership ing on doors, house-meetings) enable new bers. They articulate the goals of their fol- roles requiring a broad mix of talents and leaders to practice articulating the group’s lowers; they point the way for resolution of abilities, some common qualities are im- goals, describing its action plans, and per- the issues. Someone has to be committed portant regardless of the specific func- suading community members to join. and capable enough to get out in front and tion undertaken. Clearly, anyone who Recruiters take on a teaching role, deepen- help the group accomplish the task at hand. leads must be connected to a “following” ing their own commitment in the process of Someone has to take ownership and con- or be able to develop one very quickly. convincing others to participate. trol over the group’s actions and activities. Trust and confidence must be established Leaders do this, inspiring and guiding their among those who will follow. Listening Pairing new folks with established lead- followers in the process. skills should be strengthened along with ers in a “buddy system” gives the veter- the willingness and ability to let others ans a chance to model and mentor, while Characteristics and Qualities. get some recognition and credit. Leaders the “rookies” learn by observing their ac- should be able to communicate well, in- At times, the responsibilities will be pub- tions and absorbing their advice. In the ear- lic and visible; in other instances, the work spiring and motivating their colleagues ly stages, the upcoming leaders might do will be quiet and internal. In all situations, and increasing self-reliance, ownership, little more than “shadow” their more sea- those who function as leaders must take the and control in the process. soned colleagues, but over time, they can initiative to motivate others, showing the take on a variety of manageable but mean- way through example. Being a grassroots Characteristics such as charisma, high en- ingful responsibilities that enable them to leader is a difficult role, requiring a wide ergy, articulateness, and intelligence all develop new capacities and skills. The range of personal characteristics and tal- may help accomplish the above, but no one process should be incremental, moving at ents. Nobody can be expected to do it all. of these qualities is absolutely essential in a pace that challenges emerging leaders The individual who can lead a public dem- and of itself. What is required is a commit- without overwhelming them. Their com- onstration action may be poorly equipped ment to and investment in the group’s goals mitment and ability to follow through on to chair a monthly business meeting - or that drives a person to make the time sac- assignments should be tested within a sup- vice versa. One person may be great at or- rifice and do the hard work necessary for portive environment as they move up the ganizing a fundraising event, another may the task at hand. This takes determination, “leadership ladder.” When experienced be a top negotiator, a third a brilliant stra- assertiveness, and persistence. There usual- leaders teach and train, their own status tegic planner, and a fourth a terrific recruit- ly are no guarantees of success. The person is elevated, often easing any reservations er. Organizationally, it is important to try to accepting a leadership role must have suf- they may have about sharing power with match people’s interests and skills with the ficient self-interest and self-confidence to the newcomers. group’s greatest leadership needs. be willing to take on this type of responsibility. A good sense of humor and perspec- The more committees that exist, the Clearly, this doesn’t require the discov- tive will be helpful, as well as the ability to more structural opportunities will be ery or development of all-around super- learn and grow as the group moves forward available for new leadership to develop. star leaders, expert in every conceiv- with its tasks. Nevertheless, committees that once were able area. Even if such people existed, it active sometimes continue too long after would be dangerous to develop depen- Community groups with the broadest base they cease to function in a dynamic, ac- dence on them. What if they moved away, of participation usually develop the best tion-oriented manner. When “fossilized” got sick, had to spend more time at work, leaders and, in turn, those leaders help in- structures endure, the group may devel- or dropped out to deal with a family cri- crease membership involvement. Existing op a “do nothing” reputation and culture, sis? Where would the group turn for lead- leaders and organizers have the respon- thereby losing its credibility as a viable force in the community. Temporary ad hoc ership? A great basketball team needs a sibility for expanding the leadership core committees that can be dissolved when mix of rebounders, defenders, play-mak- and motivating, teaching, and supporting they stop working actively on an issue or ers, and scorers, as well as specific role the new people who emerge. players who know their jobs and stick to task help prevent this problem.

For instance, within a standing housing playing. The use of Socratic questioning process enables leaders and other com- committee (or instead of one), a communi- methods and examining “what if” contin- munity members to become more analyti- ty group might form a specific action sub- gencies often are very helpful. Videotapes cal about a range of subjects, including the committee to win an inclusionary zoning of similar situations or some of the group’s nature and dynamics of oppression, pow- ordinance for affordable housing, another own leaders in action also can be an effec- er disparities, the distribution of wealth, to establish a homesteading program, and tive training and preparation device. In oth- the root causes of the issues that confront a third to deal with an abandoned house. er cases, leaders with direct experience can them, the power of collective action, the Each of the three distinct structures would relate their own ideas and advice. Ideally, motives and methods of targets and oppo- appeal more directly to the self-interests of both individual and collective objectives nents, self-interest, ideology, and the social a particular constituency, increasing lev- will be established for every action and ac- construction of reality. A number of writ- els of identification and commitment. Once tivity. All leaders should be clear about the ers have distinguished between leadership the issues were resolved or stalemated, the role that they will play and the expectations training that simply teaches skills for grass- committees could be discontinued, while of others. The small group setting provides roots activists and developing the capaci- the community group moved on to other a safe and supportive climate for these ac- ty for critical consciousness (Freire, 1970; specific concerns. tivities, fostering the development of new Burghardt, 1982; Breton, 1995; Gutierrez, abilities and skills. 1995; Carroll & Minkler, 2000). Needless Three committees versus one also would to say, the group’s own development will provide more entry points for emerging In all instances, there should be basic dis- be much more significant when this deeper leaders to get involved and take on more cussion about goals, problems, options, level of leadership development is infused responsibility. The multiple sub-commit- expectations, and specific plans, with- re into every aspect of its activities, combin- tee structures would increase the number sponsibilities and roles clearly defined and ing practical skills, personal growth, partic- of opportunities for them to hold signifi- accepted. Existing leaders and organiz- ipatory competencies (Kieffer, 1984), con- cant roles within the group, gaining expe- ers can contribute to the leadership devel- sciousness raising, neo-populist democratic rience and a sense of ownership in the pro- opment process by assessing the strengths principles (Fisher, 1997), and strategies for cess. Tasks such as co-chairing meetings, of new activists, complementing them, del- collective empowerment (Staples, 1999). doing action research, giving reports, con- egating work, and helping them carry out Virtually every community group activity, tacting the media, reaching out to possible those tasks. This includes encouraging, event, and campaign should be utilized as a allies, and recruiting more participants for urging, teaching, planning, practicing, sup- learning experience. the action group could be divided or rotat- porting, and evaluating. Those assisting in ed as appropriate. the development of new leaders play a role Morris has introduced the concept of “op- that is analogous to a coach for a sports positional consciousness,” defined as a As new leaders develop and grow, they team. They can’t play the game for anoth- “set of insurgent ideas and beliefs con- learn individual lessons and draw their er person but they can prepare them for it structed and developed by an oppressed own conclusions based on their direct ex- and sharpen their skills. They can help new group for the purpose of guiding its strug- perience as actors in these sub-committees. leaders think through problems and op- gle to undermine, reform, or overthrow Others can help by working closely with tions, so that they can make adjustments a system of domination” (Mansbridge & these newcomers – coaching, supporting, and decisions accordingly. Morris, 2001; 1992, p. 363). Leadership challenging, sharing knowledge, and help- development that incorporates praxis and ing them develop critical thinking capaci- After the planning meeting, further critical analysis of power disparities usu- ties. Initially, it is essential to assess their coaching and support should be given on ally leads to “oppositional consciousness.” willingness to take on additional roles and a one-to-one basis. This is a time for re- Mansbridge (2001) asserts that there are tasks at upcoming meetings, events and ac- inforcement and confidence boosting. It four elements in this process: 1) identi- tions. This usually is accomplished through is normal for many new leaders to expe- fication with other members of a subor- one-on-one discussions. Organizers and rience a degree of self-doubt and anxi- dinate group, 2) recognition of injustic- veteran leaders need to be sensitive about ety as the activity or event draws clos- es suffered by the group, 3) opposition to how “pushy” they should be when attempt- er. Individual role-playing and practice those injustices, and 4) an awareness that ing to get inexperienced members to do of speaking parts can be helpful. Contact the group has a shared interest in working more work. The idea is to increase their with veteran leaders also may be reassur- to ameliorate those injustices and a need level of involvement, but not to alienate ing. Consistent contact should be main- for collective action. them - to stretch their commitment and ca- tained and every effort made to make pacities without breaking their connection sure that they do not develop “cold feet.” While critical awareness and opposition- to the community group. Their self-interest motivation in the is- al consciousness develop most direct- sues and concerns being addressed usu- ly through the praxis of issue campaigns, Once developing leaders indicate a will- ally is strong enough to insure follow structured workshops, training sessions, ingness to accept added responsibility, it through on responsibilities. conferences, readings, films, guest speak- is essential that they be assigned new roles ers, and observations of other communi- and tasks and prepared for their duties. The deepest learning takes place when ty groups, all can and should be utilized Typically, community groups divide-up as- people actually perform their roles and re- for leadership development. The organi- signments at planning meetings and then get sponsibilities and then reflect on the expe- zational culture should encourage debate, ready by practicing, rehearsing, and role- rience, engaging in praxis. This dialectical discussion, critical analysis, and continual learning. The most effective groups will have multiple forms of stance, there should be a clear process by which rank and file leadership, developed through a variety of methods. members can approve and join a new committee to work on an issue of basic concern. Too often such decisions are left in the hands of a small core group that may refuse to take on a new is- Maintaining Democratic Participation sue or may want to control the number and names of the people forming an action committee. Provisions that allow people to come to an open meeting where they can endorse a new issue or It is this kind of broad-based involvement that is the strongest an- project by majority vote and freely volunteer to join the relevant tidote for any tendencies toward centralized leadership and the un- action committee should be in place. democratic concentration of power. Large scale events and activities help renew the connection between leaders and the other A committee structure that rewards action and broad-based partic- members, increasing accountability and invigorating group pro- ipation helps prevent excessive bureaucracy and the centralization cesses. And often, the key lies with those who could be categorized of power. Responsibility and accountability can be built in through as second-line leaders. These are the people who provide a basic the guidelines and procedures by which committees are approved, connection between the top leaders and the rank and file members formed, terminated and leadership is chosen. More committees of the group. As potential prime leaders themselves, these individ- working on more issues give more people exposure to more learn- uals may offer both a healthy challenge to and a democratizing in- ing situations. This enables more community members to get influence on the highest leaders, thereby keeping them on their toes. volved in a meaningful way at any point in time. New or second- Their presence can help prevent first-line leaders from taking on line leaders can come to the fore. too much responsibility or growing out of touch with the rest of the group’s members. Whether the specific maintenance problem is dropouts, centralized power, lack of democracy, co-optation, or conservative bureau- Certainly, education and instruction are critical to the fundamen- cratization, all are linked by the fact that community groups with tal goal of leadership development. But such teaching and learn- these difficulties no longer are participatory, mass-based, and ac- ing absolutely should not be limited to the top leadership echelons. tion-oriented. In each case, the most effective remedy is to identify When this occurs, the highest leaders become far more knowl- new issues or projects and recruit large numbers of people whose edgeable and sophisticated than the rest of the group’s members. self-interest directly is affected. This can lead to gaps in information and critical awareness. The whole training process should be expanded and democratized. Second-line leaders and members need the opportunity to develop Where there is a likelihood of resistance, or even backlash, from the knowledge and skills necessary to take on more responsibili- entrenched leaders who feel threatened by change, it is critical that ty within the group. Obviously, such an ambitious program means the person(s) staffing the group and the new leadership attempt to more work for those who recruit and organize for it. But it is crit- neutralize them. The old guard does not have to be won over to the ical to spread the wealth of information, skills, and political con- point of enthusiastically welcoming new issues, projects, and lead- sciousness to as many people as possible. ers. But, it is immensely helpful if the top leaders don’t actively oppose outreach and recruitment. Bylaws, along with group cul- Similarly, the same principle of maximizing opportunities for ture and tradition can play a crucial part in legitimating and pro- participation should be considered when bylaws are formulat- moting this emphasis on broadening the base. It is the task of who- ed. There should be a balance between the needs for efficiency ever functions as the group’s organizer to do this. and expertise on the one hand and involvement and training on the other. Too often the former is emphasized at the expense of the latter. In some cases, bylaws are written as though the group Recruitment always functions in perfect harmony without power struggles or internal conflict. Such approaches emphasize technical tasks and Certainly, the most effective means of broadening the base entails skills, without much recognition of, or stress on, intra-group dy- the recruitment of new activists around compelling issues that in- namics and processes. spire participation. What is an issue and what differentiates it from a problem? A problem is a difficult situation or circumstance, an Nevertheless, there is a limit to how much bylaws really can ac- open-ended question with no particular resolution, such as lack of complish. Ultimately, they merely serve as written rules and proce- affordable housing, high crime rates, poor schools, or inadequate dures for a group to follow. The same dynamics that enable a small healthcare. Issues are proposed solutions to problems, which often faction to dominate an organization often allow that same group may be controversial. They may entail disagreement and dispute to ignore the official ground rules. If there aren’t other leaders and over social action to remedy some aspect of the problem, such as members willing and able to take on leaders who act undemocrat- the need for rent control, a police foot patrol, parent learning cen- ically, bylaws alone offer little or no organizational protection, no ters, or universal health care. But they also might be addressed matter how well crafted. Leadership accountability and member- through community development - developing new units of low ship participation can’t be legislated by any legalistic, defensive cost housing, a crime watch, a volunteer tutorial program, or a cure-all set of rules. People, not paper, keeps groups open, demo- community health fair. While the community organizer should not cratic and action-oriented. choose the issues, s/he does play an active role in helping people transform seemingly unsolvable general problems, into specific, The real strength of good bylaws lies in their ability to speci- actionable issues. fy positive ways in which new people can get involved. For in- What makes a good organizing issue? Good neighborhood may be dumping trash there the point where they no longer are typical issues must appeal intensely to the self-in- illegally. The organizer could begin by ask- of rank and file members. Thus, they may terest of a significant number of people, and ing residents how they would like to see be very poor judges of what issue cam- in order to do so, they need to meet several the property used. Is a playground need- paigns will appeal most widely and deeply criteria. Perhaps the best test of a self-inter- ed? Do folks want a community garden? to the rest of the membership. Within the est issue was established by the legendary Should it just be a quiet park? The organiz- organization, issues should be tested and community organizer, Saul Alinsky (1969), er should describe basic options leading to selected with as much bottom-up partici- who argued that the issue must be immedi- the desired outcome, such as a communi- pation as possible. To do otherwise is to ate enough for people to care deeply, spe- ty clean-up (community development) or a risk launching a new organizing initiative cific enough for them to grasp, and winna- social action campaign pressuring the own- without a large base of committed people ble or realistic enough for them to take the er or the city. News clippings, photographs, ready to participate actively. time to get involved. To the extent that an organizational newsletters, and vignettes issue can meet these criteria it will have a could illustrate how other groups have suc- Two key dimensions - depth and breadth – strong self-interest draw with the potential cessfully resolved similar issues. should be assessed when testing a potential to attract large numbers of people. organizing issue. Depth refers to how in- Schaller also points to “the self-identi- tensely community members feel about an There is almost a direct correlation be- fied discrepancy” when the individual sees issue, while breadth relates to how wide- tween the level of interest and the level of “the difference between the ideal and real- spread that concern is. The strongest issues discontent surrounding a particular prob- ity.” The community organizer constant- will be deeply felt by a broad cross-section lem. The recruiter (community organizer) ly searches for contradictions between the of the community. For instance, a proposal does not simply assess dissatisfaction in a public and private behavior of various de- to run a new inner belt highway through a neutral fashion but maximizes existing in- cision makers. Thus, the “All American low-income urban neighborhood might be dignation by asking agitational questions City” with its crumbling neighborhoods, strongly opposed by virtually everyone liv- that, in the words of Alinsky (1969), “rub the “People’s Bank” that is guilty of disin- ing in the area. This issue would have both raw the sores of discontent.” The organiz- vestment, the civic leader who owns sub- depth and breadth, thereby helping to in- er, who is doing recruitment, can not create standard rental housing, all are vulnerable sure that large numbers of the affected con- dissatisfaction where it does not exist and when illusions are stripped away. Slogans stituency would participate in collective ac- should not try to do so; yet s/he can help and advertising lines such as “No Child tion to resist construction of the highway. bring complaints to the surface. Left Behind” or “The Company that Cares about You” can be taken at face value to In the same neighborhood, we can assume Long ago, Lyle Schaller (1972) identified raise questions about the actual commit- that people living close to an abandoned four of the mainsprings of discontent that ment of public officials, businesses, and house taken over by drug dealers would be often are linked to community issues. The government bodies. In short, the organiz- deeply concerned. However, residents lo- first is “response to what is perceived as a er helps expose discrepancies or contradic- cated ten blocks away might not even be bad decision.” Thus, when a community tions during the recruitment process and aware of the existence of this problem. This organizer learns that a fire station will be agitates to raise the level of dissatisfaction. potential issue would have depth, but not a closed for budgetary reasons s/he typically lot of breadth. A solid core of highly com- will raise questions about how people inter- Finally, discontent grows where there is a mitted people probably could be recruited pret the decision. Usually an unpopular pro- “malfunction” in a basic social institution. to take action, but the base from which to posal will generate as much unhappiness as For example, delays in the hospital emer- draw participants would be circumscribed. a final decision. Plans for a new highway gency room, ineffective jobs programs, These are the second best types of issues. through the neighborhood, an increase in poor police response time, or the welfare utility rates, or a decrease in summer youth department’s inability to process new ap- And also in the same area, one can imag- jobs all would be fertile ground for dissat- plications efficiently, all are potential is- ine the possibility that beautification of the isfaction. The organizer can heighten the sue areas. Generally, people’s complaints parks might be widely supported, yet not sense of injustice by asking such compar- are not far below the surface in such cas- be on many people’s top ten list of con- ative questions as, “Would other, wealthier es. The “sores of discontent” already are cerns. Issues that have a broad, but also a neighborhoods be treated the same way by festering. It does not take much to make bland, self-interest draw are the third most the powers-that-be” them raw. The key is to begin raising op- desirable. The lack of passion raises seri- tions for successful group action to re- ous questions about the degree of commu- Discontent also emerges through the “vi- solve these problems. nity involvement. Finally, if an issue has sion and model” concept. By emphasiz- neither broad nor deep appeal (perhaps a ing what can be accomplished, reinforced It should be remembered that there are no cut in the capital gains tax in this low-in- with successful examples and precedents, shortcuts for testing new issues. It may come neighborhood), forget about it. the community organizer can stimulate dis- be tempting simply to discuss a possible content by raising expectations that solu- issue among the top leadership, but this Once an issue or project with a strong self- tions can be found. For instance, a vacant common mistake overlooks one key fac- interest draw has been identified and select- lot may be covered with abandoned cars, tor. The first-line leaders may be so com- ed by the group’s membership, it is time to old bed springs, broken glass, and a mix mitted to the community group that their recruit new participants from the commu- of other debris. People from outside the notion of self-interest has broadened to nity. Discussions about a recruitment plan often produce suggestions about the need to “get ourselves on ra- These constant changes not only enhance the efficacy of the re- dio and TV” or “in the newspapers.” This type of general public- cruitment appeal, but also make the door-knocker’s job more in- ity never has and never will build a solid community group. The teresting, challenging, and fun. most effective means of organizing involves face-to-face contact with everyone in the community through a systematic recruitment Just as important as the content of the pitch is the manner in which drive. General publicity can be used to supplement and reinforce it is delivered. It matters little what words recruiters use if they face-to-face contact, but it is no substitute. are not personally confident in their approach or can not radiate warmth, enthusiasm, and sincerity. Successful recruitment is not Occasionally, if there is a sudden emergency, mobilizing tech- merely an intellectual exercise or a case of remembering which niques such as passing flyers or making public announcements words to use for certain types of people or various situations. Door- about meetings or actions will produce large numbers of people. knockers must be able to generate excitement and arouse people’s For instance, when a small child has just been struck by a speed- emotions. They have to overcome skepticism and negative thinking car at a dangerous intersection or when a NIMBY (not in my ing, and know when to be low-key and when to be fiery. There is back yard) issue arises in a neighborhood, people may turn out for more art than science in a good recruitment pitch. some type of community action based on a very minimal level of contact. This type of crisis mobilization can be carried out with a House-meetings are another highly effective techniques for face- minimum of recruitment and often will mobilize large numbers of to-face recruitment. These simply are small meetings (5 to 15 peo- very angry or concerned people. ple is a typical attendance) held either in someone’s home or in a neighborhood church, branch library, or some other familiar place. Nevertheless, the opportunities for crisis organizing are relative- People are recruited, both through door-knocking and the invita- ly rare. In most cases, solid organizational work will be necessary. tion of individuals who already have made a commitment to be Generally, three basic methods of face-to-face contact can be used involved on the issue or project at hand. In addition to providing to recruit new members to community groups – door-knocking/ a recruitment opportunity, the house-meeting serves as a training home visits/one-on-ones, house-meetings, and speaking to “cap- ground for the emerging leadership and a forum for discussing and tive audiences,” such as church groups, senior citizen lunches, or testing new issues. union meetings. A typical agenda includes introductions, discussion of the issues, Normally, a greater quantity of people can be reached through explanation of the community group, and recruitment to a meet- door-knocking and visits, while the quality of discussion and com- ing, activity, action, or event. Slideshows that focus on the rele- mitments made during house-meetings will be superior. The “cap- vant issue or project can be extremely effective as a catalyst for tive audience” technique has the advantage of a minimum time focused discussion and as a means of bringing the group’s goals commitment for contact with a maximum number of people, but to life. The person hosting the meeting plays a key role, welcom- here the speaker is intruding on another meeting, frequently in the ing people as they arrive, making them feel comfortable, and en- face of primary loyalty to another activity. Therefore, the quality gaging them in conversation. It is especially important to put the of the commitments given may be limited, although the efficiency early arrivals at ease and to get them talking with one another. As of the contact process still may produce a good number of people. the meeting begins, the host should handle the introductions and And when there is enough available time, recruiters can follow-up give a short enthusiastic rap about their own involvement in the by visiting the folks who sign-up, engaging in deeper, more exten- group. The host and other new leaders should take responsibility sive discussion at that time. for as much of the agenda as possible.

When the organizing process is focused in a particular geograph- In all three cases, written commitments should be secured on a ic area, it makes sense to do recruitment by knocking on every sign-up sheet (as distinguished from a petition) to underscore the door in that piece of “turf.” This approach also may be appro- promise to attend a meeting, event, or action and to gain the phone priate when recruiting for an identity-based group (ex. ethnicity, number for a follow-up reminder call. Recognizing the normal hu- sexual orientation, disability) or around a broader issue (ex. anti- man tendency for people to avoid setting a precedent, such sign- war, universal health care, raising the minimum wage) when a up sheets never should be blank; leaders can eliminate this difficul- high percentage of potential activists live in a concentrated area. ty by signing at the top of the page. Similarly, in situations where If community members are more dispersed, it may be more ef- recruitment is done before a group of people, every effort should ficient to make targeted home visits working from a list of po- be made to secure several key commitments before the meeting, tential participants. But in either case, direct contact is made by so that the new recruits can demonstrate their promise to attend in knocking on a person’s door. front of the whole group, inspiring others in the process.

Door-knockers must be sensitive to individual differences. Varying Once basic recruitment has been done, it is important to be able to the recruitment pitch is essential; the set or “canned” approach make a reasonable prediction of attendance at the particular meet- should be left to mediocre door-to-door salespeople. Testing dif- ing, action or activity. In some cases, the size of the crowd directly ferent raps during the initial steps of the recruitment drive signif- will affect the kinds of tactics the action group will employ. Unless icantly increases the odds of effective communication with dif- concern and interest is so high that mobilizing techniques are pos- ferent types of community members during the door-knocking sible, only definite “yes” answers should be counted, with a small- phase. In short, the best recruiters use “different strokes for dif- er percentage of this number considered firm. That percentage will ferent folks,” varying their rhythm and timing with each person. vary with the intensity of feeling about the particular issue or project. Community members’ own history with a particular group also And meetings are not a cure-all for reaching positive consensus. will be a determinant of whether they turn out for meetings and ac- They will not create automatic support for a proposed decision or tions. There is no precise formula, but with experience, a leader or action. The group setting reinforces behavior both positively and organizer should be able to make a fairly accurate prediction. negatively. Holding a large meeting to resolve a tricky and controversial issue may be an exercise in organizing a divisive fias- co. When agreement is lacking on a “hot button issue,” it is im- Conducting Successful Large Meetings portant to meet individually with key stakeholders, followed by a small gathering to find common ground and resolve the most tox- ic points of contention. Basic Ground-rules. One real test of a community group’s leaders is their ability to organize productive, participatory, efficient meetings for a variety of purposes, such as planning, recruitment, infor- Planning. mation sharing, decision-making, ratification, elections, actions, Good meetings (like direct actions) should be planned careful- negotiations, training, fundraising, and evaluation. Many of these ly, with maximum input from those likely to participate. The at- gatherings will be relatively small, such as those held for com- tendees’ interests and issues should be dealt with seriously and in- mittees, task forces, officers, house-meetings, and training work- corporated into any decisions and plans. Their active involvement shops. Others will be large assemblies for general membership, should be structured into the larger event in a meaningful way, so coalitions, conventions, public hearings, social functions, media as to increase ownership and control. It is important to set clear events, and action meetings. goals for any meeting, then to divide the crucial tasks and responsibilities in order to increase participation, while capitalizing on the All meetings should be lively and as much fun as possible, involv- members’ strengths and abilities. ing all participants in significant discussions, decisions, and roles. Good meetings should build excitement and a sense of collective Ninety percent of the work should be done prior to the event itself. identity; they are a primary arena through which people experience There is nothing magical about holding successful meetings. Think the community group and their collective power. When skillfully of the good ones that you have attended. A tremendous amount led, they should draw out ideas from new people and plug those of advance work and planning is necessary. Organizers or experi- folks into positions of real responsibility. enced leaders should work with key individuals, both before and after formal planning sessions. It is a matter of encouraging folks Organizations such as ACORN hold neighborhood chapter meet- and determining what they are willing to do before going into the ings on a regular monthly basis. The time, date, and place are in- planning meeting and then following up to support them in carry- stitutionalized, for instance, 7:30 pm on the first Tuesday of the ing out their assignments effectively. Large meetings can provide month at St. Mary’s Church. Planning committee meetings precede an invaluable testing ground for new leaders, challenging their each neighborhood meeting, giving the leadership a chance to pre- skills and demonstrating their abilities to others. It is important pare a tight agenda and think through the options for action. The that there be a conscious effort to split up the tasks among those regular schedule helps foster stability and continuity. willing and able to take on responsibility.

Nevertheless, there often is a tendency for groups to meet when it It also is crucial that solid work go into building attendance for the is not really necessary. Too many meetings can cause burnout and main event. Recruitment methods such as face-to-face contact, return off the membership. Most people really do not enjoy going to minder phone calls, and reinforcing forms of communication all meetings, unless there is a compelling reason to do so. The meeting will apply. Clearly, the time and place of the meeting effects who size also should be appropriate for the task at hand, reflecting the can attend. The time should be convenient for the greatest number participants’ self-interest in its purpose and the unique contribu- of people, with every attempt being made not to exclude any one tion that each person can make. The largest meetings should be re- faction of the action group. The meeting place should be familiar served for actions, social events, conventions, elections, and those to the constituency, a place where they feel comfortable. Whenever occasions when the full membership needs to ratify the sugges- divisions exist within the community group, the site should be as tions of a smaller body. Generally, these major turnout events will neutral as possible. Ideally, the meeting should be in a central loca- be preceded by a number of smaller meetings to design and plan tion that most people can reach by walking; there should be clear the upcoming gathering. parking directions, if folks are driving.

A large group never should gather simply to have a vague, gener- The size of the meeting place should be consistent with the expect- al discussion. In fact, big meetings aren’t even suited for complex ed attendance. The goal is to have a slightly crowded room with decision making. The high numbers usually will be unwieldy and all seats filled. Gymnasiums, rooms with fixed chairs and other frustrating for all concerned. And given that such large turnouts sites that limit flexibility to adjust to declining or escalating atten- may sap organizational resources, as well as discourage further dance should be avoided if possible. Some places may have sever- participation, they may even be counterproductive. Many tasks can al rooms of various sizes that can be used according to the group’s be handled best by committees or subgroups, rather than the full needs. Volunteers will have to make sure that people fill in the seats organization. Phone calls, newsletters, or smaller committee meet- in the first few rows – often there is a tendency for people to avoid ings often are sufficient for passing on information, unless there is these seats. One objective is to make sure that no empty chairs will potential for major controversy. be noticeable in newspaper photos or on TV news coverage.

10 Nuts and Bolts. few basic questions come to mind if a large • Electrical Outlets: Do not assume that meeting is scheduled: they all work. They may be used for a A number of mechanical and logistical sound system, a slideshow, or by tele- tasks or “pieces” are necessary if a meet- vision cameras. Check them before ing (or action) is to go well. Human nature • Where will the front of the room be? the meeting. can be unpredictable. The unexpected of- While side exits will be required by ten happens at meetings, but most physi- law, only one entrance should be used cal pieces can be controlled. Yet, far too of- and this should be at the back of the • Lights: Find out how the system ten good meetings are seriously disrupted hall so that latecomers won’t disrupt works. This is especially important if by mechanical errors. I’ve heard of meet- the meeting. a slideshow will be used. ings of more than 300 people (most of them newcomers to the organization), where • Should a stage be used if it ex- • Blackboard and Chalk: Always the sign-in sheet was lost, leaving no effi- ists? The usual answer is “no.” The good to have - see if they are on the cient way to contact the attendees for fu- strength of a community group lies in premises. ture actions. I have seen sound systems that its large number of strong members, were supposed to work, but did not func- as well as the top leaders who may be • Thermostat/Air Conditioner: Know tion. I once saw 400 senior citizens among sitting up front. A stage tends to create where it is and how to use it. a crowd of over 700 leave in the middle a less participatory dynamic where the of an action meeting, because the fan was audience watches the folks up front. On the actual day of the meeting, a few broken and they were too hot. Concessions Stages should be reserved for rallies, volunteers need to get to the site several and promises that were “taped” have been conventions, and potentially messy hours early for setup. Some things to con- missed, because someone forgot to turn meetings that the leadership may have sider are: over the cassette. Slide shows have fall- difficulty controlling. en victim to a blown bulb, slides out of or- ◊ Speakers Area: Generally, the lead- der, electricity cutoff when the lights were • What can be done to contract the size ership should have a table up front. turned out, and endless delays while some- of the room for a small attendance? Water glasses may be helpful, espe- one tried to line up the screen, or find an ex- Tables for the leadership at the front cially for the nervous. If the group is tension cord or a phone book to prop up the of the room can be moved in from the holding an action meeting where a projector. I could go on. wall, thereby shortening the room. A person will be pushed to respond to row of empty tables (with no chairs) specific demands and questions, s/he There is absolutely no excuse for any of can be used along one edge to help should be placed on the “hot seat,” the above failures. Good meetings don’t narrow the room. More than 150 peo- slightly to the side of the table, so that just happen. Planning, practice, and prep- ple in a gymnasium can look like a feelings of isolation and accountabili- aration all are essential. Murphy’s Law pathetic gathering, while 50 in a tight ty are heightened. It also is important states “if something can go wrong, it room can seem like a crowd. to make sure that the leadership, not will.” This is the time to anticipate and the “opposition,” can maintain control of the sound system. An egg timer prepare for the kinds of problems likely to • What about a sound system? For may be effective for limiting a long- emerge at the larger meeting. Leaders and meetings of more than 100 people, a winded speaker; listing the allotted organizers need to plan for the worst, have sound system often is desirable. Some speaking time right on the agenda also contingencies, backups, and extras for ev- meeting sites have them built in - they may be helpful, or in extreme cases, erything. Roles and assignments should should be tested for workability and cutting off the microphone. be divided carefully without tying up top whether or not they are portable or af- leaders with small but important details. fixed to the stage. Equipment always ◊ Sign-In Tables: Tables should be set Some things will have to be done prior to can be rented if necessary. the meeting, others during it and a few af- up at the entrance. Everyone should ter it is all over. Someone should coordi- sign in, receive an agenda and litera- • Who will have the key to get in? nate logistics and have a list of all the tasks ture, and have an opportunity to be- Pickup arrangements should be made and the people responsible for performing come a member. Assertive people hours before the meeting, so that them. A system of group accountability should work at these tables and be there is time to deal with any foul- should be established to help insure that there early. ups. Someone should befriend the everyone follows through on their specif- janitor and find out the condition in ◊ Press Area: At times, it may be help- ic pieces; failure to do so can jeopardize which the room should be left after ful to have a separate table for the me- the entire meeting. Below is a checklist of the meeting. dia or seating near the front. One per- some of these specific tasks. son should be assigned to work with Other things to check for: the press, handing out releases and Checklist for Large Meetings. fact sheets, answering background questions, and arranging for inter- • Chairs: Are there enough or will more It is useful to visit the site about a week be- views with key leaders. Typically, have to be obtained? fore the meeting (when turnout estimates the staff persons who work with the are fairly accurate) to visualize the setup. A press should not be quoted. The group

11 usually will designate one or more community leaders as ◊ Buses: On occasion, it may be necessary to use buses to spokespeople. move a large number of people to a meeting. Both buses and people frequently arrive late, and this can cause problems ◊ Banners and Signs: Large public meetings should feature when timing is essential. Days before, someone should drive lots of signs with slogans to decorate the meeting room. All the route at the same time of day that the meeting will be should bear the group’s name; an organizational banner is an held in order to establish travel time. Departure time should excellent backdrop behind the speakers’ area. This is great be listed 15 minutes earlier than the actual time for leaving; for television coverage and helps build momentum and hoop- buses should arrive 30 minutes before real getaway time. A la for large meetings. bus captain should be out to meet the bus at least fifteen minutes before it is scheduled to arrive. This person must know ◊ Slideshows: If needed, a screen and projector should be the travel route and should have the phone number of the bus lined up for proper distance and focus before the meeting; se- dispatcher in case there is any problem. quence and direction of the slides also should be checked at this time. Always have an extra bulb and projector in case of The bus captain should make sure that everyone on the bus a malfunction. If the equipment has to be removed for part signs the attendance sheet, gets a briefing on the meeting of the meeting, the location of the screen and projector table (or action), and receives literature. This is the time to run can be marked with masking tape on the floor, allowing for a through songs or chants that will be used at the main event. perfect setup within seconds. There should be one person re- Spirit is the key to a good bus trip. The pace should be live- sponsible for the lights, one to move the screen, one to move ly and the riders should arrive energized and ready for ac- and run the projector, and one to narrate. If there is a script to tive participation. Bus captains should inform everyone of read, the narrator will need a reading light or flashlight (get the number or name of their bus if there is more than one. A extra batteries). sign with this designation should be taped to a side window to avoid confusion when returning. Tight plans should be ◊ Tape/Video Recording: If the meeting is taped or videoed, made with the drivers for parking and leaving. They should all parties should be clearly informed. Deception only will be back and prepared to move at least 15 minutes before the create a false issue and may cost the community group mor- actual time of departure. al superiority. On the other hand, someone who refuses to be recorded may have something to hide, and that request A list of common materials that may be needed includes: ban- should not be granted easily. Good videotapes can be an inner (rope to hang it), poster board, masking tape, magic markers, valuable tool for leadership training and assessment sessions. signs for bathrooms, blackboard and chalk, sound system (floor The people doing the taping should understand the dynamics mike?), extension cords, 3-way adapters, egg timer, water pitcher of the meeting. Don’t assume that they do. and glasses, agendas, sign-in sheets, literature, membership cards, buttons, press packets, slide show equipment, and audio-video re- ◊ Photography: Volunteer photographers should be lined up cording devices. well in advance and briefed on what to take. The objective is pictures that benefit the community group, not artful All these details can make you feel a little compulsive, but that photography. There never should be empty chairs in crowd is better than a poorly organized meeting. In fact, it is a good shots; camera angles should maximize attendance; leaders idea to make an extra copy of the list of tasks - just in case. and members should look strong and determined, opponents squirming and harried. In some instances, it may be possible These responsibilities should be assigned at the planning meet- to hook into a local cable TV station. ings preceding the primary event. Decisions about whether to provide transportation and childcare also should be made at that time. ◊ Floor Teams: All the group’s leaders will not be sitting at Commitments to do so should not be made lightly. If rides are of- the speakers’ table. It is important that people in the crowd fered, it is important to line up enough volunteer drivers. There is be participants rather than mere spectators. The floor team no organizational mileage when angry people are left waiting on consists of leaders who play a role in the meeting while re- their doorstep for a ride that never comes. And while the promise maining in the audience. Specific tasks and functions will be of childcare may attract more people to the meeting, the quality of worked out in the planning sessions held prior to any large this service needs to be first-rate. Otherwise, parents will be wor- meeting. The floor team might be responsible for asking spe- ried and upset and the kids may disrupt the meeting. Good child- cific questions, making demands, giving testimony, neutraliz- care requires supervision by a sufficient number of competent peo- ing hostile opponents, or stimulating the attendees. Key people who know how to deal with kids of all ages. It should be done ple should be spread out in strategic locations from which in a separate room away from the meeting. Care providers should they can act. The leaders at the front need to know where have specific activities, equipment, and snacks available for the these people will be sitting in order to maximize the use of children. Those planning the meeting must be sure that when this any floor team. service is offered, it can be delivered as promised. If not, those re- ◊ Staff: If there are multiple staff people, they should not sponsible better take care and cover! be allowed to stand together at the back of the room. They should be split up, have technical jobs to perform, and keep Agendas. a low profile, allowing the group’s grassroots leadership to The planning group should develop a written agenda and have it control the meeting. available for distribution well before the meeting. This is the of-

12 ficial plan, listing things to be done, deci- Besides developing the plan for the meet- the proceedings usually should start thir- sions to be made, information to be giving itself, the agenda also helps specify the ty minutes prior to their arrival, so that the en and the individuals taking a leadership tasks that have to be done before the main crowd can be briefed, prepared, and “fired- role. A mix of people should handle the event. Responsibilities should be fixed, so up” for action. different parts of the agenda, and backups that there is a clear sense of who is doing should be ready to step in where needed. what and when this will be done. Someone As the meeting begins, it is important to Since those who accept responsibility are at the planning meeting needs to make sure review the agenda, and under some cir- more likely to attend, breaking up the tasks that people follow through on their prom- cumstances, even to seek formal approval. also will help increase the turnout. Anyone ises and that all the preliminary pieces fall The community group’s basic ground rules with a speaking role should prepare care- into place. Where intra-group controversy and procedures should be explained brief- fully beforehand and have a clear sense of is anticipated, there should be a concerted ly. Formal parliamentary procedure gener- what they hope to accomplish. The over- effort to reach out to likely participants, in- ally should be avoided. It is too rigid and all plan should be realistic and not overly volving them in plans for the meeting and cumbersome and often interferes with free ambitious. Most meetings should not ex- adjusting the agenda accordingly. This step discussion. However, there should be clear ceed one and a half to two hours. Time lim- will build their sense of ownership, while common-sense processes for making mo- its next to specific items will help control simultaneously helping the leadership stay tions and amendments and voting on them. the pace and focus the discussion; actual more closely in touch with the member- The optimum ground rules will provide time bench marks will be even better (ex. ship. This period between the planning and order and consistency for these processes 7:40 Fundraising Committee Report; 7:50 large meetings often is crucial for making without hindering the free flow of ideas, Voter Registration Update; 8:00 Discussion alterations, tightening things up, and laying excitement, and fun. about New Youth Center; etc.). the foundation for later success. At formal meetings, lengthy speakers The order of the agenda topics also will be At the meeting. can be controlled in a number of ways. important. Quick reports and information- When the meeting does take place, a few Certainly, the written time limits on the al announcements can be placed at the be- people need to arrive early for setup and agenda will help and speakers can be re- ginning. This helps boost morale, as meet- welcoming duties. Everyone who attends minded of the timeline before they being participants see good progress being should sign in, including opponents and gin. Someone sitting nearby also can sig- made as the group sails through the first guests. It is important that there be literature nal them if they start to exceed their cut-off few agenda items. Longer reports should for the early arrivals and comfortable seat- point. Often the chair can intercede by ask- be written and circulated beforehand ing with good lighting. New people should ing a question and pointing out that others with a short oral summary at the meeting. be made to feel welcome, have an oppor- in the audience need time to raise their own Where decisions are required, several ex- tunity to join at the door, and be integrated questions. In more extreme cases, when the planatory sentences should be placed on into the group. Attendees should be able to speaker is an opponent or politician, some- the agenda so that attendees have a chance see and hear clearly, and the setup should fa- one may need to use an egg timer or other to consider the matter and get ready for cilitate participation and involvement in the signaling device. This helps depersonalize discussion. Leaders should be prepared to meeting. the move to limit the speaker. Of course, list clear options with pros and cons, fre- in action meetings, the community group quently making recommendations for de- The starting time should be slightly flexi- usually will want to personalize and pres- cisions and actions. ble. Generally, many people arrive a little sure the target. The floor team can involve bit late. It does no good to start a 7:30 pm the rest of the crowd in demanding that the Generally, the most controversial and time- meeting precisely on time, if people still are speaker cut the rhetoric and deal with the consuming items should not be left for the streaming in the door. On the other hand, it issue at hand. end of the agenda. Since meetings often is important not to keep those who arrived tend to run longer than planned, this can on time waiting too long. This practice also The chairperson has the responsibility of result in squeezing discussion and rushing sets a bad precedent for other meetings, ac- moving the group through the agenda, fo- or even preventing decisions. Instead, it is tions, and activities. Therefore, meetings cusing discussion and involving people best to deal with tricky topics right in the should start as close to the announced time actively in decisions. A chairperson must middle of the agenda. Participants’ interest as possible, but should allow for some short put personal issues and feelings aside and energy will be higher at this point; late common-sense delays of up to 15 minutes. and function in the interests of the entire arrivals and early departees will be pres- group. On the occasions when s/he wants ent; and full discussion will be possible. Someone should be assigned to deal with to advocate strongly for a particular po- This also leaves room for open discussion the latecomers and to give them written sition on a very controversial matter, the of “new business” at the end of the meet- materials or a short verbal summary with- chair can step down from the role during ing. Ideally, the agenda should end on a out disrupting the meeting. At large meet- deliberations on that agenda item. The co- high note with some specific resolution for ings, late arrivals can be briefed just out- chair or another designated substitute can further action. The meeting should lead to side the meeting room, while in smaller take over and preside impartially, while action, not just talk. This should be a par- settings, the chair can summarize for the the regular chair is free to engage in the amount consideration for those who devel- whole group as the newcomers settle in. debate, just like any other member. Once op the agenda. When “targets” will be confronted at ac- the agenda item is finished, the parties can tion meetings or accountability sessions, return to their former roles.

13 Chair-people should treat everyone fair- lively affairs where members directly can person should let them know what they ly, facilitating group discussion and in- experience their collective power, rather missed and start organizing them to turn creasing participation by drawing out the than simply watching their leaders take on out for the next event. One thing is for sure, quiet folks, while firmly handling over- opponents. there always will be another meeting. ly-aggressive members. It’s important to allow differences to surface and to make As any meeting comes to an end (timeli- It is especially important to take the time for sure that all sides have an opportunity to ness is very important here), the chair- a thorough debriefing process after each in- air their opinions, without any one per- person needs to define and explain what dividual action. Usually, some assessment son or faction controlling discussion. The comes next and how this will be accom- will be done as part of the natural review chairperson also needs to keep the group plished. Ideally, the next event should be of events on the bus ride home, over cof- centered on the agenda item currently be- scheduled right at that time, so that the fee, or as the meeting place gets cleaned- ing considered, structuring discussion to maximum number of people have both in- up. But a more thorough, structured pro- move from clarifying information through put in and information about the decision. cess is in order after each of the largest options and on to definite decisions. This Follow-up responsibilities should be divid- meetings, events, and actions. A series of takes a good sense of timing - knowing ed clearly and publicly whenever possible. logical questions can be used to stimulate when to expand and explain and when to Everyone should leave with a clear sense analysis, critique, and planning for group’s proceed ahead toward resolution. of achievement and mission. It is not too next steps. early to start preparing and organizing for At various times, a chairperson should the next event. However, all this should be What happened? I’m always amazed by summarize the group’s progress and point done amongst some celebration, fun, and the range of different opinions held by peo- the way for the next steps in the process. socializing as the meeting comes to an end. ple who participated together at the same However, chairs also should seek some lev- People should relax, have a good time, and meeting or action. There is strength in uni- el of agreement from the overall group and enjoy themselves. ty, and disparate accounts of what just not impose their own definitions on situa- transpired undermine group cohesion and solidarity. The action group needs to devel- tions. It is not sufficient to know where to After the meeting. move next and how best to solve particu- op a shared interpretation of and explana- lar problems. Chair-people also must be Often, but not always, there is a tendency tion about this slice of social reality. While sensitive to group members’ feelings, and for the top leaders to stay the longest, dis- there is no need to go so far as to estab- draw on their expertise whenever possible. cussing the results and planning for the fu- lish a “party line,” nevertheless it is impor- All this requires a careful balance between ture. Systematic evaluation may be under- tant to arrive at a consensus about what has participation and control, attention to group taken at this point, or simply scheduled for transpired and how much progress has been processes and task-oriented leadership. a future meeting. Regardless, it is a good made towards the group’s goals and objec- time for the leadership to begin reflecting tives. As different leaders and members lay The interplay of these variables is most ap- on what happened, their own roles in this out their own perspectives, agreeing and parent when an action meeting is held by a process, and what should be done the same disagreeing with others in the process, a large group to confront a target. Demands way or differently in the future. It is im- consensually validated viewpoint begins can be made by the leadership at the front portant to create an atmosphere in which to emerge; a common account of what has or from key members sitting in the audi- success can be celebrated and constructive been accomplished is socially constructed. ence. Either way, the crowd should be in- criticism can be made in a non-threatening With a degree of fundamental accord estab- volved as participants who actively help manner. Leaders should emerge recommit- lished, it is easier to move to other, more apply maximum pressure on the opponent ted and energized for the next step in the probing questions. sitting on the “hot seat.” Meeting attend- organizing process. ees never should be made to feel like pas- Why did this happen? At this point, it is sive spectators. Often, the demands can be There also should be reminders and follow- possible to begin analyzing the reasons for listed on poster board with “yes” and “no” up support for those who volunteer for vari- success or lack thereof. This process may boxes, which are checked as the target re- ous tasks before or at the next event. Often, be quite straightforward when the meet- sponds. a written list of these responsibilities helps ing or event has been self-contained with- both to remind the volunteers and to tighten in the community. However, when an ac- Obviously, the crowd can help extract con- up their commitment to follow through on tion meeting has been held, the early focus cessions by supporting the demands, giving their assignments. A record that everyone of discussion typically will center around personal testimony, chanting, and otherwise in the organization can see does wonders the behavior of the target – her or his reac- mixing it up with the target. Unsatisfactory for helping members keep the promises tion to a face-to-face encounter with large responses can lead to an immediate direct that they have made. It also is important to numbers of organized community mem- action, as when the organization marches communicate with the new people who at- bers, how resistant s/he was or wasn’t, the over to the mayor’s office after growing tended the meeting. Their impressions and personal style s/he used when interacting, impatient with an uncooperative appointed ideas should be sought, and they should be and usage of various predicted or unfore- bureaucrat. In other cases, the target may recruited to come to the next event, perhaps seen counter-tactics. There also usually is be “dismissed,” after which the leadership to play an even greater role. Finally, some- some review of the action group’s ability to suggests a more militant direct action tac- one should contact those who were expect- influence the target during the action, be- tic. All action meetings should be feisty, ed to attend but missed the meeting. This fore the analysis inevitably moves to some

14 critique of the action group’s performance. Regardless, of the par- ities. Therefore, assessment almost always should begin with a re- ticular type of meeting or event, two questions normally arise: view of what was done well. And I have yet to see a single meeting, » What did we do well? event, or action where there was not a whole range of positive as- » What might we have done differently? pects to extol. After a lively action or successful meeting or activity, most participants will be “pumped” and it is normal for folks to Broad categories to be examined under each question include re- celebrate and have fun. It is a time to appreciate and congratulate, to cruitment, turnout, leadership roles, secondary roles, strategic and tactical planning, timing, and goal accomplishment. When institu- laud and applaud. Building in time for recognition helps make the tional decision-makers have been confronted, the assessment also whole debriefing process enjoyable and non-threatening for every- will examine factors such as the group’s ability to attract allies, one involved. Within this upbeat context, it becomes relatively easy its execution of action plans, the articulation of requests/demands, to raise the additional question about what could be done differently. the decision-maker’s response and use of counter-tactics, negotia- Clearly, the purpose is not to assign blame, but rather to make con- tions, commitments secured, logistics, and media coverage. structive criticism that will help guide future planning and action. And ultimately, the discussion logically turns to preliminary plan- There is no great need to structure the order for reviewing these ning for next steps or new projects. elements, but the sequencing of the two questions is important. Many people have a tendency to regard the subject of “evalua- Where do we go from here? Often, this is a relatively short tion” with a sinking feeling of dread in the pits of their stomachs. discussion, best saved for the next proactive planning meet- Perhaps it is a holdover from school, sports or the workplace, but ing. However, this is the time to assess the consequences of the topic often is associated with being criticized and blamed for the meeting, event or action and its overall impact on the assorted failures. As one grassroots leader recently observed, “I group’s future plans. Community members may hold differing always figured evaluation was the time when somebody tells me perceptions about the degree of goal attainment that has been how I screwed up.” Obviously, this is a dynamic to be avoided, especially when working with individuals who still experience the achieved – was this an unqualified success, a modest step for- pain of oppression, discrimination, and disempowerment. ward, a “wash” with both positives and negatives, a step back- ward, or a crushing defeat? It is helpful to get some level of Nevertheless, both positive and negative assessment is necessary to agreement at this point, but a full consensus may not be possi- improve the action group’s functioning and the leadership’s capac- ble until the action group begins planning its next steps.

Synopsis This home-study course has covered five areas relevant sions to help meet this goal. The important role of second- to effective macro social work practice with task orient- line leaders also is discussed, along with the ongoing need ed groups: Product and Process Dimensions, Leadership to renew and expand the membership base. Indeed, recruit- Development, Maintaining Democratic Participation, ment skills are so essential for macro social work with task Recruitment, and Conducting Successful Large Meetings. groups that I have devoted an entire subheading to this top- The section on products and processes has examined group ic. I cover issue selection, door-knocking, speaking to “cap- composition, contracting and organizational culture, along tive audiences,” and house-meetings. Finally, a course on with intra-group conflict and roles for members, leaders, macro social work with groups would not be complete with- and staff. The following section has identified character- out material related to holding productive meetings, such as istics and qualities that contribute to effective communi- basic ground-rules and planning guidelines, nuts and bolts ty group leadership, as well as methods for developing the mechanical and logistical tasks, developing an agenda, pri- full potential of new grassroots leaders. There are a num- mary roles and responsibilities (chair-people, floor teams, ber of factors that can challenge a group’s ability to devel- staff, members), and evaluation/assessment. The develop- op and maintain an ethos of participatory democracy. The ment of knowledge and skills in these five areas will en- next part of this course focuses on methods for maximiz- hance the practitioner’s abilities to engage in effective mac- ing the full involvement of the group’s members, including ro social work with task oriented groups. Onward! v the use of committee structures, by-laws, and training ses-

References

Alinsky, S. (1969). Reveille for Radicals. New York: Random House. Bakalinsky, R. (1984). “The Small Group in Community Organization Practice.” Social Work with Groups, 7(2), 87-96. Bales, R. (1970). Personality and Interpersonal Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Breton, M. (1995). “The Potential for Social Action in Groups.” Social Work with Groups, 18(2/3), 5-13. Burghardt, S. (1982). The Other Side of Organizing. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman. 15 References continued

Carroll, J. & Minkler, M. (2000). “Freire’s Message for Social Workers: Looking Back, Looking Ahead.” Journal of Community Practice, 8(1), 21-36. Ephross, P.H. & Vassil, T.V. (2005). Groups that Work: Structure and Process. (Second Edition). New York: Columbia University Press. Fisher, R. (1997). “Social Action Community Organization: Proliferation, Persistence, Roots, and Prospects.” In M. Minkler (Ed.), Community Organizing and Community Building for Health (pp. 53-67). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press. Gutierrez, L. (1995). “Understanding the Empowerment Process: Does Consciousness Make a Difference?” Social Work Research, 19(4), 229-237. Janis, I. (1972). Victims of Groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Kieffer, C. (1984). “Citizen Empowerment: A Developmental Perspective.” In J. Rappaport & R. Hess (Eds.), Studies in Empowerment: Steps toward Understanding and Action (pp. 9-36). New York: Haworth Press. Mansbridge, J. (2001). “The Making of Oppositional Consciousness.” In J. Mansbridge & A. Morris (Eds.), Oppositional Consciousness (pp. 1-19). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mansbridge, J. & Morris, A. (Eds.) (2001). Oppositional Consciousness. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Redl, F. (1942). “Types of Group Formation, Group Emotion, and Leadership.” Psychiatry, 5(4). Schaller, L. (1972). The Change Agent. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. Schwartz, W. (1976). “Between Client and System: The Mediating Function.” In R. Roberts & H. Northern (Eds.), Theories of Social Work with Groups. New York: Columbia University Press. Shulman, L. (2001). The Skills of Helping Individuals, Families, Groups and Communities. (Fourth Edition). Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock. Staples, L.H. (1999). “Consumer Empowerment in a Mental Health System: Stakeholder Roles and Responsibilities.” In W. Shera & L.M. Wells (Eds.), Empowerment Practice in Social Work: Developing Richer Conceptual Foundations (pp. 119-141). Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press, Inc. Staples, L. (2004). Roots to Power: A Manual for Grassroots Organizing. (Second Edition). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Additional Bibliography

Anderson, J. (1997). Social Work with Groups: A Process Model. New York: Longman. Bargal, D. (2004). “Groups for Reducing Intergroup Conflicts.” In C.D. Garvin, L.M. Gutierrez, & M.J. Galinsky (Eds.), Handbook of Social Work with Groups (pp. 292-306). New York: The Guilford Press. Boehm, A. & Staples, L. (2005). “Grassroots Leadership in Task-Oriented Groups: Learning from Successful Leaders.” Social Work with Groups, 28(2), 77-96. Camacho, S. (2001). “Addressing Conflict Rooted in Diversity: The Role of the Facilitator.” Social Work with Groups, 24(3/4), 135-152. Cox, E.O. (1991). “The Critical Role of Social-Action in Empowerment Oriented Groups.” Social Work with Groups, 14(3-4), 77-90. Northern, H. & Kurland, R. (2001). Social Work with Groups. (Third Edition). New York: Columbia University Press. Staples, L.H. (2001). “Insider/Outsider Upsides and Downsides.” Social Work with Groups, 23(2), 19-35. Staples, L. (2004). “Social Action Groups.” In C. D. Garvin, L.M. Gutierrez, & M.J. Galinsky (Eds.), Handbook of Social Work with Groups (pp. 344-359). New York: The Guilford Press. Staples, L. (2004). “Selecting and Cutting the Issue.” Chapter 10 in M. Minkler (Ed.), Community Organizing and Community Building for Health, (Second Edition) (pp. 173-192). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Toseland, R.W., Jones, L.V. & Gellis, Z.D. (2004). “Group Dynamics.” In C. D. Garvin, L.M. Gutierrez, & M.J. Galinsky (Eds.), Handbook of Social Work with Groups (pp. 13-31). New York: The Guilford Press. Tropman, J.E. & Morningstar, G. (2001). “The Effective Meeting: How to Achieve High-quality Decisions.” In J.E. Tropman & J. Rothman (Eds.), Tactics and Techniques of Community Intervention. (Fourth Edition). (pp. 183-197). Itasca, IL: F.E.Peacock Publishers, Inc. 16 December 2007 FOCUS Homestudy Course Social Work Skills for Organizing and Leading Task Oriented Groups Post-Test

1) When assessing the development and maintenance of task 7) Which of the following elements could be oriented community groups, it is important to consider: considered to be part of a group’s organizational (Circle all that apply) culture? (Circle all that apply) a. brainstorming techniques, a. use of a written agenda b. processes by which tasks are accomplished, b. provision of childcare during the meeting c. contracting for praxis, c. routinely starting meetings 15 minutes after they are d. outcomes or products. scheduled to begin d. allowing attendees to argue vociferously over 2) It is essential for leadership development programs to controversial issues focus primary attention on a grassroots community e. all of the above group’s most experienced leaders, especially those who hold positions of greatest responsibility. 8) Which of the following statements are true about a. true consensus decision-making? (Circle all that apply) b. false a. premature consensus can lead to groupthink b. consensus is preferable when possible, because 3) According to research studies on group performance, the there are no “losers” optimal size for a work group with a specific task is: c. consensus is the best way to break a “logjam” when a. 5-7 different factions refuse to change their positions b. 6-10 d. consensus is the quickest way to resolve a dispute c. 8-12 d. it depends on the task. 9) Which of the following elements is not associated with praxis? 4) When constructing an agenda for a meeting, items that a. action are likely to produce a controversial and time-consuming b. dialectical process discussion should be: c. needs assessment a. placed right at the beginning d. reflection b. scheduled for the middle of the meeting c. left for the end d. kept off the agenda, so that they can be resolved 10) Which of the following is not a classic source of outside the meeting by a smaller group. discontent? a. systemic malfunction or breakdown 5) Which of the following elements would not be b. failure to achieve a positive outcome examined when engaging in “Quadrifocal Vision” c. discrepancy between rhetoric and reality (Ephross & Vassil, 2005)? d. failure to contract at the beginning of a task group a. the entire group b. subgroups 11) Which of the following types of leadership is not c. individuals essential for an effective community group? d. attendance a. instrumental b. grass-tips 6) Which of the following tasks would most typically be c. socio-emotional part of a Floor Team’s responsibilities at a large action d. second-line meeting in the community? a. setting up chairs, the speakers table, micr 12) When staffing a task group, during which phase should a phones, and the press area social worker be most active? b. staffing the sign-in table and handing out agendas a. before the meeting and other materials b. during the meeting c. asking specific questions during the meeting c. after the meeting d. sweeping up and cleaning the room after the d. equally in each of these three phases meeting is finished Continued on page 18

17 13) Which of the following functions is not important when PleasePlease indicate indicate whether whether the the following following learning learning objectives you chair a community meeting? wereobjectives achieved: were achieved: a. summarize periodically b. focus the discussion 1. To develop macro social work knowledge and skills for c. strongly articulate your personal opinions organizing, leading, staffing or participating in task ori- d. move the group through the agenda ented groups. Achieved in full 5 4 3 2 1 Not Achieved

14) Which of the following statements is not true? 2. To learn about methods and techniques for recruiting new a. An issue with a strong self-interest appealshould be participants, developing community leadership, and con- immediate, specific, and realistic/winnable ducting successful large meetings. b. By-laws should maximize opportunities for Achieved in full 5 4 3 2 1 Not Achieved participation c. Generally, it is healthy to allow group conflicts and 3. To gain knowledge about group composition, contracting, disagreements to surface naturally culture, and conflict, as well as methods for developing and d. Recruitment is critical to the development of maintaining an ethos of participatory democracy. community groups but gradually becomes less Achieved in full 5 4 3 2 1 Not Achieved important as effective grassroots leadership emerges 4. Please provide comments on current course and suggestions for future courses. 15) Which of the following techniques have been proven to be effective when developing the abilities and skills of ______emerging grassroots leaders? (Circle all that apply) ______a. pair new leaders with established veterans b. identify strengths and weaknesses of new leaders, ______then design activities to overcome deficiencies c. make sure that new leaders don’t take on significant ______responsibility until established leaders feel ______comfortable sharing power d. involve new leaders in recruitment activities ______

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