Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of , Small Grants Programme Working Paper

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

November 2016 Grace W. Ngaruiya Lucy W. Muithui

This report is based on field research carried out in Narok county, Kenya, between September and November 2014, and has been produced as part of a series of preliminary papers to guide the long-term research agenda of the Pathways to Resilience in Semi-arid Economies (PRISE) project. PRISE is a five-year, multi-country research project that generates new knowledge about how economic development in semi-arid regions can be made more equitable and resilient to climate change.

Front cover image: Cattle drive – Lukenya, Kenya © Jeff Turner CC2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/legalcode

2 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Acknowledgements We would like to thank government resource and extension officers for their technical support during the study of Narok County. We would also like to acknowledge Guy Jobbins for his tireless efforts as a reviewer for this publication, and Helen Mountfort and Rajeshree Sisodia for their support. This report draws heavily on technical information supplied by Dr G. Turasha, Chief Livestock Officer from Ministry of Agriculture, to whom we are indebted. The following institutions also facilitated data collection through their field and project officers: the National Drought Management Authority (Narok), Women Enterprise Fund and the Water Resource Management Authority. This report has benefited greatly from comments from Dr M. Gatara and J. Ngugi.

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4 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Contents

Acknowledgements 3 Tables and figures 7 Acronyms 9 Executive summary 11 1. Background 12 1.1 Pastoralism in Kenya 12 1.2 Vulnerability of pastoralism to climate change 12 1.3 Adaptation interventions 13 1.4 Social networks 15 1.5 Research objectives and questions 16 2. Narok county context 17 2.1 Ecological and climatic setting 17 2.2 Socioeconomic status 18 2.3 Pastoralism and livestock management in Narok 20 3. Methodology 22 3.1 The Ecosystem Service Governance approach 22 3.2 Data collection 22 3.3 Data analysis 23 4. Preliminary results 25 4.1 Monetary value of pastoralism 25 4.2 Actors involved in pastoralism governance 25 4.3 Implemented adaptation activities 26 5. Discussion on the social network structure 29 5.1 Strengths 29 5.2 Weaknesses 30 5.3 Opportunities 31 5.4 Challenges 32 6. Conclusion 33 7. Recommendations 34 References 35 Appendix 1: Questionnaire used in the field survey 37 Appendix 2: List of actors involved in governance of pastoralism in Narok 38 Appendix 3: Degree centrality values for the pastoralism actors 40 Appendix 4: Structural holes and brokerage values for pastoralism actors 41

Misfortunes never come singly: structural change,Report multiple title shocks and child malnutrition in rural Senegal 5

6 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Tables and figures

Table 1 Suggested adaptation measures for efficient livestock management 14 Table 2 Estimated monetary value of livestock in Narok 25 Table 3 List of implemented strategies in Narok 27 Appendix 2 List of actors involved in governance of pastoralism in Narok 38 Appendix 3 Degree centrality values for the pastoralism actors 40 Appendix 4 Structural holes and brokerage values for pastoralism actors 41

Figure 1 Location of Narok County in Kenya 17 Figure 2 The annual mean precipitation in Narok 18 Figure 3 Population distribution in Narok 19 Figure 4 Location of the major economic resources in Narok 19 Figure 5 Diversity of livestock in Narok in 2014 20 Figure 6 Conceptual framework of the ecosystem service governance approach 23 Figure 7 The Pastoralism management network in Narok County 26 Figure 8 Sociograph of key managerial actors in the pastoral network 29 Figure 9 Linkages among civic actors in the pastoral network 30 Figure 10 The ego network of key policy and research actors in Narok 31 Figure 11 Ego networks of potential key brokers in Narok 32 Appendix 1 Questionnaire used in the field survey 37

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8 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Acronyms

AMCEN African Ministerial Conference on the Environment ASALs Arid and Semi-Arid Lands CAO County Agricultural Office ASDSP Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CLO County Livestock Office CMDRR Community Management Disaster Risk Reduction ESG Ecosystem Service Governance GDP Gross Domestic Product ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LTA Livestock Traders Association KWS Kenya Wildlife Service NDMA National Drought Management Authority NPC Narok Pastoral Centre SNA Social Network Analysis UN United Nations UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WEF Women Enterprise Fund WRMA Water Resource Management Authority

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10 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Executive summary

This study seeks to deconstruct the pastoralist network of Narok County in Kenya to clearly identify the role of each actor and document inherent challenges in relation to adaptation knowledge transmission. To accomplish this, we use the Ecosystem Service Governance (ESG) approach, which primarily uses mathematical indices based on social network theory to analyse Narok’s pastoral resource governance. In particular, we chose centralisation and structural hole indices to reveal major network actors and missing links that are hindering information flows across the network. To strengthen the analytical aspect of this approach, additional secondary data such as monetary value may be included. Social network analysis (SNA) revealed eight key actors responsible for linking most of the actors in Narok. All identified actors have introduced diverse adaption measures across four main arenas, of livestock management, capacity-building, environmental conservation and disaster management. However, most actors are government agencies based in urban centres; they are also too few in number to efficiently cover the extensive county. Fortunately, high brokerage values indicate potential in the formation of new actor linkages in the network as opportune interventions to insulate pastoralism further against the negative impacts associated with unpredictable climatic conditions. Accurate socioeconomic analysis of Narok’s pastoral sector is hindered by lack of consistent data on livestock diversity, products and population trends across the four major districts. These constraints call for intensified efforts to build a comprehensive county database to facilitate effective management in face of advancing climate change. In conclusion, this study confirms that the government through its agencies – the National Drought Management Authority and the Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme – is actively involved in addressing challenges facing the pastoralism sector in Kenya. However, the county disaster management strategy needs to be enhanced through strengthening policy and diversifying current prevention and recovery strategies to reduce the probability of a poverty increase among pastoralists in in Kenya.

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 11

1. Background

We set out to deconstruct the Furthermore, climate-driven drought-prone areas and around pastoral network in the newly epidemics, cattle raids, degraded 220 million people are annually formed Narok County in order to be pastures and loss of transit paths, exposed to drought (UNFCCC, able to understand the actual owing to irregular land subdivision 2007). impacts of climate variability on and infrastructure development, Kenya has since the early 1960s pastoralism and identify challenges have affected the sector (Niamir- seen increasing temperature trends in the transmission of adaptation Fuller, 1999; Schilling et al., 2012; that depict a general warming with knowledge across the social El Vilaly et al., 2013). time in inland areas (Government of networks involved. This is because In addition, pastoral systems Kenya, 2010). Impacts of such a system’s response to change support a wide range of services variable and harsh climatic depends on its capacity to cope and products, especially in the conditions are projected to affect and adapt, which in turn depends tourism sector; any decline in livestock production through on the diversity of the social pastoralism will have far-reaching change in quantity and quality of networks that govern a particular impacts in terms of the wider fodder, heat stress, livestock sector or resource (Bodin and Prell, economic ecosystem (Cheung, diseases, water availability and loss 2011). 2012). of indigenous genetic biodiversity 1.1 Pastoralism in Kenya (World Bank, 2013; IPCC, 2014). 1.2 Vulnerability of For example, Rift Valley fever afflicts East African pastoralists have pastoralism to people and livestock and is closely engaged in livestock mobility for climate change related to heavy rainfall events, millennia as a natural resource which are predicted to increase management strategy to exploit Climate change is arguably the with climate change (UNFCCC, resources in their arid and semi-arid greatest emerging threat to global 2007). Such negative impacts lower environments (Galvin et al., 2014). biodiversity and functioning of local livestock productivity, significantly Pastoralism is considered the most ecosystems (IPCC, 2014), and this upset economic growth and economically, culturally and socially is no less the case for the worsen local food insecurity. appropriate strategy for maintaining pastoralism sector in the sub- Furthermore, cumulative impacts the well-being of communities in Sahara (Davies, 2007; Elmi and from climate change on the dryland landscapes because it is Birch, 2013). Observational records socioeconomic status of the only activity that can show that a 0.7°C warming over pastoralists open up various simultaneously provide secure most of the African continent has avenues for the subsequent livelihoods, conserve ecosystem occurred at a rate of about 0.05°C irregular immigration by other services and promote wildlife per decade, with a slightly larger communities that are perceived to conservation (ILRI, 2006; Neely et warming in the June–November disrupt local norms. This clash in al., 2009). season than in December–May cultures and livelihood practices is (Hulme et al., 2001). With regard to In Kenya, livestock production seen as a main source of resource changes in precipitation, an contributes an estimated over 12% conflicts among resource- average 25% decrease in rainfall of gross domestic product (GDP) dependent rural communities with has occurred over the African Sahel and about 47% of agricultural GDP low adaptive capacity (AMCEN, during the past 30 years. This (Silvestri et al., 2012). The livestock 2011). change has been characterised by sector in the drylands accounts for a decrease in the number of rainfall Increased climate variability also 90% of employment and more than events (UNFCCC, 2007). has an indirect impact on 95% of family incomes and pastoralism through increased livelihood security (Davies, 2007). Of particular concern is the issue of human–wildlife conflicts. Otiang’a- Of concern is that slightly over 50% drought, defined in general terms Owiti et al. (2011) note that climate of these livestock (worth about $6 as a 50% shortfall in rainfall over change will alter geographical billion) are found in arid and semi- three months (Lim et al., 2005). environments and, as a natural arid lands (ASALs) that are now Droughts have affected the Sahel, adaptation mechanism, wildlife will experiencing frequent and the Horn of Africa and Southern be forced to migrate to new areas; intensified drought periods as a Africa in particular since the end of however, diminishing natural areas result of unpredictable climatic the 1960s. Estimates suggest that will bring wildlife to human conditions (Galvin et al., 2014). a third of African people live in 12 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

settlements, leading to conflict. (Government of Kenya, 2010: 51). global funds invested in adaptation Moreover, prolonged drought Proposed measures include measures (Madzwamuse, 2010; greatly affects the quality of wildlife adaptable livestock breeds, Brooks et al., 2011). However, habitats, forcing wildlife, in the insurance schemes, capacity- there has been no satisfactory absence of well-managed building of communities, fodder explanation of the slow adoption of protected areas, to retreat to storage, inventories of indigenous adaptation activities among people farmlands to access water and knowledge, economic in the southern sub-Sahara (SSA) fodder (Ladan, 2014). Since diversification, water provision and (Madzwamuse, 2010). In Kenya, incidence of conflicts varies with the stocking rate balancing. These drought episodes continue to season, pastoralists must be able measures correspond with those in devastate the pastoralism sector to access specific strategies to Silvestri et al. (2012), which entail even in the face of multiple and mitigate conflicts and regulate their improving pastoralists’ capacities to diverse collaborative activities by interactions with wildlife cope with degradation and drought stakeholders (Government of Kenya, (Government of Kenya, 2013). and promoting sustainable and 2013). However, it can also be integrated management of argued that climate change is a 1.3 Adaptation croplands, rangelands and water. long-term phenomenon, so it is not interventions feasible for researchers to Literature documents diverse effectively monitor impacts of Adaptation measures involve adaptation measures, some of adaptation programmes and for the making adjustments in social and which are geared towards the funding to have addressed the environmental processes in pastoralism sector (Lim et al., 2005; negative climatic impacts over a response to or anticipation of Adger et al., 2007; Silvestri et al., short timeframe. climate change, to reduce potential 2012). Hence, we propose damages or to take advantage of pastoralism adaptation strategies Nevertheless, inclusivity with regard new opportunities (Adger et al., that entail measures categorised to climate governance remains a 2007). These also include coping into four main pillars that holistically major challenge for rural actors in mechanisms, defined as temporary address adverse climatic-driven Africa (Agrawal, 2010). Pastoral reactive responses that aim to impacts on the sector (Table 1). communities are known to hold restore a system to a previous state. Technological interventions focus valuable indigenous knowledge that Coping is a more reactive action, on improving livestock and supports their key livelihood activity whereas adaptation implies fodder/forage quality to sustain (Elmi and Birch, 2013). Not preparing and planning for climate sector productivity. Behavioural incorporating them in governance change. aspects in adaptation entail thus results in poor adaptation; this changing pastoralists’ attitudes is also precipitated by poor In Kenya, the adaptation strategy towards embracing modern coordination and by sectoral was developed by means of the pastoral concepts and techniques. divisions among adaptation actors, National Climate Change Response Managerial strategies strive to which lower programme efficiency Strategy in 2010 and further integrate sustainability objectives at the grassroots (Madzwamuse, formulated into the five-year (2013– into the sector, and policy seeks to 2010). To overcome these 2017) National Climate Change develop ideas and proposals into challenges, good resource Action Plan in 2013 under the implementable rules and governance practice advocates for Ministry of Environment regulations to guide stakeholder a strong participatory element: the (Government of Kenya, 2010). The actions for enhanced sector needs and perspectives of different Kenyan Climate change Secretariat productivity. actors regarding a specific issue recognises the domino effect of must be integrated (Greiber and climate change on livestock Given perceived high levels of Schiele, 2011). keepers: ‘impacts will potentially vulnerability in developing countries, result inter alia in community much-publicised adaptation conflicts, loss of lives and programmes have been livelihoods as well as migration’ implemented, with large amounts of

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 13

Table 1: Suggested adaptation measures for efficient livestock management Adaptation pillar Target Suggested activities • Reintroduction of ASAL indigenous livestock breeds Technological Livestock breed and fodder • Hybrid animals resistant to certain parasites and diseases • Improvement of climate models • Sale of healthy livestock before drought periods • Diversification of livestock types Behavioural Pastoralist attitude and agro activities • Intensification in livestock production • Migration and mobility • Regular training on new methods in pastoralism • Hay storage • Grazing programmes • Formulation of crisis management strategy Capacity-building and enhanced Managerial • Effective early warning campaigns productivity • Splitting herds to reduce risk • Increased participation of pastoralists in decision-making • Infrastructure development, i.e. sale yards and good roads • Enhanced market information • Regular vaccination programmes • Strict animal movement regulations • Removal of subsides • Introduction of insurance packages • Access to credit Policy Sustainable sectorial practices • Appropriate land tenure regulations • Efficient livestock marketing boards • Cash and asset-based assistance after drought • Strengthening resource institutions

Source: Authors’ compilation

14 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

1.4 Social networks wildlife tourism stakeholders who risks that affect their development seek to promote conservation and (Madzwamuse, 2010; Brooks et al., Social structure is a pattern of human–wildlife conflict resolution 2011). This partially explains why relations (i.e. networks) between for mutual community benefits severe drought episodes social units or actors (i.e. individuals, (ibid.). dramatically decimate livestock organisations or countries) (Prell, numbers, especially in remote parts At the same time, lack of 2012). These social structures of Narok County. Our research understanding and negative influence the actions of individuals contributes to addressing this by perceptions of pastoral systems just as the actions can influence looking at dissemination gaps and have resulted in unfavourable social structures. In this study, we opportunities using SNA. introduce social network analysis policies in the pastoralism sector (SNA) as a tool to reveal how (Elmi and Birch, 2013). In addition, Discovery of the role of social pastoralism governance unfolds in decades of neglect by government relationships in shaping a community setting. This is have led to a misrepresentation of environmental outcomes has because successful adaptation the actual profitability of the sector rejuvenated studies in natural practices are to be seen in a to the community and country (ILRI, resource management (Bodin and system that gives greater attention 2006). As a result, there are Prell, 2011). SNA is guided by to ‘the multiple actors with multiple stakeholders introducing diverse formal theory organised in interests, the processes through economic activities like fish-farming mathematical terms and grounded which these actors interrelate, and, and bee-keeping, turning in the systematic analysis of especially, the institutional pastoralists into agro-pastoralists, empirical data (ibid.). These arrangements that structure their which is gradually expanding the relational data consist of at least interactions’ (Agrawal and Gibson, traditional ‘livestock-keepers’ one structural variable measured for 1999). network (Ngaruiya, 2014a). a set of actors (Hennig et al., 2012). We selected two indices – Poverty reduction schemes initiated Over time, effective pastoral social centralisation and structural holes – by the Kenyan government give relations have culminated in sets of to quantify patterns of interactions monetary incentives to promote agreements among several clans, and indicate levels of synergy self-employment among youth and communities and regions that have among rural community actors. facilitated efficient livestock marginalised groups. In pastoral movements. In particular, informal areas, individuals have formed Centralisation values reveal the institutions such as councils of diverse livestock-based community most prominent actor assumed to elders have been instituted to groups for business purposes but be a major channel for information, regulate use of and access to unfortunately, these are not since they are connected to many resources among pastoralists involved in local livestock others (Prell et al., 2010). By (Galvin et al., 2014). However, governance (Ngaruiya and contrast, structural holes are political, social, economic and Scheffran, 2013). Consequently, potential opportunities that exist ecological transformations have rural areas have a high density of between two people or groups made traditional pastoralism community interest groups with when either party is unaware of the unviable in many locations (ibid.). little or no diversity, where everyone value that would be available if they Environmental and socio-political in the cluster knows what everyone were to coordinate on some point changes are undermining traditional else knows and no one knows what in a network (Burt, 2000). These coping strategies, hence creating a is going on in other clusters (Krebs ‘holes’ occur whenever an actor 1) need for (appropriate) external and Holley, 2004). has a relationship with someone who is connected to a separate interventions. Subsequent Given the threats of climate change, cluster of actors and 2) has no introduction of new diverse actors interactions for the efficient other direct or indirect connections has enhanced traditional pastoral exchange of information between with the people in that cluster networks from being simple inter- these diverse actors are of (Ehrlich and Carboni, 2005). clan entities at the grassroots to paramount importance (Prell et al., Networks with high numbers of become regional, national or even 2010; Silvestri et al., 2012). Yet, structural holes may be deemed international entities, especially with although climate change poor in terms of information regard to research (Ngaruiya, interventions are increasing in diffusion between actors and 2014a). Among the actors involved number, there is a lack of evidence between different sets of actors. are government agencies that seek as to whether they are effective in to improve resource governance at building adaptive capacity and Application of SNA obliges the grassroots, humanitarian actors whether the ‘climate-vulnerable’ resource managers to understand focused on improving the well- poor, such as pastoralists, are how actors are connected to each being of ASAL communities and aware of ways to manage climate other, how they influence each

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 15

other’s behaviour and how their In particular, our main objective is 4. Are there potential entry points interactions influence the overall to analyse how adaptation and for actors to enhance network structure (Hennig et al., coping strategies are disseminated adaptation performance? 2012). In relation to pastoralism, across the pastoralist network of In answering these questions, we understanding the flow of Narok. Consequently, our research first assist with the documentation information and identifying the questions are: of conventional and indigenous missing links enables effective 1. Who are the major actors in the adaptation measures, thus introduction of adaptive knowledge network? increasing the regional and national as well as prompt resolution of database for scaling up conflicts within the network. 2. What are the implemented implemented adaptation measures adaptation and coping in the sector. Second, visualisation 1.5 Research objectives measures? and questions of the pastoralism network will aid 3. How does the network in the identification of challenges in Our study covers two thematic structure facilitate or hinder relation to adaptation knowledge areas – namely, climate change information flow? transmission in the community. impacts and adaptation – and actor linkages in the pastoralism network.

16 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

2. Narok county context

This study focuses on Narok found mainly on the western side of 771 mm (Figure 2) (Government of county, an area commonly referred the county; and the remaining area, Kenya, 2013). to as the bread basket of the comprising lowlands made up of Studies on climate variability reveal country, given its relatively high bushlands, grasslands and shrubs. that, during 1989–2003, an production of wheat and barley. The highlands are the source of extreme drought occurred in The county lies between latitudes many rivers, such as the Mara, 1999/00, severe droughts in 1993 0° 50’ and 1° 50’ South and Mogor and Narok Enkare, which and 1997, moderate droughts in longitudes 35° 28’ and 36° 25’ East cut across the county. The county’s 1991 and 1994, normal years in and is located on the south- altitude and physical features 1989/90, 1992 and 1995/96, a wet western side of the country along strongly influence its climatic year in 2002, a very wet year in the border of Kenya and Tanzania conditions (Government of Kenya, 2003 and extremely wet years in (Figure 1). Narok is about 17, 933.1 2013). 1998 and 2001 (Government of km2, representing approximately The temperature ranges from 20°C Kenya, 2010, 2013). More 3.1% of the total area in Kenya (January–March) to 10°C (June– specifically, the 1999/00 drought (Government of Kenya, 2013). September) with an average of was caused by failure of the wet 2.1 Ecological and 18°C. Narok experiences a bimodal season rainfall in both years, climatic setting rainfall pattern, whereby long rains whereas the 1993 drought owed to fall between February and June and failure of the dry season rainfall in About two thirds of Narok county is short rains between August and Narok (Ogutu et al., 2008). This classified as semi-arid (Government November. Rainfall amounts range reflects the county’s high inter- of Kenya, 2013). It consists of two from 2,500 mm in the wet season annual variability in rainfall, which main ecological zones: the to about 450 mm during the dry has implications for water highlands of Mau, rising to an season, with an annual average of resources and pasture. altitude of 3,100 m above sea level,

Figure 1: Location of Narok County in Kenya

Source: GADM- Global Administrative Maps Database (http://www.gadm.org/)

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 17

Figure 2: The annual mean precipitation in Narok

Source: WorldClim (Global climate data) (http://www.worldclim.org/)

2.2 Socioeconomic The major livelihood activities in the Mara River every dry season, status Narok and their estimated and in particular July. Second, the populations are mixed farming forested Mau highlands offer scenic The county capital is also called (60.8%), agro-pastoral (8.7%), sites for hikers. Third, the 95 Narok. The county is divided into pastoral (23.8%) and trade (6.7%) species of resident wildlife enable four administrative units: Narok (Gicheru et al., 2012). The diverse daily game drives across the South (10,412.1 km2), Narok North soils and altitudes support a vibrant different private and government- (4,663.7 km2), Transmara West agriculture sector, whose crops managed protected areas (Figure 4). (2,583.9 km2) and Transmara East include wheat, barley, maize, Irish Of concern for this study are the (275.4 km2). It is a cosmopolitan potatoes, sugarcane and increased human–wildlife conflict area, hosting diverse ethnic groups horticultural crops. It is estimated cases brought about by predators such as Maasai, Kipsigis, Kikuyu, that the county has about 1,436 such as lions, leopards, cheetahs Kisii, Luo, Luhya and Kamba. ground water sources, including and hyenas. In particular, natural Narok has an estimated human dams, rivers, water pans and availability or provision of prey by population of 850,920, of whom springs (Figure 4) (Government of stakeholders to wildlife predator 429,026 are male and 421,894 are Kenya, 2013). populations may be a key measure female; the livestock population is in reducing depredation rates as In terms of tourism, Narok has at 1,416,886 cattle and 1,650,029 pastoralists move closer or deeper several attributes that make it one sheep (Government of Kenya, into protected areas to access of the most toured sites in Kenya. 2013). Figure 3 shows how the pasture during drought periods. First, it hosts the population is distributed across the game reserve, renowned for the county and also the common annual wildebeest migration across names of the administrative units.

18 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Figure 3: Population distribution in Narok

Narok North Transmara East

Transmara West

Narok South

Graph by L. Borchert & G. Ngaruiya Source: GADM- Global Administrative Maps Database (http://www.gadm.org/) and Narok population data from the County.

Figure 4: Location of the major economic resources in Narok

Graph by L. Borchert & G. Ngaruiya

Source of data: GLAC (Global Land Cover 2000 project) (http://www.diva-gis.org/Data)

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 19

2.3 Pastoralism and et al. 2012). Sindiga (1984) explains This subdivision has produced livestock this situation clearly: ‘Under the many private land parcels in many Kenyan adjudication program, areas of Kenya, including Narok management in lands that were previously under (Gicheru et al., 2012; Government Narok the colonial government were of Kenya, 2013). Many of these administered by the government communities are indigenous In Narok county, most of the but held in trust by the respective farmers, and subsequent expansion pastoralists are indigenous Maasai county councils.’ From the late of crop farming reduces grazing people. The common livestock kept 1960s, these lands were later land and access to water and are cattle (Bos primigenius), goats surveyed and then assigned to increases land use conflicts (Capra aegagrus hircus), sheep various registered groups of Maasai (between farmers and pastoralists, (Ovis aries), pigs (Sus scrofa), to improve pasture management by and wildlife and pastoralists donkeys (Equus asinus), camels developing such facilities as water (Gicheru et al., 2012). (Camelus dromedarius) and rabbits and dips for their livestock on a (Oryctolagus cuniculus), with Apart from the variable climate, communal basis. This was done continuing deforestation and beehives to supplement household using the land legislation of 1968 income. Figure 5 shows a profile of degradation of the Mau complex (the Land Group Representatives have reduced river flow across the the approximately 4,155,000 head and Land Adjudication Act), which of livestock found in Narok county county and neighbouring counties. enabled the conferral of land titles (Government of Kenya, 2013). In addition, livestock suffer from to groups of people where land malignant catarrh fever, ownership was identified with A rapid increase in the human Trypanosomiasis, tick-borne population of Narok from the 1960s groups. However, failure of the diseases, Helminthiasis, Mange, group ranch system to deliver onwards is attributed to foot and mouth disease, immigration from the surrounding improved livelihoods and security of contagious bovine pneumonia and highlands through legal acquisition tenure to the group ranch members the Rift Valley fever whose set in motion the subdivision of of land created by means of the prevalence rates are highly subdivision of Maasai land (Gicheru group ranches. influenced by climate conditions.

Figure 5: Diversity of livestock in Narok in 2014

0% 1% 0% 0% 2% Diversity of Narok livestock

16% Cattle

31% Goats

Sheep

Poultry

Donkeys

Camels

Pigs

31% Hives Rabbits 19%

Source: Government of Kenya (2013)

20 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Depredation by carnivores is also a (Elmi and Birch, 2013). Moreover, information from the newly installed major problem given the open Kenya adopted a new constitution administration at its infancy nature of protected areas, which in 2010, which introduced becomes difficult, as it is allows for movement of both devolution of governance down to synchronising its data records. Now livestock and wildlife in Kenya the county level. In this, natural that the county assembly has the (Okello, 2005). resource management moved fully power to formulate its own policies from central to county governments and regulations concerning There has been increasing interest hosting their own sub-ministry livestock management, we think it in ASALs in Kenya at the national committees. Implementation of is prudent to investigate how level in the policy context. Key in devolution in 2013 saw the pastoralism can be enhanced and this is work by the former Ministry integration of four former districts to how associated resource conflicts for Northern Kenya and Other Arid form the current Narok county. are resolved at the grassroots. Lands, as well as the Sessional Hence, obtaining pastoral Paper on National Policy for ASALs

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 21

3. Methodology

Understanding the context in which monetary value. These values A structured questionnaire divided an adaptation intervention takes help put local resources on the into three sections was used to place requires practitioners to agenda of economic planners collect the following data (Appendix explore a site-specific relationship and policy-makers, who make 1). between the development status of their decisions based on the • Climate change: The first the intervention’s beneficiaries and monetary returns of resource, section collects information their vulnerability to climate change land and investment options from community members (Spearman et al., 2011). This has (Boyd and Banzhaf, 2007). about climate impacts, successfully been analysed in a 2. The resource determinants perceived threats, adaptation multi-resource sector community (challenges) that negatively strategies and hindrances to using the Ecosystem Service influence ecosystem services, effective adaptation in the Governance (ESG) approach for example climate change pastoralism sector. (Ngaruiya 2014a), which is based impacts and conflicts. on the ecosystem approach • Resource conflicts and developed by Convention of 3. The social network structure resolution: The second section Biological Diversity (CBD, 2004). that either manages the queries the trends of conflict, challenges or utilises ecosystem causes, underlying drivers 3.1 The Ecosystem services, for example (political or socioeconomic) and Service Governance pastoralism networks. resolutions adopted in the pastoralism sector. approach 4. The perceived outcomes of The ESG approach attempts to effective resource governance • Governance collaborations: reveal precisely who and how as guided by the ESG approach, The final section collects for example holistic pastoralism climate adaptation and resource relational (network) data using conflict resolution are implemented governance. questions about the personal in rural communities of Africa The ESG is an iterative framework contacts pastoralists gain adaptation knowledge. This (Ngaruiya, 2014a). It incorporates therefore; the implemented uses the saturation sampling two notions into ecosystem outcomes feed back into their management. First, monetary respective phases to create a cycle technique, whereby a respondent is asked to name a valuation of pastoralism is a useful that can be systematically analysed tool to explore the full range of and readjusted for successful maximum of five actors they have collaborated with in terms costs and benefits emanating from conservation (Ngaruiya, 2014b). pastoralism, by giving contextual of adaptation financial support; information on the perceived local 3.2 Data collection research and training; and project implementation to significance of livestock at the We conducted the empirical community level. SNA enhance their livelihoods. This component of this research during actors’ list is to be compiled systematically identifies local actors two field visits to Narok county, in and, where possible, mentioned and their activities for efficient September and November 2014. appraisal of the rural pastoralism actors are to be located and We administered the questionnaire asked about their partners in governance. These datasets enable randomly with assistance from realistic performance assessment resource governance, to go on livestock extension officers to 41 until no new actors in the of a given sector, community or pastoralists across the county (16 ecosystem. community are mentioned. A in Narok South, 13 in Narok North, clear interaction relation/tie The ESG framework consists of eight in Transmara West and four in between the actors is defined Transmara East) and used it to four main phases (Figure 6). as entailing exchanges involving guide four group discussions in economic, technological and/or 1. The core is the specific natural Narok North. Also, we held resource (ecosystem service) social (humanitarian and interviews with 15 experts (some cultural) adaptation resources that supports livelihoods and via telephone), who provided economic growth in the according to the social technical information concerning resources concept. community, for example the sector (Appendix 2). livestock. If possible, the ecosystem service is given in 22 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Figure 6: Conceptual framework of the ecosystem service governance approach

Source: adapted from Ngaruiya (2014b)

In addition, we sought secondary measure livestock populations in import and export confirmed data from the County Livestock pastoral areas (ibid.). using extension officers’ data. Office (CLO) on numbers, breeds The monetary value of crops and types of livestock, livestock 3.3 Data analysis and livestock in Loitoktok trade trends and costs of livestock Data collected were analysed district was calculated using the products in the county. However, following the systematic framework 2013 base exchange rate ($1= as Narok county became of the proposed ESG approach. KES0.85). operational as an administrative unit • Resource determinants: The only in 2013, obtaining consistent • Monetary valuation of choices selected by the comprehensive livestock-related livestock: The value of respondents concerning climate data from the newly appointed pastoralism is often considered adaptation and resource officers was difficult. Part of the to equate to the value of conflict issues were ranked into challenge here relates to the poor livestock sales, perhaps percentiles as a representation quality of livestock population data sometimes also including the of respondents’ perceptions in Kenya and the fact that livestock sale of certain by-products, and activities. population censuses are not such as dairy and hides (Davies, equipped to cope with the dynamic 2007). Hence, monetary value • SNA: Actor relation data were nature of pastoral systems and the of livestock was calculated analysed for centrality (level of rapid rates of herd growth and using current market prices for involvement) and structural shrinkage according to climatic live animals, which gave the holes (potential control of an conditions (Davies, 2007). Also, total value of the estimated actor) using the UCINET fluctuations in livestock numbers in annual livestock population. program. Thereafter, data the immediate aftermath of climatic Livestock products were consisting of actors (nodes) and shocks (increases and decreases of similarly valued using market relations (links) were visualised around 50%) make it difficult to prices and their trade values for using the Netdraw program. Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 23

Centralisation values are calculated using ) )

�" � = �'( = �(' (*+ '*+ Where:

�'( = the sum of all ties from actor i to actor j � = the number of nodes in the network The structural holes index is calculated using

�'0( �- � = �'( '1(10 Where:

�'0( = the number of paths linking actors i and j that pass through actor k

�'( = the number of paths linking actors i and j

24 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

4. Preliminary results

4.1 Monetary value of 4.2 Actors involved in 38.9. The other smaller but central pastoralism pastoralism areas of power in the community are the Agricultural Sector As of 2012, milk was the product governance Development Support Programme with the highest production, at 63.6 The 55 identified Narok pastoralism (ASDSP), the Livestock Traders million litres per year, followed by actors (Appendix 2) can be Association (LTA), Kenya Wildlife beef, eggs, mutton, poultry and grouped into four sectors: livestock Service (KWS), the Water Resource pork, at 2.77 million kg, 1.10 million management, covering animal Management Authority (WRMA), trays, 629,390 kg, 106,270 kg and breeding, animal health and value the Women Enterprise Fund (WEF), 160 kg per year, respectively. addition programmes; capacity- livestock groups, Narok Pastoral Surprisingly, honey production is building, entailing training activities Centre (NPC) and pastoralists, with also high, through the use of and fund provision; environmental centrality values of 37, 31.5, 31.5, 48,111 hives across the county. conservation, comprising resource 24.1, 22.2, 20.4, 18.5 and 16.7, The estimated annual monetary management and water respectively. Appendix 3 gives a full value of the livestock population governance; and disaster description of the actor labels and and associated products is $808 management, with an emphasis on their centrality values . million (Table 2). flood and drought mitigation (Figure In terms of structural holes, the Lack of sufficient and consistent 7). These are actors in the public actors with the most ‘spaces’ in livestock data (blamed on and private sectors, civil society their linkages are CLO, NDMA, devolution teething problems) and non-governmental and faith- ASDSP, KWS, LTA, WRMA, WEF, hindered us from carrying out a based organisations. Interestingly, livestock groups, NPC, Community comprehensive monetary valuation the Council of Elders was not seen Management Disaster Risk that would have enabled us to as a critical actor in pastoralism Reduction (CMDRR), the County detect the tangible temporal governance, indicating that other Agriculture Office (CAO) and impacts of drought on the sector. external support actors, such as pastoralists. These actors have an However, the field survey confirmed conservancy investors, may have ego betweenness score of 646, that pastoralists had suffered high replaced traditional actors. 295, 196, 169, 136, 115, 114, 61, losses through the death of their The calculated network 26, 23, 23 and 20, respectively. livestock and through unfair market centralisation is 49.02%, a high These scores denote potential practices entailing the cheap value that implies the presence of opportunities for the actors in purchase of livestock during two main actors in the network. creating new linkages with other drought periods. These are CLO, with a score of actors in the network. The rest of 57.4, and the National Drought the actors and their respective Management Authority (NDMA), at betweenness scores are found in Appendix 4.

Table 2: Estimated monetary value of livestock in Narok

Livestock (2008-2014) Gross value (mKES/year) Gross value (mS/year)

Livestock population 66,563 783

Associated products 2,125 25

Source: Author’s compilation

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 25

Figure 7: The Pastoralism management network in Narok County

Source: Authors’ compilation

4.3 Implemented above irregular precipitation measure, based on indigenous adaptation activities (34.5%), elevated temperatures knowledge that informs pastoralists (11.5%) and loss of biodiversity when and where to shift. On the Preferred responses to drought and (0.02%). wider scale, the Maasai are aware related issues, such as climate- of the relationship between climatic Nevertheless, the community driven human–wildlife conflicts, in conditions and livestock attacks, revealed several adaptation and the questionnaire are given in thus, to reduce their losses, they coping measures in relation to brackets to guide this section. employ tact in identifying and killing drought impacts, which mainly Results (given in percentage of dominant problematic predators. included diversifying their livestock persons interviewed) indicate that Minor cases have involved carcass portfolio to maintain income participants in Narok perceived poisoning. generation (Table 3). Mobility drought episodes (51.7%) as the remains the most widely practised major inhibiting factor, over and

26 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Table 3: List of implemented strategies in Narok Actor arena Adaptation and coping strategies Actor responsible Pasture bailing and improvement German Agro Action, SNV, KARI through reseeding (hay storage) World Vision, CMDRR, WRMA, Water provision WRUA, ASDSP, ENSDA German Agro Action, SNV, Dairy value chain addition ASDSP Rehabilitation of sale and stock LTA, VSF yards Livestock management Regular vaccination and disease NDMA, CLO, Olchani, VSF, control programmes Keekonyokei Trust ASDSP, slaughter houses, Beef value chain addition ALLPRO Animal breeding services NACODEP, Olchani, CLO Grazing programmes KWCA, KWS, Loita Development Purchase of commercial feeds Pastoralists, livestock groups Targeted killing of predators Pastoralists, livestock groups Pasture bailing and improvement German Agro Action, SNV, KARI through reseeding (hay storage) World Vision, CMDRR, WRMA, Water provision WRUA, ASDSP, ENSDA German Agro Action, SNV, Dairy value chain addition ASDSP Capacity-building Rehabilitation of sale and stock LTA, VSF yards Regular vaccination and disease NDMA, CLO, Olchani, VSF, control programmes Keekonyokei Trust ASDSP, slaughter houses, Beef value chain addition ALLPRO Translocation of problematic KWS animals Construction of fences KWS, investors, SLM,

Environmental conservation Establishment of tree nurseries MAHARI, SLM Community groups, ASDSP, WEF, UNEP, Magadi Soda, CFO, Reforestation ACC, ENSDA, NEMA, WWF, Soko Fauna Flood mitigation around area Red Cross Early warning system NDMA, ASDSP Disaster management Drought monitoring system NDMA, NEMA

Source: Authors’ compilation

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 27

The respondents identified several This is because predators follow problematic predators, which hindrances to the efficiency of the foraging herbivores out of the unfortunately causes the death of these measures, including low protected area and increases other species, especially capacity of extension workers carnivore encounters with grazing scavengers in the area. Solutions (24.2%), poorly advertised value livestock, leading to high numbers involve negotiation over land use addition opportunities (20.4%), of depredation cases (20.4%) and and sometimes compensation of poor coordination in the sector disease transmission (17.9%) the aggrieved party by a (16.1%), high cost of veterinary particularly near protected areas. conservation investor so as to avoid medicines (13.7%), inadequate Although predator numbers have the targeted revenge killings of vaccination programmes (8.1%) declined, land sub-division (12.2%) predators. The participants agree and lack of finances in government and infrastructure development that the long bureaucratic agencies (3.8%). (12.2%) have led to pastoralists and compensation procedure wildlife competing for the few open (ineffective institutions) by KWS, Interestingly, one would expect spaces with sufficient water together with the low finances conflicts to be higher during the dry (19.4%), which has resulted in the allocated for this purpose, acts as a season when food resources are targeted killing of predator offspring key conflict driver. less available but incidences of such as lion cubs. Moreover, the pastoralist–wildlife conflicts were community is known to poison most common in the wet season.

28 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

5. Discussion on the social network structure

Evaluation of the proposed aspect, which relies heavily on many diverse and practical adaptation strategy against the regular and site-specific capacity- livestock management measures measures documented in Table 1 building initiatives, is not well that can be classified as reveals that the technological and established in the community, technological aspects of the managerial aspects are well despite having many previously mentioned pastoralism represented in Narok County. The knowledgeable actors. To make adaptation strategy. A closer look policy aspect is clearly seen in the this prognosis clear, we briefly at ego networks reveals that the establishment of several institutions deconstruct the pastoral network key players (NDMA and CLO) are charged with consolidating and below. connected to actors introducing the equipping the community with different management approaches, information concerning climate 5.1 Strengths such as improved indigenous change – namely, NDMA, CMDRR, Generally, the actors are well linked animal breeds, value chain Sustainable Land Management and across the four main action arenas. programmes, disease management NPC. However, the behavioural As a result, the community has and water provision (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Sociograph of key managerial actors in the pastoral network

Note: Actor size is determined using their betweenness values

Source: Authors’ compilation

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 29

5.2 Weaknesses environmental conditions using experts like NDMA or other traditional or self-researched capacity-building actors lead to Similar analysis of pastoralists and information. Figure 9 shows the lack of information. This is livestock-keeping ego networks missing links between these two evidenced by slow behavioural confirms what the field survey actors and ‘adaptation managers’ change in the adoption of coping discovered – lack of involvement of in the sector. This network displays and adaptation measures, such as the community in decision-making a business-as-usual scenario, the immediate sale of healthy and poor dissemination of whereby the community is linked to animals before the commencement information to the grassroots. Most business actors such as slaughter of a drought, lack of change in of the interviewed community houses, agrovets, traders and fund livestock mobility and negative members openly stated that they providers to expand the sector. perceptions of pastoralism by the managed livestock in harsh Poor linkages to ‘adaptation’ young generation.

Figure 9: Linkages among civic actors in the pastoral network

Note: Actor size determined using their betweenness values

Source: Authors’ compilation

30 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

5.3 Opportunities communicating with stakeholders. these three actors can bring in These policies could provide the other critical actors, such as the Local actors should use the active framework for initiating much- Department of Meteorological presence of research institutes needed adaptation measures, such Services, in developing local climate such as Maasai Mara University, as credit facilities, disaster-related models that can enhance the early Kenya Agricultural Research insurance policies, land warning systems strategy to be Institute and the Ministry of management, regulation of used in formulating policy to Devolution and Planning in livestock marketing boards and oversee cash-based disaster formulating site-specific pastoralism introduction of a positive assistance. policies (Figure 10). In addition, pastoralism culture in community researchers may also need to get education programmes. In addition, better at engaging and

Figure 10: The ego network of key policy and research actors in Narok

Note: Actor size determined using their betweenness values

Source: Authors’ compilation

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 31

5.4 Challenges process known as network- issue also concerns integrating weaving. Figure 11 shows how adaptation planning in the wildlife As revealed earlier, there is no seven actors (CLO, NDMA, ASDSP, sector with livestock management strong link between the ‘adaptation KWS, LTA, WRMA and WEF), in ASALs. Such changes will lead to experts and resource managers’ termed ‘brokers’, have the greatest a rapid change in pastoralists’ and the community at the opportunities to create new attitudes towards proposed grassroots. Hence, the community linkages in the entire pastoral adaptation measures, thanks to may not be well prepared to face network. If this action is their participation in widespread climate change as it escalates. This implemented, then it will be easy for capacity-building events. scenario can be reversed if certain the grassroots to disseminate and actors become proactive in creating adopt managerial decisions. This linkages among existing actors, in a

Figure 11: Ego networks of potential key brokers in Narok

Note: Actor size determined using their betweenness values

Source: Authors’ compilation

32 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

6. Conclusion

We set out to deconstruct the Analysing the identified measures Third, it is evident that, although the pastoral network in the newly against our proposed pastoralism network has several knowledgeable formed Narok county in order to be adaptation strategy, we found that adaptation actors, these are not able to understand the actual the Narok network has the fully connected to the grassroots. impacts of climate variability on the following attributes. This has resulted in a weak sector and to identify challenges in managerial pillar. Fortunately, First, the presence of diverse actors the transmission of adaptation analysis of the network reveals that provides the network with a range knowledge across the network. only seven actors have the highest of technological expertise and This study used the ESG approach structural holes values. Thus it resources, including improved framework to guide data collection could be easy to increase linkages breeds, fodder and disease control. on the actors involved in across the network and increase pastoralism governance and Second, lack of linkages between transmission of adaptation subsequent SNA. This analysis the community groups and knowledge to resource users at the revealed 55 active actors and adaptation knowledge actors has grassroots. identified diverse adaptation and resulted in slow behavioural change Finally, poorly linked actors (Maasai coping measures, which we divided among pastoralists. It has Mara University, Kenya Agricultural into four main thematic areas: promoted a business-as-usual Research Institute and the Ministry livestock management, capacity- scenario covering value addition of Devolution and Planning) in the building, environmental programmes and livestock trade, research sector reflect unutilised conservation and disaster despite the urgent need for opportunities to boost the very management. In terms of conflict adaptation knowledge in the weak policy pillar and introduce resolution, there were few non- community. Moreover, capacity- much-needed disaster-related governmental conservation building actors are seen more as insurance policies to enhance the organisation actors who were being management-based in urban resilience of the community in the directly involved in negotiations with centres than as being engaged in face of increasing climate variability. the community to resolve human– practical action at the grassroots wildlife conflicts in Kenya. level.

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 33

7. Recommendations

The importance of equipping the level from the earliest possible 3. Reduction of the high structural pastoral community with relevant time period and cumulated up hole values of the seven adaptation and coping knowledge to the regional level so as to identified actors should be in this region cannot be facilitate accurate and seasonal implemented through focused downplayed. We would like to put trend analysis of the impacts of network-weaving to improve forward the following areas of climate change, urban the quality of adaptation actions based on our study so as development, land tenure knowledge in the region. to help safeguard the future of this changes, wildlife populations Local disaster management would sector. and epidemics on the livestock benefit from improved cooperation and pastoralist community. 1. The network’s strong and linkages between research technological pillar urgently 2. The number of linkages organisations, which would result in needs to be upgraded through between actors implementing the development of effective the development of a capacity-building and the prevention and recovery policy and comprehensive county community should be increased strategies to reduce the probability database that is easily across the network, especially of a poverty increase among accessible by the community through community barazas, to pastoralists. and researchers. These data boost the ability to disseminate should be compiled frequently adaptation information in the from the lowest administrative county.

34 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

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Appendix 1: Questionnaire used in the field survey

QUESTIONNAIRE No ______DATE ______NAME OF ADMINISTRATOR ______LOCATION______RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICSNAME ______AGE ___ SEX ___ ORGANIZATION ______YEAR OF ESTABLISHMENT ______Area of action International National Regional Local Type of organization Public Private Civil

Section A: CLIMATE CHANGE CONCERNS IN THE PASTORALISM SECTOR CC Parameter Precipitation Temperature Biodiversity Natural disasters CC Threat to Low/ lack of fodder Pasture degradation Reduced water and Disease outbreaks pastoralism water points Adaptation Soil & Nutrient Diversified agricultural Improved breeds Frequent training of strategies management activities pastoralists (specific to Rehabilitation of Enhanced pest and Hay storage Water harvest & Use pastoralism) pasture land disease control

Drawbacks Poor coordination Lack of finances Low capacity for Low value addition extension services opportunities Poor quality breeds Poor fodder High cost of vet. Inadequate vaccination preservation method medicines events

SECTION B: RESOURCE CONFLICTS & RESOLUTION Trend of conflict Increasing Seasonal Decreasing

Cause of conflict Pasture loss Wildlife attacks Access to water Development/ infrastructure

Water scarcity/ Rustling Land use Size of individual herds shortage Competition

Conflict driver Ineffective Low finances Cultural information Lack of policy institutions

Outcome Community tension Targeted violence Poor or no Project/Program collaboration sabotage

Conflict arbitrator Council of Elders Government officials Investor or NGO/FBO Coordinator

Solutions Resource use Fines/Jail term Compensation Reallocation of land negotiations

Public awareness Barazas Posters/fliers Workshops Media

SECTION C: ADAPTATION KNOWLEDGE TRANSMISSION NETWORKS Funding partners 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Research & training 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. partners

Project Partners 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. (implementation)

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 37

Appendix 2: List of actors involved in governance of pastoralism in Narok

No. Full Name Acronym Type Sector 1 National Drought Management Authority NDMA Public Disaster_management 2 World Vision WoVis FBO Environmental_conservation 3 Red Cross RedCross Private Disaster_management 4 World Concern WoCon FBO Capacity_building 5 German Agroaction GerAgro Private Livestock_management 6 Netherlands Development Organisation SNV Private Livestock_management 7 Livestock Traders Association LTA Civic Livestock_management Community Managed Disaster Risk 8 CMDRR Public Disaster_management Reduction 9 Maa Habitat Restoration Initiative MAHARI NGO Environmental_conservation 10 World Wildlife Fund WWF Private Environmental_conservation 11 Department of Meteorological Services DMS Public Disaster_management National Environmental Management 12 NEMA Public Disaster_management Authority Water Resources management 13 WRMA Public Environmental_conservation Authority Agricultural Sector Development 14 ASDSP Public Livestock_management Support Program 15 Ntulele Slaughter House NtuSH Private Livestock_management 16 Olokurto Slaughter House OloSH Private Livestock_management Namukonyi Community Development 17 NACODEP NGO Livestock_management Project 18 Olchani Agrovet Olchani Private Livestock_management ASAL-Based Livestock and Rural 19 ALLPRO Public Livestock_management Development Programmes 20 Vétérinaires Sans Frontières VSF Private Livestock_management 21 Keekonyokei Trust KeeTr Private Livestock_management African Development Bank programs for 22 ADB-ASAL Public Capacity_building ASAL regions 23 Narok Pastoral Centre NPC Public Capacity_building 24 Social development Office SDO Public Capacity_building 25 African Wildlife Foundation AWF Private Capacity_building 26 Nature Conservancy TMZ Private Capacity_building 27 Livetsock keeping community groups Livestockgroups Civic Livestock_management

38 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

No. Full Name Acronym Type Sector 28 Pastoralists (Individual) Pastoralists Civic Livestock_management Ewaso Nyiro South Development 29 ENSDA Public Capacity_building Authority 30 Sustainable Land Management SLM Public Environmental_conservation 31 Maasai Mara University MaasaiUniv Private Capacity_building 32 Constituency Developlment Fund CDF Public Capacity_building 33 Loita Development Organisation LoitaDev Private Environmental_conservation 34 Catholic Diocese of Narok CatholicDiocese FBO Capacity_building 35 Anglican Church of Kenya ACK FBO Livestock_management 36 Keyian Sahiwal Organisation KeyianSahiwal Private Livestock_management 37 Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KARI Public Capacity_building 38 County Livestock Office CLO Public Livestock_management 39 County Agricultural Office CAO Public Livestock_management 40 Ministry of Water MoW Public Livestock_management 41 Ministry of Health MoH Public Livestock_management 42 Ministry of Education MoEd Public Livestock_management 43 Kenya Wildlife Service KWS Public Environmental_conservation 44 County Forest Office CFO Public Environmental_conservation Ministry of Integration, Devolution and 45 MoICP Public Disaster_management Planning 46 East Africa Meat Company EAMC Private Livestock_management Narok County Government Slaughter 47 NCGSH Public Livestock_management House Kenya Conservancies for Wildlife 48 KCWA Private Environmental_conservation Association 49 Women Enterprise Funds WEF Public Capacity_building 50 Youth Enterprise Development Funds YEDF Public Capacity_building 51 United Nations Environmental Program UNEP Private Environmental_conservation 52 Magadi Soda Company MagadiSoda Private Environmental_conservation 53 Water Resources Users Association WRUA Public Environmental_conservation 54 African Conservation Centre ACC Private Livestock_management 55 Soko Fauna Organisation SokoFauna Civic Environmental_conservation

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 39

Appendix 3: Degree centrality values for the pastoralism actors

No. Actor NrmDegree No. Actor NrmDegree 1 CLO 57.41 29 MAHARI 5.56 2 NDMA 38.89 30 NEMA 5.56 3 ASDSP 37.04 31 ENSDA 5.56 4 LTA 31.48 32 LoitaDev 5.56 5 KWS 31.48 33 KARI 5.56 6 WRMA 24.07 34 MoH 5.56 7 WEF 22.22 35 MoEd 5.56 8 Livestockgroups 20.37 36 NCGSH 5.56 9 NPC 18.52 37 ALLPRO 3.70 10 Pastoralists 16.67 38 TMZ 3.70 11 CMDRR 12.96 39 MoW 3.70 12 CAO 12.96 40 EAMC 3.70 13 NACODEP 11.11 41 UNEP 3.70 14 SDO 11.11 42 WRUA 3.70 15 MaasaiUniv 11.11 43 ACC 3.70 16 KCWA 11.11 44 SokoFauna 3.70 17 SNV 9.26 45 RedCross 1.85 18 WWF 9.26 46 WoCon 1.85 19 SLM 9.26 47 GerAgro 1.85 20 KeyianSahiwal 9.26 48 Olchani 1.85 21 YEDF 9.26 49 VSF 1.85 22 DMS 7.41 50 KeeTr 1.85 23 NtuSH 7.41 51 ADB-ASAL 1.85 24 OloSH 7.41 52 CDF 1.85 25 AWF 7.41 53 CatholicDiocese 1.85 26 CFO 7.41 54 ACK 1.85 27 MoICP 7.41 55 MagadiSoda 1.85 28 WoVis 5.56

40 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Appendix 4: Structural holes and brokerage values for pastoralism actors

No Actor Ego Betweenness Actor Brokerage potential 1 CLO 646 CLO 820 2 NDMA 295 NDMA 362 3 ASDSP 196 ASDSP 310 4 KWS 169 KWS 224 5 LTA 136 LTA 215 6 WRMA 115 WRMA 136 7 WEF 114 WEF 107 8 Livestockgroups 61 Livestockgroups 80 9 NPC 26 NPC 53 10 CMDRR 23 Pastoralists 44 11 CAO 23 CAO 30 12 Pastoralists 20 CMDRR 27 13 SDO 19 SDO 16 14 MaasaiUniv 10 MaasaiUniv 16 15 MoICP 10 KCWA 16 16 SNV 8 MoICP 10 17 KCWA 8 YEDF 9 18 YEDF 8 SNV 8 19 KARI 6 WWF 8 20 CFO 6 SLM 7 21 WWF 5 KARI 6 22 NEMA 4 CFO 6 23 AWF 4 KeyianSahiwal 5 24 MoH 4 NEMA 4 25 MoEd 4 NACODEP 4 26 SLM 4 AWF 4 27 KeyianSahiwal 3 MoH 4 28 MoW 2 MoEd 4 29 UNEP 2 DMS 2 30 ACC 2 NtuSH 2 31 SokoFauna 2 OloSH 2 32 NACODEP 1 LoitaDev 2 33 LoitaDev 1 MoW 2

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 41

No Actor Ego Betweenness Actor Brokerage potential 34 DMS 1 UNEP 2 35 NtuSH 1 ACC 2 36 OloSH 1 SokoFauna 2 WoVis,RedCross, WoVis, RedCross, WoCon, GerAgro, WoCon, WRUA GerAgro, MAHARI, Olchani, MAHARI, Olchani,VSF, ALLPRO, VSF, KeeTr, ALLPRO, KeeTr, ADB- 37-55 0 ADB-ASAL, TMZ, 0 ASAL, TMZ, ENSDA, ENSDA, CDF, ACK, CDF, CatholicDiocese, ACK, CatholicDiocese, EAMC, EAMC, NCGSH, NCGSH, MagadiSoda, MagadiSoda, WRUA

42 Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya

Deconstructing a pastoralists’ network to evaluate climate adaptation in the sector: A case study of Narok, Kenya 43

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Research for climate-resilient futures

This work was carried out under the Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA), with financial support from the UK Government’s Department for International Development (DfID) and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada. The views expressed in this work are those of the creators and do not necessarily represent those of DfID and IDRC or its Board of Governors.

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