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Embodiment and Situated Learning (HS-IKI-MD-04-006) Jana Rambusch ([email protected])

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Embodiment and Situated Learning (HS-IKI-MD-04-006) Jana Rambusch (A00janra@Student.His.Se) Embodiment and situated learning (HS-IKI-MD-04-006) Jana Rambusch ([email protected]) School of Humanities and Informatics University of Sk¨ovde, Box 408 S-54128 Sk¨ovde, SWEDEN Master’s dissertation, spring 2004. Supervisors: Tom Ziemke, Tarja Susi Submitted by Jana Rambusch to the University of Sk¨ovde as a dissertation towards the degree of M.Sc. by examination at the School of Humanities and Informatics. [2004-09-30] I certify that all material in this dissertation, which is not my own work, has been identified and that no material is included for which a degree has already been conferred upon me. .................................................................................. Abstract Cognition has for a long time been viewed as a process that can be de- scribed in terms of computational symbol manipulation, i.e. a process that takes place inside people’s heads and is largely unaffected by contextual as- pects. In recent years, however, there has been a considerable change in the way researchers look at and study human cognition. These changes also have far-reaching implications for education and educational research. Situated learning is a theoretical framework in which sociocultural aspects of cognition and learning are strongly emphasised, that is, the context in which learning takes place is an important part of learning activity. The concept of activity is central to situated learning theories, but activity has been considered an exclusively sociocultural process in which the body only plays a minor role. In embodied cognition research, on the other hand, there is an increasing aware- ness that mind and body are inextricably intertwined and cannot be viewed in isolation. Findings in cognitive neuroscience provide additional evidence that cognition is tightly linked to perception and action. The aim of this thesis has been to investigate the role of the body in situated learning activity by inte- grating these different perspectives on cognition and learning. The analysis suggests that, like individual human conceptualization and thought, situated learning is in fact deeply rooted in bodily activity. In social interactions the body provides individuals with a similar perspective on the world, it functions as a means of signalling to others what cannot (yet) be expressed verbally, and it serves as a resonance mechanism in the understanding of others. Keywords: Situated learning, Embodiment, Visuomotor neurons, Activity Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1Situatedcognitionandsituatedlearning................ 1 1.2Theissueofembodimentinsituatedlearning.............. 3 1.3Aimandobjectives............................ 3 2 Situated learning in a historical context 5 2.1Situatedlearninganditsorigins..................... 5 2.2Whysituatedlearning?.......................... 7 2.2.1 Alternativeapproaches...................... 7 2.2.2 Acomparisontosituatedlearningtheories........... 10 2.3Vygotskiantraditionsinsituatedlearning............... 12 2.3.1 Historicalbackground...................... 12 2.3.2 Highermentalprocesses,mediationandtools......... 14 2.3.3 Theconceptofactivity...................... 17 2.4Fromactiontothought.......................... 19 2.4.1 Mentalactionisrootedinmaterialaction........... 20 2.4.2 Anembodimentpointofview?................. 22 3 Perspectives on situated learning 23 3.1Apprenticeship,practiceandparticipation............... 24 3.1.1 Differentviewsonlearningandactivity............. 26 3.1.2 Themeaningofcontext..................... 28 3.2Situatedlearningandembodiment................... 31 4 Embodied cognition and learning 34 4.1Embodiedcognition–definition(s)andtrends............. 35 4.2Thesocialdimensionofembodiedcognitionandlearning....... 40 4.2.1 Fourtypesofsocialembodimenteffects............. 41 4.2.2 Simulationofsensorimotoractivity............... 43 4.3Tooluse–Aperception-actionapproach................ 47 4.4Theneuralbasisofsocialactivityandobjectmanipulation...... 49 4.4.1 Canonicalneurons........................ 50 4.4.2 Mirrorneurons.......................... 51 4.5Gesturesasembodiedactivityinlearning................ 53 5 Discussion and conclusions 57 5.1Situatedlearningandembodiedcognition............... 57 5.1.1 Commonalities.......................... 59 5.1.2 Differences............................. 60 5.2 A possible link between situated learning and embodied cognition . 61 5.3Thebody’sroleinsituatedlearningactivity.............. 62 5.4Openquestions.............................. 64 References 66 i 1 Introduction For quite a long time, cognition has been believed to be the product of internal (indi- vidual) processes, comparable to the symbol-manipulating processes of a computer (e.g. Pylyshyn, 1990). Accordingly, the focus in cognitive science has largely been on information and its mental representation and processing, thereby often reducing an agent’s interaction with the surrounding environment to nothing but a set of interactions between external stimuli, mediating internal (symbolic) knowledge, and behavioural responses. In recent years, however, there has been a shift within parts of the cognitive science community, leading to approaches and perspectives where in particular the interaction between agents and their environment is in focus (e.g. Hutchins, 1995; Wertsch, 1993). Drawing attention from the individual to individ- uals acting in a sociocultural context, much research indicates that the cognitive processes of human beings cannot be understood without taking into consideration the social and situated nature of human cognition. Wertsch (1993), for example, pointed out that cognition is not only the result of an interaction between individ- uals but also is determined by a society’s norms, principles, and knowledge. The importance of social aspects has also been recognised by other researchers; Levine and Resnick (1993), for example, argued that the human mind always must be seen in terms of social interactions, including representations of other people, different kinds of tool use, and other cultural aspects. But not only the individualistic perspective has been questioned; many researchers are also opposed to dualistic and functionalist viewpoints, which in different ways presuppose the separation (non-relatedness) of mind and body. Going beyond this perspective, it has been argued that body and mind cannot be separated, since they strongly affect and depend on each other (e.g. Clark, 1997; Hutchins, 1995; Varela, Thompson & Rosch, 1991). However, within the cognitive science community there is a vivid discussion about what it really means to be embodied and exactly what the implications for cognitive processes are (e.g. Chrisley & Ziemke, 2002; Wilson, 2003); the emphasis lies often on different aspects, thereby providing different perspectives on the phenomenon of embodiment. Despite these differences, many researchers do agree that the body itself has an important impact on the way people think and act. A growing number of studies indicates, for example, that our language is deeply af- fected by (rooted in) everyday bodily experience (e.g. Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1999; Roth, 2000, in press; Rizzolatti & Arbib, 1998). 1.1 Situated cognition and situated learning The origins of situated approaches in cognitive science can be traced back to at least the 1930s and the work of scientists such as Dewey (1938/63), Mills (1940), and Vy- gotsky (1932/78). Back then, behaviourism, introspection, and reflexology were widely accepted approaches and dominated psychological research. By taking cul- tural and social aspects into account, these theories went far beyond the boundaries 1 1 Introduction of behaviourism and reflexology.1 Rather than explaining behaviour and cognition in terms of stimuli and responses, these scientists highlighted the social and cultural nature of human cognition. Vygotsky (1932/78), for example, considered cognition a result of social processes in which the mediation of different kinds of tools and artefacts plays a central role. However, for a combination of reasons, these ideas did not attract many scientists back then, resulting in a long period in which social and cultural aspects of human cognition were either ignored or actively dismissed, not least in cognitive science which from its inception in the 1950s focused on cognition within the individual. First many years later, in the 1980s, these ideas were re- discovered and brought back to life, e.g. by Suchman (1987), as an alternative to the cognitivist information-processing approach. Today, there is an increasing awareness of the situated and cultural nature of human cognition in different scientific fields of cognitive science. Theories of situated cognition, in a nutshell, are largely based on the idea that human thought and action are situated, in the sense that “what people perceive,howtheyconceive of their activity,andwhattheyphysically do, develop together” (Clancey, 1997; p. 1, original emphasis). The sharp distinction between different kinds of knowledge (explicit vs. tacit) is being questioned, e.g. by Clancey who argued that “thinking is a physical skill like riding a bike” (ibid.,p.2). The paradigm shift from cognitivism to situated cognition also has important im- plications for the research area of education. Traditionally, knowledge and learning have been viewed as something that is developed and experienced in a stable, objec- tive world. Context and activities have, therefore, been believed to be neutral with respect to what is learned (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). Traditional education has
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