Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Application of the WHO Household Energy Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART)

Opportunities for transition to clean household energy in Kenya Application of the WHO Household Energy Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART)

ENYA

Gladys Ngeno Nickson Otieno Karin Troncoso KRufus Edwards KENYA Opportunities for transition to clean household energy in Kenya Application of the WHO Household Energy Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART)

ENYA

Gladys Ngeno Nickson Otieno Karin Troncoso KRufus Edwards Opportunities for transition to clean household energy: application of the Household Energy Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART) in Kenya/ Gladys Ngeno, Nickson Otieno, Karin Troncoso, Rufus Edwards.

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Cover photo: Bartosz Hadyniak Photographer / Getty Images Contents 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Preface Acknowledgements Abbreviations andacronyms References Conclusions Introduction

5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 3.2 2.4 2.3 Infrastructure 2.2 3.1 2.1 Annex 3. Current householdfueluse Annex 2. Annex 1. Stakeholder organizations Discussions andrecommendations Social interventions Household energy use Health sectordata Country context �� Women’s groups Housing programmes Youth empowerment programmes Social welfare programmes Safety ofhouseholdenergy Energy usedfor heating Energy usedfor lighting Energy usedfor cooking Health sectorpoliciesandprogrammes toaddress airpollution Energy production andconsumption Demographic andeconomic data Burden ofdisease Geographical data . MinistryofHealth vaccination andnutritionprogrammes �� 42 38 32 30 29 20 18 13 19 18 18 18 16 16 14 13 11 vi iv 8 2 1 8 6 4 2 2 v iii iv Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya WASH KES HEART HAP GIZ GDP acronyms Abbreviations and

water, sanitationandhygiene Kenyan shilling Household Energy AssessmentRapid Tool household airpollution German Corporation for InternationalCooperation gross domesticproduct WHO, Department of Public Health, Environmental Rohani andJessica Lewis(Technical Officers), Health. The report was reviewed by Heather Adair- Kenya andLolemLokolile Bosco attheMinistryof from Solomon Nzioka atthe WHO CountryOffice for Troncoso and Rufus Edwards, with significant input comprising Gladys Ngeno, Nickson Otieno, Karin This report was prepared by ateamofconsultants Acknowledgements Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART). countries by application oftheHouseholdEnergy for transition tocleanhouseholdenergy in for fundingtheproject toidentifyopportunities WHO isgrateful toBloomberg Philanthropies by JonathanMingleandElisabethHeseltine. Switzerland. Editorialassistance was provided and Social Determinants of Health, Geneva,

v vi Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya cancer, aswell asseriousinjuriesfrom scalding, respiratory illness, cardiovascular diseasesand deaths annually among children andadults from cookstoves causes almost4million premature cooking and heating. Widespread use of polluting burnt ininefficient, highly polluting stoves for animal dung, charcoal, crop wastes andcoal) income countries, still rely onsolidfuels(wood, 3 billion people, mainly inlow- andmiddle- global environmental health risks today. Almost fuel combustion isoneofthemostimportant Household air pollution (HAP) from inefficient Preface 1 policies and programmes on household energy relevant stakeholders, andmapoutacountry's Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART), toidentify WHO has developed a tool, the Household Energy In support of the implementation of the guidelines, benefits from thecleanenergy transition. environmental andotherissuestoensure health and specialistsworkingonenergy, health, technical recommendations for policy-makers household fuel combustion (2014) provide The WHO guidelinesfor indoor air quality: burns andpoisoning. https://www.who.int/airpollution/data/HAP_BoD_results_May2018_final.pdf?ua=1 1

global workonmappingdiseaseincidence nor identify nationalenergy priorities, nationaland the detailedeconomic evaluations required to The rapid assessments do not take the place of accelerate atransition tocleanhouseholdenergy. opportunities for the public health sector to country-specific barriers toimplementationand shared responsibilities andcoordinated actions, on theimpactsofhouseholdenergy interventions, impacts andtostimulateaninformed dialogue on householdenergy useanditspublichealth It isusedtogatherandsynthesizeinformation to address access to clean energy technologies. situational assessmentsofcountries’ readiness pilot-tested as aguide to conducting rapid and/or related health impacts. The toolisbeing presents theresults obtainedwithHEART inKenya. support intersectoral cooperation. This report identify key stakeholders andwill ultimately current householdenergy andhealth situation, health. They do provide a broad overview of the implementing majorsocialinterventions inpublic the socialandpolitical considerations required in vii 1 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Introduction 1 as improved biomassstoves) wouldbecounterproductive. clean technologiesisfeasible, andpromotion ofslightly improved transitional technologies(such energy iscompetitive withthatofsolidfuelsandkerosene. Intheseareas, adirect transition to in whichfuelispurchased, especially urbanandperi-urbanareas, thecost ofcleanhousehold A transition to clean fuelsin Kenya will require workin several areas. In many parts of the country welfare programmes andpublic–private partnerships for scaling up. assured product quality, enablingpolicy and regulatory environments, coordination with social messaging andmarket development; financingmechanisms for bothend-users anddistributors, are nevertheless somecommon factors ineffective efforts:large-scale initiatives withtargeted options targeted to different sociocultural environments is likely to have wider acceptance. There There isno“onesizefitsall” approach tosuccessful cleanhouseholdenergy initiatives. Asuiteof energy for all. information and raise nationwide awareness about clean fuels, will help to achieve cleanhousehold Targeted funding committed by donors and from public finance, especially to develop common based onthemarket. populations, theelderly, children andwomenwill increase penetration by approaches thatare not Using cleanhouseholdenergy toaccelerate achievement ofsocialwelfare targets for low-income and broader development goals will allow all stakeholders to make consistent, systematic priorities. trade-offs amonguniversal access to health care, mitigation ofclimatechange, access toenergy policy modelling and estimatesofdiseaseburden. Inaddition, robust evidence on thesynergies and policy-makers. More research fundingfrom theKenyan Government will make itpossibletoimprove Better local evidence onthebenefitsofcleanhouseholdenergy will engendergreater supportfrom wider uptake ofcleancooking fuels. successful market development andlarge-scale penetration ofsolarhome products may result in kerosene, hasbeenmore difficult. Adaptationoffinancialmodels and usinglessonslearnt from fuels; however, changing the demand for cooking fuels, which are typically firewood, charcoal and alone systems) is likely to result in the transition of most Kenyan households to clean lighting Rapid progress ingriddensification anddistributedelectricitysolutions(mini-grids andstand- penetration atscale. expansion of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) networks will provide opportunities to increase market 2020. County-level actionplanswill alsobeimportantinincreasing access toclean fuels. Proposed (SE4All) Action Plan(1), whichsetsanambitioustarget for universal access tomodernenergy by weak interagency cooperation are barriers tooperationalizing theKenya SustainableEnergy for All and hygiene (WASH)), topromote anddeliver cleanenergy. Currently, overlapping mandatesand on internationally recognized priorities(similartointernationalcoordination onwater, sanitation A nationalstrategy shouldbeprepared, coordinated by interministerialpartnerships andbased to refute suchbeliefsisavailable locally, itisnotwidely disseminated. alternatives) remain asignificant barriertowideruptake ofclean cooking fuels. Although information myths about the ﬂavour of food cooked on traditional stoves and the relative safety and cost of clean dialogue andbuildingsuccessful markets for cleancooking fuels. Cultural perceptions (including Media campaigns todispelmyths aboutcleanfuels are animportantmeansfor changingthenational Country context 2.1 2 to be45.56million, upfrom 38.6million reported The populationattheend of2014was estimated Source: + irradiation is≤2400kWh/m²peryear. Infavourable(Fig. 1). regions, globalhorizontal covering an area ofapproximately 582 646 km from latitudes 4° N to 4° S and longitudes 34–41° E, Kenya islocated across theequator, stretching 2.2 2.2.1. + Geographical data Fig. 1. Kenya Meteorological Department

Demographic andeconomic data Population distribution Topological mapof Kenya 2

areas (Table 1). The agedistributiondiffers inrural andurban in thePopulation andHousingCensusin2009(2). ( © 2016 The World Bank. Solarresource data:Solargis + https://solargis.com/maps-and-gis-data/download/kenya + Fig. 2. Globalhorizontal irradiation, Kenya ).

Geographical data 2 3 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya in rural areas, cleanhouseholdenergy should large populationofchildren andelderly people access tocleanhouseholdenergy. Inviewofthe account thecentral role ofyouth inaccelerating Kenya’s national strategic plans should take into and 60%ofthelabourforce are aged18–35 years, As 78% of its population is under 35 years of age, Source: . of the income distribution live in rural areas (6). (Fig. 4). Thus, 90%ofKenyans in the bottom40% due tothedisproportionate poverty inrural areas clean household energy. Most of the disparity is in wealth, whichcomplicate theintroduction of over 47counties withsignificant differences 47.7% (6). Kenya’s populationisdispersed The estimatedwealth disparityin2016was publications/ Source: + 27% of its population live in urban areas (3). Kenya has an urbanization rate of 4.3%, and about vulnerability reduction inrural areas. be seen as essential for social protection and 2.2.2. National Urban Rural Population

+ Percent . Fig. 3. Table 1. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2009 Compiledfrom Kenya EconomicSurveys 2010–2017, Kenya NationalBureau ofStatistics( reference 2.

Urbanization Growth in gross domesticproduct, Kenya, 2009–2016 3,3 ). Population distributionby agerange, Kenya, 2009 2010 8,4 2011 0–14 43.0 36.5 46.1 6,1 2012 4,5 2013 35.0 42.4 31.8 15–34 5,9 Kenya isoneofthelargest economies insub- billion andaGDPgrowth rate of5.8%(Fig. 3), With agross domesticproduct (GDP)ofUS$61 households live inslums(4). over twomillion units, andnearly 61%ofurban The accumulated housing deficitisestimatedat rural areas spend≥7200KESonelectricity (7). Almost 10timesmore peoplein urban thanin electricity coverage (51%)thanrural areas (5%). (2.2% coverage). Urban areas have 10 times more those in Tana River (2.4%coverage) and Turkana more likely tohave electricityfor lightingthan for lighting. AhouseholdinNairobi is36times Only 23%ofhouseholdsinKenya useelectricity 2030, thenationaldevelopment blueprint(5). essential for theachievement ofKenya’s Vision reliable, goodquality, safe, sustainableenergy is country status(4). Access tocompetitively priced, Saharan Africa; in2015, itachieved middle-income 2.2.3. 2014 Age (years) (%) 5,4

GDP growth 2015 53.4 61.3 49.8 15–64 5,7 2016 5,8 https://www.knbs.or.ke/ 3.5 2.2 4.1 ≥ 65 Source: the past 6 years, the number of customers (both about 50% in 2016, with grid densification. During electrification, from 23% coverage in2009to Kenya has made impressive progress in . “last-mile” distribution. In 2013, Kenya had a total barrier, especially inremote places, whichlimits The condition of the roads in Kenya is a real Source: + 2.3.1. 2.3 2.3.2. Highest Total Unpaved Paved Second Lowest Fourth Middle . + Table 2. Fig. 4. reference 9. reference 8.

Electricity Roads Infrastructure 0% Urbanandrural populationsinKenya, by wealth quintile Conditionofrural roads inKenya, 2013 42 950 41 047 1 903 km 20% Good 1.73 % 39.00 37.27 Percentage ofpopulation 40% 56 802 55 613 1 189 km 60% Fair 36.00 35.25 0.75 % connectivity rate of 1 million customers per year. years, starting in2016, the Government target isa with bothgridandoff-grid solutions. Inthe next 5 doubled eachyear, andthetarget for 2022is100%, 2013, the number of new connections has nearly increase of20%. Since financial year 2012– total and domestic) tripled, at an annual average (Table 2). road networkwas good, 36%fairand25%poor Board in2013(9)showed that39%oftherural the road networkundertaken by theKenya Roads 90% were unpaved. A survey of the condition of rural road networkof136374.92km, of which 80% 37 947 37 075 872 km 100% Poor 25.00 24.43 0.57 % Urban Rural 136 375 132 411 3 964 km Total 100.00 90.09 9.91 %

Infrastructure 4 5 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya • • • • however, by uneven connectivity (7): The increased electrification is characterized, change campaigns. conducting consumer awareness andbehaviour use ofcleanhouseholdenergy technologiesand you go”for financing, monitoringadoptionand presents opportunitiesfor scaling up“pay as The robust communication infrastructure a Source: . counties andisresponsible for regulating the provides supportandtechnical guidance tothe county governments. The MinistryofHealth Government andtheMinistryofHealth tothe health services was changedfrom thenational In 2013, administration ofprimaryandsecondary 2.3.3. Internet penetration (%) No. ofdatausers Population covered by digitalsignal(%) No. ofFMradio stations Number offree-to-air television channels No. ofdataandInternetsubscriptions No. ofregistered mobilephonemoney agents No. ofmobilephonemoney subscriptions Mobile phonepenetration (%) No. ofmobilephonesubscriptions international standards. The Authority isreviewing themethodfor estimatingInternetpenetration inlinewithcurrent market developments and Calculated asthetotalno. ofdata users (about51million) asapercentage ofthenationalpopulationabout45million. substitutes suchaskerosene lamps. small diesel-fired generators orelectricity on isolatedgridsmainly fuelled by fossil fuels, Regions notcovered by thenationalgrid rely density ishighest. in thecentral corridor, where thepopulation Kenya’s gridisconcentrated almostexclusively Lamu, Tana River, Isiolo, GarissaandSamburu. off-grid: Marsabit, Turkana, Mandera, Wajir, Nine ofthe47counties are considered tobe consumption ofelectricity. of access to a power supply and50%ofthe for 25%ofthenationalpopulationbut50% The populationlivingintheNairobi area accounts . Table 3. reference 12.

Health services Useofinformation andcommunication technology, Kenya, 2017–2018 112.7 51 100000 83.6 178 62 30 891000 184 537 28 192000 90.4 41 028000 by 90.4%of thepopulation(41028000)(12), 4.1% ofaddedvalue. Mobilephonesare used a large role intheservices sector, contributing Information andcommunication technologyplays by thenationalGovernment. administered by county governments and tier 6 which are tertiaryreferral facilities. Tiers 1–5are referral facilities;andtier6isnationalhospitals, tier 5 are county hospitals, which a secondary hospitals, which are the primary referral facilities; dispensaries; 3ishealth centres; 4issub-county with six tiers (11): tier 1 is the community; 2 is (10). Kenya’s health care system ishierarchical, the Kenya Health SectorStrategic Plan 2013–2017 provide health services. The Ministry is guided by health sectorandensuringthatthecounties informal settlements. Boththenationalandcounty village and many schools (mostly private) in in Kenya, with an educational institution inevery Education is the best-distributed socialservice households andare asource ofemployment. provide extended access tofinance for rural payments reduce thecost ofmoney transfers, money subscriptions are rising (Table 3). Mobile and thenumbers ofInternetusers andmobile 2.3.4. 2.3.5. a

Communications Education https://www.iea.org/Sankey/#?c=Kenya&s=Final%20consumption IEA Sankey Diagram F Kenya INAL

CONSUMPTION Source: . Source: + (Fig. 5). The small share ofelectricityisduemainly are powered almostexclusively by biomass for 69%. Residential cooking, heating and lighting for 22%andrenewable energy (mainly biomass) total energy useinthecountry, petroleum products At present, electricity accounts for only 9% of the household energy. and could beused toaccelerate access toclean institutions are essentialfor raising awareness as partofeducation reform. Educational governments are improving the infrastructure 2.4 2016–2017 2011–2012 Year . + Table 4. Fig. 5.

(2016) reference 15. reference 14. Energy production andconsumption Fuelconsumptionby sector, Kenya, 2015 Electricitydemandandconsumption, 2012and 2017 10 115 7 670 (GWh) Energy generated 8 272 6 341 Energy sold(GWh) Millions oftonnesoilequivalent

in Table4. between 2011–2012 and 2016–2017 is shown 90% ofconnections. Growth inelectricityuse to total consumption, although they account for Only about 30% of domestic consumers contribute to low, uneven connectivity inthecountry (13). and installs efficientstoves inschoolkitchens. woodlots, increases awareness aboutenergy project, whichpromotes theestablishment of Electrification Authority andthe“green schools” school electrification programmes oftheRural Some ofthemainschoolenergy projects are the 1 656 1 236 Peak demand(MW) 6 182282 2 038625 No. ofconsumers 12/12/2018 11'21 Page 1sur 1

Energy production and consumption 6 7 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Credit: NigelBruce Envirofit stove  Health sectordata 3.1 3 Kenyan population in2016, andFig. 7 illustrates according to environmental risk factors for the Fig. 6 shows thedisability-adjusted life years lost Source: . by nearly athird, intheperiod2003–2012, andthe services. The childmortalityrate fell significantly, the pastfew decades, withincreased useofhealth Several health outcomes have beenimproved in to road accidents alongmajorhighways (9). contributor tothe burden ofdisease, duemainly in sedentarybehaviour. Injuriesare thethird consumption offastfoods andanincrease the growing middleclass, urbanization, rising increasing rapidly. This isattributedmainly to such ascancers andcardiovascular diseasesis the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases infections, malaria and tuberculosis; however, communicable diseases such as AIDS, respiratory Kenya’s burden ofdiseasehasbeenduemainly to Others Hypertension Typhoid Accidents infection Urinary tract Rheumatism Pneumonia Skin diseases respiratory system Diseases of Cause . Burden ofdisease Table 5. reference 19. Maincausesofmorbidity, Kenya, 2010–2014 2 2 2 3 7 27 total (%) 2011 Percent of 27 1 2 2 2 2 3 8 29 2012 (%) 26 1 2 the maincause ofill health inthecountry (18). that, by 2027, noncommunicable diseaseswill be to 50%ofinpatientmortality(16). Itisprojected of hospitaladmissionsandare responsible for up noncommunicable diseasesaccount for 50–70% however, hospitaldatasuggestthat perinatal conditions continue topredominate; Communicable diseasesandmaternal 68% (16). by 10%between2003and2008, from 57% to of children whowere fully vaccinated increased reduced duringthepastdecade (16). The number burden ofmajorcommunicable diseaseshasbeen age group. the numbers of deaths due to those factors by Kenya between2010and2014. Table 5 shows the main causes ofmorbidity in 34 1 2 2 3 2 3 10 40 2013 (%) 39 2 2 3 3 3 4 11 42 2014 (%)

Burden of disease 8 9 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya environmental Source: factors, Kenya, 2016 + Occupational Air pollution + Fig. 6. reference 20. WASH Other risks risks Disability-adjusted life years (per100, 000population)lostdueto environmental risk 0 500 1000 1500 DALYs per100,000population 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 other commoninfectiousdiseases Diarrhea, lowerrespiratory,and Neoplasms Cardiovascular diseases Chronic respiratorydiseases Mental disorders endocrine diseases Diabetes, urogenital,blood,and Musculoskeletal disorders Transport injuries Unintentional injuries Other non-communicablediseases 5000 and kitchenhelpers ininstitutionsandsecondary open fires are used in built-in kitchens, cooks are womenandchildren inhouseholdswhich Kenyan hospitals(21). The main groups affected estimates show over a quarter ofall deaths in leading causes ofdeathinthecountry andsome household airpollution (HAP), are inthetopfive Acute respiratory infections, often caused by Source: Kenya, 2016 + Death rate per 100,000 population + Fig. 7. 10000 12000 14000 16000 2000 4000 6000 8000 reference 20. 0 Deathrate (per100,000 population)dueto environmental riskfactors by agegroup, over thepast9years. numbers of cases of upperrespiratory infections accidents. Pneumoniaaccounted for increasing which isfive timesthenationaldeathtoll from road causes 15140premature deathseachyear (17), studying (22). It has been estimated that HAP school studentswhousekerosene lampswhile Occupational risks Other environmentalrisks Air pollution WASH 10 Burden of disease 11 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya • • • responsibility oftheMinistryHealth to: environment. With respect toHAP, itisthe each citizentherighttolive inaclean, healthy Article 42 of the Kenyan Constitution gives • • and policies. into thecurrent revision ofstrategic documents HAP andhealth, although HAPisbeing integrated The MinistryofHealth hasnocurrent policyon organizations are listedinAnnex 1. Development Organisation (SNV). Stakeholder of Energy andPetroleum andtheNetherlands project andabiogasproject withthe Ministry include the World Bank Kenya off-grid solaraccess do notsignificantly reduce HAP (24). Otherprojects indicate, however, thattheimproved cookstoves Population Services Kenya. Preliminary studies the CleanCookstoves Association ofKenya and Corporation for InternationalCooperation (GIZ), development partners, including the German improved cooking stoves in14counties with effects ofHAPandisincreasing thesupply of The Kenyan Government recognizes thehealth • • address airpollution 3.2 Bill prohibits pollution ofwatercourses, soiland Part 9oftheEnvironmental Health andSanitation environmental health. revision, theissueofHAPisincludedunder factor targeted for containment. Inthethird 2013–2017 (10), listedHAPasthefifthrisk The second Health SectorStrategic Plan, of airpollution. ensure reporting in order to quantify the impact raise awareness aboutthedangers ofHAP;and as community strategies, HIV/AIDS and WASH; and itsconsequences intoprogrammes such integrate managementofexposure toHAP manage exposure toHAPanditsconsequences; build capacity at all levels of the health service to formulate policies, guidelinesandregulations; Health sectorpoliciesandprogrammes to • • high priority. and duringthefirst 2 years oflife shouldbe a The reduction ofexposure duringpregnancy incidence inthefirst sixdays oflife (seeFig. 7). lower respiratory infections, with the highest children attributabletoHAPare dominatedby adjusted life years in Kenya. Deaths among risk factor for premature death and disability- is thesecond mostprevalent environmental responsible for many diseases, andairpollution (25). Environmental andoccupational risks are assessed disease trends and ranks in 2016 The InstituteofHealth Metrics andEvaluation are summarizedinAnnex 2. which contribute to mitigating the effects of HAP, Programmes for vaccination andnutrition, assessments 3.2.1. The Plan includes an investment module, which diseases are linked topollution andlifestyle. Plan 2017–2020(18)statesthatmostofthese The Noncommunicable DiseasesStrategic the informal sector. include managementofHAPandhousingin issued AirQualityGuidelinesin2014, which The NationalEnvironment ManagementAuthority “Nuisance management”. approval, includesaspectsofHAPunder Sanitation Bill, submitted to Parliament for arrange for removal oflitter. The Environmental owners oroccupiers ofpremises orlandto defecation. Itfurtherestablishesadutyfor air andnoisepollution. Italsoprohibits open will address HAP.

Environmental health risk Wind wheelat Tsavo EastNationalPark, Kenya Credit: Gettyimages  12 Health sector policies and programmes to address air pollution 13 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Household energy use 4.1 4 Overall, 73%ofthepopulationlive inrural areas, households usecharcoal, LPGorkerosene (Fig. 8). fuel, withsomeuseofcharcoal; inurbanareas, households, firewood istheprincipal cooking Annex 3. Intheoverwhelming majorityofrural Current householdfueluseissummarizedin Source: + Source: + Crop residues Charcoal18% Urban Dung cake<1% Rural Electricity <1% + + Energy usedfor cooking Fig. 9. Fig. 8. Reference 8. reference 8. LPG 12% 0% Cookingfuelsusedinurbanandrural areas, Kenya Cookingfuelsusedinurban andrural areas, Kenya, 2014 1% 10% Kerosene 12% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% areas andinthewesternhalfofcountry. (Fig. 9). LPGhassomepenetration inurbanized 45% cook mainly withsolidfuelsorkerosene kerosene; whileofthe27%wholive inurbanareas, and 96%ofthemcook mainly withsolidfuelsor 70% Firewood 80% , 2014 23% 90% 100% Straw/shrubs/grass Wood Charcoal Kerosene LPG/biogas Electricity/Solar urban households(8). There iswidedisparityin in 23% of households nationally and in 51% of 84% inrural areas. Electricityisusedfor lighting Kenya (Fig. 11), accounting for 69%nationally and Kerosene isthemostcommon lightingfuelusedin home, 42%cook inaseparate building, and7% Survey (8), 50%ofhouseholdscook insidethe According to the 2014 Kenyan Demographic Health LPG, liquefiedpetroleum gas;HH, household Source: + 100 The draft NationalEnergy andPetroleum Policy initiatives musttransform thenationaldialogue. long-term impact, cleanhouseholdenergy over thepast17years. To ensure asubstantial, been amarginal changeinthemixofcooking fuels price volatility andfuelshortages(26). There has population useseveral fuelstoreduce theeffectof fuels asincomes rise, anestimated54%ofthe Despite a gradual trend towards cleaner modern 4.2 4.1.1. 20 40 60 80 + 0 Fig. 10. reference 1.

Energy usedfor lighting Cooking location 2013 Projected growth incleanhouseholdcookingenergy by 2030 37 46 54 9 2017 14 15 43 58 42 2020 48 65 35 15 18 2022 22 19 53 97 in policy. projections will require transformative shifts In viewofthepastrate ofchange, achievingthe fuels by 52.7%ofhouseholdsby 2022(Fig. 10). projects theuse ofimproved cookstoves withsolid (18.6% LPG)over thefollowing 5years. Italso households to cooking with clean non-solid fuels 2015 (27)setthetarget ofchanging22%Kenya’s River County(Fig. 12). lighting thanahousehold in Turkana or Tana is 36timesmore likely tohave electricity for electrification by county: a household in Nairobi live andsleep(28). Viwandani slumscook intheroom inwhichthey 90% ofhouseholdsinNairobi’s Korogocho and areas (77%)thaninrural areas (30%). More than cook withinthedwelling ismuchhigherinurban cook outdoors. The percentage ofhouseholdsthat 2027 31 26 58 89 11 2030 43 35 58 100 0 services (%) to moderncooking Total access solid fuels(%) Improved Cookstoves fuels non-solids(%) HH accesstoclean Electricity (%) Bioethanol (%) Biogas (%) LPG (%) cooking services(%) Access tounclean 14 Energy used for lighting 15 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya + Source: Source: + Tin lamp38%

+ Electricity Coverage + Fig. 12. Fig. 11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 reference 6. Nairobi reference 8. Mombabsa Electricitycoverage by county, Kenya, 2009 Kiambu Fuelusedfor lighting, Kenya, 2014 Kajiado Nakuru Uasin Gishu

Nyeri Gas lamp1%

Isiolo Other 1% Kisumu Laikipia Machakos Lamu Kiliﬁ Kirinyanga Garissa Taita Taveta

Embu Fuel wood4% Muranga Meru Solar 2% Kericho Kwale

County Nyandarua Baringo Lantern 30% Trans Nzoia

Tharaka Nithi Electricity 23%

Kisii Pressure lamp1% Marsabit Vihiga Elgeyo Marakwet Nandi Narok Samburu Nyamira Makueni Busia Kakemga Migori Kitui Bungoma Siaya Bomet Wajir Homa Bay West Pokot Mandera Tana River Turkana of observation, whichwas 10timeshigherthan burns of any severity was 27.9/1000 person–years 2006–2011, theoverall incidence of household 6000 households in the urban slum of Kibera in population-based disease surveillance studyin morbidity in these countries. In a prospective, more significantly thanpreviously thoughtto incidence suggests that such injuries contribute and middle-income countries (30), andthehigh Over ninety per cent of burn deaths occur in low- In addition, populationswithseparate kitchens heating, particularly duringtherainy seasons. Kenya, highlandpopulationsuseenergy for population’s requirement for space heatingin Although there is little information on the 4.4 4.3 Safety ofhouseholdenergy Energy usedfor heating Charging mobilephonesatvillagepower centre inKiangombe, aspartofproject toeliminate kerosene from homelightingby substitutingitwithLight EmittingDiode(LED)lanterns urban clusters inKiambuDistrict, Kenya (32). urban householdsinfour rural villages andfive reported household injuriesin200rural and230 (31). Burns andscalds represented 14.3%ofall of malesthesameage distribution(P<0.001) females aged≥5years oldwas 1.35timesthat than 5years (P<0.001). The rate ofburnsamong burns atrate 3.8timesthatofpeopleagedmore Asia. Children agedlessthan5years sustained in mostotherpublishedreports from Africa and carbon monoxide concentrations. tea (29), withassociatedrisks duetoelevated stoves towarm livingareas andtomake morning in highlandareas frequently alsousecharcoal Credit: SimonMaina/AFPGettyImages  16 Energy used for heating 17 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Beadwork by kerosene lamp Credit: NigelBruce  Social interventions 5.1 5 cooking techniquescould alsobeintegrated of appropriate chimneys andcabinets. Clean washing utensils)andthedesignconstruction projects, suchas WASH (water for cooking and would align clean household energy with other fuels and stoves. A national “clean kitchen” project cooking environment andnotjustchangingcooking Reducing HAP requires addressing theentire Possible initiatives include: integrated intoyouth empowerment programmes. to cleanhouseholdenergy shouldtherefore be productivity of this crucial labour force. Access to HAPwill affectthehealth andeconomic plan, as, inthelongterm, theeffectsof exposure a fagshipproject inits Vision 2030medium-term The Government hasmadeyouth empowerment of thepopulationisunder35years ofage(33). Government’s transformative agenda, as 78% Young people are at the epicentre of the case ofextreme weatherevents. Cleanhousehold in northernKenya receive cash assistance inthe transfers, andanadditional374806households 500 000 households regularly receive cash programme.the “hungersafety net” More than for theelderly, asanurbanfood subsidyand children, for peoplewithsevere disabilities, transfer programmes: for orphansandvulnerable harmonized framework for thefive main cash programme“safety net” toensure acoordinated, In 2013, theGovernment establishedanational 5.3 5.2 Social welfare programmes Housing programmes Youth empowerment programmes clean fuelsincash transfers. and the approaches that could be used to include household energy useinvulnerable households the welfare andresilience ofbeneficiaries, current the contribution ofhouseholdenergy toimproving A baselinestudyshouldbeconducted todetermine a meansofreducing poverty andvulnerability. which wouldpositioncleanhouseholdenergy as in thesevulnerable householdstocleanenergy, programme tochangethefuelusedfor cooking energy interventions could beintroduced intothe settlements wouldpromote goodpractice. kitchens inrural settingsandinformal urban guidelines and manuals for constructing modern commitment andempower each group. Design which woulddemonstrate theGovernment’s Government’s project tobuildone million houses, upgrading, police andmilitaryhousingthe into mass-housingprogrammes, suchasslum • • • design ofawareness campaigns aboutHAP. involving young peopleinthedevelopment and internship programme; and Enterprise Fund andtheproposed national empowerment programmes suchasthe Youth including clean household energy into economic sustainable energy” programme; for establishinga“youth empowerment for optimal engagement, to provide the basis energy) and the gaps and opportunities for led energy enterprises, training inhousehold to household energy (e.g. number ofyouth- a studyonyouth engagementinpromoting access 18 Social welfare programmes 19 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya loans andtheirpastsuccess infinancingother household itemsthrough group guarantees for infuence onbehaviour, theirabilitytoself-finance with women’sgroups inviewoftheirgrowing More emphasisshouldbeplaced onworking 5.4 Women’s groups households withlow purchasing power. payments toaccelerate adoptionofcleanfuelsby could beextended by bulkbuyingandinstallment products. The benefitsofeconomies ofscale Credit: AndrzejKubik /shutterstock A womancookingdinner. 

recommendations Discussions and 6 . communication, strengthening thesupply chain encompassing training, behaviour change and in Kenya. Anintegrated approach isneeded, to increase penetration ofcleanhouseholdenergy The barriers listedin Table 6shouldbeaddressed • • • iv. • • iii. • • • • ii. • • • i. Availability ofbiomass options, suchasLPG Inadequate knowledge andaccess tocleaner pollution Lack ofequipmentfor measuringhousehold polluting fuelsandtheirhealth effects No cost–benefit analyses ofusecleanand Barriers .

a goodquality clean stove andasub-standard one. Many users are unable totell thedifference between parts andrepairing services) Underdeveloped after-sales support(lackofspare real householdconditions performance ofimproved stoves andcleanfuelsin Data andknowledge deficitonadoptionandthe Quality assurance limitations: user-friendliness Overemphasis ontechnology, underemphasisonthe knowledge oncleancooking Gaps indisseminationofavailable technical A lackofcoordination andintegration across sectors rural areas Limited market players andstove builders inthe financing options Income variability ofend-users andlimitedstove expensive compared totraditional stoves High production costs make cleanstoves more Economic /Market barriers: time isundervalued, perceptions around food tastes) generations, woodfuelislargely gathered for free, fuels (cooking traditional recipes passedthrough Lifestyle changerequired tousecleanstoves and marketing Lack ofinvestment inlarge-scale consumer stoves. and donothighly value health impactsofimproved impacts associatedwithtraditional cooking practices, Consumers are largely unaware ofthenegative Behavioral (socio-cultural) barriers:

Table 6. Technological development andtransfer challenge: Barriersto uptake ofcleanhousehold energy inKenya Promote useofcleancooking stoves withcooking community level. Improve service delivery by theMinistryofHealth to Proposed solutions and maternityshelters. as schools, hospitals, militarycamps, refugee camps Clean fuels should be introduced in institutions such and India, shouldbeconsidered. the supply ofcleanhousehold fuels, suchasEthiopia The examples ofothercountries thathave increased Linda Mamainitiative. the elderly, theschool feeding programme andthe protection programmes such as cash transfers for HAP programmes shouldbeincorporated intosocial should bescaled up. professionals in the sector. Innovation programmes officers shouldbefacilitated, withnetworkingamong medical training colleges. The demand for publichealth environment, community health training centres and the curriculaofpublichealth officers, BScdegrees in by publichealth officers andtechnicians, andalso in HAP shouldbeincludedincurricula, withtraining illness. referral hospitals) to ensure reporting of HAP-related to collect datafrom tiers 1–5(community tonational The existing reporting system, DHIS2, shouldbeused and communication campaigns. Experienced partners should conduct behaviour change competitions, whichcould beextended totastetests. WASH, HIV/AIDSandschoolhealth). existing health programmes (such as those for and incorporating cleanhouseholdenergy into for clean fuels, research and development, 20 Women’s groups 21 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya was coordinated. Acoordinated strategic plan international, regional andnationalcommunication that became accepted (malaria, HIV, WASH), Communication: barriers andpoorqualityproducts. development, price, regulatory andinstitutional insufficient consumer awareness, littlemarket Kenya. The barriers includepoorcommunication, health, they are notyet widely adoptedorusedin Despite thebenefitsofcleanhouseholdfuels for Solar, demonstrate theimportance ofeffective such asLightingAfrica’s SongaMbelena level. Successful programmes in other sectors, are not sufficient to drive change at national and ShambaChefhave beenaired, butthese Kenya Pika Power’s naPawa Show, UpishiDigi periodic consumer education initiatives, suchas tests andawareness-raising. Several small, barrier thatshouldbeaddressed by taste on traditional fuelstastesbetterisamajor The widespread perception thatfood cooked that LPG posesrisks for burns and explosions. about cleancooking fuelsandchangeperceptions social mediashouldbeusedtodispelmyths Consumer awareness: could beusedtopromote cleanhouseholdenergy. such aspopstars andtelevisionpersonalities consumer preferences). Infuentialpersonalities intelligence onimproving thequalityofproducts, and market barriers) andentrepreneurs (market improve local evidence onitsbenefits, technology clean householdenergy for research fundingto financial assistance), academia (toprioritize overcome barriers topurchase, awareness of development goalsfor 2030), consumers (to energy for nationalclimate-resilient economic technical studiesonthebenefitsofcleanhousehold suitable channelsfor policy-makers (summarizing provide information inappropriate formats andby house for information on HAP. The strategy should could provide common messages and a clearing- Policy 2015. Anationalcommunication strategy with thedraft NationalEnergy andPetroleum transition tocleanhouseholdfuels, inalignment and county-level action plans could help in the energy 6.1 Barriers toadoptionofcleanhousehold For other programmes Television, radio and a useful benchmark only for technical audiences. and policy-makers, and WHO guidelinesprovide standards are poorly understood by consumers saving money andtimedurability. Technical should bebasedonconsumer priorities, including choice offuels. Therefore, marketing ofcleanfuels yet amajorfactorinmostKenyan households’ increases withage(34). Health benefitsare not importance placed onputtingfood onthetable educating themselves andtheirfamilies, andthe Overall, Kenyans place the most value on to meettheresulting demand. be purchased and ensuring adequate availability communication ofbenefits, where products can after having children (26). Perceptions about fuelsusing “dirty”fuelsand moved to“safer” technique, although some mothers have stopped consumers when they choose a fuel and cooking energy products. Health isnotapriorityfor to spread duringvisitsandcould distributeclean workers should be given materials and messages health extension service, and community health The Government hasawell-established community be priorities. to consumers andtheGovernment should and disseminationofeconomic comparisons kerosene for lighting. Better economic modelling and electricitysolarenergy are cheaperthan areas, LPG ischeaperthancharcoal for cooking, In many areas, especially urbanandperi-urban perception that cleanfuelsare tooexpensive. kerosene (35–37), there remains awidespread fuels iscompetitive withthoseofsolidfuelsand analyses have shown thatthecost ofclean the relative costs offuels. Although several Insufficient information is disseminated about household energy ischeaperthanotherfuels. Kenyans shouldbemadeaware thatclean design ofproducts toincrease useracceptance. Such considerations shouldbeincluded inthe consumers who take out loans to purchase them. the theftofsolarlightingproducts isaconcern for designed for different sectors. For example, Communication aboutcleanfuelsshouldbe to compensate clean energy entrepreneurs for are required, suchasresult-based financing, market for clean fuels. Competitive incentives remains abarriertodevelopment ofavibrant infrastructure and demographic characteristics, peri-urban households, largely duetopoor policies. The highcost ofsupplying rural and private partnerships andlackofGovernment quality assurance mechanisms, lackofpublic– capacity, lack of appropriate incentives, poor- communication, limitedinvestment, inadequate however, has lagged behind because of poor policies. The market for cleancooking fuels, private partnerships supportedby Government functional, efficient supply chains; and public– needs; effective marketing and awareness-raising; and financialmechanismstomeet consumers’ due to a number of factors: innovative technology adoption ofcleanlightingfuelsinKenya hasbeen Market development: limit thepropagation ofmyths. groups wouldensure consistent messagesand and faithorganizations. Coordination withthese are significantly infuenced by women’sgroups the costs andbenefitsofclean cooking fuels The rapid increase in cylinders are oftentooexpensive for low-income can afford the13-kg cylinder;however, the large cylinder pay 37%more perkilogram thanthosethat Households thatcan afford only thesmallest, 1-kg household investments. Cooking fuelstendtobealow priorityamong wider adoption ofclean household energy. on loans, longreimbursement) alsodiscourage by micro-finance institutions (e.g. highinterest spend. Unattractive assetfinance termsoffered as free, although they undervalue the time they residents oftenviewthefirewood they collect could change the perception of affordability. Rural smaller cylinders and pay-as-you-go options in many informal urbansettlements. Installments, kerosene are boughtregularly insmall quantities refills or lump-sum electricity bills. Charcoal and than cleanfuels, asthey cannot pay for LPG consumers tend to find polluting fuels cheaper barrier toadoptionofcleanfuels. Lower-income and ofinstalling anelectrical system isamajor Affordability: costs associatedwithextending operations. their initialinvestment, incremental costs and The high cost of LPG cylinders School children eatingameal Credit: Nickson Otieno  22 Barriers to adoption of clean household energy 23 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya to cleanfuels. transfers, could bescaled uptoincrease access distributing cleanenergy through socialcash inKilifiandGarissa the Poor” counties, whichis communities. UNICEF’s pilot initiative “Energy for to facilitateaccess by vulnerable andmarginalized leverage resources andcommunication strategies Coordination withsocialwelfare programmes may by Kenya inextending access toanduseofLPG. (26, 38–41), andtheirexperience could beused achieve nationaltransition toLPGamongthepoor Senegal and Viet Nam)have found itispossibleto income countries (India, Indonesia, Morocco, Peru, for them(38). Anumberoflow- andmiddle- despite the higher cost per unit presently charged households. Smaller cylinders improve access, will result inincreased availability ofwood for sustainablemanagementofforest resources national environmental concern, andstrategies wood-fuel andcharcoal production isagrowing on climate. The unsustainable use oftrees for use of LPG because of its perceived negative effect of wood and charcoal and discouragement of the opposed totheirhealth effects results inpromotion (42). The focus ontherenewability offuelsas scenario ofsubstitutingwoodfuelwithfossil fuel” to climatechangecompared withanalternative has thepotentialtoreduce Kenya’s contribution communities” and “Sustainable charcoal use is theonly viablesource ofenergy for local They also propogate the view that “firewood trees for fuelandlicensing charcoal producers. fuels, suchaspromoting useoffast-maturing and strategies to encourage use of polluting The barriers includecounterproductive policies policies. implementation of clean household energy and international agencies would improve public andprivate sectors andamongnational regional andnationalagencies, betweenthe coordination amongministries, between Regulatory andinstitutionalbarriers: Better not enforced in informal settlementsandrural and planningregulations, andbuildingcodes are the populationare unplanned andunregulated, Housing andsettlementsfor large segmentsof carbon trading. project managers and limitedunderstanding of impact on the banking sector and on clean energy Development Mechanism, hasaninadequate the designatednationalauthorityfor theClean The NationalEnvironment Authority, whichis shows otherwise. kerosene prices, theKenya Economic Survey (43) Government’s “kerosene free” policy has increased the perception among stakeholders that the power insteadofpoorhouseholds. Despite for LPGfavour consumers withhighpurchasing Some blanket incentives such as broad subsidies use ofbio‑energy. biomass from sustainablesources andefficient payments onstolenmerchandise. are notusedbecause consumers have tocontinue so that financial models toencourage wideraccess no attention to securing the systems from theft, With regard to solar products, there has been products wouldincrease consumer confidence. performance oftheseproducts. Warranties on because ofbadpublicityaboutthedurability and have prevented increased market penetration Imitation products andcheapimportedalternatives cooking household energy has been difficult. Quality: vehicle emissions. pollution from dustyunpaved roads and distribution ofcleanfuelsbutalsoincreases Poor transport infrastructure not only limits into housingprogrammes. cooling appliances andshouldbeincorporated ensure thermalcomfort withoutspace heatingor building projects promote bioclimaticdesignsthat is addressing the quality of housing. “Green” settings. The current slum upgrading programme Assuringthequalityoflightingand educational institutions might include organizing ways ofintegrating cleanhouseholdenergy into raise awareness in local communities. Innovative introduce local womencooks tocleanfuelsand use cleanenergy tolimitemissionsnearchildren, educational institutions that provide cooked meals with the Ministry of Education could ensure that health benefits of clean energy. Coordination practices ofmothers and advisethemonthe prenatal care could assessthehouseholdenergy to increase resilience todiseases. Providers of programmes could includecleanhouseholdenergy insecticide-treated nets, HIV and WASH Maternal andchildhealth, distributionof and vulnerability inKenya. clean energy for cooking andtoreduce poverty transition over 800000vulnerable householdsto programmewith thenational“safety net” (45)to Clean householdenergy could becoordinated electrification projects. the distributionofcleancooking fuelsaspartof Solar Access Project (44)could beusedtoinclude The modelandexperience oftheKenya Off-grid the goalofsustainableenergy for all by 2030. programme for increasing access toLPGmeet a priority, especially ifitiscoordinated withthe into large-scale electrification programmes is Integration ofcleanhouseholdcooking fuels HIV initiatives, would indicate regional priorities. priorities, as was obtained for malaria, WASH and steering group. Internationalconsensus on be coordinated by aninterministerialtechnical wide-scale introduction ofcleanenergy should approaches. Anevidence-based strategic planfor interministerial partnerships andcoordinated energy isacross-sectoral issuethatrequires better coordinated. Access tocleanhousehold The workofvarious stakeholders shouldbe established collaborations 6.2.1. clean fuels 6.2

Strategic partnerships with Opportunities for increasing access to with nationalclimate change initiatives would equivalent peryear in2030. Bettercoordination clean energy technologies will be>10MtofCO2 mitigation potentialofincreasing distributed Plan 2013–2017(46), itisestimatedthatthe pathway. IntheNationalClimateChangeAction to alow-carbon climate-resilient development Access tocleanenergy isrecognized asessential of parents associations. awareness ofcleanenergy atannualmeetings school sportsanddrama competitions andraising school kitchen projects, clean energy trophies in annual “cleanenergy awareness day”, clean Urban areas withfilling plants could beprioritized could be improved toincrease access toLPG. kerosene are widely used, distributionnetworks infrastructure. In counties in which charcoal and household income andthestrength ofthelocal Interventions would be based on accessibility, energy access andbroader development goals. trade-offs between climate change mitigation, evidence could begenerated onsynergies and environmental education programmes, andlocal Clean householdenergy could beintegrated into additional fundingfor access tocleanenergy. Climate Change. Carbon finance could provide the UnitedNationsFramework Convention on Kenya’s nationally determinedcontribution to to cleanhouseholdenergy shouldbepartof Health and Environment Framework. Access Change, Health andEnergy andtheproposed such asthe Technical Working Group onClimate and environment coordination mechanisms, Environment ininterministerialhealth, energy more active involvement oftheMinistry household energy. The Government could ensure significantly contribute tothetransition toclean access 6.2.2.

Interventions toincrease 24 Opportunities for increasing access to clean fuels 25 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya and improved combustion stoves withchimneys, schools andmarkets wouldprovide electricity, Mini-grids around communal facilitiessuch as would bethemainsource ofhouseholdlighting. and dispersed rural areas, solarhomesystems rising cost offirewood andcharcoal. Invillages awareness could beraised by emphasizingthe possibility of setting up distribution hubs. Consumer promoted asthemaincooking fuelaccording tothe lamps for secondary lighting. LPGshouldbe electrification andoff-gridmini-grids, withsolar power needswouldbemetby large-scale grid In rural towns, electricityfor lightingandother long run, through themassmedia. convenient, aspirational and economical in the raised by labelling cleanhouseholdenergy as possibilities. Consumer awareness should be should beavailable, withfexible payment secondary sources. Market-based approaches would be the main lighting fuel and solar devices and Kiambu counties. Grid-based electricity in Nairobi, Mombasa, Kajiado, Kisumu, Nakuru to increase access toLPGshouldbeconducted for full access. Initial large-scale interventions Demonstrating theuseofsolarcookers toawomen'sgroup technical andmarket development capacity. workers andbusinesspartners andbuilding by tailoring them to local needs, engaging local for long-termuptake ofthenewtechnologies of technologytransfer, creating thebestconditions The Government shouldfocus onthereceiving end livelihoods for young people andwomen. right, empowerment for womenandasource of and topresent cleanhouseholdenergy asa about food tasteandtraditional cooking methods television shouldbeusedtodispelperceptions fuels. Local opinionleaders, socialmediaand man’s fuel” shouldcreate anaspiration for modern charcoal andaperception poor thatwoodis “the about thediminishingsuppliesoffirewood and when householdincome peaks. Growing concern wood supply isunreliable, andatharvest time, be promoted e.g. during the rainy season, when the market purchases. Clean household energy should group financingandpay-as-you-go for direct Government socialwelfare programmes, social distribution through nongovernmental and Financing approaches could includesubsidized biogas andbioethanolwouldbeusedfor cooking. Credit: Nickson Otieno  could bestrengthened. support networks ofwomen’sandyouth groups duplication. The channelsofcommunication and mechanisms for community input, toavoid County governments shoulduseexisting intersectoral coordination ofHAPprogrammes. technical committees onHAPcould be set upfor unitattheCouncilofGovernors.air” Incounties, energy centres andestablisha“county clean governments andthenationalGovernment’s should alsoimprove coordination betweencounty health andenergy initiatives. The Government would include a unit mandated to coordinate and workinggroups, andtheSE4All secretariat synergy amongintersectoral technical committees would findamechanismtostrengthen andbuild identifying roles andresponsibilities. The group health inpreparing thenationalactionplan, working group on climate change, energy and The Government shouldsupportthetechnical on progress andevaluate theprogramme. monitor implementation, consolidate information problems thatrequire high-level intervention, according totechnical andpolicypriorities, resolve ministries, woulddefine theprogramme areas of Health, which, withtheco-implementing line coordination unitwouldbesetupintheMinistry investment. A clean household energy programme energy technologies and fuels, including for technical assistance andcapacity-building on Ministry ofEnergy andPetroleum for overseeing responsible for managingcarbon financingandthe and Natural Resources. The latterwouldbe and Petroleum andtheMinistryofEnvironment implemented jointly withtheMinistryofEnergy responsible for overall coordination oftheplan, each county. The Ministry ofHealth would be of initiatives andtimetablesappropriate to include market development, finance, coordination of cleanhouseholdenergy andreduce HAP should An evidence-based actionplantoincrease uptake 6.2.3.

A nationalHAPprogramme end-users, includingtheirwillingness toaccept economic dataonthepreferences andneedsof programmes tocollect technical, socialand of cleanenergy technologies andfuels;pilot partnership tooffsetthehigh cost ofdistribution to vulnerable households;astrong public–private subsidies from nationalutilitiesandsocialwelfare various sources, includinginternational funds, and ownership; aclearfundingstrategy basedon institutions andincentive schemesfor participation clean household energy that involves appropriate entail political commitment touniversal access to and helpnewbusinessestobegin. This will and fundingschemestofacilitateinvestment coherent, consistent strategies, policies, incentives role in encouraging the private sector, including The Government isadvisedtoplay acentral • • • • energy may include: mechanisms for acquisitionofcleanhousehold group andarrangements withavendor. Financial paying for cleanfuelsby saving withaninformal Consumers prefer payment ininstallments and in poor rural communities in remote areas. could offset the costs of transport and distribution interventions to rural areas. Cross-subsidies and subsidizedornongovernmental organization interventions mightbetargeted tourbanareas dependents inrural areas. Thus, market-based the workingpopulationinurbanareas andoftheir clean fuelsshouldbebasedontheconcentration of Financial mechanismstocatalyse theuptake of new technologiesandfuels. make cleanenergy affordable 6.2.4. consumers; for distributionofcleancooking fuelstopoor coordinated corporate socialresponsibility raising grants andcorporate fundingthrough clean householdenergy projects; optimizing climatefinance tofundsubsidized the qualityoftheirchildren’s education; investment tomeet goals suchas guaranteeing of clean energy products by marketing them as an encouraging consumer borrowing for purchase to assumerisks; loans orfundingmanufacturers anddistributors microfinance institutionstoofferinterest-free formal financial models, either funding

Financial mechanismsto 26 Opportunities for increasing access to clean fuels 27 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya enabling policyandregulatory environment. matched by Government contributions andan large investments by internationalorganizations well inKenya’s solarenergy sector, catalysed by through public–private partnerships has worked Long-term market andinfrastructure development additional product andanaspirational acquisition. be usedtodistributecleancooking stoves, asan distribution channels for solar home systems could The established market approaches and • • organizations will becrucial. The supportofdonors and international added tax, tofurtherreduce thecost toconsumers. could alsoexempt solar products from value- to guarantee prioritypurchase. The Government independent power producers for 20years and to enterintopower purchasing agreements with require theKenya Power andLightingCompany from renewable energy sources, whichwould include feed-in tariffs for electricitygenerated Government policytoencourage investment could and otherhealth care facilities. associations andkitchenremodelling inhospitals partnerships with hotel andrestaurant business educational andcustodialinstitutions, through could bebuilt onthebasisofpilotprojects in kitchens. Amarket for cleaninstitutionalstoves used tojustifyintroducing themintoinstitutional The cash savings from useofcleanfuelscould be technicians toprovide after-sales maintenance. of extension tounserved markets; andtraining meet theinitial, incremental andoperational costs as results-based finance anddebtfinancing to distribution networks; financing instruments such sales andmarketing strategies andproduct the market todevelop theirbusinessmodels, solar lights;services to help companies entering as consumers andas potential distributors of possible purchasers andtherole ofwomenboth Building avibrant market requires studies of poor populationstocleanenergy. cross-subsidization tosupporttransition of households; and by extending ittoperi-urbanandurban programmesupplementing the“safety net” discussions onenergy issues. of ward administrators toconvene community in clean household energy; and build thecapacity guide activities, hire newstaffandtrain all staff in theirdevelopment plans, conduct studiesto could includeaccess tocleanhouseholdenergy monitoring andevaluation. Countygovernments undertake sector studies, policy evaluation, ministries, provide technical assistance and management unitfor coordination withother establish a strategic planning and programme technologies. The Ministry of Health could training toentrepreneurs oncleanenergy demonstrations for consumers andsubsidized should supportenergy centres inorganizing The Ministry of Energy and Petroleum to strengthen the capacity of stakeholders. The Government should supportactivities targeted tourbanandperi-urbanconsumers. television messagesabout solarlightingproducts shows and by aChristmascampaign of printand products intelevision programmes andradio talk by including mention of quality-assured solar kerosene lamps. The massmediahave been used assured cleanlighting products over polluting The common messageistheadvantage ofquality- radio campaigns tobuildconsumer awareness. with road shows, product discussion forums and education campaigns have beenconducted, their cost andbenefits. Extensive consumer lighting products, where they can befound and understanding oftheoperation ofsafe off-grid Education of consumers should increase their and otherresearch institutions. coordinated workthatcould beusedby Government household energy wouldguidemultidisciplinary, policy research. Aplanfor research on clean strengthened toprovide relevant statisticsand Public Policy Research andAnalysis shouldbe National Bureau of Statistics and the Institute for advantages ofcleancooking. The capacity ofthe be conducted to obtain empirical evidence on the health burden. Multidisciplinary research should topics thatform thebasisofpolicyandreduce the Funding shouldbeprioritizedfor research on up-to-date equipmentfor monitoringairquality. Research institutionsshould be provided with 6.2.5.

Capacity-building of cleanhouseholdenergy options. Evidence of improve thequalityofevidence onthebenefits More local measurements anddataare required to post-doctorate fellowships inpolicythink-tanks. research into clean household energy and support Programmes shouldbesetuptofundfaculty Commission for Science and Technology. the NationalResearch Fund andtheNational be pursued withtheNationalInnovation Agency, for cleanhouseholdenergy, coordination should quality of coordinated research and innovation Kenya. To increase prioritizationandimprove the HAP isnotwell covered by research fundingin of theimpactonreducing theburden ofdisease. measures (e.g. improved stoves) by demonstrations of promoting cleanfuelsrather thanintermediate Policy-makers shouldunderstand theimportance of thetreatment costs andproductivity avoided. and justifytheirinvestment from thepointofview household energy policiesonhealth outcomes The Government could evaluate theimpactof base toin 6.2.6.

Strengthening theevidence f uence policy from thetrees saved tothecosts ofsustainedland environmental impactof“dirty”householdenergy, be provided on the costs avoided by reducing the and improves children’s education. Evidence should household energy reduces violence againstwomen protection, withevidence thataccess toclean social development, socialinclusionand Energy should be linked tothe political goals of may belostifcleanfuelsare notpromoted. creates employment opportunitiesandthatjobs that universal access tocleanhouseholdenergy and childdeaths. Evidence shouldbeprovided household energy to reduce maternal disease evidence is needed on the potential of clean provide a basis for evaluating policies. Empirical collected regularly, butthey could beextended to or consumption by householdtask. meters) andnothouseholds, thepopulationserved statistics apply only toactualconnections (i.e. to electricityshouldbeimproved, ascurrent degradation andreforestation. Dataonaccess health. Data on health and living conditions are for example, theministriesofbothfinance and “ownership” ofenergy access issuestoinclude, the associatedeconomic losseswouldbroaden A womancarryingabunchof woodinhervillage. Credit: NickFox/shutterstock  28 Opportunities for increasing access to clean fuels 29 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Conclusions 7 Working Group on Climate Change, Health and interministerial groups, suchasthe Technical Support shouldbeprovided for existing household energy infour areas. sustained useofcleanfuelsandtechnologiesfor The health sectorcould encourage adoptionand standards. Policies for programmes tointroduce all policies”approach andadoptionof WHO The Government could promote a “health-in- messages about clean household energy cooking shows, could beusedtocommunicate energy communication programmes, suchas sectors. For the general public, existing household pollution should be provided in the health and other Training in the health effects of household air scenarios could be modelled, and their health household airpollution. Householdenergy policy energy, thetypesofenergy usedandtheresulting be setuptodetermineall usesofhousehold A monitoringandevaluation programme could Framework. Acommittee could beestablished Energy, andtheproposed Health andEnvironment 7.4 7.3 7.2 7.1 Policy advocacy Communication andeducation Assessment, monitoring andevaluation Convening andcoordination given priority. health effectsofhouseholdairpollution are and recommendations madetoensure thatthe pollution. 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National Bureau ofStatistics; 2016. Central Bankof Kenya, FSDKenya, Kenya FinAccess Household Survey, 2015. Nairobi: economic-report kippra.or.ke/kippra-publications-2/#7-kenya- Policy Research andAnalysis; 2015( employment. Nairobi: Kenya Institute for Public youth through decent and productive Kenya economic report 2015:empowering Med J. 2000;77(5):240–4. survey ofinjuriesinaKenyan district. EAfr Nordberg E, Kimani V, Diwan V. Household 2000. public health priority. Burns. 2014;40(6):1194– populated urbansluminKenya: anemerging incidence of injuries from burns in a densely L, Ondari D, Yekta S, et al. Sustainedhigh Wong JM, Nyachieo DO, BenzekriNA, Cosmas World Health Organization; 2018. by Country and by Region, 2000-2016. Geneva, Estimates 2016: Deathsby Cause, Age, Sex, Fire andheatrelated burns:GlobalHealth Policy. 2002;30(10):815–26. energy technologiesinKenya. Energy health benefitsoftransitions inhousehold Ezzati M, KammenDM. Evaluating the Research Centre; 2014. Nairobi: African Population andHealth Surveillance System indicators 2003–2013. Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic August_2015.pdf docs/National_Energy_Petroleum_Policy_ 2015 ( 2015. Nairobi: Energy Regulatory Commission; Draft nationalenergy andpetroleum policy DC: GlobalAlliance for CleanCookstoves; 2014. – phase2final report (3.4MB). Washington IPSOS Ltd. Kenya consumer segmentation study org/kenya and Evaluation; 2016( Kenya. Seattle (WA): Institute for Health Metrics review. BMCPublicHealth. 2015;15:650. income countries: adescriptive systematic reduce householdairpollution inlow andmiddle N, Foster C. Improved stove interventions to Thomas E, Wickramasinghe K, Mendis S, Roberts http://www.erc.go.ke/images/ ). , accessed 18 December 2017). , accessed June2018). http://www.healthdata. http:// 39. 38. 37. 36. 35. 46. 45. 44. 43. 42. 41. 40.

on Development FinancingNo. 7). Frankfurt: climate, forests, andaffordability (Materials for developing countries: implications for petroleum gas as a clean cooking fuel Bruce N, Aunan K, Rehfuess E. Liquefied Global Alliance for CleanCookstoves; 2013. – Kenya market assessment. Washington DC: Dalberg GlobalDevelopment Advisors. GLPDG Institute; 2016. 2016-01). Stockholm:StockholmEnvironment solutions inMigoriCounty(SEI Working Paper planning inKenya: local participationandlocal Johnson O, Nyambane A. Countyenergy Organisation; 2014. 2014. Nairobi: NetherlandsDevelopment Kenya domestic biogasusersurvey National Bureau ofStatistics;2017. Central BankofKenya, FSDKenya, Kenya FinAccess HouseholdSurvey, 2016. Nairobi: and Natural Resources; 2013. 2017. Nairobi: MinistryoftheEnvironment National climatechange actionplan2013– safety-net-program components/social-assistance/national- www.socialprotection.or.ke/social-protection- Social Protection Secretariat; 2017 ( National Safety Net Program. Nairobi: National DC: The World BankGroup; 2017. project for underserved counties. Washington World Bank. Kenya: off-grid solaraccess Bureau ofStatistics;2017. Economic survey 2017. Nairobi: Kenya National programme-2016-2030/ com/download/kenya-national-forest- Association; 2016 ( 2030. Nairobi: Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Kenya NationalForest Programme 2016– International; 2012. assessment. Sectormapping. London:GVEP Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Kenya market Accelerating access toenergy: Global Alliance for CleanCookstoves; 2015. consumer finance report. Nairobi: Global finance models for clean cookstoves. Kenya Arc Finance. Study and mapping of consumer KfW Development Bank;2017 , accessed 9 February 2018). https://kwcakenya. , accessed June2018). https:// organizations Annex 1. Stakeholder A . Table A1.1. use ofcleanhouseholdenergy are listedin The Ministry’s programmes relevant to increasing Petroleum Ministry ofEnergy and Government agencies Energy standards LPG storage andbottlingfacilities LPG uptake promotion Last MileProject Kenya Off-gridSolar Access Project Programme orproject . Table A1.1. Policies andprogrammes related to householdenergy compact fuorescent lamps. products, includingfuorescent lamps, ballasts and appliances. The standards are applicable tosix the energy efficiencyofhouseholdandindustrial the Kenya Bureau ofStandards, should improve Regulations 2015, developed incollaboration with The MinimumEnergy Performance Standards Sagana latertoensure LPGataffordable prices. Nairobi initially andinEldoret, Nakuru, Kisumuand Construction ofLPGstorage andfilling facilitiesin income households. valves, burners andgrills, tobedistributedlow- domestic 6-kg LPGcylinders fittedwithunified country. The Ministryisprocuring 1.2million empty cylinder storage andrefilling plantsacross the income households, withconstruction ofmini-LPG The aimistoincrease penetration ofLPGinlow- installments intheirmonthly bills for 36months. at aone-off cost of15000KESorpayment in 2020 .Thepotentialcustomers will beconnected connectivity by 2017anduniversal access by connections tohouseholdsachieve over 70% The aimistoensure affordable electricity and installed. counties; 150000efficient cookstoves will besold facilities and380boreholes in14marginalized (nearly 1.3million people), 1097community services toapproximately 277000households Bank inSeptember2017toprovide electricity Jointly initiatedby theGovernment andthe World Objectives andoutcomes 32 Annex 1 33 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya • • • • • • Policies: Natural Resources Ministry ofEnvironment and Laws, policiesandstrategies Energy centres Programme orproject resilient pathway. generation systems for a low-carbon climate- renewable energy andoff-grid electricity and energy-efficient lightingandappliances), lanterns, improved cookstoves, LPGcookstoves for householdsand institutions(suchassolar development, and distributed clean energy is identifiedasessential for socioeconomic National ClimateChangeAction Plan:energy building resilience toclimatechange. energy isidentifiedasa key component of areas for adaptation. Access toreliable, affordable energy andhealth are two of theeightpriority Kenya National Adaptation Plan 2015–2030: Climate ChangeAct (2016); to biogasenergy; Waste and Wastewater Regulations: applicable Forest Act, The Forest (Charcoal) Rules, 2009; pollution from staticandmobilesources; Air QualityRegulations: mainly for ambientair • Kerosene-free Kenya • Draft Appliances Energy Performance Regulations • • The Energy (Solar Water Heating)Regulations, 2012. • The Energy (Energy Management)Regulations, 2012 • • • DesignationofEnergy Users Gazettement • Energy Act 2006 • SessionalPaper No. 4of2004 centres. photovoltaic panelsandwindturbines)at15energy (efficient wood-burningstoves, biogas, solar Demonstration ofrenewable energy technologies Objectives andoutcomes • SustainableEnergy for All (SE4All) actionagenda • • • Programmes: • Regulations, 2012 Regulations The Energy (SolarPhotovoltaic Systems) The Draft Energy (Improved BiomassCookstoves) (Appliances Energy Performance) Regulatory ImpactStatement–Draft Energy finance for local clean energy projects. to combat climatechange, includingcarbon designated national authority for receiving funds The NationalEnvironment Authority isthe and efficienttechnology. access to energy by increased useofbiomass Forest Programme 2016–2030calls for improved The Forest for Energy clusterof theNational installation andmaintenance. of trainers onsolarwater heating design, business information centres andtraining lighting kits, establishmentofcleanenergy a technical andsocioeconomic survey ofsolar performance standards for electrical appliances, supports development ofminimumenergy Development project fundedthrough UNDP The Low-emission, Climate-resilient and commercial enterprises. of bio-energy in households, public institutions generation andnetmetering;promote use Feed-in-Tariff policytoincludemore off-grid the national grid to at least 70%; review the increase theshare ofrenewable energy on Plan 2016–2030commit theGovernment to The Green Economy Strategy andImplementation Ministry of Trade and Industrialization • • • • Other relevant ministries Urban Development Infrastructure, Housingand of Transport,Ministry International organizations Government Category ofstakeholder corporations Selected bilateral National BuildingRegulations 2014 The BuildingCode Physical PlanningAct, Revised Edition2012 “green innovation awards”. clean householdenergy enterprisesthrough The NationalEnvironment Trust Fund supports • • • • • • • • • • • • • Institute (KIRDI), Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI). Kenya Bureau ofStandards (KEBS), Kenya IndustrialResearch Development Ministries ofEnergy; Environment andForestry; Agriculture andHealth Organization

Swedish InternationalDevelopment Corporation Agency(SIDA); Norwegian Agencyfor Development Corporation (NORAD); Danish InternationalDevelopment Agency(DANIDA); UK Departmentfor InternationalDevelopment (DFID); United StatesCenters for DiseaseControl andPrevention (CDC); United NationsHighCommissionerfor Refugees (UNHCR). United NationsIndustrialDevelopment Organization (UNIDO); United NationsHumanSettlementsProgramme (UN-Habitat); United NationsChildren’s Fund (UNICEF); United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP); World Health Organization (WHO); World Bank, InternationalFinance Corporation (IFC); United StatesAgencyfor International Development (USAID). • • • • • Ministry ofAgriculture Other stakeholders as cooking fuel field burninganduseofagricultural residues wastes, e.g. asorganic fertilizers toreduce open- Encouragement of alternative uses of agricultural Promotion ofbiogaswithlivestock programmes agricultural extension workers package Integration ofcleanenergy access intothe Development Institute) technologies (Kenya Industrial Research Research, development andtestingofenergy Bureau ofStandards) Minimum energy performance standards (Kenya 34 Annex 1 35 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya market was beginning. Consumerawareness was Kenya was initiatedin2009, whentheoff-grid The fagshipLightingAfrica programme for Bank) Finance Corporation and World Lighting Africa (International clean energy International initiatives toincrease access to Enterprises Training andresearch and lobby groups Professional associations and programmes Green innovation prizes organizations andprojects and community-based Selected nongovernmental Category ofstakeholder Bentos Energy, Kenya Power, etc. Kenya, Livelyhood/Ismart Kenya, Pamoja Life, Powerspot, WEET Enterprises, Choice Ltd, IKO BriqLtd, Cookswell, Acacia Innovations, Ecozoom, Envirofit ClimateCare, NIKO GREENLtd, Tindah Ecofuels, Eco-Charcoal Ltd, Consumer Biolite EastAfrica, Koko Networks, BURN, Leocome Ltd, Megagas, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Organization German Corporation for InternationalCooperation (GIZ) Humanist Institutefor Cooperation (HIVOS) World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) African Centre for Technology Studies(ACTS) Stockholm Environment Institute(SEI) Universitiesand TVETs Kenya AssociationofManufacturers (KAM) Petroleum InstituteofEastAfrica (PIEA) Kenya BiogasAssociation Improved Stoves AssociationofKenya (ISAK) Clean Cookstove AssociationofKenya (CCAK) Kenya ClimateInnovation Centre (KCIC) National Environment Trust Fund (NETFUND) Micro EnterpriseSupportProgramme Trust (MESPT) Green Africa Foundation Kayole Environmental ManagementAssociation Keyo Pottery Women's Group Kenya Energy andEnvironment Organization (KENGO) Community Action onEnvironment andDevelopment (CAED) CO2Balance Wildlife Works Natural Resources and Waste ManagementAlliance (NAREWAMA) Solar Cookers International(SCI) Sustainable CommunityDevelopment Services (SCODE) E4Impact Foundation Energy 4Impact Population Services Kenya CARE International Practical Action Global Alliance for CleanCookstoves (GACC) World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV) Kenya bought over 700000solarlanterns(1). by over 200%. Families livingoff-grid inrural fourfold toabout 8%in2013, the market growing lanterns. The uptake ofsolarlightingincreased sized enterprisesSMEs currently sell solar private sector, andover 1500small andmedium- The programme activitiesresulted inavibrant low, andsolarlanternusewas only about2%. • • • • • cooking fuel. InKenya: effective, safe, sustainablemarkets for LPG policies andinvestments required for extending support certain African countries indeveloping the implemented by theGlobalLPGPartnership to European Union–Africa Infrastructure Fund and KfW Development Bank, isfundedthrough the The CleanCookingfor Africa Programme ofthe and innovative design(2). was toinstall 27500digesters of both traditional programme, between2014and2017, the target have beeninstalled. Inthesecond phaseofthe biogas plantsofthetraditional brick-laid design July 2009and2017. Since 2009, over 14000 500 000domesticbiogasplantsinKenya between was usedtopromote, incentivize andinstall 35 Producers. Apublic–private partnership model the Kenya NationalFederation ofAgricultural stakeholder-appointed implementingagencyis Organisation as technical advisor. The national fund manager and the Netherlands Development Cooperation withDeveloping Countriesasthe Government through theHumanistInstitutefor Partnership Programme, supportedby theDutch was launched as a component of the Africa Biogas The Kenya NationalDomesticBiogasProgramme programme Clean Cookingfor Africa Kenya NationalBiogasProject policy, law and regulations is being supported (3). the development andenforcement ofanewLPG projects; and are designingtermsofreference for jointLPG the Global LPG Partnership and the World Bank population toLPGinthree years (2017–2019); of Kenya have set a goal to switch 45% of the the Government andtheNationalOil Company for value-chain (supply anddemandside); an initialUS$341million investments identified has beencompleted; an LPG market assessment and feasibility study promotes renewable energy, energy efficiency and The Energy andEnvironment Partnership Enterprise Agencyintheglobalprogramme (4). for all. GIZcooperates withtheNetherlands has beenpromoting access tosustainableenergy needs ofthepoor. Since 2005, thepartnership affordable and appreciated by users to meet the modern energy services that are long-lasting, Kingdom. Itpromotes sustainableaccess to Norway, Sweden, Switzerland andtheUnited partnership financed by Germany, theNetherlands, Energising Development is an energy access About 20producers ofimproved cookstoves, scaling upproduction for potentiallocal producers. product design, marketing and distribution and stoves andbiomassbriquettes by improving and uptake of locally made domestic biomass and briquettes. It seeks to increase the quality businesses toproduce improved cookstoves the project will supportmediumandsmall markets infour countries in EastAfrica. InKenya, access tocapital for the renewable energy Development Cooperation Agency, isimproving with the support of the Swedish International Global Village Energy Partnership International, research intothebriquettemarket inEastAfrica. businesses andprojects (5). Italsosupports to establishandscale uprenewable energy 2010, providing grants to a number of companies United Kingdom. The programme began inMarch Department for InternationalDevelopment inthe donor), the Austrian Development Agency and the the MinistryofForeign Affairs ofFinland(lead in southern and East Africa is funded jointly by investments in clean technology. The programme Partnership Energy andEnvironment Energising Development Energy Enterprisesproject Capital Access for Renewable 36 Annex 1 37 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya renewable energy (6). energy solutions and expand markets for supports Kenya’s initiatives toscale uprenewable Kenya is one of six pilot countries. The programme implemented by theAfrican Development Bank. Fund, oneoftwoclimateinvestment funds, andis The programme is funded by the Strategic Climate 130 retailers are supportedby theproject. of biomass briquettes and a network of about 20 suppliers of ceramic liners, 20producers • • • (7). Someofitsprojects are: technical assistance andinvestment promotion development of the energy sectorthrough grants, for InternationalDevelopment, issupporting In Kenya, Power Africa, financed by theUSAgency Power Africa countries programme inlow-income Scaling-up Renewable Energy solutions for small communities. projects toprovide off-gridandmini-grid small on-gridpower generation projects and Kenyans totheelectricitygridandsupporting using innovative solutions toconnect rural energy intothenationalgrid; and challenges inintegrating intermittentrenewable to provide technical assistance toaddress a gridmanagementsupportprogramme projects for electricity; investment toaccelerate geothermalandwind mobilizing more thanUS$ 1billion inprivate 4. 3. 2. 1. 7. 6. 5. References Energising Development. Eschborn: December 2017). +Overview+18+May+2017.pdf, accessed 28 The+Global+LPG+Partnership+- 29ad3e00be9597a4ab18/1500326323753/ static/5633c4c2e4b05a5c7831fbb5/t/596d (NY): 2017 (https://static1.squarespace.com/ Global LPGPartnership. Overview. New York City programme, accessed 28December 2017). partner/kenya-national-domestic-biogas- The Hague:Hivos; 2009(https://hivos.org/ Kenya national domestic biogas programme. 3 January2018). lightingafrica.org/country/kenya/, accessed DC: LightingAfrica; 2007(https://www. Kenya. Athrivingoff‑gridmarket. Washington 2 February 2018). usaid.gov/powerafrica/kenya, accessed Development; undated (https://www. DC: United States Agency for International Kenya. Power Africa factsheet. Washington countries-srep/, accessed 11June2018). renewable-energy-program-in-low-income- funds-cif/strategic-climate-fund/scaling-up- initiatives-partnerships/climate-investment- www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/ Development Bank Group; 2018 (https:// income countries (SREP). Abidjan: African Scaling uprenewable energy program inlow projects/kenya/, accessed 29December 2017). Partnership; 2018(http://eepafrica.org/ Kenya. Pretoria: Energy andEnvironment 28 December 2017). endev.info/content/Main_Page, accessed Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)GmbH(https:// Deutsche Gesellschaft fürInternationale nutrition programmes Health vaccination and Annex 2. A . at 6, 10 and 14 weeks or 2, 4 and 6 months or two infants, WHO recommends three primarydoses in adults aged>50years. For PCV vaccination of use intheprevention ofpneumococcal disease S. pneumoniae. In addition, PCV13 is licensed for caused by therespective vaccine serotypes of disease, pneumonia and acute otitis media from 6weeks to5years ofageagainstinvasive are licensed for vaccination of infants and children Both pneumococcal vaccine (PCV)10andPCV13 decrease theunderlying levels ofdiseasesthat the health effectsofuse ofsolidfuels, asthey important components of strategies to reduce Vaccination and nutrition programmes are Pneumococcal vaccination 10 weeks 6 weeks Birth Age . Table A2.1. Immunization scheduleinKenya

Ministryof pneumococcal, rotavirus DPT, HIB, HepB, OPV, pneumococcal, rotavirus DPT, HIB, HepB, OPV, BCG, OPV andHepB Antigen fuels incommunities. introducing information aboutandaccess toclean pollution. They alsoprovide opportunitiesfor are associated withexposure tohouseholdair the immunizationscheduleinKenya children at6, 10and14weeks. Table A2.1shows schedule inKenya in2011for vaccination of was introduced into the routine immunization childhood vaccines hasbeendemonstrated. PCV10 established, andcompatibility withmajor of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are well 15 monthsofage. The safety andreactogenicity primary doses plus a booster given between 9 and rotavirus diarrhoealdisease poliomyelitis, pneumoniaand type Binfuenza, hepatitisB, Haemophilus infuenzae Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, rotavirus diarrhoealdisease poliomyelitis, pneumoniaand type Binfuenza, hepatitisB, Haemophilus infuenzae Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, hepatitis B Tuberculosis, poliomyelitis and Disease prevented 38 Annex 2 39 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya 90% In 2017, the Kenya Expanded Programme on (Fig. A2.1), withasteadydeclineincoverage. but dropped significantly in2013, 2015and2016 considerable coverage was achieved initially After theintroduction of PCV10 in2011, Source: nutrition projects are described below. Preventive andPromotive Health. Somecurrent Nutrition andDieteticsunit withinthedivisionof Nutrition programmes in Kenya are headed by the • • pneumococcal vaccination are: Some ofthebarriers toachievinguniversal Source: Kenya, 2011‑2016 + 65 70 75 80 85 Nutrition programmes 9 months 6 months 14 weeks cold chainequipment; inadequate supplies of vaccines, syringes and reach all children; advocacy and social mobilization in order to low awareness thatdemandcan becreated by + % % % % % Fig. A2.1. reference 1. reference 1. 2011 Percentage coverage withthree dosesofpneumococcalvaccine 10, 83% P 2012 n e u m 88% o 3

C o v e r a 2013 pneumococcal, rotavirus DPT, HIB, HepB, OPV, Measles andyellow fever Vitamin A g e 75% L i n 2014 é a i r 82% e (64%) received thethird dose. 771 876(66%)received thesecond, and746 727 828 242children (71%)received thefirst dose, vaccination. Between January and September, Immunization targeted 1560953 children for health activities isbeingimplemented infive A 5-year project ofmaternal, newbornandchild • • • Program Plus Kenya Nutritionand Health ( inadequate record-keeping athealth facilities. activities; and poor documentationofimmunization child health clinics; vaccination for health workers inmaternaland lack ofcapacity-building andmentorship on P n e u m 2015 o 3

C 76% o v e r a Measles andyellow fever Vitamin Adeficiency rotavirus diarrhoealdisease poliomyelitis, pneumoniaand type Binfuenza, hepatitisB, Haemophilus infuenzae Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, g e ) 2016 75% 2. 1. instability duetoethniccon counties ofKenya where severe drought and and UNICEF, isproviding nutritionaidinfour from theUSOffice of Foreign DisasterAssistance The InternationalMedical Corps, withfunding from 1January2015to31December 2019(2). “indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity” contract “cost-plus fixed-fee completion” contract and an Agency for InternationalDevelopment undera management. The project is funded by the US at facilitiesandstrengthening nutritioncommodity good-quality interventions inthecommunity and security by increasing access toanddemandfor maternal deaths by improving food and nutrition Samburu). The aimistoendpreventable childand counties (Busia, Tharaka Nithi, Kitui, Marsabit and References International Medical Corps kenya nutrition-and-health-program-plus-nhpplus- Plus ( Kenya NutritionandHealth Programme co.ke/immunizations-kenya/). Immunization ( Kenya Expanded Programme on ). https://www.fhi360.org/projects/ http://www.motherhood101. f icts hascontributed access todiversified diets(3). integrated intheprojects toimprove household and Mandera counties. Nutrition education is Tana River, Garissa, Mwingi, Kilifi, Wajir, Marsabit conducted in Turkana, EastPokot, Siaya, Kajiado, methods (i.e. greenhouses). They are being conventional andclimate-adaptedfarming production by educating farmers inuseofboth of theprojects istodiversify livelihoods incrop of disaster by increasing food security. The aim This organization focuses onreducing therisk 11 high-impactinterventions. the capacity of health care providers to deliver women. The InternationalMedical Corpsbuilds children <5years andpregnant andlactating to increasing vulnerability andmalnutritionamong 3. Kenya Red Cross Society Health (http://www.nutritionhealth.or.ke/). Nutrition andDieteticsunit, Ministryof 40 Annex 2 41 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Total Meko LPGstove andcylinder Credit: NigelBruce  fuel use Annex 3. Current household A Source: . Firewood 2.9 million, 7% of households Mid–high-income purchasers: 2.7 million, 7% of households purchasers: Low-income 21.6 milion, 55%ofhouseholds Wood collectors: Group . Table A3.1. Adapted from reference 2 Market segmentation wood fuelusers ofprimary urban KES/month, 90%rural, 10% Medium–high income (>10000 rural, 11%urban Income <10000KES/month, 89% 99% rural, 1%urban Predominantly lower-income, Characteristics The users are characterized in Table A3.1. waste andtheremaining 45%from forests (1). form ofwoodybiomass, crop residue andanimal About 55%ofitisderived from farmlandinthe accounting for about69%ofthetotalconsumption. energy in Kenya, wood-fuel (firewood andcharcoal) Biomass fuelsare thelargest source ofprimary inaccessible Modern energy considered tobe gather fuelandcook more sensitive totimerequired to Lack ofawareness ofharmbut unaffordable orinaccessible Modern energy considered tobe health Lack ofawareness ofharmto income High fuelexpenditure relative to health Lack ofawareness ofharmto scarcity Time-consuming collection, other energy sources Lack ofdisposableincome tobuy Challenges 42 Annex 3 43 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Source: . Dung andcrop residues Charcoal households Urban users: 4.1million, 11%of households Rural users: 2.6million, 7%of Size ofgroup . Table A3.2. reference 3 Market segmentation ofcharcoal fuelusers income, 43%highincome 4% low income, 53%middle income, 16%highincome 11% low income, 73%middle Characteristics characterized in Table A3.2. options such as LPGandkerosene. The users are availability and affordability in comparison with in urbanhouseholds, mainly duetoitsready occasions for cooking inlarge pots. Useishigher Kenya. High-income householdsuseitonspecial Charcoal isusedby all socioeconomic groups in rural areas, dependingonavailability andseason. Sawdust, maizecobs andfibres are usedmainly in in somesmall-scale projects. lighting andheating. Dungismadeintobriquette Dung isusedinremote rural pastoral villages for Those withlower incomes still Challenges energy source financially difficult tochange mid-income urbanbuyers but Large proportion ofincome for very large proportion of income slums), andfuelrepresents a income users (especially in High premiums paidby low- or purchased) rely mainly onfirewood (gathered initial cost ofcylinders. low availability ofLPG inrural areas andthehigh income households. The barriers touptake are low-income, 34% middle-income and 65% high- users, 88%are urbanand12%rural, and1%are it astheprimarycooking fuel. Ofthe2.2million underdeveloped, asonly 5–7%ofhouseholdsuse The current market for LPGinKenya is kerosene useinhouseholdsby 2022. Kenya’s new Energy Bill sets a target of eliminating high levels ofpollutants andtheriskoffire (5), As household use of kerosene is associated with Source: . LPG Rural Urban location Household . Table A3.3. reference 4 Useofkerosene 96.7 72.7 using kerosene Percentage 4.9 21.4 stove Starting awood Use (%) 2.4 19.6 charcoal stove Starting a (Table A3.3). urban households, mainly for speedofcooking Kerosene isthepreferred fuelinurbanandperi- Kerosene public safety by ensuring quality. The Regulations includemeasures toprotect and standardizing the valve onLPG cylinders. establishing an LPG cylinder exchange pool sale. Initiatives toincrease competition include import, export, transport, refining, storage and consumer access by effective regulation ofLPG (LGP) Regulations (2009)are designedtoincrease stakeholders intheenergy sector. The Energy energy tribunaltoarbitrate disputesbetween environmental, health and safety standards; and an and permits;formulate,enforce andreview issue, renew, modify, suspendorrevoke licenses and sales of petroleum and petroleum products; imports, exports, transport, refining, storage the Energy Regulatory Commission toregulate of imported gas. The Energy Act (2006)authorized countries. Gasimporters pay 0.475% for inspection surcharge onimportsthrough neighbouring importation ofLPGthrough Mombasaanda15% with EastAfrican Communityregulations, allows information. The Finance Bill (2005), inaccordance Development Advisers (6)provide thefollowing Regulatory Commission and Dalberg Global the websiteandregulations oftheEnergy Ministry ofEnergy documentsanditswebsite, and agencies, withcommon enforcement capacity. industry have beenprepared by various ministries Legislation andstandards toregulate theLPG 95.8 87.5 Lighting lamps 8.1 53.6 Cooking 44 Annex 3 45 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya of LPGfilling depots. TheBureau ofStandards Safety andHealth assessthepotentialimpacts Authority and the Department of Occupational The NationalEnvironmental Management and equipmenttoensure consumer safety. Department auditsLPGdispensingprocedures The Ministryof Trade Weights andMeasures and industrialinstallations. and distributionofLPGindomestic, commercial LPG; and KS 1938 Parts 1–3 on handling, storage containers; KS 201:2007onunified valves for testing andmaintenance oftransportable gas 896 onspecification for periodicinspection, welded steel cylinders and test pressure; KS 06- specification for LPG; KS ISO4706on refillable Periodic standards includeKS 03-91on of thosewithamonthly income > 50000KES(3). 50% ofthoseearning40000–50 000KESand97% KES, 20%ofthoseearning30 000–40 000KES, 000 KES, 32%ofthoseearning 20000–30000 < 10000KES, 23%ofthoseearning 10000–20 used by 2% of households with a monthly income fuel, but itsuseislimitedby itsprice. Thus, itis LPG isconsidered themostconvenient, prestigious support ifnecessary. on illegal refilling andcross-filling, withpolice safety andisresponsible for enforcing laws retail), is responsible for ensuring consumer operations (import, storage, transport, filling, (LPG) Regulations, reviews andlicenses LPG Regulatory Commission. It implements the Energy and appeals against decisions of the Energy mediates disputes between marketing companies The Energy Tribunal isaquasi-judicialbodythat and wholesalers. Participation inthePool ismandatoryfor all fillers of Standards and six from marketing companies. of Energy andPetroleum, onefrom theBureau comprises onerepresentative from theMinistry exchange ofcylinders topromote competition, Exchange Pool Committee, which regulates the a code ofpractice for operation. The Cylinder construction, transport andmaintenance and issues technical standards for cylinderdesign, Household uses distributors andfewer pointsfor safety checks re-branding ofcylinders result inlostrevenue for filling andcross-filling ofcylinders andtheft and reduces theincentive toadoptLPG. Illegal re- retail distribution also discourages access and sporadic supply andcosts for transport. Uneven stations outsideNairobi andMombasaresult ina products. Limitedbulkstorage capacity andfilling Another factoristhefuctuatingprice ofpetroleum up to90%ofthefinal retail cost for consumers. importers, marketers anddistributors constitute Nevertheless, unusually highmargins for fall withincreased capacity andprice competition. Mombasa discourages suppliers, although this will consumers, and the high cost of bulk storage in and the cost of stoves limit its affordability for of regulations. The initialdepositfor acylinder of LPG in Kenya are cost, supply and enforcement The mainconstraints toadoptionandpenetration figures for electrification since 2009. consumers. Table A3.4 summarizes the main Electrification hashithertofavoured institutional common inrecent years. and importingcapability, shortageshave been extremely low. Because ofweaknessesinsupply and Mombasa, andaccess in rural areas is limit access outsidethecore markets ofNairobi cylinder filling, storage anddistribution, which There is inadequate inland infrastructure for is alsoaproblem. such asnon-payment orcollection ofcylinders, for consumers. Weak enforcement ofobligations, Market andsupply constraints Electricity the growing peak load in the evening. As power increasing requirements for reserve power and The mainchallenge tofuture operations istomeet to 76.7%)(8). customers (satisfaction increased from 69.4% in thefrequency ofoutageswas approved by in June2017, whichindicated thatthedecrease by theresults ofacustomersatisfaction survey target of6h. These indices were corroborated interruption duration index” of 5.66 h, with a with a target of 4, and a “customer average frequency index” of3.78percustomermonth, Power achieved a“system average interruption often required tostabilizethefrequency. Kenya primary reserve power, and load-shedding is generation system cannot provide sufficient thermal energy (13%). The current power energy (48%), hydroelectric power (39%)and Electricity iscurrently generated by renewable stand-alone systems ormini-grids. be covered by temporary interventions such as areas 15kmbeyond existing infrastructure may is notguaranteed inthenearterm;therefore, and mini-grids. Grid expansion will take time and solutions, suchasstand-alone solarsystems remainder will have access through off-grid by extension ofthetraditional grid, whilethe expected that 3 million new users will be reached currently lackaccess to electricity (8). Itis to thegridin2017, about4million households While about 5.5 million consumers were connected Source: . growth (%) Theoretical population Connectivity level (%) connection No. ofhouseholdsper connections (millions) Annual rate ofnew connections (millions) No. ofdomestic connections (millions) Demand for new households (millions) Total no. of Population (millions) . Table A3.4. reference 7. Electricalconnectivity, 2009–2015 (21%) 39.83 1.83 0.19 1.08 9.04 19% 19% n/a (16%) 40.85 1.79 0.18 1.26 0.29 9.34 22% 21% (21%) 41.91 1.76 0.26 1.53 0.31 9.64 26% 24% is likely for sometime(9). Areliable supply is generation islimited, considerable power shedding Nairobi region are shown in Table A3.5. main power use by socioeconomic group inthe The average consumption andrate ofaccess per (US$ 148), tobepaidininstallments. reduce itfrom 35000KES(US$347) to15 000 KES electricity connection fee charged tohousehold The “Last Mile Connectivity Project” subsidizes the by introducing new low-cost power sources (9). month. The Government plans to reduce the tariffs rate fuctuationadjustment, whichchangeevery and, to a lesser extent, the foreign exchange mainly tohighly fuctuatingfuelcost charges nearly doubledinsomemonths. This isdue the pastfew years; for instance, domestictariffs Electricity tariffsin Kenya have fuctuatedduring better access to power during peak load periods. people inthehigherincome quintileswouldensure pricing structure to reduce power consumption by in low-income households. Revision of the tiered essential tominimize useofmore polluting energy and cooling demand for cooking, heating, lighting Carrying capacity and electricity subsidies Pricing structure, taxationand (17%) 43.01 1.73 0.27 1.79 0.32 9.96 30% 27% (15%) 10.29 44.14 1.70 0.27 2.06 0.33 33% 30% (21%) 10.63 45.28 1.67 0.42 2.48 0.34 40% 35% (33%) 10.98 46.45 1.62 0.83 3.31 0.35 52% 44% 46 Annex 3 47 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya Source: . of otherelectrical appliances. electrocution, duetoexperience ofshort-circuiting cooking. Another reason is a perceived danger of mean that wiring and fitting do not allow for high. Structural inadequacies ofhousingunits of electric cooking stoves and appliances is than thatofotherfuels, andbecause the cost quality, because thecost isperceived ashigher because thesupply isunreliable andofpoor Electricity is not more widely used for cooking altitudes, usecooking heatfor space heating. and anumberofhouseholds, particularly athigh bathing, furtherincreasing thedemandfor fuel, is afactor. Thus, mosthouseholdsboilwater for for thesereasons by consumers for whomcost great dealofpower andelectricityisnotused air conditioning andspace heatingconsume a consumer householdcategories. Heatingwater, Electricity isused mainly for lighting in all electricity for cooking Barriers toincreased penetration of Fitness Grooming House cleaning Water supply Laundry Dishwashing computers Entertainment, Sanitary water Air conditioning Space heating Refrigeration appliances Small kitchen Cooking Lighting Use . Table A3.5. reference 7. Electricityconsumptionperuseandsocioeconomicgroup Urban Consumption peruse(kWh) High income 1555 2355 6845 2607 1219 933 119 121 466 581 107 981 311 36 36 income Middle 1119 1695 4925 1875 671 335 771 706 412 350 26 26 86 87 77 Low income 1247 3623 1380 246 308 494 823 519 297 105 64 64 19 19 63 57 programmes for installation of biogasplants of biogas energy technologies; capacity-building awareness-raising; research onanddevelopment commercial energy. The strategy includes public alternative to wood and kerosene for domestic and includes astrategy topromote useofbiogasasan The Draft Energy andPetroleum Policy 2015(1) the country’s overall capacity (11). data on biogas production, it is difficult to determine problems (10). Because ofalackconsolidated management, technical, sociocultural or economic capacity or are currently indisuse because of biodigesters installed inKenya operate below advanced designswere installed. Someofthe 27 500 digesters of both traditional and more programme, from 2014to2017, an additional areas by 2013(10). Inthesecond phaseofthe projected installation of8000digesters inrural the country. In2009, theKenya BiogasProgramme and over 20000biogassystems are installed in years by nationalandinternationalorganizations, Biogas hasbeenpromoted over thepast50 Biogas Rural High income 1248 1890 5493 2092 374 466 749 788 359 978 97 97 29 29 96 86 income Middle 1425 4141 1577 282 352 565 941 594 270 294 73 73 22 22 72 65 Low income 1059 1605 4663 1776 317 396 636 668 304 135 82 24 24 81 68 at thecoast. Solutions issettingupan ethanolbottlingplant Kakuma refugee camp, andRural Development ethanol stoves to over 200000 refugees atthe in January2018istodistribute12000subsidized been distributedinMombasa. Aproject launched Samsung Electronics, 1500ethanolstoves have ethanol stove project ofSafiStoves, supported by 2009 of over 340 000 L/day (14). Within the which hadacombined production capacity in Chemical, Spectre International and Mumias, (13). The Kenyan ethanolindustryincludesAgro coconut, croton and cotton seed for biodiesel castor andothervegetable oilcrops suchas are themainfeed-stock for ethanol, andjatropha, bio-fuel projects, sugarcane andsweet sorghum quantities ofbioethanolfeedstock. Inmostplanned Eldoret andNakuru; however, there are insufficient completed inKisumuandare tobefollowed by Facilities for ethanol–gasoline blendinghave been for introducing biofuelblendsontothemarket. In 2010, theGovernment prepared astrategy regulatory framework for biogascontracts. biogas contractors andaninsufficient legaland plant and equipment, inadequate capacity of high cost ofdomesticandcommercial biogas on and development of biogas technologies, of biogastechnology, inadequateresearch are lackofawareness ofthepotentialbenefits promotion. Thus, thebarriers topenetration “dirty” by somepeopleandscarce, fragmented the fact that biogas refilling is considered a poordisseminationstrategy by promoters, constraints includelackofqualitycontrol (12), brooders andhatcheries. The market andsupply farm equipmentandproviding heatfor chicken lighting, electricitygeneration topower certain Biogas is used mainly for cooking but also for and distribution. equipment; andlarge-scale production, storage incentives for local manufacture ofplantand prisons, schools and hospitals; appropriate fiscal in communities andinstitutions, including Ethanol been installed in about 1000 institutions across at 15%. Off-grid solar photovoltaic systems have is estimatedtobe500kW andisprojected togrow The annualmarket for solarphotovoltaic panels of all salesinAfrica. been sold in Kenya since 2012, representing 23% 2.75 million qualified, verified solar products have Kenya thatwere offgridhadasolarproduct. About estimated in2017(16)that30%ofhouseholds source for lightingandcharging. The World Bank used off-grid solar energy as their primary (15) showed that14%oftheKenyan population A studyin2014by M-KOPA SolarandInterMedia water heaters for domesticandcommercial use. the nationalgridandfor medium-temperature for housesandinstitutionsthatare remote from in Kenya tosupplementthedemandfor electricity A large-scale solar energy market has developed • installation ofsolarsystems are: vendors andintegrators. Otherincentives for quality accreditation programme for solarsystem Energy Associationare implementingavoluntary improve product standards. Kenya Renewable and Lighting Africa has helped the market to regulations for installation ofsolarsystems, The Energy Regulatory Commission hasissued Regulations, 2012(11). consumers, spurred by operationalization ofthe from domestic, institutionalandsmall commercial growth rate of20%. The demandwill come mainly than 800000unitsby 2020, representing an annual solar water heatingisprojected togrow tomore and usesolarheatingsystems. The demandfor require more than100L/day ofhotwater install under thejurisdictionoflocal authoritiesthat came intoeffectin2016, require thatall premises The Solar Water HeatingRegulations (2012), which are soldannually (14). systems, and10000–20000photovoltaic systems 000 rural householdsinKenya have solarhome capacity intherange of4MW. Anestimated300 Saharan Africa, with an installed photovoltaic commercial photovoltaic system markets insub- the country. Kenya has one of the most active Solar energy advisory committee; 2015 toestablisharenewable energy resource a recommendation inthedraft energy bill 48 Annex 3 49 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Kenya benefits andpooradherence tosystem standards awareness oftheopportunitiesandeconomic energy include highinitialcapital costs, little Some ofthebarriers toexploitation ofsolar • • • • 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. concern aboutvandalism ortheftofsolarsystems. standards, especially for solarcookers and in designsandperformance andlackoflocal of technologiesandaccessories, widevariation tenure, the high cost of reticulation, high costs by suppliers (17). Other barriers are uncertain land References Solar Photovoltaic Lighting Kits (KS 2542:2014). the requirements oftheKenya Standard Off-Grid accessories; and added taxonrenewable energy equipmentand zero-rated importdutyandremoval ofvalue- policy framework; Regulations 2012, whichprovide the 2012 and the Energy (Solar Photovoltaic) the Energy (Solar Water Heating)Regulations private sectorcapital; in-tariff for solar-generated electricitytoattract issuance by theMinistry of Energy of the feed- Global Alliance for CleanCookstoves; 2013. – Kenya market assessment. Washington DC: Dalberg Global Development Advisors. GLPDG Health Organization; 2014. household fuelcombustion. Geneva: World WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: Nairobi slums. Toxics. 2016;4(3):12. exposure levels tofineparticulatematterin J, Ng N. Household air pollution: sources and Muindi K, Kimani-Murage E, Egondi T, Rocklov Global Alliance for CleanCookstoves; 2014. study –phase2final report. Washington DC: IPSOS Ltd. 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Biogas-Project_ESMF-ESMP_10-07-2015. com/upload/documents/tinymce/Kenya- SimGas IPBV; 2015(http://www.simgas. social managementplan(ESMP). Nairobi: framework (ESMF)/environmental and environmental andsocialmanagement fuel for rural householdsinKenya project, Promoting biogasassustainablecleancooking Petroleum; 2016. 2015–2020. Nairobi: Ministryof Energy and master plan, Kenya: mediumtermplan of apower generation and transmission Lahmeyer InternationalGmbH. Development Lighting Company. 2016–2017. Nairobi: Kenya Power and Annual reports andfinancialstatements Energy andPetroleum; 2015. master plan2015–2030. Nairobi: Ministryof Kenya power generation andtransmission Bank Group; 2016. Global solar atlas. Washington DC: World accessed 28 December 2017). as-Solar-PV-Hot-Spot-25th-Feb-2015.pdf, sites/4/2015/02/M-KOPA-Kenya-Emerges- solar.m-kopa.com/wp-content/uploads/ hot spot. Nairobi: M-KOPA Solar;2015(http:// Press release. Kenya emerges assolarPV accessed 22December 2017). renewable-sources/solar-pv-systems/, Energy Association;2017(http://kerea.org/ Solar PV systems. Nairobi: Kenya Renewable Energy for SustainableEnergy; 2008. and obstacles. Nairobi: Endelevu Energy, A roadmap for biofuels in Kenya: opportunities accessed 22December 2017). biogas_potential_and_need_in_africa.pdf, default/files/explore/download/20070520_ 2007 (http://www.snv.org/public/cms/sites/ Netherlands Development Organisation; and need. Draft/discussion paper. The Hague: in Africa; afirst assessmentofthepotential life. AnAfrican initiative. Domesticbiogas ter HeegdeF, SonderK. Biogasfor better 22 December 2017). go.ke/index.php/content/30, accessed Commission; 2012(http://renewableenergy. Biogas. Resources. Nairobi: Energy Regulatory pdf, accessed 10 June2018).

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